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THE  AMERICAN 

ARTIST'S  MANUAL, 

OR 

DICTIONARY  OF  PRACTICAL  KNOWLEDGE 

IN  THE 
APPLICATION  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

TO 

THE  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES. 

Selected  from  the  most  complete  Kiirojpean  Sijstems, 

WITH 

ORIGINAL  LMPROYEMENTS 

AXD 

APPROPRIATE  ENGRAVINGS. 

ADAPTED  TO 

THE  USE  OP  THE  MANUFACTURERS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

BY  JAMES  CUTBUSH. 


r.Y  TWO  rOLUMES^rOL.  I. 


PHILADELPHIA : 

PUBLISHED  B?  JOHNSON  ^  WARNER,  AND  B.  FISHER. 
W.  Brown,  Printer,  Church  Alley. 

1814. 


DISTRICT  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  to  wit: 

Be  it  remembered.  That  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  February,  in  the  thirty- 
eighth  year  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  A.  D.  1814, 
Johnson  &  Warner  and  R.  Fisher  of  the  said  district,  have  deposited  in  this 
office  the  Title  of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  they  claim  as  Proprietors,  in  the 
words  following,  to  wit : 

•'  The  American  Artist's  Manual,  or  Dictionary  of  Practical  Knowledge,  in 
"  the  application  of  Philosophy  to  the  Arts  and  Manufactures.  Selected 
*'  from  the  most  complete  European  systems,  with  original  improvements 
"  and  appropriate  engravings.  Adapted  to  the  use  of  the  Manufacturers 
"  of  the  United  States.    By  James  Cutbush." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  congress  of  the  United  States,  intituled,  "An 
act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts 
and  Books,  to  the  autliors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times 
therein  mentioned."— And  also  to  the  act,  entitled,  "  An  act  supplementary 
to  an  act,  entitled,  *  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the 
copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies 
during  the  times  therein  mentioned,'  and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the 
arts  of  designing,  engraving,  and  etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

D.  CALDWELL, 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  Pennsylvania- 


TO 

BENJA]\liN  SMITH  BARTON,  m.  d. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  THEORY   AXD  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE,  AND 
OF  NATURAL   HISTORY  AND  BOTANY,  IN  THE  UNIVER- 
SITY OF  PENNSYLVANL\, 

THIS  WORK  IS  BEDIC.ITEB 

BY  THE  EDITOR, 

AS  A  TESTLMOXY  OF  ESTEEM 

FOR  HIS  PRrVATE,   AND  RESPECT*  FOR  HIS  PUBLIC, 
CHARACTER 


PREFACE. 


A  HE  Editor  of  the  Artist's  Manual  having  completed 
the  task  he  had  undertaken,  now  offers  it  to  the  public. 

It  will  occur  to  the  mind  of  the  candid  and  enlighten- 
ed reader,  that  a  work  professedly  treating  of  most,  if  not 
all  the  useful  Arts  and  Manufactures,  cannot  be  the  pro- 
duction of  an  individual ,  neitlier  can  a  proper  selection 
from  the  best  pnblicafcions,  be  made  without  assistance. 

To  this  assistance  the  Editor  has  frequently  had  re- 
course ;  and  while  he  hopes  the  work  may  give  general 
satisfaction,  he  feels  a  confidence  that  no  expense  has 
been  spared  by  the  publishers  or  himself,  completely  to 
fulfil  the  proposals  of  the  prospectus. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  United  States,  pos- 
sessing such  an  extensive  territory,  and  with  a  population 
so  small  compared  with  the  oldei'  countries  of  Europe, 
where  the  number  of  inhabitants  insures  manual  labour  at 
a  moderate  price,  could  have,  hitherto,  made  equal  advan- 
ces in  the  arts  and  manufactures.  Recent  experience  has 
however  shewn  us  what  the  united  efforts  of  industry 
and  enterprize,  conducted  by  the  inventive  talents  of  our 
countrymen,  are  capable  of  effecting.  The  time  has  al- 
ready arrived,  when  a  general  diffusion  of  the  knowledge 
of  Europe  on  these  subjects,  cannot  fail  of  being  highly 
interesting  and  beneficial  amongst  us.  And  as  we  are 
indebted  to  foreign  publications,  for  some  of  the  best 


IV  PREFACE. 

treatises  made  use  of,  this  necessarily  makes  the  present 
more  a  work  of  selection  than  of  original  matter.  At  the 
same  time  it  may  be  observed,  that  every  opportunity  to 
avail  himself  of  the  experience  of  his  countrymen,  has 
been  souglit  for  by  the  editor,  and  much  important  infor- 
mation, has  been  thus  cheerfully  afforded  him.    To  those 

•J- 

from  whom  he  lias  borrowed,  both  in  Europe  and  Ame- 
rica, it  has  been  uuiformly  his  wish  to  do  justice,  by 
giving  the  name  of  the  author,  with  the  quotation. 

Of  such  origiual  essays  as  the  editor  has  furnished, 
they  are  the  result  of  much  study  and  practice;,  having 
devoted  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  to  chemical  pursuits. 
He  therefore  feels  a  confidenccy  that  they  will  not  be 
found  uninteresting  to  such  as  are  engaged  in  those  arts, 
which  are  purely  chemical,  or  are  largely  connectecnwith 
that  science. 

AVith  these  general  observations  the  work  is  submitted 
to  a  candid  pu])lic,  with  a  hope  that  it  may  be  found  de- 
serving of  approbation  and  encouragement. 


THE 


ARTIST'S  MANUAL ; 


OR, 


DICTIONARY  OF  PRACTICAL  KNOWLEDGE. 


ACE 

ACETOUS  ACID.  As  this  important 
acid  is,  for  the  most  part,  though  not  al- 
ways, the  product  of  a  fermentation  con- 
sequent to  the  vinous,  and  formed  of  the 
same  general  materials,  we  have  referred 
to  the  articles  Fermentaiion  and  Vinegar 
the  description  of  the  process  of  vinegar- 
making,  the  rationale  of  this  operation,  and 
the  domestic  uses  of  this  acid ;  we  shall 
therefore  in  this  place  only  describe  some 
of  the  properties  of  the  pure  acetous  acid. 

The  sources  whence  this  acid  may  be 
procui-ed  are  very  numerous,  more  so 
than  has  commonly  been  supposed.  It  is 
found  native  in  several  vegetable  juices, 
particularly  in  the  sap  of  various  trees. 
It  is  procured  not  only  from  vinous  fer- 
mented liquors,  but  from  most  mucilagi- 
nous, insipid,  extractive  animal  or  vegeta- 
ble matters,  when  they  turn  sour  by  spon- 
taneous change.  Thus  the  moulding  of 
starch,  of  moistened  flour  of  any  kind,  of 
animal  jelly,  and  even  of  urine,  and  the 
souring  of  milk,  is  in  some  degree  a  pro- 
cess of  acetification. 

Pure  acetous  acid  is  usually  procured 
from  common  vinegar,  the  distillation  of 
which  is  carried  on  in  the  large  way  by 
the  druggists,  for  general  purposes,  and 
for  the  preparation  of  sugar  of  lead ;  in 
some  parts  of  the  south  of  France  for  the 
preparation  of  verdigris  ;  with  these  it  is 
distilled  in  a  tinned  copper  vessel,  as  the 
VOL.  I. 


ACE 

action  of  vinegar  upon  tin  is  but  slight.  A 
watery  and  slightly  acid  vapour  first  con- 
denses, which  is  a  very  weak  acetous  acid, 
and  may  be  set  aside.  Then  the  distilled 
liquor  still  continuing  equally  clear  and 
colourless,  but  a  little  empyreumatic  in 
smell  and  taste,  becomes  more  strongly 
acid,  and  continues  so  to  the  last.  This  is 
the  common  acetous  acid  or  distilled  vi- 
negar. Towards  the  end  of  the  process, 
the  residue  is  very  apt  to  acquire  and 
communicate  a  burnt  smell  and  taste :  this 
is  prevented  by  carefully  regulating  the 
fire,  and,  if  it  be  worth  while,  by  adding 
to  the  liquor  a  little  warm  water ;  but 
when  about  five-sixths  of  it  is  distilled, 
the  process  should  be  discontinued,  as 
thS^residue  is  of  little  or  no  value. 
'  The  truly  acid  part  of  the  purified  acid 
is  still  mixed  with  a  large  portion  of  wa- 
ter. Means  have  been  devised  for  cop- 
densing  or  concentrating  the  acid  in  a 
smaller  bulk.  Distillation  alone,  is  not 
competent  to  this  purpose ;  for,  though 
some  of  the  water  rises  nearly  pure  at 
first,  yet  it  soon  becomes  very  sour,  as  the 
acid  is  almost  equally  volatilized  by  heat, 
and  by  water. 

The  effect  of  frost  in  concentrating  vi- 
negar is  very  striking.  If  a  quantity  of 
this  acid,  distilled  or  not,  be  set  out  in 
the  air  in  winter,  when  the  cold  is  below 
26°  a  tender  flaky  ice  forms  in  the  liquor, 
A 


ACE 


ACE 


and  renders  a  large  portion  of  it  solid ;  on 
breaking  it,  a  portioii,  still  fluid,  is  found 
bencatli,  whicli  is  to  be  carefully  drained 
off" fiom  the  ice.  This  fluid  is  the  acetous 
acid,  concentrated  by  the  loss  of  all  the 
frozen  part,  which  last  is  tasteless  op  very 
nearly  so,  and  is  little  else  than  pure  wa- 
ter. A  fiu'ther  exposure  of  the  strong  acid 
to  a  sharper  cold,  will  produce  a  similar 
and  increased  condensation,  till  at  last 
the  process  must  be  stojiped,  either  on  ac- 
count of  the  cold  not  being  now  sufiicient 
to  separate  the  water  from  the  constantly 
strengthening  acid,  or  liom  the  ice  itself 
becoming  acid. 

A  more  effectual  mode  of  concentrating 
this  acid  is  by  previous  union  with  an  al- 
kali, an  earth,  or  a  metallic  oxyd,  and 
bringing  it,  by  evaporation,  to  a  solid  con- 
sistence. In  doing  so,  all  the  superfluous 
water  of  the  acid  is  separated,  and  if  the 
acid  be  afterwards  expelled  from  the  salt 
by  means  of  a  stronger  affinity,  it  appears 
in  the  most  concentrated  form  of  which  it 
is  capable. 

The  first  process  is  to  saturate  pure  dis- 
tilled vinegar  with  mild  soda,  filter  the 
solution,  evaporate  to  a  sirupy  consist- 
ence, and  suffer  the  acetited  soda  to  crys- 
tallize. Dry  the  salt  thus  obtained,  pow- 
der it,  put  it  into  a  tubulated  retort  luted 
to  a  large  receiver,  add  half  its  weight  of 
strong  and  quite  colourless  sulphuric 
acid,  and  distil  on  a  sand  bath  with  a  gen- 
tle heat,  neai-ly  to  dryness.  If  it  rises 
mixed  with  sulphuxicor  sulpliureous  acid, 
redistil  it  off'  a  little  clean  clay. 

This  acid  is  excessively  volatile  and 
pungent,  and  also  inflammable.  Howe- 
ver,  it  always  contains  sulphuric  and  sul- 
phureous acid,  from  which  it  may  be  se- 
parated with  great  ease,  by  adding  ace- 
tited barytes,  as  long  as  any  white  preci- 
pitate falls  down. 

The  acid  thus  highly  concentrated  is 
crystalhzable  by  cold /but  another  me- 
thod which  answers  as  well,  is  to  n)ix  and 
put  into  a  retort  two  parts  of  dry  acetited 
soda,  with  eight  parts  of  dry  crystailizeri 
acidulous  sulphat  of  potash,  and  distil  with 
a  gentle  heat.  The  process  goes  on  spee- 
dily cveti  in  a  weak  tire,  and  two  pans  of 
a  very  strong  acetous  acid  are  obtuliicd. 
By  this  method  no  contamination  with  sul- 
phuric acid  is  to  be  feared.  This  acetous 
acid,  in  a  temperature  ol"  about  3H^',  or  a 
little  higher  than  freezing  water,  shoots 
into  either  fine  arbore.sceni  feathery  crys- 
tals, or  else  into  a  confused  striated  mass. 
It  rcmaihs  unlhawed  till  about  59°. 

We  proceed  to  mention  that  variety  of 
acetous  acid,  formerly  known  under  the 
name  o\'  radical  vinegar.  It  is  procured  bv 
distillation  of  the  metallic  acetous  salts. 


more  especially  the  acetite  of  copper,  or 
distilled  verdigris. 

This  may  be  procured  in  various  me- 
thods :  but  the  following  is  the  most  (Eco- 
nomical process  -.  mix  equal  parts  of  sul- 
phat of  copper  and  acetited  lead,  distil 
with  a  gentle  fire.  A  vjry  pleasant  and 
extremely  pungent  radical  vinegar  comes 
over,  about  a  third  of  the  weight  of  the 
ingredients  used.  The  acetic  acid,  procur- 
ed from  the  salts  of  copper,  is  distinguish- 
ed by  a  light  greenish  colour  and  a  cop- 
pery smell,  \vnich  makes  an  unpleasant 
addition  to  the  agreeable  pungency  of  the 
acid.  An  acid,  similar  at  least  in  most  sen- 
sible properties,  may  be  obtained  from  the 
acetite  of  lead,  not  by  distillation,  but  by 
tlie  addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  for  none  of 
the  metallic,  or  alkaline,  or  earthy  ace-' 
tites,  that  have  been  subjected  to  experi- 
ment, will  yield  their  acid,  undecomposed 
by  simple  distillation,  except  the  acetite 
of  copper.  Six  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid, 
added  to  twelve  ounces  of  sugar  of  lead, 
and  distilled  with  a  gentle  heat,  will  give 
seven  ounces  of  a  very  concentrated 
caustic  vinegar.  In  this,  however,  as  in 
most  of  those  processes  wliere  the  naked 
sulphuric  acid  is  added,  the  product  is 
contaminated  towards  the  end  of  the  dis- 
tillation. 

The  uses  to  which  the  acetous  acid  in 
its  purified  state  is  applied,  are  not  very 
numerous.  The  most  important  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  of  lead  and  verdi- 
gris. It  is  used  largely  in  medicine.  None 
of  the  acetites,  besides  those  of  copper  and 
lead,  are  employed  to  any  extent,  except 
in  pharmacy  and  in  the  laboratory. 

'I'he  tests  to  discover  the  presence  of 
acetous  acid  in  any  mixture,  are  not  very 
obvious  or  direct.  If  the  substance  to  be 
examined  contains  the  acid  in  an  uncom- 
bined  state,  it  slioidd  first  be  saturated 
with  an  alkali,  and  evaporated  very  gently 
to  dryness.  Then  the  affusion  of  a  few 
drops  of  sul|)huric  acid  on  a  small  portion 
of  tiie  residue,  assisted  by  a  gentle  heat, 
will  displace  the  acetous,  and  give  the 
agreeable  i)ungent  acid  vapour,  by  which 
this  hatter  is  cliar.icterized. 

For  the  chemical  properties  of  acetous 
:tcid,  see  the  different  treatises  on  chemis 
try.     Also  see  Vinegar. 

ACETOUS  ACID.     Empyrcumatic. 

A  great  immber  of  vegetable  substan- 
ces when  strongly  heated  in  close  vessels, 
so  as  to  destroy  their  org'.anization  and  tex- 
ture, yield,  among  other  products,  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  a  bitterish,  pungent, 
sourli(pior,  whici)  is  always  more  or  less 
turbid  and  dark  coloured;  is  incapable 
of  crystallization,  imites  with  alkalies, 
earths,  and  some  metallic  oxyds,  forming, 


ACE 


ADU 


for.  the  most  part,  brown  and  foul-looking 
compounds,  generally  deliquescent. 

On  account  of  some  little  variety  when 
procured  from  different  substances,  they 
have  been  distinguished  from  each  other, 
and  till  of  late,  were  considered  as  sepa- 
rate species. 

They  are  the  following : 

1.  Empyreuinatic  Acid  of  Sugar,  iS)- 
rupous  Acid,  or  .Pyromucoiui  Acid. 

2  Empyreumatic  Acid  of  Tartar,  or  Py- 
rotartareoiis  Acid,  also  to  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  an  acid  of  similar  name, 
but  totally  different  nature,  Tartareous 
Acid. 

As  the  foregoing  varieties  are  seldom 
applied  to  the  arts,  on  account  of  their 
expense,  we  have  thought  any  account  of 
their  preparation  unnecessary. 

3.  Empyreumatic  Acid  of  J  Food,  Ligne- 
ous Acid,  or  Pyroligntous  Acid. 

To  procure  it,  distil  any  quantity  of 
shavings  of  any  kind  of  wood,  such  as 
box,  guiacum  wood,  or  beech,  and  an 
extremely  strong-smelling,  dark-coloured 
empjTCumatic  acid  liquor  is  obtained, 
nearly  one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  wood. 
This  acid  is  sourer,  and  also  much  black- 
er and  more  empyreumatLc  than  the  two 
former,  probably  as  requiring  a  stronger 
heat  for  its  production.  The  acid  of  wood 
is  obtained  in  a  large  quantity  near  Lon- 
don, from  the  preparation  of  charcoal  for 
Gunpowder,  by  distilling  wood  in  cast- 
iron  cylinders,  it  stains  the  hands  deep- 
ly, and  wood  indelibly. 

The  three  varieties  of  empyreumatic 
acid  above  mentioned,  are  all  capable  of 
very  considerable  purification  by  easy  me- 
thods, and  in  proportion  as  they  become 
purer,  they  lose  their  empvreuma.  their 
peculiar  taste  and  smell,  and  consequent- 
ly their  characteristic  differences,  till  at 
last,  when  brought  into  the  most  concen- 
trated state  by  some  of  the  methods  in 
which  vinegar  is  dephlegmated,  they  all 
exhibit  the  characters  of  acetous  acid  in 
so  unequivocal  a  manner,  tliat  no  doubt 


Charcoal,  newly  burnt  and  powdered, 
has  a  great  effect  in  puritying  ;iU  the^e 
acids  :  they  may  be  either  gently  distilled 
off  it,  or  even  merely  filtered  tiirough  a 
stratum  of  it.  But  the  most  effectual  me- 
thod of  purification,  is  by  uniting  these 
acids  with  lime,  or  a  fixed  alkali,  evapo- 
rating to  drj-ness,  and  then  expelling  the 
acid  by  means  of  the  sulphuric,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  concentrated  vinegar 
is  prepared. 

The  pjToligneous  acid  alone  is  procu- 
red in  such  a  quantity  as  to  be  an  ocyect 
for  manufacture.  At  the  best  it  is  only  an 
inferior  acetous  acid,  and  the  difficulty  of 


purifying  it  will  forbid  its  profitable  use 
in  many  of  the  arts  to  which  vinegar  is  ap- 
plied. However,  as  the  process  for  prO' 
curing  radical  vinegar  at  the  same  time 
purifies  this  empyreumatic  acid,  it  may 
probably  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

We  may  add,  tiiat  much  of  the  acid 
from  the  distilled  charcoal  for  gunpow- 
der, near  London,  is  employed  by  calico- 
printers  in  forming  the  acetited  iron,  used 
as  a  mordant,  as  here  the  colour  and  smell 
of  the  acid  are  in  no  way  detrimental. 

ACIDS.— We  shall  only  U'eat  of  such 
acids  as  are  of  importance  in  tlie  arts ; 
such  as  sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol, 
muiiatic  acid,  or  spirit  of  salt,  &c.  Acids 
are  a  peculiar  class  of  bodies  which  are 
possessed  of  ceriain  general  properties,  as 
follow 

1.  Their  taste  is  sour,  and,  unless  dilu- 
ted  with  water,  corrosive  2.  They  change 
blue  vegetable  colours  to  red.  3.  Most 
of  them  unite  with  water  in  all  propor- 
tions ;  and  many  have  so  strong  an  attrac- 
tion to  that  fluid,' as  not  to  be  exhibited 
in  the  solid  state.  At  a  moderate  tempe- 
rature, or  in  the  humid  way,  they  com- 
bine with  alkalis  so  strong!}',  as  to  take 
them  from  all  other  substances.  5.  They 
combine  with  most  bodies,  and  form  com- 
bmations  attended  with  many  interesting' 
phenomena ;  upon  the  due  explanation  of 
which  great  part  of  the  science  of  chemis- 
try  depends. 

ACID,  Acetous.     Sec  Acetous  Acid. 

ACID,  Arsenic     See  Arsenic  Acid. 

ACID,  Citric.     See  Citric  Acid. 

ACID,  Gallic.     See  Gallic  Acid. 

ACID,  Muriatic   See  ^lunatic  Acid. 

ACID,  Muriatic  Oxvgekized.  See 
Oxygenized  J\Iuriatic  Acid. 

ACID,  Nitric     See  Nitric  Acid. 

ACID,  Prussic.     See  Prussic  Acid. 

ACID,  Sulphuric  See  Sulphuric 
Acid. 

ADULTERATION,  is  the  corrupting 
of  any  substance,  by  mixing  with  it  some- 
thing of  less  value.   Wines  are  sometimes 


can  now  be  entertained  of  their  identity.  -^  adulterated  with  lead  and  copper,  to  im- 


prove theu-  taste ;  but,  as  these  metals  are 
Oi"  a  very  poisonous  quality,  the  following 
'  alu^ble  test  is  given  to  detect  their  pre- 
sence. 

Equal  parts  of  oyster  shells  and  crude 
sulphur,  are  to  be  kept  in  a  white  heat  for 
a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  and,  when  cold,  this 
is  to  be  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
acidulous  tartrite  of  potash,  or  cream  of 
tartar,  and  put  into  a  strong  bottle  with 
common  water  for  an  hour,  and  then  de- 
canted into  bottles  holding  an  ounce,  with 
twent}-  drops  of  muriatic  acid  each. 

This  liquor  precipitates  the  least  quan- 
tity of  lead,  copper,  S;c,  from  vines,  in  » 


AGR 


AGR 


reiT  sensible  black  or  dark  brown  preci- 
pitate.    See  Tests. 

AFFINITY,  or  Attractiun.  Almost  all 
the  phenomena  ofnuture  may  be  ultimate- 
ly referred  to  two  kinds  of  motion,  attrac- 
tion and  repulsion.  Attraction  may  again 
be  subdivided  into  that  which  takes  place 
between  bodies  at  sensible  distances,  in- 
cluding gravitation,  magnetism,  .md  elec- 
tricity ;  and  that  which  acts  only  at  ni- 
sensibie  distances,  such  as  cohesion  and 
chemical  affinity. 

Cohesion,  or  homogeneous  affinity,  is 
the  attraction  between  tiie  component  par- 
ticles of  homogeneous  bodies,  as  between 
two  globules  of  quicksilver  :  when  made 
to  touch  each  other,  they  run  togetlier 
into  one  globule,  and  are  mixed  in  the 
most  intimate  manner,  without  however 
undergoing  any  alteration  in  their  chemi- 
cal or  physical  properties. 

Chemical  or  heterogeneous  affinity  can 
only  take  place  between  dissimilar  parti- 
cles ;  and  the  change  of  properties  which 
is  the  consequence  of  this  combination, 
cannot,  in  the  present  imperfect  state  of 
our  knowledge,  be  inferreil  from  those  of 
the  elementary  particles.  As  when  quick- 
silver is  added  to  melted  sulphur,  the  re- 
sult is  a  compound  possessed  of  neither 
the  colour,  tiie  splendor,  the  inflammabi- 
lity, the  volatility,  nor  specific  gravity  of 
either  of  its  constituent  parts. 

These  two  affinities  are  the  great  agents 
in  all  the  operations  of  nature  and  art, 
which  are  referable  to  the  science  of  Che- 
mistry ;  not  only  as  Instruments  of  Syn- 
thesis, as  might  be  supposed  from  the 
primary  meaning  of  the  term,  but  also  as 
the  sole  means  of  analysis,  there  being  no 
way  of  resolving  a  chemical  compound  but 
by  exposing  its  elements  to  the  action  of 
stronger  affinities  than  those  which  retain 
them  in  union.     Sec  Fourcroy's  Chemistry. 

ACRICL'LTUUE  claims  a  pre-eminence 
above  manufactures  and  commerce,  from 
its  seniority  and  superior  usefulness,  and 
to  use  an  expression  of  the  celebrated  Sul- 
ly, .Tiay  be  regarded  as  the  breasts  from 
whicli  the  state  derives  its  support  and 
nourishment.  .Manufactures  and  com- 
merce originally  owed  their  existence  to 
agricultuie;  and  the  people  employed  in 
carrying  them  on,  must  constantly  be  fed 
by  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  parent 
art.  Agriculture  may,  therefore,  be  con- 
sidered as  of  the  first  importance  to  man- 
kind ;  because  their  temporal  welfare  and 
prosperity  depend  upon  receiving  a  regu- 
lar and  sufficient  supply  of  the  various 
articles  cultivated  by  the  agriculturist.  In 
an  age  like  the  present,  when  the  utlUty 
of  agriculture  is  so  fully  recognised,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  dwell  at  length  upon  the 


advantages  which  every  individual,  wc 
may  say  every  nation,  must  enjoy  when 
that  art  is  sufficiently  understood  and 
skilfully  practised.  Passing  by  the  histo- 
ry and  tedious  forms  of  division,  subdi- 
vision, &c.  which  are  usually  practised  in 
treating  on  this  subject,  we  shall  make  a 
few  observations  on  the  theory,  and  then 
proceed  to  the  practical  part  of  farming. 

1st.  On  the  Theory  of  ^Agriculture. — We 
consider  the  numberless  hypotheses  that 
have  been  presented  respecting  the  orga- 
nization and  food  of  plants,  or  the  princi- 
ples of  vegetation,  as  quite  foreign  to  a 
treatise  on  agriculture.  The  operative  far- 
mer could  not  thereby  be  benefitted  in  the 
smallest  degree,  nor  would  any  part  of  his 
practice  be  illustrated  or  improved;  per- 
haps, on  the  contrary,  he  might  be  led  out 
of  tile  right  path  into  the  vortex  of  delu- 
sion, and  induced  to  forsake  that  system 
of  practice,  which  is  sanctioned  by  expe- 
rience ;  and  which  ought  to  be  his  only 
guide.  We  are  inclined  to  believe,  that  a 
degree  of  certainty  is  already  altalned,con- 
cerning  the  real  and  efficient  theory,  suffi- 
cient either  to  guide  or  determine  the  con- 
duct of  those  engaged  in  carrying  it  on. 

If  the  earth  is  enriched  by  generous 
manures,  or  stimulated  by  powerful  cor- 
dials, as  circumstances  may  require;  if  it 
is  laid  dry,  or  drained  of  superfluous  wa^ 
ter ;  if  the  soil  is  sufficiently  cultivated, 
and  its  aboriginal  inhabitants,  namely 
weeds,  are  removed  ;  and  if,  in  naked  and 
exposed  situations,  slielter  is  afforded,  by 
making  enclosures,  then  every  thing,  that 
man  is  capable  of  doing  to  forward  the 
productive  powers  of  the  earth,  is  com- 
pletely executed.  In  short,  the  man  who 
is  governed  by  tliese  principles,  may  be 
pronounced  to  possess  more  knowledge 
of  the  art  than  tlie  most  scientific  agricul- 
turist. The  one  acts  upon  principles  which 
never  can  fall,  and  which  uniformly  lead 
to  the  same  issue ;  the  other  is  guided  by 
no  certain  principle  whatever,  but  led  by 
an  igmisfatuus,  whose  d  lusions  may  draw 
■iiini  into  bogs  and  quagmires,  where  he 
may  Hounder  for  a  while,  and  at  last  be 
luined  and  made  miserable,  both  in  for- 
tune and  reputation. 

The  theory  of  agriculture,  which  we 
lay  down,  is  therefore  built  upon  the  fol- 
lowing fundamental  principles ;  and  with 
one  or  other  of  them  every  part  of  rural 
practice  is  more  or  less  connected : — 
First,  That  the  soil  ought  to  be  kept  drj  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  free  of  all  superfluous 
moisture.  Secondly,  That  it  ought  to  be 
kept  clean  ;  or,  in  other  words,  free  of 
noxious  weeds.  Thirdly,  That  it  ought 
to  be  kept  rich ;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
evcrv  particle  of  manure,  which  can  be  . 


AGR 


AGR 


collected,  ought  to  be  applied,  so  tliat  the 
soil  may  be  kept  in  a  state  capable  of 
yielding  good  crops.  Every  perscMi,  pos- 
sessed of  a  sufficient  capital  stock,  may 
act  according  to  the  first  and  second  prin- 
ciples; but  it  is  only  where  local  circum- 
stances are  favourable,  that  tlie  last  can 
be  carried  completely  into  effect.  No 
more,  however,  being  required  of  the  far- 
mer, than  that  he  shall  make  the  most  of 
his  situation,  the  principle  applies  equally 
to  all ;  and,  in  like  manner  is  equally  cor- 
rect and  beneficial  in  all  situations  and 
circumstances. 

In  the  first  place,  the  utility,  nay  the  ne- 
cessity, of  keeping  land  dry,  and  preserv- 
ing it  from  being  inundated  or  flooded  with 
water,  is  so  obvious,  that  few  arguments 
will  be  required  in  support  of  this  primary 
principle.  When  land  is  allowed  to  re- 
main in  a  state  of  wetness,  wliich  may  ei- 
ther be  occasioned  by  spouts,  or  springs, 
in  the  under  soil,  or  by  rain-water  stag- 
nating on  the  surface,  the  earth  gets  into 
a  sour  state,  which  afterwards  is  detri- 
mental to  the  growth  of  plants  ;  and  often, 
in  the  first  instance,  prevents  either  plough- 
ing or  harrowing  from  being  successfully 
effected.  Under  such  circumstances,  the 
young  plants,  either  of  corn  oi'  grass,  be- 
come yellow  and  sickl}',  and  never  assume 
that  vigorous  thriving  aspect,  which  they 
maintain  upon  fields  difierently  circum- 
stanced. Besides,  manure  has  not  the 
same  effect  when  the  earth  is  drowned,  or 
even  injured  with  wetness,  as  when  it  is 
kept  dry  and  free  fi'om  superfluous  mois- 
ture. Under-draining  is  the  only  method 
of  correcthig  the  evils  arising-  from  spouts, 
or  springs,  and  digging  out  the  liead-land, 
and £-au^«;rowi,  the  only  preventive  against 
surface-water,  when  heavy  falls  of  ram  or 
snow  storms  ensue.  In  tact,  without  at- 
tention to  these  important  operations,  ai-a- 
ble  land  can  neither  be  perfectly  managed, 
nor  full  crops  reaped.  Perhaps,  the  good- 
ness or  badness  of  farm-management  may 
be  as  correctly  estimated  by  the  attention 
shown  to  di'ainage,  as  by  any  other  mark 
whatever.  Where  drainag-e  is  neglected, 
a  s'are  proof  is  furnished,  that  many  other 
branches  of  the  art  are  imperfectly  exe- 
cuted. Unless  this  branch  of  rural  a:cono- 
my  is  assiduously  attended  to,  tlie  advan- 
tages arising  from  ploughing  and  manur- 
ing are  only  partially  obtained. 

In  the  second  place,  the  benefit  arising 
from  keeping  the  land  clean  is  sufficiently 
discernible.  Weeds,  whether  of  tlie  an- 
nual or  perennial  sorts,  may  be  regarded 
as  preferable  creditors  of  the  soil,  wiio  will 
reap  the  first  advantage  of  manure,  if  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  possession :  their  re- 
moval therefore  forms  an  important  object 


of  the  husbandman's  attention.  It  may  he 
stated,  that,  according  to  the  degree  ot 
success  that  follows  the  means  employed, 
so  will  the  goodness  or  badness  of  the 
husbandman's  crops  be  regulated.  If  the, 
strength,  or  nutritive  powers  of  the  soil 
be  exhausted  or  drawn  forth  by  weeds,  or 
such  plants  as  the  soil  naturally  produces, 
it  is  impossible  tliat  artificial  plants  can 
prosper. 

In  the  third  place,  the  necessity  of  re- 
storing to  the  soil,  in  the  shape  of  manure, 
the  powers  drawn  from  it  by  artificial 
crops,  is  acknowledged  liy  almost  every 
person.  Manure,  in  fact,  is  the  most  pow- 
erful agent  in  the  hands  of  the  farmer,  and 
the  attention  bestowed  upon  collecting, 
preparing,  and  applying  it,  constitutes  an 
important  branch  of  the  art,  which  he 
practises.  Perhaps  agriculturists  are  more 
behind,  in  the  points  connected  with  this 
third  general  principle,  tiian  in  the  others  ; 
and  here  the  utility  of  chemical  knowledge 
may,  in  some  respects,  be  estimated  and 
recog'nised. 

These  three  fundamental  principles 
hang  or  fall  together.  Without  laying- 
land  dry,  neither  the  advantages  of  good 
ploughing-,  nor  the  benefits  arising  trom 
manui-e  can  he  fully  obtained.  When  any 
of  the  otiier  pj-inciples  are  neglected,  simi- 
lar defects  will  necessarily  ensue.  But 
when  they  arc  all  acted  upon ;  when  the 
land  is  kept  dr}-,  clean,  and  in  good  heart, 
the  husbandman  may  expect  a  suitable  re- 
ward for  the  ti-ouble  and  expense  bestow- 
ed on  its  cultivation.  An  agricultural 
code  of  this  kind  is  not  only  a  true  one, 
but  has  the  particular  merit  of  being  sim- 
ple and  distinct ;  nay,  it  has  an  advantage 
which  few  creeds  possess;  it  may  be  un- 
derstood by  the  dullest  capacity.  Were 
it  carried  into  execution,  were  the  opera- 
tions of  farmers  regulated  by  its  tenets, 
were  their  endeavours  constantly  directed 
to  keep  the  lands  in  their  possession  dry 
and  clean,  and  as  ricli  as  possible,  then  the 
country  would  be  progressively  improved. 

0.7  Soils — Soil,  strictly  speaking-,  is  the 
ground  or  earth  wherein  crops  of  every 
kind  are  produced;  and  we  notice  it  in 
this  waymeiely  to  distingtiish  the  surface 
from  the  under  stratum  or  subsoil  on 
which  the  surface  is  incumbent-  The  va- 
lue or  worth  of  that  part  of  the  earth, 
which  is  the  object  of  cultivation,  depends 
materially  upon  tlie  nature  of  the  under 
stratum  ;  because,  wlien  the  latter  is  close 
or  extremely  retentive  of  moisture,  the 
expense  and  hazardof  cultivating  the  sur- 
face is  considerably  increased,  whilst  the 
growth  of  plants  cultivated  upon  it  is  much 
abridged  and  impeded,  particularly  in  ad- 
verse seasons. 


AGR 


AGR 


'I  lie  nomenclature  of  ap'iculturists,  with 
regard  to  soils,  being  variable  and  indis- 
tinct, It  IS  a  difficult  task  to  describe  them, 
or  to  mark  with  any  degree  ot"  accuracy 
tlie  shades  wiiicli  distinguisii  one  from 
anotiier,  so  nearly  are  many  ot'tiiem  con- 
nected. Generally  speaking,  the  conipo- 
nent  parts  ot"  soil,  uliatever  may  be  the 
color,  are  argiil,  silcx  or  sand,  watei-,  and 
air;  forintothestoriginal  principles  may  all 
cartlis  be  reduced,  however  blended  with 
apparently  foreign  substances.  Argiil  is 
the  soft  and  unctuous  part  of  clay.  The 
primitive  earths,  argil!  and  sand,  contain 
each,  perhaps  in  nearly  equal  degrees,  the 
food  of  plants ;  but  in  their  union  the  pur- 
poses of  vegetation  are  most  completely 
answered.  The  precise  quantities  of  eacli 
necessary  to  make  this  union  perfect,  and 
whether  they  ought  to  be  equal,  it  is  nei- 
ther very  easy  nor  very  material  to  ascer- 
tain, sincc^  tliat  point  is  best  determined  in 
practice,  when  the  soil  proves  to  be  nei- 
ther too  slirt'or  adhesive,  from  the  super- 
abundance of  clay,  nor  of  too  loose  and 
weak  a  texture,  from  an  over  quantity  of 
sand  in  its  composition.  Tlie  medium  is 
undoubtedly  best;  but  an  excess  towards 
adhesion  is  obviouslj'  most  safe.  A  stitf 
or  strong  soil  holds  the  water  which  falls 
upon  it  for  a  long  time,  and,  being  capable 
of  much  ploughing,  is  naturally  well  qua- 
lified for  carrying  the  most  valuable  ara- 
ble crops  A  light  soil,  or  one  of  a  tex- 
ture feeble  and  easily  broken,  is,  on  the 
contrary,  soon  exhausted  by  ploughing, 
and  requires  renovation  by  grass  ;  other- 
wise it  c:innot  be  cultivated  to  advantage. 

Soils  may  be  considered  and  c'larac- 
lerized,  as  far  at  least  as  is  necessary  for 
practical  purposes,  under  the  distinctions 
of  Clayey,  Loamy,  Chalky,  Sandy,  Gravel- 
ly, and  Peaty  or  .Mossy.  Each  of  these 
diversities,  of  course,  comprehends  several 
varieties,  according  to  the  nature  and 
])reponilerance  of  the  different  sorts  of 
materials  of  which  they  are  composed. 

Loam  has  generally  l)een  considered  as 
;in  original  earth,  though  we  are  disposed 
to  view  it  as  an  artificial  Sf)il,  produced  by 
calcareotis  matters,  and  animal  and  vege- 
table manures.  The  .strongest  clay  may, 
in  process  of  time,  be  converted  into  a 
loam,  by  repeated  applications  of  these 
hubslance.s  ;  and  the  richness  or  freeness 
of  that  loam  w  ill  depend  entirely  upon  the 
•pianlityof  iiianiue  with  which  it  has  been 
supplied.  Sandy  soils  may  also  be  coy. 
verted  into  light  loams,  by  the  application 
of  lime,  chalk,  marl,  and  especially  clay. 
Even  peat  may  be  converted  into  a  black 
soft  loam,  and  in  various  ways  rendered 
fertile  and  jjroductive.  Tiom  these  cir- 
cumslaitccs,  a  degree  of  confusion  pre- 


vails respecting  the  nature  and  properties 
of  soils,  which  renders  the  subject  more 
difKcult  than  at  first  sight  might  be  ex- 
pected. Even  the  admixture  of  siu-face 
and  subsoil,  by  deep  ploughing,  creates  a 
change  of  considerable  magnitude. 

A  clay  soil,  though  distinguished  by  the 
colour  which  it  bears,  namely  black,  Avhite, 
yellow,  and  red,  differs  from  all  other 
soils,  being  tough,  wet,  and  cold,  and  con- 
secjuently  requiring  a  good  deal  of  labour 
from  the  husbandman  before  it  can  be  suf- 
ficiently pulverized,  or  placed  in  a  fit  state 
for  bearing  artificial  crops  of  corn  or  grass. 
Clay  land  is  known  by  these  qualities,  or 
properties.  It  holds  water  like  a  cup,  and 
once  wetted  does  not  soon  dry.  In  like 
manner,  when  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  not 
soon  wetted;  if  we  except  the  varieties 
which  have  a  thin  surface,  and  are  the 
worst  of  all  to  manage.  In  a  dry  sum- 
mer, clay  cracks,  and  shows  a  surface  full 
of  small  chinks,  or  openings.  If  ploughed 
m  a  wet  state,  it  sticks  to  the  plough  like 
mortar,  and  in  a  dr)  summer  the  plough 
turns  it  up  in  great  clods,  scarcely  to 
be  broken  or  separated  by  the  iieaviest 
roller. 

Sandy  soils  next  come  under  considera- 
tion. Soils  of  this  description  are  managed 
with  infinitely  less  trouble  and  at  an  ex- 
pense greatly  inferior  to  what  clays  re- 
quire; but  at  the  same  lime  the  crops 
produced  from  them  are  generally  of 
smaller  value.  There  are  many  varieties 
of  sand,  however,  as  well  as  of  clay;  and 
in  some  places,  the  surface  is  little  better 
than  a  bare  barren  sand,  wherein  artificial 
plants  will  not  take  root,  unless  a  dose  of 
clay  or  good  earth  is  previously  adminis- 
tered. I'his  is  not  the  soil  meant  by  the 
farmer  when  he  speaks  of  sands  To 
speak  practically,  the  soil  meant  is  one 
where  sand  is  predominant,  although 
there  be  several  other  earths  in  the  mix- 
ture. J'Vom  containing  a  gre;it  quantity 
of  sand,  these  soils  areall  loose  and  crumb- 
ling, and  never  get  into  a  clod,  even  in  the 
driest  weather.  This  is  the  great  article 
of  distinction  betwixt  sands  and  sandy 
loams.  A  sandy  loam,  owing  to  the  clay 
that  is  in  it,  does  'iiot  crumble  down,  or 
become  loose  like  a  real  sand,  but  retains 
a  degree  of  adhesion  after  wetness  or 
drought,  notwithstanding  the  quantity  of 
sand  th;it  is  mixed  w  ith  it.  Pei-haps  a 
true  sandy  loam,  incumbent  upon  a  sound 
subsoil,  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  soils. 
Upon  such,  every  kind  of  grain  may  be 
raised  with  advantage,  and  no  soil  is  bet- 
ter calculated  for  turnips  and  grass. 

The  real  sands  are  not  favourable  to 
the  growth  of  wheat,  unless  when  pre- 
ceded by  clover,  which  binds  the  surface. 


AGR 


AGR 


and  confers  a  temporary  strength  for  sus- 
taining that  graui. 

We  have  now  to  speak  of  gravelly  soils. 
The  open  porous  nature  of  these  soils  dis- 
poses them  to  imbibe  moisture,  and  to 
part  with  it  with  great  facility ;  from  the 
latter  of  which  circumstances  they  are 
subject  to  burn,  as  it  is  termed,  in  dry  sea- 
sons. The  main  difference  between  gra- 
vel and  sand  is,  that  the  former  is  chiefly 
composed  of  small  soft  stones  ;  though,  in 
some  instances,  the  stones  are  of  the  siU- 
cicous  or  flinty  nature,  and,  in  others,  of 
the  calcaieous  and  chalky.  From  these 
constitutional  circumstances  arises  the 
propriety  of  deepening  gravelly  soils  by 
coats  of  marl  or  earth,  and  of  keeping 
them  fresh  by  frequent  returns  of  grass, 
and  repeated  applications  of  manure. 
Gravelly  soils,  from  the  lightness  of  their 
texture,  are  not  expensive  or  difficult  in 
the  means  of  cultivation.  All  the  neces- 
sary business  required  for  gravels  may 
be  carried  forward  with  ease  and  expedi- 
tion ;  and  such  soils  are,  in  general,  soon 
brought  into  a  proper  state  for  tlie  recep- 
tion of  crops. 

From  what  is  said  respecting  gravels, 
it  will  appear,  that  naturally  they  are  bar- 
ren, unless  when  mixed  with  other  earths  ; 
and  that  the  surface  of  most  of  them  would 
exhibit  the  same  appearance  as  tlie  sub- 
soil, or  what  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
plough,  were  it  not  changed  and  meliora- 
ted by  vegetable  matters.  The  constitu- 
tional qualities  of  gravels  also  point  out 
the  propriety  of  ploughing  them  deep,  so 
that  the  suiface  soil  may  be  augmented 
and  greater  room  given  to  the  growth  of 
the  plants  cultivated  on  them.  A  shallow- 
ploughed  gravel  can  stand  no  excess  of 
weather,  however  enriched  by  manure. 
It  is  burnt  up  by  a  day  or  two  of  drought, 
and  it  IS  almost  equally  injured  by  an  ex- 
cessive fall  of  rain,  unless  the  pan  or  firm 
bottom,  which  such  soils  easily  gain,  be 
frequently  broken  through  by  deep  plough- 
ing. According  to  an  old  adage,  the  top 
of  clay,  and  the  bottom  of  gravel,  are  best; 
but  though  we  cannot  subscribe  to  the 
first  part  of  the  adage,  being  satisfied  that 
deep  ploughing  is  highly  beneficial,  ex- 
cept where  the  subsoil  is  of  a  poisonous 
nature,  we  are  certain  that  the  latter  is 
well  founded,  and  ought  never  to  be  over- 
looked. 

Peat  earth,  or  moss  is  the  next  kind  of 
soil  which  \v-e  have'to  treat  of;  though  we 
are  very  uncertain  whether,  like  loam  and 
garden  mould,  it  ought  not  to  be  viewed  as 
an  artificial  soil,  made  and  produced  by 
certain  substances  deposited  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  eailli,  and  not  one  originally 
created,  or  to  be  found  in  the  early  ages. 


Satisfactory  accounts  concerning  the  for- 
mation of  moss,  the  uses  to  which  it  may 
be  applied,  and  the  means  of  removing  it, 
have  not  yet  been  discovered. 

Soils,  therefore,  difter  considerably  from 
each  otlier,  according  to  the  proportions 
of  the  diflTerent  earths,  of  which  they  con- 
sist. To  determine  what  are  the  requi- 
sites which  distinguish  or  constitute  ara- 
ble or  fruitful  soils,  is  of  much  importance 
to  the  farmer.  Since  vegetable  substances 
evidently  imbibe  from  the  earth  and  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  the  principle  of  oils, 
mucilage,  and  other  peculiar  products  on- 
ly found  in  organized  substances  ;  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted,  but  that  manure,  or 
the  remains  of  decayed  substances,  ren- 
der lands  fruitful,  by  supplying  these  ma- 
terials ready  formed.  What  remarks  we 
have  to  offer  on  the  subject  of  tnanure, 
will  be  found  under  tliat  head.  We  shall 
oflTer  the  following  additional  observations, 
which  are  drawn,  principally,  from  analyti- 
cal investigations. 

In  cases  where  a  barren  soil  is  examin- 
ed with  a  view  to  its  improvement,  it 
ouglit  in  all  cases,  if  possible,  to  be  com- 
pared with  an  extremely  fertile  soil  in  the 
same  neighbourhood,  and  in  a  similar  si- 
tuation :  the  difference  given  by  their  ana- 
lyses would  indicate  the  methods  of  cul- 
tivation, and  thus  the  plan  of  improvement 
would  be  founded  upon  accurate  scientific 
principles. 

If  the  fertile  soil  contained  a  large  quan- 
tity of  sand,  in  proportion  to  the  ban-en 
soil,  the  process  of  melioration  would  de- 
pend simply  upon  a  supply  of  this  sub- 
stance ;  and  the  method  would  be  equally 
simple  with  regard  to  soils  deficient  in  clay 
or  calcareous  matter. 

In  tlie  application  of  clay,  sand,  loam, 
marl,  or  chalk  to  lands,  there  are  no  par- 
ticular chemical  principles  to  be  observed ; 
but  when  quicklime  is  used,  great  care 
must  be  taken,  that  it  is  not  obtained  from 
the  magnesian  lime-stone  ;  for  in  this  case, 
it  is  exceedingly  injurious  to  land.  The 
magnesian  limestone  may  be  distinguish- 
ed from  the  common  limestone  by  its 
greater  hardness. 

When  the  analytical  comparison  indi- 
cates an  excess  of  vegetable  matter,  as  the- 
cause  of  sterility,  it  may  be  destroyed  by 
much  pulverization  and  exposiu'e  to  air, 
by  paring  and  burning,  or  the  agency  of 
lately  made  quicklime.  And  the  defect  of 
animal  and  vegetable  matter  must  be  sup- 
plied by  animal  or  vegetable  maniu-e. 

The  general  indications  of  fertility  arid 
barrenness,  must  necessarily  differ  in  dif- 
ferent climates,  and  under  different  cir. 
cumstances.  The  power  of  soils  to  absorb 
moisture,  a  principle  essential  to  tlioir  pro- 


AGR 


AGR 


diicliveness,  ought  to  be  much  grcalcr  in 
warm  and  dry  countries,  than  in  cold  and 
moist  ones ;  and  the  quantity  of  fine  alunii- 
Tious  earth  they  contain  should  be  larp^er. 
Soils  likewise  that  are  situate  on  declivi- 
ties ought  to  be  more  absorbent  than  those 
ill  the  same  climate  on  plains  or  in  val- 
leys. 

The  productiveness  of  soils  must  llke- 
V  ise  be  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the 
subsoil,  or  tlie  eai-tby  or  stony  strata,  on 
Avhich  they  rest.  Thus  a  sandy  soil  may 
owe  its  fertility  to  the  power  of  the  sub- 
soil to  retain  water ;  and  an  absoibent 
clayey  soil  may  occasionally  be  prevented 
from  being  barren,  in  a  moist  climate,  by 
the  influence  of  a  substratum  of  sand  or 
gravel. 

Those  soils  that  are  most  productive  of 
corn,  contain  always  certain  proportions  of 
aluminous  or  calcareous  earth  in  a  finelv 
divided  state,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  ve- 
getable or  animal  matter. 

The  quantity  of  calcareous  earth  is 
however  very  various,  and  in  some  cases 
exceedingly  small. 

-Mr.  Tillet,  in  some  experiments  made 
on  the  composition  of  soils  at  Paris,  found, 
thai  a  soil  composed  of  three  eighths  of 
clay,  two  eighths  of  river  sand,  and  three 
eighths  of  the  parings  of  limestone,  was 
very  proper  for  wheat. 

In  general,  bulbous  roots  require  a  soil 
much  more  sandy,  and  less  absorbent, 
than  the  grasses. 

Plants  and  trees,  the  roots  of  which  are 
fibrous  and  hard,  and  capable  of  penetrat- 
ing deep  into  the  earth,  will  vegetate  to 
advantage  in  almost  all  common  soils  that 
arc  moderately  dry,  and  do  not  contain  a 
\  ery  great  excess  of  vegetable  matter. 

From  the  great  dilFerencc  of  the  causes 
that  influence  the  productiveness  of  lands, 
it  is  obvious,  that,  in  tlie  present  state  of 
science,  no  certain  system  can  be  devised  j 
for  their  improvement,  independent  ofex- 
))eriment ;    but  there  are  few    cases,  in  ; 
which  the  labour  of  analytical  trials  will ! 
not  he  amply  repaid  by  the  certainty  with  , 
which  th(.y  denote  the  best  methods  of 
melioration;     and    this    will    particularly 
happen,  when  the  defect  of  eomjiosition  is 
l'>und  in  the  proportions  of  the  primitive 
earths. 

In  supplying  animal  or  vegetable  ma- 
nure, a  temporary  food  only  is  provided 
for  plants,  which  is  in  all  cases  exhausted 
l)y  means  of  a  certain  numljcr  of  crops  ; 
but  when  a  soil  is   rendered  of  the  best 
possible  con.stitution  and  texture  with  re- 
gard to  its  eartliy  pai'ts,  its  fertility  mav  | 
be  considered  as  permanently  established.  | 
It  becomes  capable  of  attracting  a  very ; 
large   portion  of  vegetable  nourishment ! 


fromtlic  atmosphere,  and  of  producing  its 
crops  with  comparatively  little  labour  and 
expence. 

Under  the  he.id  of  mineral  analysis 
nothing  is  of  so  much  general  irni)ortance 
as  the  examination  of  soils,  with  a  view  to 
the  improvement  of  such  as  are  less  pro- 
ductive, by  supplying  the  ingredients  they 
want  in  due  proportions  to  increase  their 
fertility..  An  account  of  the  methods  to  be 
pursued  for  this  purpose,  we  shall  here 
slate. 

The  substances  found  in  soils  are  cer- 
tain mixtures  or  combinations  of  some  of 
the  primitive  earths,  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  in  a  decomposing  state,  certain  sa- 
line compounds,  and  the  oxide  of  iron. 
These  bodies  always  retain  water,  and  ex- 
ist in  very  difli^rent  proportions  in  thil'er- 
ent  lands,  and  the  end  of  analytical  expe- 
ments  is  the  detection  of  their  quantities 
and  mode  of  union. 

The  eartlis  commonly  found  in  soils  are 
pi'incipally  silex,  or  the  eaith  of  flints , 
alumine,  or  the  pure  matter  of  clay  ;  lime, 
or  calcareous  earth  ;  and  magnesia.  Silex 
composes  a  considerable  part  of  hard  gra- 
velly  soils,  hard  sandy  soils,  and  hard  sto- 
ny lands.  Alumine  abounds  most  in  clayey 
soils,  and  clave}'  loams  ;  but  even  in  the 
smallest  particles  of  these  soils  it  is  gene- 
rally united  with  silex  and  oxide  of  iron. 
Lime  always  exists  in  soils  in  a  state  of 
combination,  and  chiefly  with  carbonic 
acid,  when  it  is  called  carbonat  of  lime. 
This  carbonat  in  its  hardest  state  is  mar- 
ble ;  in  its  softest,  chalk.  Lime  united 
with  sulphuric  acid  is  sulphat  of  lime,  or 
gypsum  ;  with  phosphoric  acid,  phosphat 
of  lime,  or  the  earth  of  bones.  Carbonat 
of  lime,  mixed  with  other  substances, 
composes  chalky  soils  and  marles,  and  is 
found  in  soft  sandy  soils.  Magnesia  is 
rarely  found  in  soils  :  when  it  is,  it  is  com- 
bined with  carbonic  acid,  or  with  silex  and 
alumine.  Animal  decomposing  matter  ex- 
ists in  different  states,  contains  much  car- 
bonaceous substance,  volatile  .ilkali,  in- 
flammable aeritbrm  products,  and  carbo- 
nic acid.  It  is  f  )und  chiefly  in  lands  late- 
ly manured.  Vegetable  decomposing 
matter  usually  contains  still  more  carbo- 
naceous substance,  and  dillers  from  tlie 
preceding  principallj'  in  not  producing  vo- 
latile alkali.  It  forms  a  great  i)roportion 
of  all  peats,  aboiuidsin  rich  mould,  and  is 
found  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities  in  all 
lands.  The  saline  compounds  are  ihw, 
and  in  small  (juantlty  :  they  are  chiefly 
nuiriat  of  soda,  or  common 'salt,  sulphat 
of  magnesia,  mui  iat  and  sulphat  t)f  potasli, 
nitrat  of  lime,  and  the  mild  alkalis.  Oxide 
of  iron,  whicli  is  the  same  with  the  rust 
produced  by  exposing  iron  to  air  and  wa- 


AGR 


AGR 


:er,  is  found  in  all  soils,  but  most  abun- 
dantly in  )-ed  and  jellow  clays,  and  red 
and  yellow  siliceous  sands 

The  instruments  requisite  for  the  ana- 
lysis of  soils  are  few,  A  pair  of  scales  ca- 
pable of  holding-  a  qiiaiter  of  a  pound  of 
common  soil,  and  turning-  with  a  single 
grain  when  loaded :  a  set  of  weights,  from 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  troy  to  a  grain  .-  a 
wii-e  sieve,  coarse  enoug'h  to  let  a  pepper- 
corn pass  through :  an  Arg-and  lamp  and 
stand  :  a  few  glass  bottles,  Hessian  cruci- 
bles, and  china  or  queen's  ware  evaporat- 
ing-basins  :  a  Wedg'wood  pestle  and  mor- 
tar :  some  filters  made  of  half  a  sheet  of 
blotting  paper,  folded  so  as  to  contain  a 
pint  of  liquid,  and  greased  at  the  edges  : 
a  bone  knife  :  and  aix  apparatus  for  col- 
lecting and  measuring  aeriform  fluids. 

I'he  reagents  necessary  are  muriatic 
acid,  sulphuric  acid,  pure  volatile  alkali 
dissolved  in  water,  solution  of  prussiat  of 
potash,  soap  lye,  and  solutions  of  carbonat 
of  ammonia,  nmriat  of  ammonia,  neutral 
carbonat  of  potash,  and  nitrat  of  ammo- 
nia. 

1.  When  the  general  nature  of  the  soil 
of  a  field  is  to  be  ascertained,  specimens 
of  it  should  be  taken  from  different  pla- 
ces, two  or  three  inches  below  the  siu-- 
face,  and  examined  as  to  the  similarity  of 
tlieir  properties.  It  sometimes  happens, 
that  on  plains  the  whole  of  the  upper  stra- 
tum of  the  land  is  of  the  same  kind,  and 
in  this  case  one  analysis  will  be  sufficient. 
But  in  v.illeys,  and  near  the  beds  of  rivers, 
there  are  very  great  difierences,  and  it 
now  .and  then  occui  s,  that  one  part  of  a 
field  is  calcareous,  and  another  part  sili- 
ceous ;  and  in  this  and  analogous  cases, 
the  portion  dliicrent  from  each  oihei- 
should  be  analysed  separately  Soils  when 
collected,  if  they  cannot  be  examined  im- 
mediately, should  be  preserved  in  phials 
quite  filled  with  them,  and  closed  with 
ground  glass  stopples  The  most  conve- 
nient quantity  for  a  perfect  analysis  is  from 
two  hundred  grains  to  four  hundred.  It 
should  be  collected  in  dry  weather,  p.nd 
exposed  to  the  air  till  it  feels  dry.  Its  spe- 
cific gTavity  may  be  ascertained,  by  inti'o- 
ducing  into  a  phi.al,  which  will  contain  a 
known  quantity  of  water,  equal  bulks  of 
water  and  of  the  soil ;  which  ma}  easily  be 
done,  by  pouring  in  water  till  the  phial  is 
h.alf  full,  and  then  adding-  the  soil  till  the 
fluid  rises  to  the  mouth.  The  difference 
between  the  weight  of  the  water,  and  that 
of  the  soil,  will  give  the  result.  Then  if 
the  bottle  will  c0ntahi  four  hundred  grains 
of  watei,  a'>d  gains  tv.o  hundred  grains 
wlien  half  filled  witli  water  and  half  with 
soil,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  soil  will  be 
2 ;  that  is,  it  will  be  twice  as  heavy  as 
VOL.    I. 


water :  and  if  it  gained  one  lumdred  and 
sixty-five  grains,  its  specific  gravity  would 
be  1825,  water  being  lOUO.  It  is  of  im- 
portance  that  the  specific  gravity  of  a  soil 
should  be  known,  as  it  afibrds  an  indica- 
tion of  the  quantity  of  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble matter  it  contains,  these  subst.ances 
being  always  most  abundant  in  the  lighter 
soils.  The  other  physical  properties  of 
soils  should  likewise  be  examined  before 
the  analysis  is  made,  as  they  denote,  to  a 
certain  extent,  their  composition,  and 
serve  as  guides  in  dircctin;'-  the  experi- 
ments. Thus  siliceous  soils  are  generally 
rough  to  the  touch,  and  scratch  glass 
when  rubbed  upon  it :  aluminous  soils  ad- 
here strongly  to  the  tongue,  and  emit  a 
strong  earthy  smell  when  breathed  upon  : 
and  calcareous  soils  arc  soft,  and  much 
less  adiiesive  tiian  aluminous  soils. 

2  Soils,  when  as  dry  as  they  can  be 
made  by  exposure  to  the  au",  still  retain  a 
considerable  quantity  of  water,  which  ad- 
heres with  gre.at  obstinacy  to  tht  m,  and 
cannot  be  driven  off  without  considerable 
heat :  and  the  first  process  of  analysis  is  to 
i'vee  them  from  as  much  of  this  water  as 
possible,  without  affecting-  their  composi- 
tion in  other  respects.  This  may  be  done 
by  heating  the  soil  for  ten  or  twelve  mi- 
nutes in  a  ciiina  basin  over  an  ArgiHid 
lamp,  at  a  temperature  equal  to  SuO''  F. ; 
and  if  a  thermometer  be  not  used,  the 
proper  degree  of  heat  may  easily  be  ascer- 
tained by  keeping  a  piece  of  wood  in  the 
basin  in  contact  with  its  bottom  ;  for  as 
long  as  the  colour  of  the  wood  remains 
unaltered,  the  heat  is  not  too  high  ;  but  as 
soon  as  it  begins  to  be  charred,  the  pro- 
cess must  be  stopped.  Tiie  loss  of  weiglit 
in  this  process  must  be  carefully  noted  ; 
and  if  it  amount  to  50  grahis  in  400  of  the 
soil,  this  may  be  considered  as  in  the 
greatest  degree  absorbent  and  retentive  of 
water:  and  will  generally  be  found  to  con- 
tain a  large  propoj-tion  of  aluminous 
earth  :  if  the  loss  be  not  moje  than  10  or 
20  grains,  the  land  may  be  considered  as 
slightly  absorbent  and  retentive,  and  the 
siliceous  earth  as  most  abundant. 

3.  Xone  of  tjie  loose  stones,  gravel,  or 
large  vegetable  fibres,  should  be  separated 
from  the  soil,  till  tlie  water  is  thu|-cxpell- 
ed ;  for  these  bodies  are  often  hi^ldy  ab- 
sorbent and  retentive,  .and  consequently 
influence  the  fertility  ot  the  land.  But  af- 
ter tiie  soil  has  been  heated  as  above, 
these  should  be  separated  by  the  sieve, 
after  the  soil  has  been  gently  brui.sed  in  a 
mortar.  The  weights  of  the  vegetable 
fibres  or  wood,  ar.d  of  the  gravel  and 
stones,  should  be  separately  noted  down, 
and  the  nature  of  the  latter  ascertained  : 
if  they  be  calcareous,  they  will  effervesce 


AGR 


ACiK 


with  acids  ;  if  siliceous,  they  will  scratch 
jjlass  ;  il"  ahiininous,  tliey  will  be  soil,  easi- 
ly scratched  with  a  knite,  and  incapable  of 
tllervcscing  with  acids. 

4.  Most  soils,  beside  stones  and  gravel, 
contain  lai-ger  or  smaller  proportions  ol' 
sand  of  dimrent  ikgrccs  of  fineness  ;  and 
the  next  operation  necessary  is  to  sepa- 
I'ate  this  sand  from  the  parts  more  minute- 
ly divided,  such  as  clay,  loam,  inarle,  ajid 
vegetable  and  animal  matter.  Tliis  may 
be  done  sutticicnlly  by  mixing  tlie  soil 
well  witli  water  ;  as  tiie  coarse  sand  w  ill 
generally  fall  to  the  bottom  in  the  space 
of  a  minute,  and  the  finer  in  two  or  three ; 
so  that  by  pom  ing  the  v.  ater  off  after  one, 
two,  or  three  miniiles,  the  sand  will  be  for 
the  most  pai*t  separated  from  the  other 
substances  ;  which,  with  the  water  con- 
taining them,  nuist  be  poured  into  a  filter. 
After  the  water  h;is  passed  llirougli,  what 
remains  on  the  filter  nmst  be  dried  and 
weighed ;  as  must  also  the  sand  ;  and  their 
respective  quantities  must  be  noted  down. 
Tine  water  njust  be  preserved,  as  it  v  ill 
contain  the  saline  nuitter,  and  the  .soluble 
animal  or  vegetable  mattcj-,  if  any  existed 
in  the  soil. 

5.  A  nnniite  analysis  of  the  sand  thus 
separated  is  seldom  or  never  necessary, 
and  its  nature  may  be  detected  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  stones  and  gravel. 
It  is  always  siliceous  sand,  or  calcareous 
sand,  or  both  together.  If  it  consist 
wholly  of  carbonat  of  lime,  it  will  dissolve 
rapidly  in  muriatic  acid  with  cfl'erves- 
cence  :  but  if  it  consist  partly  of  this  and 

Eartly  of  siliceous  matter,  a  residuum  will 
e  left  after  the  acid  has  ceased  to  act  on 
it,  the  acid  being  added  till  the  mixture 
has  a  sour  taste,  and  has  ceased  to  efler- 
vesce.  This  residuimi  is  the  siliceous 
part ;  which  being  washed,  dried,  and 
heated  strongly  in  a  crucible,  the  difler- 
ence  of  its  weight  from  that  of  the  whole, 
%vill  indicate  the  quantity  of  the  calcare- 
ous sand. 

6.  The  finely  divided  matter  of  the  soil 
is  usually  very  compound  in  its  nature  :  it 
sometimes  contains  all  the  fi)ur  piiniitive 
cartlis  of  soils,  as  well  as  animal  and  ve- 
getable mutter;  and  to  ascertain  the  pro- 
poi-tions  ofthese  witii  tolerable  aceurac\ , 
is  the  most  dilFicult  part  of  tlio  subject. 
The  first  process  to  be  peifornied  in  tins 
part  of  llie  analysis  is  the  exposure  of  the 
fine  matter  of  the  soil  to  the  action  ofnni- 
riatic  acid.  This  acid,  diluted  with  dou- 
ble its  bulk  of  water,  shoulil  be  poured 
upon  the  earthy  matter  in  an  evaporating 
basin,  in  a  (juantil)-  e([ual  to  twice  the 
weight  of  the  earlli\  matter  'I'he  mixture 
should  be  often  stirred,  and  sufieied  to 
.t'emain  for  an  hour,  or  an  hour  and  half. 


before  iL  is  examined.  If  any  carbonit  of 
lime,  or  of  magnesia,  exist  in  the  soil,  they 
will  have  been  dissolved  in  this  time  by 
the  acid,  which  sometimes  takes  up  like- 
wise a  little  oxide  of  iron,  but  very  seldom 
any  ahniiiiie.  The  fluid  should  be  passed 
through  a  filter;  the  solid  matter  collect- 
ed, washed  with  distilled  or  rain  water, 
dried  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  weighed. 
Its  loss  will  denote  the  quantity  of  solid 
matter  taken  up.  The  washings  nnist  be 
added  to  the  solution ;  which,  if  not  sour 
to  the  taste,  must  be  made  so  by  the  ad- 
dition of  fresh  acid;  and  a  httle  solution 
of  prussiat  of  potash  must  be  mixetl  witli 
the  liquor.  If  a  blue  precip  tate  occur,  it 
denotes  the  presence  of  oxide  of  iron,  and 
the  solution  of  the  prussiat  must  bedroj)- 
ped  in,  till  no  further  eflect  is  produced. 
To  ascertain  its  quantity,  it  must  be  col- 
lected on  a  filter  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  other  solid  precipitates,  and  heated 
red  :  the  result  will  be  oxide  of  iron.  Into 
the  Huid  freed  from  oxide  of  iron  a  solu- 
tion of  carbonat  of  potash  must  be  poured 
till  all  eflervcscence  ceases  in  it,  and  till 
its  taste  and  smell  indicate  a  considerable 
excess  of  alkaline  salt  The  precipitate 
that  falls  down  is  carbonat  of  iime  ;  which 
nnist  be  collected  on  a  filter,  dried  at  a 
heat  below  that  of  redness,  and  afterward 
weighed.  The  rcniaiiiing  Huid  must  be 
boiled  for  a  qiuirter  of  an  hour,  \\  hen  the 
magnesia,  if  there  be  any,  will  be  precipi- 
tated combined  with  carbonic  acid,  and  its 
quantity  iiuist  be  ascertained  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  the  carbonat  of  lime.  If 
any  minute  jiroportion  of  alumine  shoidd, 
ii om  ])eculiar  circumstances,  be  dissolved 
by  the  .'icid,  it  will  be  found  in  the  precipi- 
tate with  the  carbonat  of  lime,  and  it  may 
be  separated  from  it  by  boiling  for  a  few 
minutes  with  soap  lye  sufficient  to  cover 
the  solid  matter;  for  this  lye  dissolves  alu- 
mine, v.ithout  acting  upon  carbonat  of 
lime.  Sliould  the  finely  divided  soil  be 
sullieieiiily  calcareous  to  eiit;rvesce  very 
strongly  w  ith  acids,  a  simple  method  of 
ascertaining  the  (juantity  of  cai'bonat  of 
lime,  sufficiently  accvirate  in  all  common 
eases,  may  be  adopted.  As  carbonat  of 
lime  in  all  its  states  contains  a  determinate 
(iuantii\()f  acid,  which  is  about  45  piu'ts 
in  a  hundied  by  %\ eight,  the  quantity  of 
this  acid  given  out  during  the  eil'erves- 
cence  occasioned  by  its  solution  in  a  stron- 
ger acid  will  indicate  the  (piantity  of  car- 
bonat of  lime  present  Thus,  if  you  weigh 
separately  one  jiart  of  the  matter  of  the 
soil,  and  two  parts  of  the  acid  diluted  with 
an  e([ual  <iiiantily  of  water,  and  mix  the 
acid  .slowly  in  small  portions  with  the  soil, 
till  it  ceases  to  occasion  any  eflervcscence, 
by  weighing  the  mixture,   and  tlie  acid 


AGR 


AGR 


that  remains,  you  will  find  the  quavitity  of 
carbonic  acid  lost ;  and  for  every  four 
grains  and  half  so  lost  you  will  estimate 
ten  grains  ofcarbonat  of  liir.e. 

7.  I'he  quantity  oflnsolublc  animal  and 
veg-etaijle  matter  may  next  be  ascertained 
Vvitli  sufficient  precision  by  heating-  it  to  a 
strong-  red  heat  in  a  ci-ucible  over  a  com- 
mon (ire,  till  no  blackness  remains  in  the 
mass,  stin-ing  it  frequently  meanwhile 
with  a  metallic  wire.  Tlie  loss  of  weight 
will  ascertain  the  quantity  of  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  tliere  wjls,  but  not  the 
proportions  of  each.  If  the  smell  emitted, 
daring  this  process,  resemble  that  of 
bunit  feathers,  it  is  a  certain  indication  of 
the  presence  of  some  animal  matter;  and 
a  copious  blue  flame  almost  alwa}s  de- 
notes a  considerable  proportion  of  vegeta- 
ble matter.  Nitrat  of  ammonia,  in  the 
proportion  of  twenty  grains  to  a  hundred 
of  the  lesiduum  of  the  soil,  will  gi'eatly  ac- 
celerate this  process,  if  the  operator  be  in 
haste  ;  and  not  effect  the  result,  as  it  will 
be  decomposed  and  evaporate. 

8.  What  remains  after  this  decomposi- 
tion of  the  vegetable  and  animal  matter, 
consists  generally  of  minute  particles  of 
earthy  matter,  which  are  usually  a  mix^ 
ture  of  alumine  and  silex  with  oxide  of 
iron.  To  separate  these,  boil  them  two  or 
three  hours  in  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with 
four  times  its  weight  of  water,  allowing  an 
hundred  and  twenty  grains  /if  acid  tor 
every  hundred  grains  of  the  residuum.  If 
an}'  thing  remain  undissolved  by  this  acid, 
it  may  be  considered  as  sllex,  and  be  se- 
parated, washed,  dried,  and  weighed.  In 
the  usual  manner.  Carbonat  of  ammonia 
being  added  to  the  solution  in  quantity 
"more  than  sufficient  to  saturate  the  acid, 
the  alumine  will  be  precipitated  ;  and  the 
oxide  of  iron.  If  any,  maybe  separated 
from  the  remaining  liquid  by  boiling  it.  It 
scarcely  ever  happens,  that  any  magnesia 
or  lime  escapes  solution  In  the  muriatic 
acid  ;  but,  if  It  should,  it  will  be  ibund  in 
the  sulphuric  acid ;  from  ^^  hlcli  it  may  be 
separated  as  directed  above  for  the  muri- 
atic. This  method  of  analysis  is  sufficient- 
ly precise  for  allcomnion  purposes  :  but  if 
very  great  accuracy  be  an  object,  the  re- 
siduum after  the  incineration  must  be 
treated  with  potash,  and  in  the  manner  in 
which  stones  are  analysed,  as  given  in  the 
lirst  part  of  diis  article. 

9.  If  the  soil  contained  any  salts,  or  so- 
luble vegetable  or  animal  matter,  they 
will  be  found  in  the  water  used  for  sepa- 
rating the  sand.  This  water  must  be  eva- 
porated to  dryness  at  a  heat  below  boil- 
ing. If  the  solid  matter  left  be  of  abrown 
colour,  and  inflammable,  it  may  be  consi- 
dered as  partly  vegetable  extract.    If  its 


smell,  when  exposed  to  heat,  be  strong 
and  fetid,  it  contains  animal  mucilaginous 
or  gelatinous  matter.  If  it  be  white  and 
transparent,  it  may  be  considertd  as  prin- 
cipally saline.  Nitrat  of  potash  or  of  lime 
is  indicated  in  this  sali'ie  matter  by  its 
sparkling  when  thrown  on  burning  coals.- 
sulphat  of  magnesia  may  be  detected  by 
its  bl'.ter  taste:  and  sulphat  of  potash 
produces  no  alteration  in  a  solution  of 
carbonat  of  ammonia,  but  precipitates  a 
solution  ofmuriat  of  barytes. 

10.  If  siUphat  or  phosphat  of  lime  be 
suspected  In  the  soil,  a  particular  process 
is  requisite  to  detect  it.  A  given  weight 
of  the  enti!-e  soil,  as  four  hundred  grains 
for  instance,  must  be  mixed  with  one  third 
as  much  powdered  charcoal,  and  kept  at 
a  red  heat  In  a  crucible  for  half  an  hour. 
The  mixture  must  then  be  boiled  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  and 
the  solution,  being  filtered,  exposed  some 
days  to  the  open  air.  If  any  soluble  quan- 
tity of  sulphat  of  lime,  or  gypsum  existed 
in  the  soil,  a  white  precipitate  will  gradu- 
ally form  in  the  fluid,  and  the  weight  of  it 
will  indicate  the  proportion. 

Phosphat  of  lime,  if  any  be  present,  may 
be  sepaiated  from  the  soil  after  the  pro- 
cess for  gypsum.  Muriatic  acid  must  be 
digested  upon  the  soil  in  quantity  more 
tlian  sufficient  to  saturate  the  soluble 
earths.  The  solution  must  be  evaporated, 
and  water  poured  upon  the  solid  matter. 
This  fluid  will  dissolve  the  compotmds  of 
earths  with  the  muriatic  acid,  and  leave 
the  phosphat  of  lime  untouched. 

11.  When  the  examination  of  a  soil  is 
completed,  the  products  should  be  class- 
ed, and  their  quantities  added  together; 
and  iftheynearly  equal  the  original  quan- 
tity of  soil,  the  analysis  may  be  considered 
as  acciu-ate.     It  must  however  be  observ- 
ed, that  when  phosphat  or  sidphat  of  lime 
is  discovered  by  the  independent  process, 
Xo.  10,just  mentioned,  a  correction  must 
be  made  for  the  general  process,  by  sub- 
ti'ucting  a  sum  equal  to  their  weight  from 
the  quantity  ofcarbonat  of  lime  obtained 
by  precipitation  from  the  muriatic  acid. 
In    arranging    the    products,    the    form 
should  be  in  the  order  of  the  experiments 
by  which  they  are  obtained      Thus  400 
grains  of  a  good  siliceous  sandy  soil  may 
be  supposed  to  contain  grains. 
Of  water  of  absorption     ......     18 

Of  loose  stones  and  gravel,  principal- 
ly siliceous 42 

Of  undecompounded  vegetable  fibres     10 

Of  fine  siliceous  sand 200 

Of  minutely  divided  matter,  separat- 
ed by  filtration,  and  consisting  of 

Carbonat  of  lime 25 

Carbonat  of  magnesia    *.    .     .      4 


AG  11 


AtiH 


-Mutter  destructible  by  heat,  prin- 
cipally vegetable  ....     10 

Sik-x 40 

Aluminc -'3 

Oxide  ot'iron 4 

Soluble  in:ittoi-,  principally  sul- 
phat  otpoUisli  and  vcj^ctablc 

extract  5 

Gypsum ^ 

Phospliatoi  iimc     ....     2 

—  125 

Amount  of  all  the  products      395 
Loss 5 

4UU 

Tn  this  instance  the  loss  is  supposed 
small  ;  hut  in  gen.  ral,  in  aciu.il  experi- 
ments, it  will  he  t>  unil  much  greater,  in 
consequence  ot"  the  dilliculty  of  col- 
lecting the  whole  quantities  of  the  diffl  r- 
ent  precijiitates  ;  and  wlien  it  is  within 
thirty,  for  four  hundred  grains,  there  is  no 
reason  to  snspect  any  want  '-'t'  due  preci- 
sion in  the  pnicesscs. 

12.  Svhcn  theexi^crimentcr  has  become 
acquainteil  \viU»  the  use  of  the  different 
instruments,  liie  pi-operlies  of  tlie  re- 
agents, and  the  relations  between  the  ex- 
tei'nal  antl  chemical  qualities  of  soils,  he 
will  seldom  lind  it  necessary  to  perform, 
in  any  one  case,  all  the  ]3roccsses  that  have 
been  described.  AVhen  his  soil,  for  in- 
stance, contains  no  notable  proportion  of 
calcareous  matter,  the  action  of  the  muri- 
atic acid,  N'o.  6,  may  be  omitted  :  in  exami- 
ning ])eat  soils,  he  will  principally  have  to 
attend  to  the  operation  by  fire  and  air,  Xo. 
7 :  and  in  the  analysis  of  chalks  and  loams, 
he  will  often  he  able  to  omit  the  experi- 
ment with  sulphu;  ie  acid,  No.  8. 

In  the  first  trials  tliat  are  m;ule  hyper- 
sons  unacquainted  with  cheniisti'V',  the) 
must  not  expect  nuich  precision  ot  result. 
Many  difticulties  will  be  met  wilh^  hut  in 
overcoming  them  the  most  usehd  kind  of 
practical  knowle'lge  will  be  obtained  ;  anil 
nothing  is  so  instructive  in  experimental 
i-cience,  as  the  detection  of  mistakes. 
The  coiTCCt  analyst  ought  to  be  wrll 
grounded  in  general  chemical  informa- 
tion ;  but  perhaps  there  is  no  better  mode 
of  gaining  it,  than  that  of  attempting  oii- 
ginal  investigations.  In  pursuing  his  ex- 
periments, he  will  be  Cintinually  obligeil 
to  learn  fi'om  books  the  historj'  of  the  sub- 
stances he  is  employing  or  acting  upon  ; 
and  his  theoretical  ideas  will  be  more  va- 
luable in  being  connected  with  practical 
operation,  and  acquired  for  the  pui'pose  of 
discovery. 

On  the  vses  to  ivhich  each  toil.inay  l>e 
vioit  mtvantageously  applied. — Clay  soils, 
V  hen  snrtiticntly  cimchcd  with  manures, 


are  naturally  \ycll  qualified  for  can*jin^ 
crops  of  wheat,  oats,  beans,  and  clover; 
but  are  not  fitted  for  bark  y,  turnips,  pota- 
t<ies,  &.C.  or  even  for  being  kept  under 
grass  longer  than  one  ye:u'.  Perhaps  ^uck 
soils  ought  to  be  regidarly  summer-fallow- 
ed once  in  six,  or  at  the  most  once  in  eight 
years,  even  when  they  are  comparatively 
in  a  clean  state,  as  they  contract  a  sour- 
ness and  adhesion  from  wet  ploughing, 
only  to  be  removed  by  exposure  to  the 
sun  and  wind  during  the  dry  months  of 
sunmier.  Soils  of  this  kind  receive  little 
benefit  from  whiter  ploughing,  unless  so 
far  as  their  surface  is'  thereby  presented 
to  the  frost,  which  mellows  and  reduce.i 
them  in  a  m.inner  infinitely  superior  to 
what  could  be  accomplished  by  all  the 
oper.ttions  of  man.  Still  tliey  are  not 
cleaned  or  made  fiee  of  weeds  by  winter 
ploughing;  and  therefore  this  operation 
can  only  t>e  considered  as  a  good  mean 
for  procuring  a  seed-bed,  in  wliich  the 
seeds  of  the  fiitiu'c  crop  may  be  safely  de- 
posited. Hence  the  necessity  of  cleaning 
clay  soils  durmg  the  summer  months,  and 
of  having  always  a  large  part  of  every  clay 
farm  under  summer  fallow.  All  clay  soils 
require  great  industry  and  care,  as  well 
as  a  considerable  portion  of  knowledge  hi 
the  dressing  or  management,  to  keep  them 
in  good  condition ;  yet  when  their  natural 
toughness  is  got  the  better  of,  they  always 
yield  the  Jieaviest  and  mo.st  abundant; 
crops.  One  thing  requisite  for  a  claj-  soil, 
is  to  keep  it  rich  and  full  of  manure ;  a 
poor  clay  being  the  most  ungrateful  of  all 
soils,  and  hardly  capable  of  repaying  the 
expense  of  labour,  after  behig  worn  out 
and  exhausted.  A  clay  soil  also  receives, 
comparatively,  snuill  benefit  from  grass  i 
and  when  once  allowed  to  get  into  a  sterile 
condition,  the  most  active  endeavours  will 
with  difiicidty  restore  tcrtility  to  it,  after 
tlie  lapse  of  many  years. 

Upon  light  soils,  the  case  is  very  differ- 
ent. These  flourish  under  tlie  g^ass  hus- 
bandry ;  andb;ire  summer  fallow  is  rarely 
required,  because  they  may  be  cleaned 
and  cropjied  in  the  same  ye:u',  with  that 
valuable  esculent,  turnip.  L'pon  light 
soils,  however,  wheat  can  seldom  be  ex- 
tensively cultivated ;  nor  can  a  crop  be  ob- 
tained of  ec[uul  value,  either  in  respect  of 
([uantity  or  qualit\,  as  on  clays  and  loams. 
'I'he  best  method  of  procurhig  wlieats  on 
light  lands,  is  to  sow  upon  u  clover  stub- 
ble, wlicn  the  soil  has  got  an  artificial  so - 
liility  of  hotly,  and  is  thereby  rendered  ca- 
pable of  sustaining  thi.s  grain  till  it  arrives 
it  matmity.  The  same  observation  ap- 
plies to  soil.i  of  a  gravelly  nature;  and 
upon  both,  bar'ey  is  generally  found  to  be 
of  as  great  benefit  as  wheat.    The  fiicility 


\nth  which  every  variety' of  light  soil  is 
cultivated,  furnishes  great  encouragement 
to  keep  them  under  the  plough,  though  it 
rarely  happens,,  that  when  more  than  one 
half  of  such  soils  are  kept  in  ploughing, 
the  possessors  are  greatly  benefited. 

Tiiin  clays,  and  peat  earths,  arc  more 
friendly  to  the  growtli  of  oats  than  of  other 
grains,  though  in  favourable  seasons  a 
heavy  crop  of  wheat  may  be  obtained 
from  II  thin  clay  soil,  when  it  has  been 
completely  summer-fallowed,  and  enrich- 
ed with  dung.  A  first  application  of  cal- 
careous manure  is  generally  accompanied 
with  great  advantage  upow- these  soils; 
but  when  once  the  effect  of  this  applica- 
tion is  over,  it  can  hardly  be  repeated  a 
second  time,  unless  the  Lind  has  been 
ver\'  cautiously  managed  after  the  first 
dressing.  Neither  of  diese  soils  is  friend- 
ly to  grass,  yet  there  is  a  necessity  of  ex- 
ercising this  husbandly  with  them,  be- 
cause they  are  incapable  of  standing  the 
plough  more  than  a  year  or  two  in  the 
couiseofa  rotation.  When  we  come  to 
that  branch  of  our  article  winch  treats  of 
cropping,  we  shall  notice  these  matters  at 
gieater  length ;  but  in  this  place  it  may  be 
sufficient  to  say,  that  wheat  ought  to  be 
the  predomuianl  crop  upon  all  the  rich 
clays  and  strong  loams,  and  that  liglit 
soils  of  every  kind  are  well  qualified  for 
turnips,  barley,  &c.  Upon  the  thin  and 
moorish  soils,  oats  must  necessarily  pre- 
serve a  prominent  rank;  and  grass  seeds 
may  be  cultivated  upon  every  one  oftliem, 
though  with  d'^ferent  degrees  of  advan- 
tage, according  to  the  natural  and  artifi- 
cial richness  of  each  soil,  or  to  the  quali- 
ties which  it  possesses  for  encouraging  the 
growth  of  clover,  in  the  first  instance,  and 
prt  serving  the  roots  of  the  plant  aiter- 
wards. 

We  now  come  to  that  part  which  treats 
on  practical  agriculture. 

On  Tillage. — Tillage  may,  in  general 
terms,  be  described  as  an  operation  where- 
by the  soil  is  either  cieaj-ed  from  noxious 
weeds,  or  prepared  for  receiving  the  seeds 
of  plants  cultivated  by  the  husbandman. 
when  this  operation  Ls  neglected,  or  even 
partially  executed,  the  soil  becomes  foul, 
barren,  and  unproductive ;  hence,  upon 
arable  farms,  tillage  forms  the  prominent 
branch  of  work ;  and,  according  to  the 
perfection  or  imperfection  with  which  it  is 
executed,  the  crops  of  the  husbandman, 
whether  of  corn  or  grass,  are  hi  a  great 
measure  regulated. 

Tillage,  in  tlie  early  ages,  was  perform- 
ed by  hand  labour;  but  in  modern  times, 
tlie  plough  has  been  the  universal  instru- 
ment used  for  exccuung  this  necessary 
and  important  branch  of  rural  work.     In 


AGR 

no  other  way  can  large  fields  be  turned 
over,  because  die  expense  of  digging  with 
the  spade,  tlie  only  other  method  of  turn- 
ing over  the  ground,  would  much  exceed 
any  profit  that  could  be  reaped  ^pade- 
work,  hov.ever,  is  almost  universally  used 
in  garden  cilture,  where  the  plants  raised 
are  of  greater  value  than  those  cultivated 
in  tlie  fields ;  though  the  nearer  that  field 
culture  can  be  brought  to  what  is  exer- 
cised in  a  garden,  so  much  more  may  the 
practice  of  the  art  be  considered  as  ap- 
proximating in  perfection  to  tiiat  of  the 
otlier. 

In  a  work  of  this  kind,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  enlarge  upon  the  way  by  which  tillage 
may  be  successfully  executed.  It  is  pro- 
per to  state,  however,  that  stones  l)ing 
above  or  below  tlie  surface  ai'e  the  most 
formidable  obstruction  to  perfect  tillage. 
On  stony  ground,  the  work  is  not  only  im- 
perfeclly  executed,  but  in  many  cases  tlie 
implement  is  broken  to  pieces,  and  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  time  lost  before  it  Ls 
repaired,  and  put  in  order.  The  removal 
of  stones,  therefi)ie,  especially  of  such  as 
are  below  the  surface,  ought  to  be  a  pri- 
mary object  witli  every  agriculturist ;  be- 
cause a  neglect  of  this  kind  may  after- 
wards occasion  him  considerable  loss  and 
inconvenience-  In  our  practice  we  have 
ascertained,  that  rocky  fields  are  plough- 
ed at  an  expense  nearly  double  of  what 
was  required  tipon  others  under  different 
circumstances;  because  the  ploughman, 
from  necessity,  is  obliged  to  go  slowly  and 
with  caution.  In  such  situations  tlie  evil 
hardly  admits  of  correction,  because  the 
substratum  is  almost  of  the  same  nature; 
and  the  rocks  which  appear  may  be  consi- 
dered in  the  light  of  excrescences  from 
the  substratum ;  but  where  single  fixed 
stones  appear  in  an  arable  field,  they  ought 
to  be  removed  immediately,  altliough  tlie. 
closeness  of  their  texture  may  render  the 
assistance  of  gunpowder  necessarj'.  It 
deserves  attention,  that  verj-  fine  soil  is 
alwa} s  in  contact  witli  recks  of  this  de- 
scription ;  and  that  by  gaining  the  use  of 
it,  m_uch  benefit  is  derived,  independent  of 
the  facility  which  is  thus  afforded  to  the 
ploughman's  operations. 

On  the  utility  (f  Summer  Fallovi. — The 
necessity  of  summer  fallow  depends  great- 
ly upon  the  nature  and  quality  of  the  soil; 
as,  upon  some  soils,  a  repetition  of  this 
practice  is  less  frequently  required  tlian 
upon  others.  Wherever  the  soil  is  in- 
cumbent upon  clay,  it  is  more  disposed 
to  get  foul,  than  when  incumbent  upon  a 
dry  gravelly  bottom;  besides,  wet  soils, 
fiom  being  ploughed  in  winter,  contract  a 
stiffness  which  lessens  the  pasture  of  arti- 
ficial plants,  and  prevents,  them  from  re- 


AGR 


AUR 


reivinjj  sufficient  nouvislimeni.  When 
land  of  a  dry  gravelly  quality  ^^a-ts  foul,  it 
mav  easily  be  cleaned  without  a  jjlain 
summer  tkllow ;  since  crops,  such  as  tur- 
nijjs,  &c.  may  be  substituted  in  its  place, 
which,  when  diilled  at  proper  intervals, 
admit  of  bein_^  plouij^hed  as  often  as  ne- 
ccssai"y ;  whereas  wet  soils,  which  are  na- 
turally unfit  for  tarrying'  suchciops,  must 
be  cleaned  and  brought  into  good  order, 
by  fre<juent  ploughings  and  liarrowings 
during  the  summer  montlis- 

A  well  managed  fallow  should  be 
wrought  as  early  in  the  season  as  possi- 
ble, and  continually  turned  over  so  long 
as  the  least  particle  of  quickens,  or  weeds, 
appears.  It  is  no  argument  against  the 
ulllilv  of  fallows,  that  they  are  often  ma- 
i>aged  in  a  dUVercTit  way ;  this  militates 
only  against  the  impro])ricty  of  the  ma- 
naifement,  but  not  against  the  practice  it- 
self. 

'I'he  necessity  of  summer  fallow  funis 
ujion  this  single  ])oint: — Can  wet  lands  be 
advantageously  employed  in  raising  t»u-- 
nips  or  cabbages ;  a  question  which  the 
piactical  faimer,  who  is  sufllcienti}'  ac- 
quainted with  the  nattue  of  such  soils, 
and  the  immt  nse  laboiu-  required  to  bring 
them  into  proper  tilth,  m  ill  have  no  diili- 
rulty  to  answer  in  the  negative.  It  is  not 
disputed  that  turnips  and  cabbages  will 
grow  upon  tliese  soils ;  but  the  (jiiestion 
IS,  whether  the  extraordinary  labour  they 
ix-quirc,  and  the  damage  sustained  by  the 
ground,  during  the  consumption  or  carry- 
ing oftthe  crops,  will  not  exceed  the  value 
of  the  produce .' 

As  many  different  oi)inions  prevail  rela- 
tive to  the  manner  in  which  a  fallow  should 
be  conducted,  our  sentiments  upon  that 
head  may  be  acceptable. 

Upon  all  clay  soils  (and  upon  such  only, 
xi-e  understand  a  complete  s\mimer  fallow 
to  be  necessary,)  the  first  ploughing  ought 
to  be  given  dtumg  the  winter  months,  or 
as  early  h\  the  spring  as  possible;  which 
promotes  the  rotting  of  the  sward  and 
srubble.  This  should  be  done  by  gather- 
ing up  the  ridge,  whieh  both  lays  the 
groimd  dry,  and  rips  up  the  furrows.  As 
soon  as  seed-time  is  o\er, the  ridge shotild 
be  cloven  down,  ])reparatory  to  cross 
ploughing;  and,  after  lying  aiirojier  time, 
shouUl  be  harrowed  and  rollctl  rej)cated- 
ly,  and  every  particle  of  (juickens  that  the 
harrows  have  brought  above  sliould  be 
rarefully  picked  off  with  the  hand-  It  is 
then  pro|)er  to  ridge  or  gatlier  it  up  imme- 
diately, which  both  lays  the  hmd  in  ])ro- 
ntr  condition  i'or  meeting  bad  we;itlier, 
and  opens  up  any  hist  land  th;;l  ni:i\ 
have  b(  en  misst  d  in  tlie  furrows  when  the 
cross  ploughing  vas  given.     After  tliis. 


haiTow,  roll,  and  gather  the  toot  wccdrt 
again ;  and  continue  so  doing  till  the  field 
is  perfectly  clean. 

Considei  ing  how  much  weeds  prevail  in 
oui-  iields,  and  how  difficult  it  is,  even  fur 
the  most  attentive  farmers,  to  prevent  their 
crops  being  hurt  by  Uiem,  fret^uent  fal- 
lowing as  the  most  proper  method  c^' 
destroying  these  enemies,  cannot  be 
too  much  recommended  When  we  have 
arrived  at  gieatcr  perfection  in  the  several 
operations  of  agriculture,  and  brought  our 
lands  to  a  higlier  degree  of  fertility  than 
at  present,  tlien,  and,  indeed,  in  my  opi- 
nion, not  till  then,  should  we  think  of  intro- 
ducing schemes  of  perpetual  cropping. 

A  mode  of  executing  summer  fallo\r, 
and  procuring  a  crop  of  turnips  in  the 
same  year,  comes  now  to  be  noticed.  In 
this  way  the  land  may  be  completely  clean- 
ed, perhaps  more  so  than  by  a  bare  fallow ; 
but  it  is  only  on  light  dry  soils,  that  such 
a  mode  of  cleaning  is  eligible,  or  can  be 
executed  with  advantage. 

The  second  object  of  tillage  is  to  pre- 
pare the  ground  for  receiving  the  seeds  of 
plants  cultivated  by  the  husbandman  ;  and 
here,  in  general,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
the  object  is  most  omplctely  accomphsh- 
ed,  when  the  ground  is  ploughed  deep 
and  e(ivial,  while  the  bottom  of  the  furrow 
immediately  above  the  subsoil  is  perfectly 
loosened,  and  turned  equally  over  with 
the  part  which  constitutes  the  surface.  In 
many  places,  these  pro])erties  are  altoge- 
ther neglected,  the  ground  being  plough- 
ed in  a  shallow  way,  while  the  bottom  of 
the  ploughed  land  remains  something  like 
the  teeth  of  a  saw,  having  the  under  piut 
of  the  furrow  untouched,  and  consequent- 
ly not  removed  by  the  action  of  the  plough. 
While  these  things  are  suffered,  the  object 
of  tillage  is  only  partially  gained.  The 
(bod  of  plants  (whatever  it  may  be,)  can 
only  be  imperfectly  procured;  and  the 
ground  is  drenched  and  injured  by  wet- 
ness; these  bridges,  or  pieces  of  land, 
which  are  not  cut,  jneventing  a  descent  of 
the  moisture  from  above  to  the  open  fur- 
rows left  for  carrying  it  oil".  Where  the 
seed-bed  is  prepared  by  one  ploughing, 
the  greatest  care  oi'ight  to  be  used  in  hav- 
ing it  closely  and  equally  performed. 
When  two  are  given,  they  should  be  in  op- 
jiosite  directions,  so  that  any  firm  land 
left  in  the  first  may  lie  cut  up  in  the  second 
ploughing.  It  is  not  profiUible  to  plough 
t\\  ice  one  way,  if  it  can  be  safely  avoid- 
ed. 

Another  important  point,  towards  pro- 
curing good  tillage,  is  never  to  plougli  the 
land  wlii-n  in  ;i  wet  state;  because  encou- 
ragement is  thus  given  to  the  growth  of 
weeds,  while  a  sourness  and  adliesion  is 


AGR 


AGR 


<  omtnunicated  to  the  ground,  whicli  is 
rarely  got  the  better  of  till  the  operations 

(^  of  a  summer  fallow  are  again  repeated. 

"  The  Roman  writers  are  very  particular 
against  plongliin;^  land,  when  wet.  It  is 
reprobated,  in  fact,  by  every  one  of  them. 
Columella  justly  represents  wet  ploughing 
as  most  dangerous  to  the  gTound: — 
"When  we  plough,"  says  be,  "we  must 
not  touch  wet  land;  for  the  fields,  which 
are  ploughed  wet,  cannot  be  touched  for 
the  whole  year,  and  are  fit  neither  for  be- 
ing sown,  narrowed,  nor  planted  "  From 
this  passage,  it  appears,  that  it  was  rec- 
koned particularly  dangerous  to  give  the 
fallow  the  first  ploughing  when  in  a  wet 
.state ;  and  that,  when  this  was  done,  it  was 
impossible,  by  any  operations  afterwards, 
to  bring  it  to  a  right  tilth  that  seed-time. 

Before  we  finish  this,  it  is  proper  to  re- 
mark, that  all  such  soils  ougjit  not  to  be 
wrouglit,  or  ploughed,  in  one  manner. 
Each  kiiid  has  its  particular  and  appro- 
priate qualities ;  and  therefore,  each  re 
quires  a  particular  and  appropriate  mode 
of  tillage.  Ploughing,  which  is  the  capi 
tal  operation  of  husbandry,  ought,  on 
these  accounts,  to  be  administered  ac 
cording  to  the  nature  of  tlie  soil  which  is 
to  be  operated  upon,  and  not  executed 
agreeably  to  one  fixed  and  determined 
principle.  On  strong  clays  and  loams, 
and  on  rich  gravels  and  deep  sands,  the 
plough  ought  to  go  as  deep  as  the  cattle 
are  able  to  work  it ;  whereas,  on  thin  clays 
and  barren  sands,  the  benefit  of  deep 
ploughing  is  very.questionable,  e.specially 
vvhen  such  are  incumbent  on  a  till-botlom, 
or  where  the  subsoil  is  of  a  yellow  ochre 
nature  ;  such,  when  turned  up,  being  little 
better  than  poison  to  the  surface,  unless 
highly  impregnated  with  alluvial  compost, 
the  efiect  of  which  e.xpels  the  poisonous 
substances  contained  in  this  kind  of  sub- 
soil, and  gives  a  fertility  to  the  whole 
mass,  more  decisive  and  permanent  than 
M'ould  follow  a  heavy  application  of  tlie 
best  rotten  dung. 

On  clay  soils,  where  the  ridges  must 
be  considerably  acclivated,  so-  that  the 
ground  may  be  preserved  in  something 
like  a  dry  condition,  the  plough,  used  for 
tillage,  ought  to  have  a  mould-board  con- 
siderably wider  set  tliau  is  required  for 
light  soils,  in  order  that  tlie  furrow  may 
be  close  cut  below,  and  duly  turned  over. 
This  method  of  constructing  the  plough 
necessarily  makes  a  heavier  draught  than 
would  be  the  case  were  the  mould-board 
placed  differently,  though,  if  good  and  suf- 
ficient work  be  wanted,  the  necessity  of 
constructing  tlie  implement  in  the  way 
mentioned,  is  absolute  and  indispensable. 
The  plough  to  be  used  on  light  soils,  or  on 


all  soils  that  admit  what  is  technically 
called  crown  and  furrow  ploughing,  may 
be  made  much  straiter  below,  and  }  et  be 
capable  of  executing  the  work  in  a  perfect 
manner.  Perhaps  on  every  fui  ra  consist- 
ing of  mixed  soils,  two  sets  of  ploughs 
ought  to  be  kept,  otherwise  proper  work 
cannot  be  performed.  All  land  ought  to 
be  ploughed  with  a  shoulder,  a  phrase  well 
understood  by  ploughmen,  though  not  ea- 
sily explained;  and  the  advantages  of 
ploughing  in  this  way  are,  that,  if  ]jlough- 
ed  before  winter,  the  svu-face  is  enabled 
to  resist  the  winter  rains,  and  afterwards 
to  present  a  face,  on  which  the  harrows 
can  make  a  proper  impression,  when  the 
seed  process  is  to  be  executed.  Tiiis  de- 
serves particular  attention  when  old  g-rass 
fields  arc  to  be  broken  up ;  as,  by  neglect- 
ing it,  tlie  harrows  often  are  tmable  to  co- 
ver the  seed.  It  is  perfectly  practicable 
to  plough  land  with  a  tolerably  broad  fur- 
row, say  10,  11,  or  12  inches,  and  yet  to 
plough  it  clean,  provided  tlie  implement 
used  is  properly  constructed;  but,  then, 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  furrow  be  of 
proportional  deepness,  otherwise  it  will 
be  laid  on  its  back,  instead  of  being  de- 
posited at  an  angle  proper  for  undergoing 
the  harrowing*  process. 

On  i7ianurcs. — The  term  wjawj/re  is  ap- 
plied indiscriminately  to  all  substances, 
which  are  known  from  experience  either 
to  enrich  the  different  soils,  or  contribute 
in  any  other  way  to  render  them  more  fa- 
vourable to  vegetation. 

Though  little  doubt  can  be  entertained 
of  the  utility  and  necessity  of  such  sub- 
stances, yet  the  progress  hitherto  made, 
in  ascertaining  the  mode  in  which  they 
ought  to  be  apphed,  the  quantity  thai 
should  be  made  use  of,  and  the  soils  for 
which  they  are  res])eclively  best  adapted, 
has  not  yet  reached  that  perfection  or  cer- 
tainty that  could  be  wished. 

The  m.ost  superficial  observations  wilJ 
serve  to  convince  any  intelligent  person, 
that,  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  the 
subject  of  manures  is  of  the  first  magni- 
tude. To  correct  what  is  hurtful  to  ve- 
getation in  the  different  soils,  and  to  re- 
store what  is  lost  by  exhausting  crops,  are 
operations  in  agriculture  which  may  be 
compai'ed  to  the  curing-  of  di.seases  in  tlie 
animal  body,  or  supplying  the  wasj;e  occa- 
sioned by  labour,  or  the  ordinai-y  evacua- 
tions of  nature. 

The  utility  of  manuring  has,  however, 
been  questioned  in  scnne  instances,  parti- 
cularly by  TiiU  and  his  disci])ks,  who  as- 
sert, thatf///(i^e  alone,  frequently  and  ju- 
diciously apphed,  will  produce  every  ef- 
fect that  can  be  expected  from  tliat  prac- 
tice. 


AGR 


AGR 


That  tillage  is  essential  to  die  succesb 
fif  ajjricultiual  operations,  is  a  point  in 
wliicli  all  good  Imsbanclmcn  ai'e  agited; 
but  that,  by  tillage  alone,  the  eartli  should 
bf  nuide  to  prothice  a  succesbion  of  va- 
lual)le  crops  of  grain  or  vegetables,  is  a 
floctrine,  which,  fortunately  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  agriculture,  has  met  with 
very  few  converts.  By  such  manage- 
ment poor  lands  would  never  become 
productive,  and  the  richest  soils  would 
soon  be  exiiausled. 

Anotlier  opinion  has  been  lield  forth  to 
the  public,  tliat  when  land  has  once  been 
put  into  good  heart,  it  may  be  preserved 
m  a  state  of  constant  fertilii} ,  merely  by  a 
proper  rotation  of  crops,  wiiliout  any  fo- 
reign manure.  '  ■ 

\\c  need  not  extend  our  observations 
»ipon  this  subject  farther ;  for  a  good  far- 
mei',  who  wisiics  to  avail  himself  of  eveiy 
advantage  which  experience  points  out, 
will,  to  a  certain  degree,  adopt,  1st,  7'/te 
iilluge  recoviniended  by  Tul/,ior  X.]ic  pur- 
post,  of  pulveriting  the  soil,  and  e.Mir- 
pating  the  weeds  with  which  it  may  be  in- 
fested; 2d,  .i  regular  rotation  of  a  ops,  iu 
order  that  the  various  sorts  of  earth  may, 
in  their  turn,  according  as  they  are  calcu- 
lated for  different  plants,  become  produc- 
tive ;  and,  3d,  Endeavour  to  gatlitr  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  vianure,  not  only  to  l^re- 
vent  the  soil  from  being  exhausted,  bui,  it 
possible,  annually  to  make  some  addition 
to  iis  former  soui'ces  of  fertility. 

On  the  .Mviagement  of  J)u!i;^. —  Manure, 
being  the  first  retjuisitc  of  good  husband- 
ry, it  shall  be  our  business,  in  this  Section, 
to  speak  in  a  particular  manner  of  the  best 
methods  of  collecting,  preparing,  and  ap- 
])lying  that  p'ortion  of  it  called  y'i/wv«ra' 
duiti;,  wliich,  in  mo.st  instances,  may  be 
considered  as  the  cliief  maniue  used  by 
the  great  body  of  husbandmen. 

The  most  supei-ttcial  observer  in  rural 
economics  must  have  often  noticed,  that  a 
considerable  number  of  practical  agricul- 
turists are  inattenti\  c,  not  only  to  tiie  ga- 
tiiering  of  the  raw  materials,  but  also  ile- 
fective  in  the  several  steps  of  preparatory 
process,  before  dung  can  be  thrifiily  and 
suitably  aj)plied.  With  such,  very  little 
care  is  used  in  cutting  the  corn  crops, 
which,  properly  speaking,  is  the  only 
source  .whence  raw  materials  can  be  got. 
Tliey  are  aLso  too  apt  to  dispose  of  any 
hay  which  may  be  raided  upon  tlieir 
larms,  even  wIk-.i  pi-ices  are  not  so  high 
as  to  tempt  a  breach  of  good  husbandry. 
They  often  keep  more  beasts  on  the  pie- 
mises  than  is  consistent  with  the  c[uantity 
of  provendt-r  in  hand,  thus  reducing  the 
btock  of  manure  in  an  e\i;aoidinary  de- 
gree.   Besides,  seldom  is  any  cure  be- 


stowed in  laying  up  the  clung,  in  aregulai 
and  careful  way,  during  the  winter  month' 
and  still  less  upon  its  state  during  the  e;. 
hausting  spring  winds,  or  the  parching 
heat  of  the  summer  months.  Instead  of 
stoiing  it  up  V ith  regulaiity,  and  mixing- 
the  ditterent  kinds  in  a  compact  heap, 
it  is  sufttrred  to  remain  as  tossed  from 
the  stable;  continues  exposed,  in  its 
i-ough  state,  to  the  weather ;  often  inun- 
dated with  water,  and  rarely  touched 
till  the  c;u-t  arrives  to  drive  it  to  the 
field. 

As  straw  is  the  basis  of  manure,  it 
might  be  expected  that  every  good  iius- 
bandman  would  bestow  the  most  sedu- 
lous attention  upon  the  shearing  or  cut- 
ting of  his  crop,  so  that  the  greatest  possi- 
ble quantity  of  the  raw  material  may  be 
procured.  Very  different,  however,  is  the 
conduct  of  farmers  in  general;  as  it  may 
be  safely  estimated,  that  at  least  one-half 
of  the  straw  is  left  in  the  field,  where  its 
strength  is  wasted  and  dissipated  by  the 
rains  and  storms  tiiat  commoid\  pievailat 
the  conclusion  of  aulunm  In  some  dis- 
tricts a  stricter  attention  is  now  paid  to 
this  im])ortant  operation,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  such  an  iuiirovenient  will  gra- 
dually extend.  Independent  of  the  addi- 
tional grain  which  is  gained,  tlie  increase 
of  manure  will  more  than  compensate  the 
increased  ex])ense  of  gathering  the  crops 
in  an  accurate  manner. 

By  a  steady  perseverance  in  this  prac- 
tice, from  one  to  two  tons  of  manure  (per 
acre)  may  be  annually  gained,  especially 
where  the  crops  are  good.  This  annual 
increase  must  operate  powerfully  upon  the 
iir.pi"ovement  of  the  country,  the  effects 
being'  precisely  similar  to  to  those  of  add- 
ing compound  interest 

The  usual  modes  of  converting  strav 
into  dung,  hardly  require  to  be  mentioi: 
ed.  A  good  de;vl  is  consumed  in  tin 
house  by  draught  horses  and  milch-cows  , 
;ind  the  remainder  is  used  by  lean  cattlu, 
kept  in  the  fijld-yard.  Though  these  are 
the  general  methods  of  consumption,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  divide  the  subject  into 
two  parts,  viz.  The  management  of  dung 
upon  light  lands,  and  heavy  lands;  be- 
cause manure  on  each  is  prepared  in  dif- 
ferent wa\s,  u^<  I  in  diiferent  seasons, 
aiid  applied  to  diHereni  crops.  For  light 
soils,  manure  requires  to  be  much  more 
highly  prepared  than  is  necessaiy  for  clay 
soils;  and  every  step  of  the  previous  pre- 
paration, in  order  to  be  perfect,  ought 
to  be  executed  in  a  quite  different  man- 
nei". 

For  soils  of  the  first  description,  where 
turnips-are  taken  as  a  first  crop,  dung  can 
hardly  be  too  well  prepared;  because  the 


AGR 


AGR 


oature  of  the  crop  to  which  it  is  applied, 
renders  a  complete  incorporation  with  the 
ground  absolutely  necessary ;  without 
which  the  young  plants  might^be  starved 
at  tlieir  very  enti'ance  into  life.  In  the 
best  farmed  districts,  which  have  come 
under  our  observation,  dung  is  often  kept 
more  than  a  year,  in  oi-der  that  it  may  be 
perfectly  rotted.  Management  of  this 
kind,  however,  cannot  be  appi'oved  ofj  for 
if  the  preparatory  steps  are  conducted 
with  judgment,  there  is  rarely  any  neces- 
sity for  keeping  dung  over  the  year;  bcr 
sides,  such  a  delay  causes  a  waste  of  the 
article,  and  serves  to  dissipate  its  strengtli : 
at  all  events,  a  year's  interest  of  the  value 
of  tlie  increased  produce  must  be  lost. 
In  general  cases  there  is  not  much  diffi- 
culty in  preparing  dung;  because,  in  the 
driest  season,  from  the  nature  of  the  food 
used,  such  a  quantity  of  hquid  passes 
from  the  animals,  as  to  prevent  burning, 
the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  rotting  of 
dung  that  can  be  experienced.  If  dung  is 
regularly  removed,  if  it  is  propei-ly  mixed 
with  the  horse  litter,  and  other  excremen- 
titious  matter  accumulated  upon  the  farm, 
it  will  be  found  an  easy  task  to  prepare 
all  thai  is  made  by  the  middle  of  April ;  at 
which  time  the  fold-yard  should  be  clear- 
ed. What  is  produced  after  that  time 
should  be  stored  up  separately ;  receive 
waterings,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  and  be 
reserved  for  clover-stubbles,  or  other 
fields  that  are  to  be  dunged  in  autumn. 

The  middle  of  April  is  mentioned  as  a 
good  time  for  clearing  the  fold-yard;  but 
this  does  not  prevent  the  work  from  go- 
ing partially  forward  through  the  winter, 
when  suitable  opportunities  occur.  When 
driven  out  of  the  fold-yard,  the  dung  should 
be  laid  up  in  a  regular  heap  or  pile,  not 
exceeding  four  feet  and  an  half  in  height ; 
and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  either 
horse  or  cart  upon  it,  which  is  easily 
avoided,  by  backing  the  cart  to  the  pile, 
and  laying  the  dung  compactly  together 
with  a  grape  or  fork.  It  is  also  useful  to 
face  up  the  extremities  with  earth,  which 
keeps  in  the  moisture,  and  prevents  the 
sun  and  wind  from  doing  inj  ury .  Perhaps 
a  small  quantity  of  earth  strewed  upon 
tlie  top  might  also  prove  useful.  Dung, 
when  managed  in  this  manner,  generally 
ferments  very  rapidly ;  but  if  it  is  disco- 
vered to  be  in  a  backward  state,  a  com- 
plete turn  over,  about  the  first  of  May, 
when  the  weather  becomes  warm,  will 
quicken  the  process ;  and  the  better  it  is 
shaken  asunder,  the  sooner  will  the  object 
in  %iew  be  accomplished. 

A  secluded  spot  of  ground,  not  much 
exposed   to   wind,  and  perfectly  secure 
from  being'  floated  w  ith  water,  ought  ai- 
VOL.  I. 


ways  to  be  chosen  for  the  scite  of  such  piles 
or  heaps.  If  the  field,  to  which  it  is  to  be 
apphed,  is  at  hand,  a  little  after-trouble 
may  be  saved  by  depositing  it  there  in  the 
first  instance:  But  it  is  found  most  conve- 
nient tQ.  reserve  a  piece  of  ground  adja- 
cent to  the  homestead  for  this  purpose. 
There  it  is  always  under  the  farmer's 
eye,  and  a  greater  quantity  can  be  moved 
in  a  shorter  time  than  when  the  situation 
is  more  distant  Besides,  in  wet  weather, 
and  this  is  generally  the  time  chosen  for 
such  an  operation,  the  roads  are  not  only 
cut  up,  by  driving  to  a  distance,  but  the 
field,  on  which  the  heap  is  made,  may  be 
poached  and  injured  considerably. 

The  above  is  the  most  approved  me- 
thod of  preparing  dung  upon  light  land 
farms ;  and  a  few  words  shall  now  be  said 
respecting  the  management  necessary 
upon  those  of  a  different  description. 

Upon  clay  soils,  the  rotting  of  dung  is 
not  only  a  troublesome,  but  an  expensive 
affair.  Independent  of  what  is  consumed 
by  the  ordinary  farm-stock,  the  overplus 
of  the  straw  must  somehow  or  other  be 
rotted,  by  lean  cattle  kept  in  the  fold-yard, 
who  either  receive  the  straw  in  racks,  or 
have  it  thrown  across  the  yard,  to  be  eaten 
and  trodden  down  by  them.  According 
to  this  mode  of  consumption,  it  is  evident 
that  a  still  greater  necessity  arises  for  a 
frequent  removal  of  this  unmade  dung  : 
otherwise,  from  the  trampling  of  beasts, 
and  the  usual  want  of  moisture,  it  would 
compress  so  much  as  altogether  to  pre- 
vent putrefaction.  To  prepare  dung  suf- 
ficiently upon  farms  of  this  description,  is 
at  all  times  an  arduous  task,  but  scarcely 
practicable  in  dry  seasons ;  for  if  it  once 
gets  burnt,  it  is  almost  physically  impossi- 
ble to  bring  it  into  a  suitable  state  of  pre- 
paration afterwards  ;  and,  at  all  events,  its 
virtues  are  thereby  considerably  diminish- 
ed. To  prevent  such  an  injury,  no  mea- 
sure can  be  so  successfully  used,  as  a  fre- 
quent removal  of  this  unmade  dung,  espe- 
cially if  the  weather  is  wet  at  the  time.  If 
people  can  stand  out  to  work,  there  cannot 
be  too  much  wetness  when  executing  this 
operation :  for  there  is  .always  such  a  quan- 
tity  of  the  straw  that  has  not  passed 
through  the  entrails  of  the  cattle,  as  ren- 
ders it  almost  impossible  to  do  injury,  in 
the  first  instance,  by  an  excess  of  moisture. 

It  is  therefore  recommended,  upon  eve- 
ry clay-land  farm,  especially  those  of  con- 
siderable size,  that  the  fold-yard  be  fre- 
quently  cleared;  and  that  the  greatest 
care  be  taken  to  mix  the  stable  or  horse 
dung  in  a  regular  way  with  what  is  ga- 
thered in  the  fold-yard,  or  made  by  other, 
anim.als,  in  order  that  a  gradual  heat  oi- 
Icnnontation  may  be  spcetltly  produced. 
c 


AGR 


AG  11 


The  heap  or  pile,  as  ah-eady  recom- 
mended, in  tlie  first  preparation  of  dung, 
should  be  formed  in  a  secluded  spot,  if 
such  can  be  got  at  hand ;  because  tlie  less 
it  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  sun 
and  wind,  so  much  faster  will  fermenta- 
tion proceed.  It  should  be  constructed 
on  a  broad  basis,  whicli  lessens  the  hounds 
of  the  extremities;  and  several  separate 
heaps  are  necessary,  so  that  too  much 
may  not  be  deposited  at  once ;  which,  to  a 
cei"tain  extent,  would  bring  on  the  very 
evil  we  have  all  along  been  endeavouring 
to  avert.  By  sliifling  tiie  scene  frequent- 
ly, and  allowing  each  covering*  or  coat  t(j 
settle  and  ferment,  before  laying  on  any 
more,  the  most  happy  effects  w  ill  follow, 
and  these  heaps  (at  least  all  such  as  are 
completed  before  the  first  of  May,)  may 
reasonably  be  expected  to  be  in  a  fit  con- 
dition for  applying-  to  the  summer  fallow 
fields,  in  the  end  of  July,  or  first  of 
August.  If  the  external  parts  get  dry  at 
any  time  during  the  process,  it  will  be  pro- 
per to  water  them  thoroughly,  and  in 
many  cases  to  turn  over  the  heap  com- 
pletely. It  may  be  added,  that  much  be- 
!icfit  has  been  experienced  from  laying  a 
thick  coating  of  snow  upon  such  heaps, 
as,  bj-  the  gradual  melting  tliereof,  the 
whole  moisture  is  absorbed,  and  a  strong 
fermentation  immediately  follows. 

The  same  method  of  management  may 
be  continued  during  the  summer  months, 
so  lar  as  circumstances  permit,  though  it 
rarely  happens  that  dung  collected  at  tliis 
advanced  period  is  fit  for  use  in  the  same 
season,  unless  it  be  such  as  is  made  by 
keeping  horses  and  cattle  in  the  house 
upon  green  food.  Perhaps,  as  a  genera), 
principle,  it  is  proper  to  thrash  out  all 
grain  before  summer  .arrives,  (a  small 
quantity  for  litter  and  other  necessary 
jnu-poses  excepted,)  in  order  tliat  the  full 
value  of  the  raw  materials,  when  convert- 
ed into  manure,  may  be  gained. 

Upon  laige  faims,  where  the  manage- 
m  jiu  of  manure  is  sufficiently  understood 
and  practised,  it  is  an  in)])ortant  matter  to 
have  dunghills  of  all  ages,  and  ready  for 
use,  wlienever  the  situation  of  a  field  calls 
for  a  restorative.  No  method  of  applica- 
tion to  clay  soils,  however,  is  so  beneficial 
as  during  tlie  year  of  summer  fallow, 
though,  in  such  situations,  a  greater  stock 
of  manure  is  often  gatherecl  than  is  re- 
c[uired  for  the  fields  under  this  pro- 
cess. 

It  likewise  deserves  attention,  that  dung 
applied  to  a  clay  fallow  at  the  end  of 
sunnner,  lias  full  time  to  incorporate  with 

♦  lie  gi'oiind,  before  tlie  crop,  sown  there- 
upon, stands  much  in  want  of  its  invigo- 

•  utiiig  support ;  consequently,  though  of 


apparently  inferior  quality  at  the  time  of 
application,  may,  in  reality,  be  possessed 
of  equal  powers  for  fiructifying  the  ground, 
as  if  it  had  reached  a  higher  state  of  pre- 
paration. 

We  may  now  notice  some  instances,  re- 
specting the  management  of  manm-e, 
where  grass  husbandry  is  extensively 
jjractised.  In  these  districts,  it  is  very 
common  to  use  a  considerable  proportion 
of  their  hay  in  the  fields,  dui-ing  the  winter 
months,  instead  of  consuming  it  in  the 
iiouse  or  fold-yard,  where  the  manure  pro- 
duced could  readily  be  collected,  and  pro- 
perly managed.  Sloth  and  waste  are  the 
parents  of  this  custom  ;  a  custom  which 
ought  to  be  interdicted  by  every  proprie- 
tor who  is  disposed  to  regard  either  his 
own  interest  or  that  of  the  countiy ;  much 
of  the  article  being  absolutely  rendered 
useless  by  the  feet  of  the  beasts  so  main- 
tained, while  the  gi-ound  is  most  unequal- 
ly and  partially  dunged ;  that  is  to  saj"^, 
the  richest  and  driest  parts  ai-e  sure  to 
receive  the  gi*eatest  store. 

Some  remarks  relative  to  the  applica- 
tion of  dung,  a  subject  of  as  much  impor- 
tance  as  the  collecting  and  prepaiingof  it, 
shall  now  be  oftered. 

'i'hese  are,  that  no  greater  quantity 
ought  to  be  given  at  one  time  than  is  suf- 
ficient to  fructify  the  ground ;  in  other 
words,  to  render  it  capable  of  producing 
good  crops,  before  the  time  arrives  when 
a  fresh  dose  can  be  administered.  The 
errors  of  former  times  consisted  in  giving 
too  great  a  quantity  at  once,  thereby  de- 
priving the  ground  of  its  regular  nourish- 
ment ;  in  other  words,  the  soil  rioted  in  the 
midst  of  plenty  for  two  or  three  years,  and 
fasted  and  starved  for  several  succeeding 
ones.  Hence  the  generality  of  fields  were 
either  too  rich,  or  too  poor ;  either  satu- 
rated with  manure,  or  completely  barren 
from  the  want  of  it ;  whereas,  had  sup- 
plies been  furnished  in  an  ceconomical 
manner;  had  the  quantity  of  manure  on 
hand  been  distributed  with  judgment,  a 
more  uniform  produce  would  have  been 
tlie  consequence.  The  new  system  of  up- 
plying  manure  corrects  all  tiiesc  errors, 
in  so  far  as  local  circumstances  will  per- 
mit. Accordingly,  a  small  quantity  is 
now  bestowed  at  once,  and  the  dose  fre- 
quently repeated.  The  ground  is  regulai'- 
ly  fed  ;  but  never  surfeited  with  a  proiu- 
sion.  Hence  the  crops  constituting  a  re- 
gular rotation  are  more  uniformly  good, 
and  a  greater  proportion  of  tiie  valuable 
giains  are  raised,  than  could  be  accom- 
jjlished  in  former  limes. 

Though  land  can  rarely  be  rendered 
too  rich  for  carrying  green  crops,  yet  it  is 
well  known  that  the  same  vhserv«tion  will 


AGR 


AGR 


not  hold  good  when  applied  to  wheat, 
barle}',  and  oats ;  but  that  such  may  be, 
and  often  have  been,  materially  injui-edin 
consequence  of  heavy  manuring. 

Another  general  remark  occurs;  that 
is,  concernnig  the  utility  of  spreading  dung 
witli  accuracy;  in  other  words,  dividing 
it  into  the  minutest  particles,  thereby  giv- 
ing every  part  of  the  ground  an  equal 
supply  of  food.  This  practice  was  mise- 
rably neglected  in  former  times,  and  is 
still  less  attended  to  than  its  importance 
deserves. 

The  principal  object  to  be  attended  to. 
Is  an  allotment  of  the  manure  collected 
upon  the  premises,  in  such  a  way  as  that 
the  greatest  possible  return  over  the  whole 
fai-m,  not  from  a  particular  field,  may  be 
gained  by  the  occupier. 

It  remains  only  to  be  stated,  that  many 
arable  farms,  under  tlie  strictest  eeconomy, 
are  unable  to  furnish  supplies  for  an  in- 
termediate dunging,  at  least  to  its  full  ex- 
tent; but  persons  so  circumstanced  have 
it  always  in  their  power  to  overcome  this 
defect,  and  preserve  a  regular  rotation, 
by  keeping  certain  fields  longer  in  grass ; 
which,ofcourse,  will  yield  weightier  crops 
when  broken  up,  and  stand  less  in  need 
of  manure  during  the  after  rotation.  By 
sucli  arrangements,  made  according  to 
circumstances,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  pre- 
serve a  regular  rotation,  and  to  pi'opor- 
tion  the  corn  crops  to  the  quantity  of  ma- 
nure collected  upon  the  premises. 

We  may  add,  that  the  practice  of  soil- 
ing or  feeding  horses  and  cattle  in  the 
house  or  farm-yard,  is  eminently  calcu- 
lated to  increase  the  quantity  ot  manure 
upon  every  farm,  and  to  improve  its 
quality. 

The  soiling  of  horses,  in  the  summer 
months,  on  green  clover  and  rye-grass,  is 
a  practice  wliich  prevails  in  every  corn 
district  where  farm  labour  is  regularly 
executed.  The  utility  of  the  practice 
does  not  need  the  support  of  argument; 
for,  it  is  not  only  occonomical  to  the  far- 
mer, but  saves  much  fatigue  to  the  poor 
animal:  besides,  the  quantity  of  dung' 
thereby  gathered  is  considerable. 

Of  Compost  jWddens. — The  use  of  ma- 
nure in  the  shape  of  compost,  or  ingre- 
dients of  various  qualities,  mixed  toge- 1 
ther  in  certaui  proportions,  has  long  been 
a  favourite  practice  with  many  fiirmers  ; 
though  it  is  only  in  particular  situations 
that  the  practice  can  be  extensively  or 
profitably    executed.       The    ingredients} 
used  in  these  composts  are  chiefly  earth  j 
and  lime ;   sometimes    dung,  wliere   the  ■ 
earth  is  poor;  but  lime  may  be  regarded 
as  the  main  agent  of  the  process,  acting  as 
a  stimulus  for  bringing  the  powers  of  the 


heap  into  action.  Lime,  in  this  vieWj 
may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  yeast, 
operating  upon  a  heap  of  earth  as  yeast 
does  upon  flour  or  meal.  It  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  unless  a  sufficient  quanti- 
ty is  given,  the  heap  may  remain  vmfer- 
mented ;  in  which  case  little  benefit  will 
be  derived  from  it  as  a  manure. 

The  best  kind  of  earth  for  compost  is 
that  of  the  alluvial  sort,  which  is  always 
of  a  rich  greasy  substance,  often  mixed 
with  marl,  and  in  every  respect  well  cal- 
culated to  enrich  and  invigorate  barren 
soils,  especially  if  they  are  of  a  fight  and 
open  texture.  Old  yards,  deep  head- 
lands, and  scourings  of  ditches,  offer 
themselves  also  as  the  basis  of  compost 
middens ;  but  it  is  proper  to  summer  fal- 
low them  before  hand,  so  that  they  may 
be  entirely  free  of  weeds.  When  the 
lime  is  mixed  witli  the  soil  of  these  mid- 
dens, repeated  turnings  are  necessary,  that 
the  whole  may  be  suitably  fermented; 
and  some  care  is  required  to  apply  the 
fermented  mass  at  a  proper  time  to  the 
field  on  which  it  is  to  be  used. 

The  formation  and  conveyance  of  com- 
post being  expensive,  it  becomes  an  im^ 
portant  object  to  save  labour  in  the  pre- 
vious steps  of  preparation,  and  in  the  con- 
cluding one  of  applying  it  to  the  soil. 
The  first  part  of  the  object  is  gained  by 
using  horse  instead  of  manual  labour, 
when  the  lime  is  incorporated  with  the 
earth,  and  when  the  after  turnings  are 
bestowed;  and  the  other  is  lessened  con- 
siderably when  the  compost  is  laid  on  a 
field  adjoining  the  one  where  it  is  pre- 
pared. 

A  few  words  may  be  necessary  with 
respect  to  the  quantity  of  lime  required 
to  produce  a  suitable  fermentation,  though 
here  we  can  at  best  but  speak  at  random, 
because  the  proper  quantity  falls  to  be  re- 
gulated by  tlie  nature  of  the  earth  which 
is  meant  to  be  used  as  the  basis  of  the  fu- 
tiu-e  compost.  As  the  quantity  of  the 
compost  to  be  afterwards  applied  to  the 
soil  must,  however,  be  ascertained  by  its 
quality,  and  as  sixty  cubic  yards  of  allu- 
vial  compost  may  be  viewed  as  containing 
the  same  portion  of  nutritive  substance,  as 
one  hundred  yards  of  headlands  and  ditch 
scourmgs,  we  shall  assume  eighty  yards 
as  a  medium  dose  for  an  acre  of  ground, 
and  from  this  datum  endeavour  to  fix  the 
quantity  of  lime  that  is  requu'ed.  From 
trials  that  have  been  frequently  made,  it 
appears,  that  two  bushels  of  lime  shells, 
will  sufficiently  ferment  a  cubic  yard  ot" 
earth  of  d  medium  quality;  therefore,  that 
one  hundred  and  sixty  bushels  of  lime 
shells  are  required  to  ferment  compost  for 
an  acre  of  ground,  where  the  ^asis  con- 


ACiR 


AGR 


sists  of  ordinary  materials.  This  goes 
upon  the  supposition  that  an  admixture 
is  regularly  conducted,  and  that  eighty 
cubic  vards  of  the  compost  is  sufficient 
to  impregnate  or  enrich  the  field  on  wliicli 
it  is  to  be  applied. 

The  benefit  of  such  a  compost  In  nour- 
ishing soils  is  even  greater  than  what  is 
gained  by  dressing  them  with  dung; 
though  it  is  to  be  regretted,  that  it  rarely 
happens,  where  such  soils  are  prcdnmi- 
nant,  that  materials,  sucli  as  we  have  re- 
commended, can  be  prociu-ed  ill  any  quan- 
tity. 

Of  Lime. — Lime  has  been  regarded  by 
some  as  a  manure,  by  others  as  a  stimu- 
lus, which  can  only  be  profitably  applied 
Avhero  the  soil  possesses  some  dormant 
principle  of  fertility  that  needs  to  be  rous- 
ed into  action.  In  fact,  the  modus  ope- 
randi of  lime  is  imperfectly  understood, 
though  the  greater  part  of  agriculturists 
seem  pretty  well  acquainted  with  its  ef- 
fects. It  is  sufficiently  understood,  that 
land  which  has  been  long  in  grass,  con- 
tains much  vegetable  matter,  andtliatthe 
trouble  and  expense  of  liming  it  will  be 
amply  repaid  to  the  cultivator;  but  the 
projiriety  of  applying  lime  on  old  arable 
lands  has  been  questioned,  and  with  much 
justice,  by  tlie  most  part  of  practical  agri- 
culturists, and  their  doubts  on  that  head 
are  confirmed  by  the  fullest  experience, 
li  lime  were  a  maimrc,  llien  it  would  be  a 
noble  substance  for  enriching  and  restor- 
ing fertility  to  lands  that  were  worn  out  by 
a  succession  of  corn  crops ;  bus  as  worn 
out  land  is  not  restored  to  fertility  by  the 
api)lication  of  lime,  we  are  warranted  to 
rank  it  ui  a  different  class,  or,  to  speak 
more  correctly,  as  an  article  calculated  to 
bring  certain  principles  into  action,  which 
were  previously  possessed  by  the  soil. 
Tiiis  conclusion  is  sanctioned  by  expe- 
i-ience;  and  experience  is  a  far  better 
guide  than  the  most  plausible  theory. 

Lime  has  been  used  witl.  very  great 
SL'cccss,  both  in  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  though  it  is  evident  that  the 
grossest  errors  have  been  committed  in 
the  after  management  of  land  to  which 
lime  has  been  a[)plied  ;  and,  what  is  worse, 
that  the  extent  of  these  errors  was  in  di- 
rect proportion  to  the  efi'ect  produced 
upon  the  soil  by  the  application.  Tiiis 
remark  api)lies  more  to  the  former  state 
of  husbandry  than  to  the  present  practice, 
because  the  former  rule  was  to  crop  so 
long  as  the  earth  would  make  a  good  re- 
turn, without  considering  lliat  a  field,  so 
treated,  was  not  to  be  recovered  for  a  cen- 
tury afterwards.  Indeed,  when  lime  duly 
operates,  the  whole  powers  of  the  soil  are 
p\it  in  a  ^iate  of  requisition,  and  D)ay  be 


forced  to  act  till  the  very  soul  of  vegeta- 
tion is  extracted.  It  is  scarcely  practica- 
ble to  restore  fertility  to  land,  even  of  the 
best  natural  quality,  which  has  been  thus 
abu-sed;  at  least  a  considerable  period 
must  elapse  before  it  can  be  restored  to 
its  original  fertility ;  but  thin  moorish 
soils,  after  being  exhausted  by  lime,  are 
not  to  be  restored.  I'o  lime  them  a  se- 
cond time,  is  not  only  an  useless  expendi- 
ture  of  bihour  nnd  money,  but  also  pro- 
ductive of  serious  mischief.  Soils  of  this 
description,  after  a  second  liming,  are  apt 
to  singe  and  burn  the  grain  that  is  sown 
upon  them,  and  even  when  dunged,  not  to 
make  such  a  return  as  would  have  been 
rendered  under  dilTereiit  circumstances. 

From  a  pretty  long  experience,  and  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  operation  of 
lime,  we  are  inclined  to  think,  that  it  acts 
both  as  an  alterative  and  a  stimulant,  ope- 
rating in  the  one  case  as  a  medicine,  that 
changes  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  in  the 
other,  as  rousing,  or  bringing  into  action, 
the  vegetable  powers  contained  in  the  soil, 
which,  without  such  an  application,  would 
have  remuuied  dormant  and  inactive. 
These  opinions,  we  know,  are  different 
from  what  have  been  maintained  by  seve- 
ral ingenious  men  on  the  subject;  but  they 
are  supported  by  the  result  of  numerous 
trials,  undertaken  to  ascertain  how,  and  in 
what  manner,  lime  operated  upon  the  soil, 
and  whether  it  could  be  used  in  an  hot 
state  with  the  most  advantage.  On  these 
points,  tlieoretical  writers  are  apt  to  fall 
into  mistakes;  and  therefore  every  theory 
not  foi-med  fi-om  facts,  must  be  viewed  a.s 
a  romance  which  may  amuse,  but  cannot 
instruct  agriculturists.  See  JMemoirs  of 
the  .Agricultural  Society  of  Philadelphia, 
and  tiie  Jlrchivcs  of  Useful  Knoxvledge. 

Gypsu7n  or  Plaster  of  Paris,  is  a  native 
combination  of  calcareous  earth  with  vitri- 
olic acid.  There  are  various  species  of 
gypsum  found  both  in  Europe  and  Ame- 
rica. That  mostly  used  in  the  United 
States  comes  from  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
though  considerable  quantities  are  pro- 
cured from  the  interior  of  the  States  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York. 

Tlie  uses  of  gypsum  are  very  extensive ; 
when  it  is  sufficiently  compact  it  is  em- 
ployed by  the  architect  for  columns  and 
otiier  orn.aments,  being  easier  to  work 
than  marble  ;  it  is  also  turned  by  the  lathe 
into  cups,  basons,  vases,  and  other  similar 
articles.  When  exposed  to  a  low  redlicat 
it  parts  with  its  water  of  crystallization,  is 
converted  to  a  fine  powder  called  plaster 
of  I'aris,  like  meal ;  and  this,  when  beaten 
up  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  paste, 
shortly  after  sets  and  becomes  solid ;  lience 
it  is  lar{;cly  used  for  taking  casts  of  vari- 


AGR 


AGR 


aus  magnitude,  fx*om  a  medal  to  a  colossal 
statue  ;  it  enters  into  the  composition  of 
many  cements  ;  and  within  these  few 
years,  has  also  become  an  article  of  great 
importance  in  fertilizing  soils.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine  what  quantity  per  acre 
will  produce  the  best  effects,  as  so  much 
depends  on  accident  of  weather,  &c.  which 
cannot  be  calculated  with  any  certainty  ; 
but  in  general,  as  great  effect  has  been 
produced  by  two  bushels  per  acre,  as 
from  any  larger  quantity.  Indeed,  there 
appeal's  to  be  a  certain  point  in  the  opera- 
tions of  plaster,  which  is  not  gained  by  ad- 
ditional quantity  so  much  as  by  a  combi- 
nation of  extraneous  circumstances,  diffi- 
cult to  trace  or  account  for.  Ihe  time 
and  methods  of  applying  it  are  different ; 
on  grass  land  it  is  sowed  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  though  perhaps  April  or  May  is 
the  most  suitable  time.  On  arable  lands 
it  is  frequently  sowed  after  the  last  har- 
rowing or  with  the  seed,  but  its  effect  is 
undoubtedly  the  greater  when  it  is  scat- 
tered amongst  the  plants  And  the  morn- 
ing, while  the  dew  prevails,  or  on  the  pros- 
pect of  rain  should  be  preferred  for  the 
purpose.  Every  other  year  is  sufficient  to 
resort  to  the  use  of  gypsum,  thougli  some 
prefer  to  disti'ibute  half  the  quantity  an- 
nually. The  loamy,  dry  and  sandy  soils 
ai-e  the  most  suitable  for  it.  On  clay  land 
or  near  the  sea  it  does  not  succeed. 

Plaster  is  sufficiently  fine  when  ground 
to  produce  20  bushels  to  the  ton,  if  it  is 
finer  it  is  subject  to  fly  away  in  strewing. 
It  should  always  be  remembered  that  cal- 
cination, however  necessary  it  may  be  to 
make  cement  of  plaster,  lessens,  if  not  de- 
stroys its  agricultural  uses.  To  try  the 
quality  of  plaster,  heat  a  small  quantity  of 
it  pulverised,  in  a  pot  over  a  brisk  fire  :  if 
the  effervescence  of  a  sulphureous  smell 
be  considerable  itis  good,  if  it  be  smaU  it  is 
less  valuable,  and  if  it  remains  inert  like 
sand  it  is  worth  nothing.  When  the  soil 
is,  suitable  gypsum  is  applied  with  very 
^eat  advantage  to  every  species  of  agri- 
cultural vegetation ;  but  as  the  limits  of 
this  work  will  not  permit  a  more  detailed 
account  of  the  uses  of  this  very  important 
manure,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a  work 
by  Judge  Peters,  entitled  Agricultural 
Enquiries  on  Plaster  of  Paris  ;  also  to  the 
Domestic  Encyclopedia. 

On  Marl.—Msiv\,  like  lime,  may  be 
viewed  as  a  stimulant,  forcing  tiie  soil  to 
produce  crops  of  corn  and  glass,  wliich 
otherwise  would  not  have  been  obtained. 

The  value  of  land  has  been  mucli  aug- 
mented by  the  application  of  marl.  Treat- 
ing of  this  article  in  a  practical  way,  it 
may  be  divided  into  shell-marl  and  earth- 
marl.     Shell-marl  is  composed  of  animal 


shells  dissolved;  earth-marl  is  a  fossil. 
The  colour  of  the  latter  is  various ;  white, 
black,  blue,  red,  and  its  hardness  is  as  va- 
rious as  its  colour ;  being  sometimes  soft 
and  ductile  like  clay,  sometimes  hard  and 
solid,  like  stone,  and  sometimes  it  is  ex- 
tended into  thin  beds,  like  slate.  Shell- 
marl  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  shells, 
which  always  appear  in  it ;  but  the  simila- 
rity betwixt  earth -marl  and  many  other 
fossil  substances,  renders  it  difficult  to 
distinguish  them. 

Shell-marl  is  very  different  in  its  nature 
from  clayey  and  stone  marls,  and,  from  its 
effects  upon  the  soil,  is  commonly  classed 
among  the  animal  manures.  The  Rev. 
Mr.  Dickson  states,  "  That  it  does  not  dis- 
solve with  water,  as  the  other  marls  do. 
It  sucks  it  up,  and  svv^ells  with  it  like  a 
sponge.  But  the  greatest  difference,  be- 
twixt the  shell-marl  and  the  other  marls, 
consists  in  this ;  the  shell-marl  contains 
oils.  It  is  uncertain,  if  the  other  marls 
contain  any  oils. 

This  marl,  it  would  seem,  from  the 
qualities  which  it  possesses,  promotes  ve- 
getation in  all  the  different  ways.  It  in- 
creases the  food  of  plants  ;  it  communi- 
cates to  the  soil  a  power  of  attracting  this 
food  from  the  air ;  it  enlarges  the  pasture 
of  plants ;  and  it  prepares  the  vegetable 
food  for  entering  their  roots. 

The  shelly  sand,  often  found  deposited 
in  beds  in  the  crevices  and  level  parts  of 
the  sea  coasts,  is  another  substance  capa- 
ble of  being  employed,  both  as  a  manure 
and  stimulant,  not  only  on  account  of  its 
containing  calcareous  matter  in  greater  or 
less  proportions,  but  also  from  the  mix- 
ture of  animal  and  vegetable  substances 
that  are  found  in  it.  The  portion  of  cal- 
careous matter,  contained  in  these  sub- 
stances, must  vary  according  to  circum- 
stances ;  but,  when  the  quantity  is  any 
way  large,  and  in  a  reduced  or  attenuated 
state,  the  quality  is  so  much  the  more  va- 
luable.  On  that  account,  the  quantity, 
which  ought  to  be  applied  to  the  soil, 
must  be  regulated  entirely  by  the  extent 
of  calcareous  matter,  supposed,  or  found 
upon  trial,  to  be  contained  in  the  article, 
which,  as  already  said,  is  very  variable- 

The  clayey  and  stone  marls  are  distin- 
guished by  their  colours ;  viz.  white, 
black,  blue,  and  red.  The  white,  being 
of  a  soft  crumbly  nature,  is  considered  to 
be  the  best  for  pasture  land ;  and  the  blue, 
which  is  more  compact  and  firm,  for  corn 
land.  In  the  districts  where  marl  is  much 
used,  these  distinctions  of  management 
are  attended  to,  though  either  of  the  kinds 
may  be  employed  with  advantage,  if  the 
following  rules  are  adhered  to. 

If  marl  is  of  the  blue  kind,  or  of  any 


AGR 


AGR 


kind  that  is  compact  and  firm,  lay  it  upon 
the  land  early  in  the  season,  so  as  the 
weather  may  mellow  it  down  before  the 
Jast  plough  ;  and,  if  on  pasture  land,  let  it 
also  be  early  laid  on,  and  spread  very 
thin,  breaking  any  lumps  afterwards 
wliich  are  not  completely  separated  by 
the  first  spreading.  If  marl  is  of  the 
white,  or  any  of  the  loose  or  crumbling 
iiorts,  it  need  not  be  laid  on  so  early ;  be- 
cause those  varieties  break  and  dissolve 
almost  as  scon  as  exposed  to  the  weather. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  impure  and 
mixed  marls,  such  as  sandy,  clayey, 
loamy,  and  stony  marls,  according  as 
these  varieties  of  soil  are  incorporated  or 
mixed  with  the  principal  substance. 
These  sorts,  of  course,  are  inferior  to  the 
piu"e  marls  ;  but  the  stony  kind  is  consid- 
ered to  be  the  best,  because  its  efficacy  is 
more  lasting,  though  the  fat  and  crumb- 
ling kinds  enrich  or  operate  more  speedi- 
ly. The  hard  marls,  however,  in  every 
case,  operate  for  the  greatest  lengtlx  of 
time,  and  are  often  followed  with  bad 
consequence  to  the  soil,  unless  good  ma- 
niagement,  with  regard  to  cropping,  is  ex- 
ercised during  the  period  of  their  opera- 
tion. After  being  long  excessively  fruit- 
ful and  productive,  the  soil  will  gradually 
become  so  sterile  and  barren  as  scarcely 
to  be  worth  cultivating ;  in  which  case, 
the  greatest  exertion  can  hardly  procure 
a  return  of  fertility.  In  tliis  respect,  the 
effect  of  over-cropping  land,  that  has  been 
marled,  is  precisely  the  same  as  takes 
place  with  lime.  An  luicommon  exertion 
is  made,  occasioning  a  proportionable  de- 
bility, tiiough,  were  good  husbandry  stu- 
diously practised,  the  exertion  would  nei- 
ther be  so  excessive,  in  the  first  instance, 
nor  the  after-consequences  so  mischiev- 
ous. In  numerous  instances,  land  has 
been  vcdviced  so  much,  as  to  be  thought 
little  better  than  useless,  by  the  effects  of 
iime  and  marl.  Both,  liowevcr,  are  ex- 
cellent agents  in  forwarding  agriculture, 
thougli  often  tlielr  agency  lias  been  mis- 
applied, and  used  for  mischievous  purpo- 
ses. Under  a  correct  rotation  of  cropping, 
and  with  a  suitable  supply  of  dung,  neith- 
er lime  nor  marl  is  injurious.  Reverse 
these  circumstances,  and  the  contrary  ef- 
fect must  necessarily  be  produced 

As  marl  j)osscsses,  properly  speaking, 
certain  distinctive  characters,  some  cau- 
tion is  necessary  in  distinguishing  earthy 
manure.  Th»is,  in  some  jiarts  oFNew  Jer- 
sey, an  earth,  which  is  considerably  blend- 
ed with  oxyd  of  iron,  and  which  is  fouml 
useful  as  a  mamue,  h:is  received,  tliough 
very  improperly,  the  name  of  marl.  Sjjc- 
cimens  of  the  various  kinds  of  earthy  ma- 
nure were  sent  me  bv  Dr.  Molcomb  of  Al- 


lentown,  New  Jersey,  which  on  examlna* 
tion,  proved  to  be  nothing  more  than  ar- 
gillaceous earth  combined  wltli  oxyd  of 
iron.  In  a  soil,  where  the  siliceous  mgre- 
dient  predominates,  as  in  some  distxicts 
of  New  Jersey,  argil  itself  would  be  an  ex- 
cellent manure ;  hence  it  Is,  that  the 
earth  just  noticed,  has  been  used  with  so 
much  success.  In  some  districts  of  that 
state,  as  near  the  sea  coast,  shell  marl  has 
been  discovered.  This  variety  of  marl,  it 
may  be  proper  to  add,  has  been  found  in 
other  places  in  this  country.  Some  wri- 
ters, as  we  have  just  obser^■ed,  consider 
only  two  varieties  or  species  of  marl; 
the  one  consisting  of  clay  dhidsd  by  a 
very  fine  fuller's  earth  ;  the  other  of  clay 
divided  by  calcareous  earth.  The  pre- 
sence of  the  latter  earth.  If  combined  with 
carbonic  acid,  which  is  always  the  case 
when  found,  is  the  cause  of  the  efferves- 
cence on  the  addition  of  an  acid :  this  ef- 
fect is  uniformly  a  criterion  of  calcareous 
marl. 

The  English  farmers  distinguish  five 
sorts  of  marl :  1.  The  coroshut  marl, 
wliich  is  brown  mixed  with  fragments  of 
chalk  and  blue  veins.  2.  Stone,  slate,  or 
flag  marl :  it  resembles  blue  slate,  ajid 
crumbles  easily  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
3.  Pont  marl,  or  delving  marl ;  it  is  brown» 
and  rough  to  the  touch.  4.  Clay  marl : 
which  contains  much  clay.  5.  Steel  marl : 
its  colour  is  black,  its  consistence  like 
that  of  bits  of  paper. 

On  .Sen-weed. — Sea-weed,  a  plant  tliat 
grows  upon  rocks  within  the  sea,  is  driven 
asliore  after  storms,  and  is  found  to  be  an 
excellent  article  for  manuring  light  and 
dry  soils,  though  of  little  advantage  to 
those  of  a  clayey  description.  Iliis  arti- 
cle may  be  applied  on  the  proper  soil  witli 
advantage  to  any  crop,  and  its  effects  are 
immediate,  tliough  rarely  of  long  conti- 
nuance. 

Sea-weed  is  applied  at  all  seasons  to  the 
surface,  and  sometimes,  though  not  so 
profitably.  It  is  mixed  with  uiu-ottendung*, 
tliat  the  process  of  putrefuction  may  be 
iiastened.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  at 
once  applied  to  the  soil,  wliich  saves  la- 
bor, and  prevents  that  degree  of  waste, 
whicli  otherwise  would  necessarily  hap- 
pen. Sea-weed  is,  in  one  respect,  prefer- 
able to  tile  richest  dung;  because  it  does 
not  ])roduce  such  a  quantity  of  weeds. 
Some  h.ave  thouglit,  that  the  weeds  upon 
land,  which  has  received  dung,  are  pro- 
duced by  seeds  mixed  witli  the  chmg ;  but 
It  is  reasonable  to  presimie,  that  the  salts 
contained  In  sea-weed,  and  applied  witli  it, 
may  be  the  real  cause  of  the  after  cleanli- 
ness. This  may  be  inferred  from  the  ge- 
neral state  of  coa.st-.side  lands,  where  sea- 


AGR 


AGR 


weed  is  used.  These  lands  are  almost 
constantly  kept  in  tillage,  and  yet  are 
cleaner  and  freei-  from  weeds,  tlian  those 
ii\  inland  situations,  where  corn  crops  are 
not  so  often  taken. 

Clay  soils  are  not  so  much  benefited  by 
sea-weed,  as  those  of  a  light  nature ;  there- 
fore, when  a  coast-side  fai'm  contains  mix- 
ed soils,  the  best  management  is  exer- 
cised, by  applying  sea-weed  to  drj',  and 
dung  to  clay  land.  In  this  way,  die  full 
advantage  of  manure  may  be  obtained, 
and  a  farm  so  circumstanced  is  of  infinite- 
ly greater  value,  with  respect  to  manur- 
ing and  labouring,  than  one  which  con- 
tains no  such  variety. 

On  paring  and  burning  the  Surface,  and 
using  the  Ashes  as  a  Manure. — The  prac- 
tice of  burning  the  surface,  and  applying 
the  ashes  as  manure,  to  tlie  soil  tliat  re 
mains,  has  been  long  prevalent ;  and 
though  it  has  been  condemned,  nay  repro 
bated  by  many  writers,  and  prohibited  in 
numerous  instances  by  proprietors,  yet, 
by  professional  people,  who  judged  of  the 
utility  of  the  practice,  from  the  nature  and 
consequences  of  its  effects,  it  has,  almost 
in  every  case,  been  supported,  and  consi- 
dered as  the  most  advantageous  way  of 
bringing  in  and  improving  all  soils,  where 
the  surface  carried  a  coarse  sward,  and 
was  composed  of  peat-earth,  or  other  in- 
active substances.  The  bui-ning  of  this 
surface  has  been  viewed  as  tlie  best  way 
of  bringing  such  soils  into  action ;  the 
ashes,  furnished  by  tlie  burning,  serving 
as  a  stimulant  to  raise  up  their  dormant 
powers,  thereby  rendering  them  fertile 
and  productive  in  a  superior  degi'ee,  than 
could  otherwise  be  accomplished. 

What  we  have  said  relates  to  what  is 
generally  called  paring  and  burning ;  that 
is,  paring  the  surface  to  the  deepness  of 
one,  two,  or  three  inches,  gathering  it  into 
heaps,  and  burning  it.  We  shall  now 
speak  of  ashes  bmnit  and  used  in  a  differ- 
ent maimer ;  that  is,  when  peat-earth  is 
digged  and  bmnit  in  quantities,  and  after- 
wards applied  to  a  field  of  a  different  sort 
of  soil  or  quality.  The  effects  of  ashes, 
used  in  this  way,  are  precisely  the  same 
with  those  of  lime,  tliough  tlieir  operation 
is  more  violent  and  therefore  sooner  over. 
The  first  crop  is  commonly  very  luxu- 
riant ;  but,  unless  dung  is  afterwards  ad- 
muiistered,  the  soil  will  be  rather  exliaust- 
ed  than  enriched  by  the  application  of  the 
ashes. 

On  Chalk. — Chalk  is  used  to  great  advan- 
tage as  a  manure  on  some  wet,  stiff  soils 
having  no  calcareous  eartli ;  in  quantity, 
iVom  fifty  to  eighty  cart-loads  per  acre.  Its 
Oeneficial  effects  are  said  to  last  twenty 
vear=. 


There  are  many  soils,  however,  where 
chalk  is  in  plenty,  which  derive  no  benefit 
from  it.  Some  farmers,  from  observing 
the  beneficial  effects  of  chalk  as  a  manure 
at  other  places,  have  been  tempted  to  use 
it  on  their  lands  ;  where  it  has  proved  to 
be  of  no  kind  of  use,  and  much  time  and 
espence  have  been  entirely  thrown  away. 

The  best  method  of  using  it,  is  to  spread 
it  early  in  the  autumn,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  thoroughly  drenched  with  rain,  and 
that  the  frost  may  have  its  full  operation 
upon  it ;  by  which  means  it  is  well  pulver- 
ized when  the  thaw  comes  on,  and  will 
mis  the  more  readily  with  the  soU. 

Old  grass-lands  on  wet  sandy  or  clayey 
soil,  over-run  with  fui'ze  or  rushes,  are 
greatly  improved  by  chalk. 

But  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  land  once 
completely  chalked,  after  its  fertilizing 
powers  appeal-  to  be  exhausted,  is  reckon- 
ed  to  be  inferior  to  land  that  never  was 
chalked. 

Could  bone  dust  be  procured  in  sufficient 
quanti1,y,  and  at  a  reasonable  price,  few 
substances  would  be  more  advantageous 
as  a  manure.  Its  effects  upon  the  soil, 
though  not  immediately  apparent,  are  in 
the  highest  degree  beneficial ;  and  their 
durability  does  not  constitute  the  least 
portion  of  then*  value. 

The  application  of  sand  as  a  manure  is 
of  the  greatest  advantage  in  many  re- 
spects. When  there  is  a  piece  of  strong 
clay  land  in  tillage,  and  the  farmer  has  an 
opportunity  of  covering  it  over  with  sand, 
about  twice  as  thick  as  in  a  common  set 
of  manure,  the  soil  will  be  pulverized  and 
opened  by  this  means,  \\i\\  give  better 
crops  when  in  tillage,  and,  when  laid  down, 
will  produce  a  finer  herbage,  less  Uable 
to  be  parched  in  dry,  or  trod  down  in  wet 
seasons.  It  is  excellent  management  in 
the  farmer,  before  he  ties  up  his  cattle  for 
the  winter,  to  lay  a  coat  of  sand,  at  least 
a  foot  in  thickness,  where  he  intends  to 
throw  his  dung  out  of  the  cow-houses- 
The  dimg  should  be  repeatedly  levelled 
on  the  sand,  and  a  second  coat  of  the  lat- 
ter laid  on  towai'd  the  end  of  February ; 
upon  which  should  be  put  the  remainder 
of  the  dimg  procm-ed  before  the  cattle  go 
to  grass.  As  soon  after  this  time  as  pos- 
sible, the  compost  should  eitlier  be  tuiTi- 
ed,  and  mixed  well  where  it  lies ;  or  cut 
down  in  breasts,  filled  into  the  dung  carts, 
and  taken  away  to  some  situation  neai'  the 
land  on  which  it  is  intended  to  use  it. 
Here  it  should  be  laid  in  a  heap  of  at  least 
two  yards  in  thickness.  After  remaining 
two  or  three  months  in  tliis  state,  it  is  in 
excellent  condiUon  for  putting  upon  the 

iland  ;  and  will  be  found,  upon  the  whole, 
one  of  the  most  advantageous  manure^ 


AGU 


AGH 


Ihe  fanner  can  employ,  particularly  on 
soils  wliei-e  there  is  a  considerable  predo- 
minance of  clay. 

Coal-ashes  are  a  good  manure,  but  not 
much  used,  on  account  of  their  consump- 
tion in  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  i'hey 
•are  sown  on  tlie  land  in  the  spring,  at  tlie 
rate  of  four  or  five  chaldrons  per  acre. 
Cold,  wet,  clay  me.idows  are  much  im- 
proved by  them. 

Soot  is  a  valuable  manure  for  a  top- 
dressing  on  sainfoin,  clover,  lucerne,  and 
meadows  :  it  is  usually  sown  on  the  land 
at  the  rate  of  forty  or  fifty  busliels  per 
acre,  early  in  the  spring. 

Though  various  experiments  have  been 
made,  with  a  view  to  ascerUiin  the  utility 
oi common  salt  as  a  manure,  yet,  from  the 
difference  which  has  been  experienced  in 
their  results,  no  very  decisive  or  satisfac- 
tory conclusion  has  hitherto  been  obtain- 
ed on  the  subject- 

Rape  dust  is  another  excellent  manure, 
and  has  been  used  in  several  instances 
with  the  greatest  advantage.  The  large 
proportion  of  oily  and  mucilaginous  mat- 
ter which  it  contains,  might  indeed  in- 
duce a  belief,  a  priori,  that  this  would  be 
the  case. 

Refuse  leather,  soap  suds,  luoollen  rags, 
IS^c.  have  each  been  used,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, as  manures  in  some  counties  ;  and 
with  different  degrees  of  success. 

The  dung  of  those  .animals  which  are 
fed  upon  the  substances  constituting  in  a 
great  measure  the  subsistence  of  man,  is 
esteemed  more  valuable  than  that  procur- 
ed from  animals  whose  food  is  of  a  differ- 
ent description.  The  dung  of  swine,  of 
Iiorses  fed  upon  corn,  &c.  is  said  to  be 
more  beneficial  as  a  manure,  than  th.at  of 
cows,  sheep,  or  horses  fed  entirely  upon 
grass  or  hay. 

The  generality  of  agricultural  writers, 
in  treating  of  maimres,  have  given  innu- 
merable directions  for  the  management 
of  the  several  varieties,  as  if  tlie  larmer 
had  a  store-liouse,  or  repository,  into 
which  each  could  be  deposited.  AVe  liave 
ppokcn  of  them  hi  such  a  way  as  may 
serve  every  useful  purjiose;  and,  without 
troubling  the  reader  with  instructions 
which  cannot  be  carried  into  execution, 
we  have  restricted  our  details  to  matters 
that aie  practicable  by  every  farmer.  We 
have  directed  his  attention  to  the  manage- 
ment and  application  of  dung,  because 
this  article  may  be  considered  as  liie  ma- 
gic w.and  which  influences  every  rural 
operation.  Instead  of  troubling  him  wilh 
speculative  opinions  on  the  jirincijiics  of 
vegetation,  and  the  pasture  of  plants,  sub- 
ejects  of  an  abstruse  nature,  and  on  wiiich 
the  best  informed  can  only  form  crude 


and  uncertain  notions,  we  have  pointed 
out  the  manner  in  which  tlie  greatest 
quantity  of  dung  may  be  collected,  and 
have  described  the  most  suitable  and  pro- 
fitable method  of  applj  ing  it  to  the  land. 
We  have  ti-eated  of  lime,  and  other  stimu- 
lants, in  the  same  manner;  every  kind  of 
theory  being  avoided. 

Many  valuable  essays  on  agriculture 
have  appeared  in  the  United  States  ;  and 
particularly  the  application  of  manures 
to  land.  Since  the  estabhshment  of  so- 
cieties, and  particularly-  of  the  Agricultm-al 
Society  of  Philadelphia,  which  does  so 
much  honour  to  our  countrj',  this  subject 
has  already  undergone  many  improve- 
ments. In  the  memoirs  of  that  society, 
several  valuable  essays  on  manure  may 
be  found ;  to  one  of  which  1  would  call 
the  attention  of  the  reader,  namely,  the 
experiments  and  observations  of  the  ho- 
nourable Richard  Peters,  on  gjpsum,  or 
plaster  of  Paris. 

On  the  Cultivation  of  Culmiferous  Crops. 
— The  varieties  of  grain  ranked  as  culmi- 
ferous, are  Wheat,  Barley,  Oats,  and  Rye. 
These  varieties  we  are  inclined  to  con- 
sider as  bearing  equally  hard  upon  the 
soil ;  and  we  think  it  does  not  matter 
mucli  which  of  them  are  taken,  because 
all  are  robbers  of  the  ground,  and  tend  to 
exhaust  it  of  its  productive  powers.  No 
doubt  some  soils  are  more  favourable  for 
one  sort  of  corn  than  for  another ;  as,  for 
instance,  cla^-s  and  loams  are  better  adapt- 
ed for  wheat  than  sands  and  gravels  ; 
while,  T!ce  versa,  the  latter  arc  better  cal- 
culated for  barley  than  the  heavy  soils. 
It  is  by  fixing  upon  the  most  proper  oi" 
eacli  for  the  soil  cultivated,  that  the  judg- 
ment of  the  farmer  is  correctly  ascertain- 
ed. In  other  respects,  such  as  the  ex- 
haustion of  tiic  ground,  we  view  it  as  a 
matter  of  no  importance  wl)ich  of  them  is 
preferred. 

As  wheat  is  the  most  valuable  grain  cul- 
tivated in  this  eountry,  we  shall  treat 
of  the  several  processes  connected  wilh 
its  culture  in  a  more  particular  manner 
than  may  afterwards  be  reipiired,  when 
othei-  grains  occupy  our  attention.  We 
shall  first  s])cak  of  the  soils  best  adapted 
to  the  growili  of  wheat ;  2  Of  tlie  culture 
required  for  that  grain  ;  3.  Of  the  varieties 
of  seed  ;  4  of  tlie  way  in  wluch  it  is  sown ; 

5.  Of  pickling  the  seed,  so  that  it  may  be 
preserved  from  being  smutted  or  blacked ; 

6.  Of  the  diseases  to  wliich  wheat  is  lia- 
ble in  different  stages  ;  7.  Of  harvest  ma- 
nagement ;  8.  Of  thrashing  the  grain,  and 
preparing  it  for  market. 

1.  On  the  Soils  best  adapted  for  the 
Croivth  of  If'heat. — Rich  clays  and  heavy 
loams  are  naturally  well  calculated  for 


AGR 


AUil 


,<roducIng  wheat ;  but  any  kind  of  clay 
and  loamy  soil,  situated  in  a  proper  cli- 
mate, may  be  artificially  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  that  grain,  by  enriching'  it  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  manure-  On  soils 
of  the  first  description,  wheat  may  be  cul- 
tivated almost  every  second  yeai-,  provid- 
ed due  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  land^ 
clean,  and  in  good  condition.  A  sum- 
mer fallow  once  in  four,  six,  or  eight  years, 
accordingto  seasonsandcii'cumstances,  is, 
however,  necessary  ;  and  manure  should 
be  applied  on  that  tallow  for  the  first  crop 
of  wheat. 

Light  soils,  though  they  will,  with  the 
exception  of  soft  sands,  produce  wheat  of 
excellent  quality,  are  not  constitutionally 
disposed  to  the  growth  of  that  grain. 
Summer  fidlow  on  them  may  safely  be 
dispensed  with  ;  because  a  crop  of  tur- 
nips, w  hich  admits  every  branch  of  the 
cleaning  process  to  be  more  perfectly 
executed  than  even  a  naked  or  bare  fal- 
low does,  may  be  profitably  substituted. 
Wheat  here  comes  in  with  propriety  after 
turnips,  thougli,  in  general  ca.ses,  it  must 
ije  sown  in  the  spring  months,  unless  the 
turnips  are  stored ;  in  which  case,  it  may 
be  sown  in  November  ;  or  it  may  be  sown 
after  clover,  for  the  fourtli  crop  of  the  rota- 
tion ;  or  in  the  sixth  year,  as  a  way -going 
crop,  after  drilled  pease  and  beans,  if  the 
rotation  is  extended  to  that  length-  Neither 
is  it  possible  to  raise  wheat  so  extensively 
upon  light  soils,  even  where  tliey  are  of  the 
rjchestquahty,  as  is  practicable  upon  clays; 
nor  will  a  crop  of  equal  bulk,  upon  the  one, 
return  so  much  produce  in  grain  as  may  be 
got  fi'om  the  otiier.  To  enlarge  upon  tliis 
point  would  only  serve  to  prove  what  few 
husbandmen  will  dispute,though,itmay  be 
added,  that,  on  real  sands,  wheat  ought  not 
to  be  ventured,  imless  they  are  either  com- 
pletely clayed  or  marled,  as  it  is  only  with 
the  help  of  these  auxiliaries  that  such  a 
soil  can  gain  stamina  capable  of  produc- 
ing wheat  with  any  degree  of  success. 

2.  On  the  Culture  required  for  JFheat. 
—On  soils  really  calculated  for  wheat, 
though  in  different  degrees,  summer-fal- 
low is  the  first  and  leading  step  to  gain  a 
good  crop  or  crops  of  that  grain.  The 
first  furrow  should  be  given  before  whiter, 
or  so  early  as  other  operations  upon  the. 
farm  will  admit ;  and  every  attention 
shotdd  be  used  to  go  as  deep  as  possi- 
ble ;  for  it  rarely  happens  that  any  of  the 
succeeding  furrows  exceed  the  first  one 
in  that  respect.  The  number  of  after- 
ploughings  must  be  regulated  by  tlie  con- 
dition of  the  ground  and  the  state  of  the 
weather  ;  but,  in  general,  it  may  be  ob- 
ser\ed,  that  ploughing  in  length  and 
across,  alternately,  is  the  way  by  which 

VOL.    I. 


the  ground  will  be  most  completely  cut, 
and  the  intention  of  fallowing  accomplish- 
ed In  adr\-  season,  it  is  almost  impracti- 
cable to  reduce  real  clays,  or  to  work 
them  too  small  ;  and  even  in  a  wet 
one,  supposing  they  are  made  surface 
smooth,  they  will,  when  ploughed  up 
agaui,  consolidate  into  clods  or  big  lumps, 
after  forty-eight  hours  drought,  and  be- 
come nearly  as  obdurate  as  ever.  It  is 
only  on  thin  soils,  which  have  a  mixture 
of  peat-earth,  and  are  incumbent  on  a  bot- 
tom impervious  to  water,  that  damage  is 
at  any  time  sustained  from  over  harrow- 
ing. 

Some  people  think  it  improper  to  dung 
rich  clays  or  loams  when  fallowed,  and 
choose  rather  to  reserve  that  restorative 
till  the  succeeding  season.  Delaying  the 
mamu-ing  process  for  a  year  is  attend- 
ed with  many  advantages  ;  because  good 
land,  fully  wrought,  contains  such  a  prin- 
ciple of  action  within  itself,  as  often  causes 
the  first  wheat  crop  to  be  lodged  before 
it  is  filled  ;  under  which  cu'cumstance, 
the  produce  is  diminished  both  in  quantity 
and  quality.  This  delay  in  manuring  is, 
however,  attended  with  disadvantages  ; 
because,  when  dun^  is  kept  back  till  the 
end  of  autumn  or  beginning  of  winter,  to 
be  laid  on  the  stubbles,  tlie  weather  is  of- 
ten so  wet  that  it  cannot  be  carted  out 
without  subjecting  the  land  to  injury  fi-om 
poaching,  whilst  the  laboiu*  in  laying  it 
on  is  also  increased.  On  thin  clays,  or 
even  upon  soils  of  the  other  description 
not  hi  high  condition,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  the  end  of  summer,  and 
upon  summer  fallow,  is  the  most  proper 
time  for  manuring  them,  though  it  will  be 
found  that  an  improvident  expenditure  of 
dung,  on  such  occasions,  ought  always  to 
be  steadily  avoided. 

3.  On  the  Varieties  of  Seed — Wheat 
may  be  classed  under  two  principal  divi- 
sions, though  each  of  these  admits  of 
several  subdivisions.  The  first  is  com- 
posed of  all  the  varieties  of  red  wheat ; 
but  as  such  are  now  rarely  sown,  being 
at  least  15  pounds  per  cent,  inferior  in 
value  to  those  which  are  generally  cul- 
tivated, it  is  unnecessary  to  say  any  thing 
about  them.  The  second  division  com- 
prehends the  whole  varieties  of  white 
under  two  distinct  heads,  namely,  thic^, 
chaffed  and  thin  chaffed.  The  thick  chaf- 
fed varieties  were  formerly  in  the  greatest 
repute,  generally  yielding  the  whitest  and 
finest  fiour,  and,  in  drv  seasons,  not  in- 
ferior in  produce  to  the  other ;  but  since 
the  disease  called  mildew,  to  which  they 
are  constitutionally  predisposed,  raged  so 
extensively,  thev  have  gradually  been  go- 
ing out  of' fashion.    Under  these  circum- 


AGR 


AGR 


btances,  it  seems  unnecessary  to  notice 
tliem  more  p;iiticulai-ly. 

The  thin  chaffed  wheats  are  a  hardy 
class,  and  seldom  mildewed,  unless  the 
vcatlier  be  particularly  inimical  during 
the  stagesofbiossomin{(, filling,  and  ripen- 
ing, though  some  of  them  are  rather  bet- 
ter qualified  to  resist  that  destructive  dis- 
order than  others.  A  nomenclature  of 
tliin  chafled  wheats  might  be  useful ;  but, 
at  present,  any  thing  of  that  natiu-e  is  an 
impossible  task ;  because,  even  with  agi-i- 
culturists,  their  names  are  altogethei- 
arbiti-ai-y.  It  has  been  often  noticed,  tliat 
this  class  of  wheat  preserves  a  green 
healthy  aspect  during  the  coldest  wea- 
ther, when  other  vai'ieties  assume  a  sickly 
and  jaundiced  hue.  The  resistance  which 
it  shows  to  the  effects  of  inclement  wea- 
ther, perhaps  proceeds  from  the  strength 
of  its  roots,  though  the  effect  may  be 
easier  described  tlian  the  cause  accouiUeil 
for. 

4.  On  Seed  Work. — Sowing  In  the  broad- 
cast way  may  be  said  to  be  the  mode 
imiversa'lly  practised,  for  the  trifling  devia- 
tions from  it  can  hardly  be  admitted  as  an 
exception.  Upon  well  prepared  lands,  if 
the  seed  be  distributed  equally,  it  can 
scarcely  be  sown  too  thin  ;  perliaps  two 
bushels  per  acre  are  sufficient ;  for  the 
heaviest  crops  at  autumn  are  rarely  those 
which  show  the  most  vigorous  appearance 
through  the  winter  months.  Thin  sow- 
ing in  spring  ought  not  to  be  practised, 
otherwise  the  crop  will  be  late,  and  im- 
perfectly ripened.  No  more  harrowing 
.should  be  given  to  fields  that  have  beeiT 
fallowed,  than  what  is  necessary  to  cover 
the  seed,  and  level  the  surface  sufficiently. 
Ground  which  is  to  lie  in  a  broken  down 
state  through  the  winter,  suffers  severely 
when  an  excessive  harrowing  is  given, 
especially  if  it  is  incumbent  on  a  close 
bottom  ;  though,  as  to  the  quantity  neces- 
sary, none  can  give  an  opinion,  except 
those  who  are  personally  present. 

5.  On  Pickling  the  Seed. — This  process 
is  indispensably  necessary  on  every  soil ; 
otherwise,  smut  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, is  apt  to  follow.  Though  almost  all 
practical  f;u-mers  are  agreed iis  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  pickling,  yet  they  are  not  so 
unanimous  as  to  the  modus  operandi  of 
the  process,  and  the  article  which  is  best 
calculated  to  answer  the  intended  \>\\y- 
pose.  Stale  urine  may  be  considered  as 
the  safest  and  surest  jJickle  ;  and  where 
it  can  be  obtained  in  a  sufficient  quantity 
is  commonly  resorted  to.  The  mode  of 
using  it  does  not,  iiowever,  seem  to  be 
agreed  upon;  for,  while  one  party  con- 
tends that  the  grain  ought  to  be  steeped 
in  the  urine,  another paity  considers  it  as 


sufficient  to  sprinkle  the  urine  upon  it* 
Some,  again,  aie  advocates  for  a  pickle 
made  of  salt  and  water,  sufficiently  strong 
to  buoy  up  an  eEg,  in  which  the  grain  is 
to  be  thoroughly  steeped.  But  w  hatever 
difference  of  opinion  there  may  be  as  to 
the  kind  of  pickle  that  ought  to  be  used, 
and  the  mode  of  using  it,  all  admit  the 
utihty  of  mixing  the  wetted  seed  with  hot 
lime  fi'esh  slacked ;  and  this,  in  one  point 
of  view,  is  absolutely  necessary,  so  that 
the  seed  may  be  equally  distributed.  It 
may  be  remarked,  that  experience  justi- 
fies the  utility  of  all  these  modes,  provided 
they  are  attentively  carried  into  execu- 
tion. There  is  some  danger  from  the 
first ;  for,  if  the  seed  steeped  in  urine  is 
not  immediately  sown,  it  will  infalUbly 
lose  its  vegetative  power.  The  second, 
viz.  sprinkling  the  urine  on  the  seed, 
seems  to  be  the  safest,  if  performed  by  an 
attentive  hand ;  whilst  the  last  may  do 
et^ually  well,  if  such  a  quantity  of  salt  be 
incorporated  with  the  water,  as  to  render 
it  of  sufficient  strength.  It  may  also  be 
remarked,  that  this  last  mode  is  oftener 
accompanied  with  smut,  owing  no  doubt 
to  a  deficiency  of  strength  in  the  pickle ; 
whereas  a  single  head  with  smut  is  rarely 
discovered  when  urine  has  been  used. 

6.  Diseases  of  JVheat. — Wheat  is  sub- 
ject to  more  diseases  than  other  grains, 
and  in  some  seasons,  especially  in  wet 
ones,  heavier  losses  are  sustained  from 
those  diseases,  than  are  felt  in  tlie  culture 
of  any  other  cidmiferous  crop  with  which 
we  are  acquainted.  Wheat  may  suffer 
from  the  attack  of  insects  at  the  root; 
from  blight,  which  primarily  affects  the 
leaf  or  straw,  and  ultimately  deprives  the 
grain  of  sufficient  nourishment ;  from  mil- 
dew on  the  ear,  which  operates  thereon 
with  the  force  of  an  apoplectic  stroke  ; 
and  from  gum  of  dillerent  shades,  which 
lodges  on  the  chaff  or  cups  in  which  the 
grain  is  deposited.  Theorists  often  neglect 
these  distinctions,  or  confoimd  tlic  dif- 
ferent disorders  to  which  tliis  valuable 
gTain  is  exposed ;  but  the  practical  far- 
mer,  who  sedulously  examines  his  crop  in 
every  stage  of  its  gi-owth,  will  not  readily 
fall  into  such  errors. 

It  has,  without  inquirj-,  been  taken  for 
granted  by  some  people,  that  blight,  mil- 
dew, antl  rust,  are  the  same  disorder, 
though  most  agriculturists  have  hitherto 
rccki)nt_Hlthem  separate  diseases,  brought 
on  at  iliili^rent  ])crlods,  and  occasioned  by 
difVert'Ut  causes  It  may  be  laid  down  as 
a  primary  principle,  that  the  proxiinate 
cause  of  every  disease  which  attacks  the 
stalk  and  ear  of  wheat  plants  may  be 
found  in  the  state  of  the  weather  at  the 
time,  conjoined  witli  tlie  circumstances  ol 


AGR 


AGR 


soil,  situation,  and  the  seed  that  has  been 
used.  It  is  difficult  to  classify  these  dis- 
eases, or  describe  tliem  in  a  distinct  man- 
ner ;  because  the  sentiments,  oi  rather  the 
language  of  agriculturists  on  this  subject 
IS  arbitrary  and  indistinct-  Xotwitlistand- 
ing  that  they  are,  by  the  great  body  of 
farmers,  attributed  to  atmospherical  influ- 
ence solely,  yet  much  confusion  arises  in 
their  nomenclature  ;  for  many  people  use 
the  terms  of  blight,  inilde-.v,  and  rust,  as 
synoni,Tnous,  though,  to  us,  they  appear  to 
be  distinct  diseases. 

Blight,  according  to  our  ideas,  origi- 
nates from  moist  or  foggj"  weatlier,  and 
from  hoar-frost,  the  eflecls  of  which,  when 
expelled  by  a  hot  sun,  are  first  discerni- 
ble on  the  straw,  and  afterwards  on  the 
ear,  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  accord- 
ing to  local  ciicumstances. 

Mildew,  again,  strictly  speaking,  may 
be  ranked  as  a  disease  which  affects  the 
ear,  and  is  brought  on  by  causes  some- 
what similar  to  those  which  occasion 
blight,  though  at  a  more  advanced  period 
of  the  season.  These  different  disordei-s 
are  genei-ally  accompanied  by  insects  ; 
which  animalculae,  by  many  people  who 
take  tlie  effect  for  the  cause,  are  con- 
sidered, though  witliout  the  least  founda- 
tion, as  the  authors  of  the  mischief  that 
follows.  Their  appearance,  however,  may 
justly  be  attributed  to  the  diseased  state  of 
the  plant ;  for  wherever  putrefaction  takes 
place,  either  in  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stances, the  presence  of  these  insects  will 
never  be  wanting. 

Another  disorder  which  afiects  wheat, 
and  by  several  people  denominated  tlie 
real  rust,  is  brought  on  by  excessive  heats, 
which  occasion  the  plants  to  sutler  from 
a  privation  of  nourishment,  and  become 
sickly  and  feeble-  In  this  atrophical  state, 
a  kind  of  dust  gathers  on  tlie  stalk  and 
leaves,  wliich  increases  witli  the  disease, 
till  the  plant  is  in  a  great  measure  worn 
out  and  exhausted.  The  only  remedy  in 
this  case,  and  it  is  one  that  cannot  easily 
be  administei-ed  by  the  hand  of  man,  is  a 
plentiful  supply  of  moisture,  by  which,  if 
it  is  received,  before  consumption  is  too 
far  advanced,  the  crop  is  benefited  in  a 
degree  proportional  to  the  extent  of 
nourishment  received,  and  tlie  stage  at 
which  the  disease  has  arrived. 

Some  people  have  recommended  the 
sowing  of  blighted  and  mildewed  wheat, 
because  it  will  vegetate  ;  though  certainly 
the  recommendation,  if  carried  into  prac- 
tice, would  be  attended  with  imminent 
danger  to  those  who  attempted  it.  That 
light  or  defective  wheat  will  vegetate 
and  produce  a  plaat,  we  are  not  dispos- 
ed to   contradict ;  but  that  it  will  vege- 


tate as  briskly,  or  put  out  a  stem  of  equal 
su-ength,  and  capable  of  withstanding  the 
severe  winter  blasts,  as  tliose  produced 
from  sound  seed,  we  must  be  excused  for  ^ 
not  believing.  Let  it  only  be  considered,"^ 
that  a  plant  of  young  wheat,  unless  when 
very  eaily  sown,  lives  three  or  four  months, 
in  a  gi-eat  measure,  upon  the  nourishment 
which  it  derives  from  the  parent  seed ; 
and  that  such  nourishment  can,  in  no  view 
of  the  subject,  be  so  great,  when  the  pa- 
rent is  lean  and  emaciated,  as  when  sound, 
healtliy,  and  Tigoi-ous.  Let  it  also  be 
remembered,  that  a  plant  produced  from 
the  best,  atti  weightiest  seed,  must,  in 
every  case,  under  a  parity  of  other  cir- 
cumstances, have  a  stronger  constitution 
at  the  outset,  which  necessarily  qualifies 
it  to  push  on  with  greater  energy  when 
the  season  of  growth  aixives.  Indeed, 
the  economj-  of  nature  woald  be  over- 
turned, had  any  other  resiUt  followed.  A 
breeder  of  cattle  or  sheep  would  not  act 
nittfe  foolishly,  who  trusted  that  a  detbrm- 
ed  diminutive  bull  or  ram  would  produce 
him  good  stock,  tlian  the  corn  fantier  does 
who  uses  unsound  or  imperfect  seed. 

But  another  reason  operates  with  us 
against  tlie  use  of  mildewed  wheat,  which 
at  least  deserves  consideration  : — Is  there 
not  some  risk  that  the  disease  may  be  con- 
veyed from  the  pa:ent  to  the  crop,  and 
that  the  produce  may  thereby  be  les- 
sened ?  We  do  not  go  so  far  as  to  say,  that 
this  disease,  like  smut,  begets  its  like, 
though  tliere  is  a  degree  of  risk  in  the 
use  of  mildewed  seed,  which  no  prudent 
fai-mer  would  choose  to  hazard,  v.  ho  could 
avoid  it. 

7.  On  Harvest  Management  — It  is  ad- 
vantageous  to  cut  wheat  before  it  is  fiUly 
ripe  ;  but  in  ascertaining  the  proper  state, 
it  is  necessary  to  discriminate  betwixt  the 
ripeness  of  the  sti-aw  and  the  ripeness  of 
the  grain  ;  for,  in  some  seasons,  Uie  sXxasv 
dies  upwards  ;  under  which  circum- 
stance, a  field,  to  the  eye,  may  appear  to 
be  completely  fit  for  the  sickle,  when,  in 
reality,  the  grain  is  imperfectly  consolidat- 
ed, and  perhaps  not  muci:  removed 
from  a  milky  state.  Though  it  is  ob- 
vious, that,  under  such  circumstances, 
no  further  benefit  can  be  conveyed  from 
the  root,  and  that  nourishment  is  wiin- 
held  the  moment  that  the  roots  die ;  yet 
it  does  not  follow,  that  grain  so  ciicuni- 
stanced  shoidd  be  immediately  cut:  be- 
cause, after  tliat  operation  is  performed, 
it  is  in  a  great  measure  necessarily  depriv- 
ed of  even'  benefit  fi'om  the  sun  and  air, 
both  of  which  have  greater  influence  in 
bringing  it  to  maturit)-,  so  long  as  it 
remains  on  foot,  than  when  cut  down, 
whether  laid  idu  the  groimd,  or  bound  up 


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in  sheaves.  The  state  of  the  weather  at 
the  time  alsotleserves notice  ;  for,  in  moist, 
or  even  variable  weatlicr,  every  kind  of 
grain,  when  cut  prematurely,  is  more  ex- 
posed to  damage  than  when  completely 
ripened.  All  these  things  will  be  studied 
by  the  skiliul  husbandman,  v  lio  will  also 
take  into  consideration  the  dangers  which 
may  follow,  were  he  to  permit  his  wbeat 
crop  to  remain  uncut  till  completely  rij)en- 
ed.  The  danger  from  wind  will  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  even  the  quantity  dropped  in 
the  field,  and  in  the  stack-yard,  when 
wheat  is  over  ripe,  is  an  object  of  con- 
sideration. Taking  all  ihese  things  into 
view,  it  seems  prudent  to  have  wheat  cut 
before  it  is  fully  ripe,  as  less  damage  will 
be  sustained  from  acting  in  this  way  than 
by  adopting  a  conti-ary  practice. 

If  the  weatlier  be  dry,  and  the  straw 
clean,  wheat  may  be  carted  to  the  stack- 
yard in  a  iew  days ;  indeed,  if  quite  ripe, 
it  may  be  stacked  immediately  from  tiie 
sickle, especially  when  not  meant  for  early 
thrashing.  So  long,  however,  as  any  mois- 
tui-e  remains  in  the  straw,  the  field  will  be 
found  to  be  the  best  stack-yard ;  and  where 
grass  or  weeds  of  any  kind  are  mixed  with 
the  crop,  patience  must  be  exerted  till 
they  are  decayed  and  dried,  lest  heating 
be  occasioned  ;  which,  independent  of  the 
loss,  is  to  the  farmer  a  most  disgraceful 
aft'air. 

8.  On  Thrashing  }rl:eat. — Before  thrasli- 
ing  machines  w  ere  introduced,  the  task  of 
separating  wheat  from  the  straw  was  ardu- 
ous and  djifRcult.  The  expense  was  very 
considerable,  whilst  the  severity  of  the 
labour  almost  exceeded  the  power  of  the 
strongest  man,  especially  in  unfavourable 
seasons,  when  the  grain  adhered  perti- 
naciously to  the  ear,  and  could  not,  with- 
out difliculty,  be  completely  loosened  and 
removed.  Every  thing  of  this  nature, 
however,  may  be  prevented,  now  that 
tlirashing  machines  are  introduced,  pro- 
vided the  feeder  is  caret'vd,  and  propor- 
tions the  quantity  on  the  board  to  the 
strength  of  the  impelling  jjower.  Wheat, 
in  fact,  Ls  now  the  cleanest  thrashed  grain ; 
because  the  length  of  the  straw  allows  it 
to  be  properlv  beat  out  before  it  passes  the 
machine,  which  sometimes  is  not  the  case 
with  short  oats  and  b;u-ley.  If  horses  are 
used  as  the  impelling  power,  thin  feed- 
ing is  necessary,  otherwise  the  animals 
m:.\  be  injured  ;  but  where  wind  or  water 
is  employed,  the  business  of  thrashing  is 
executed  speedily,  completely,  and  econo- 
mically. 

On  Barley. — Next  to  wheat,  the  most 
valuable  grain  is  biU'lc},  especially  on 
light  and  sharp  soils. 

It  is  a  tender  grain,  and  easily  hurt  in 


any  of  the  stages  of  its  g^-owth,  particular- 
ly at  seed  time ;  a  heavy  shower  of  rain 
will  then  almost  ruin  a  crop  on  the  best 
prepared  land;  and  in  all  the  after  pro- 
cesses, greater  pains  and  attention  are  re- 
quired to  ensure  success,  than  in  the  case 
of  other  grains.  The  harvest  process  is 
difficult,  and  often  attended  with  danger; 
even  the  thrashing  of  it  is  not  easily  exe- 
cuted with  machines,  because  the  awn,  or 
tail,  generally  adheres  to  the  grain,  and 
renders  separation  from  the  straw  a  trou- 
blesome task.  Barley,  in  fact,  is  raised  at 
greater  expense  than  wheat,  and,  general- 
ly speaking,  is  a  more  hazardous  crop. 

Barley  may  be  divided  into  two  sorts, 
early  and  late ;  to  which  may  be  added  a 
bastard  variety,  called  bear,  or  big, 
wiiich  affords  similar  nutriment,  or  sub- 
stance, though  of  inferior  quality.  Early 
barley,  under  various  names,  was  former- 
ly sown  upon  lands  that  had  been  pre- 
viously summer  fallowed,  or  were  in  high 
condition  ;  but  this  mode  of  culture  being 
in  a  great  measure  renounced,  the  com- 
mon sort,  which  admits  of  being  sown  ei- 
ther early  or  late,  is  now  generally  used. 
The  most  proper  seed  season  is  any  tihic 
in  April,  though  we  have  seen  good  crops 
produced,  the  seed  of  which  was  sown  at 
a  much  later  period.  Bear,  or  big,  may 
be  sown  still  later  tlian  common  barley; 
because  it  ripens  witli  greater  rapidity. 
But,  as  a  general  principle,  where  land  i.; 
in  order,  early  sowing,  of  every  variety,  is 
most  desirable. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — The  quantity  sown 
is  diHerent  in  difterent  cases,  according  to 
the  qualit}'  of  the  soil,  and  other  circum- 
stances. Upon  very  rich  lands,  eight 
pecks  per  acre  are  sometimes  sown ; 
twelve  is  very  common ;  and,  upon  poor 
land,  more  is  sometimes  given.  Among 
the  best  farmers,  it  seems  a  disputed 
point,  whether  the  practice  of  giving  so 
small  a  quantity  of  seed  to  the  best  lands 
is  advantageous.  That  there  is  a  saving' 
of  grain,  there  can  be  no  doubt;  and  that 
the  bulk  may  be  as  great,  as  if  more  seed 
had  been  sow  n,  there  can  be  as  little  ques- 
tion. By  good  judges,  it  is  thought  pre- 
ferable to  sow  a  quantity  of  seed  sufficient 
to  ensure  a  full  crop,  without  depending 
on  its  sendhig  out  offsets;  indeed,  where 
that  is  done,  lew  oti'sets  are  produced,  the 
crop  grows  and  ripens  equally,  and  the 
grain  is  imiformly  good. 

Jfirvestii'g — iNloie  care  is  reqim*ed  in 
the  harvesting  of  barley,  than  any  of  the 
other  white  crops,  even  in  the  best  of  sea- 
sons ;  and  in  bad  years  it  is  often  found 
very  difficult  to  save  it.  Owing  to  the 
brittleness  of  tlie  sti-aw,  after  it  has  reach- 
ed a  certJiin  period,  it  must  be  cut  down  ; 


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AGR 


us,  when  it  is  suffered  to  stand  longer, 
inuch  loss  is  sustained  by  the  breaking  of 
the  heads.  On  that  account,  it  is  cut  at 
a  time  when  the  grain  is  soft,  and  the 
straw  retains  a  gi-eat  proportion  of  its  na- 
tural juices,  consequently  requires  a  long 
time  in  the  field,  before  either  the  gram  is 
hardened,  or  the  straw  safficienily  dry. 
When  put  into  the  stack  sooner,  it  is  apt 
to  heat,  and  much  loss  is  frequently  sus- 
tained. It  is  a  custom  with  many  fai-mers 
to  have  an  opening  in  tlie  middle  of  their 
barley  stacks,  from  top  to  bottom.  This 
opening  is  g*enerally  made  b)'  placing  a 
large  bundle  of  straw  in  the  centre  of  the 
stack,  when  the  building  commences,  and, 
in  proportion  as  it  rises,  the  straw  is 
drawn  upwards,  leaving  a  hollow  behind ; 
which,  if  one  or  two  openings  are  left  in 
the  side  of  the  stack  near  the  bottom,  en- 
sures so  complete  a  cb'culation  of  air,  as 
not  only  to  prevent  healing,  but  to  pre- 
serve the  grain  from  becoming  musty. 

On  Oats. — Of  this  grain  tlie  varieties  are 
more  numerous  than  of  any  other  of  the 
culmiferous  tribe.  These  varieties  con- 
sist of  what  is  called  die  common  oat;  the 
Angus  oat,  which  we  consider  us  an  im- 
proved variety  of  the  other;  the  Poland 
oat;  the  Friesland  oat ;  the  red  oat ;  the  dun 
oat;  the  Tartar,  or  Siberian  oat ;  and  the  po- 
tatoeoat.  The  Poland  and  potatoe  varieties 
are  best  adapted  to  rich  soils ;  the  red  oat, 
for  late  climates ;  and  the  othervai-ieties,for 
the  genei-ahty  of  soils.  The  Tartar,  or 
Siberian  kind,  though  very  hardy  and  pro- 
lific, is  much  out  of  use,  being  of  a  coarse 
substance,  and  unproductive  of  meal. 
The  dun  oat  has  never  been  much  culti- 
vated ;  and  the  vise  of  Poland's  and  Fries- 
land's  is  now^  much  circumscribed,  since 
jjotatoe  oats  were  introduced,  the  latter 
being  considered,  by  the  most  discerning 
agriculturists,  as  of  superior  value,  in  eve- 
ry i-espect,  where  the  soil  is  rich  and  pro- 
perly cultivated. 

Preparation. — Oats  are  chiefly  sown  af- 
ter grass ;  somelimes*iipon  land  not  rich 
enough  for  wheat,  that  had  been  previous- 
ly summer  fallowed,  or  had  carried  tiu-- 
nips ;  often  after  barley,  and  rarely  alter 
wheat,  unless  cross  cropping,  from  parti- 
cular circumstances,  becomes  a  necessa- 
ry evil.  One  ploughing  is  generally  given 
to  the  gTass  lands,  usually  in  the  month 
of  January,  so  that  the  benefit  of  frost 
may  be  gained,  and  the  land  sufficiently 
mellowed  for  receiving  tlie  harrow.  In 
some  cases,  a  spring  furrow  is  given, 
when  oats  succeed  wheat  or  barley,  espe- 
cially when  grass  seeds  are  to  accompany 
the  ci'op.  The  best  oats,  both  in  quantity 
and  quality,  are  always  those  which  suc- 
ceed grass ;  indeed,  no  kind  of  grain  seems 


better  qualified  by  nature,  for  foraging 
upon  gi-ass  land,  than  oats ;  as  a  full  crop 
is  usually  obtained  in  the  first  instance, 
and  the  land  left  in  good  order  for  succeed- 
ing ones. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — From  twelve  to  eigh- 
teen pecks  of  seed  is  generally  allowed  to 
the  acre  of  ground,  according-  to  the  rich- 
ness of  the  soil,  and  the  variety  that  is 
cultivated.  Here  it  may  be  remarked,' 
that  land,  sown  with  potatoe  oats,  requires 
much  less  seed,  in  point  of  measure,  than 
when  any  of  the  other  sorts  are  used;  be- 
cause potatoe  oats  till  much  better  than 
Poland  ones,  and  have  not  an  awn,  or 
tail,  like  the  ordinary  variedes.  On  that 
account,  a  measure  contains  many  more 
seeds  of  them,  than  of  any  other  kind. 
If  land  is  equally  well  cultivated,  we  have 
httle  doubt,  but  that  the  like  quantity  of 
seed,  given  when  barley  is  cultivated,  may 
be  safely  trusted  to  when  potatoe  oats  are 
to  be  raised. 

Harvesting.  —Oats  are  a  hardy  grain, 
and  rarely  get  much  damage  when  under 
the  harvest  process,  except  from  high 
winds,  or  from  shedding,  when  opened 
out  after  being  thoroughly  wetted.  The 
early  varieties  are  much  more  liable  to 
tliese  losses,  than  the  late  ones  ;  because 
the  grain  parts  more  easily  fiiU  from  the 
straw,  an  evil  to  which  the  best  of  grain  is 
at  all  times  subject.  Early  oats,  however, 
may  be  cut  a  little  quick,  wliicb,  to  a  cer- 
tain e.\tent,  lessens  the  danger  to  which 
they  are  exposed  from  liigh  winds;  and,  if 
the  sheaves  be  made  small,  the  danger 
from  shedding  after  rains  is  considerably 
lessened,  because  tliey  are  thus  sooner 
ready  for  the  stack.  Under  every  ma- 
nagement, however,  a  greater  quantity  of 
early  oats  will  be  lost  during  the  harvest 
process,  than  of  late  ones;  because  the 
latter  adhere  firmly  to  the  straw,  and  con- 
sequently do  not  drop  so  easily  as  tlie 
former. 

On  Rye  — Rye  ought  never  to  be  sown 
upon  wet  soils,  nor  even  upon  sandy  soils 
where  the  subsoil  is  of  a  retentive  nature. 
Upon  downs,  links,  and  all  soft  lands, 
which  have  received  manure,  this  grain 
thrives  in  perfection,  and,  if  once  covered 
in,  will  stand  a  drought  afterwards,  that 
would  consume  any  of  the  culmiferous 
tribe.  The  several  processes  may  be  re- 
garded as  nearly  the  same  with  those  re- 
commended for  wheat,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  pickling,  which  rye  does  not 
require.  R\  e  may  be  sown  either  m  w  in- 
ter or  spring,  though  the  winter-seeded 
fields  are  generally  bulkiest  and  most  pro- 
ductive. It  may  succeed  either  summer 
fallow,  clover,  or  turnips;  even  after  oats, 
good  crops  have  been  raised,  and  where 


AGR 


AGR 


such  crops  are  raised,  tlie  land  will  al- 
ways be  found  in  good  condition. 

On  Corn. — Indian  corn  or  maize  ;  for  the 
culture  of  whicli,  prepare  tlic  gi-ound  by 
plougliin^  it  in  single  leng-tlis  in  the  au- 
ttinin,  in  the  spring  harrow  it  down  as 
smooth  as  possible,  then  ploui^h  and  liai-- 
row  it  again ;  afterward  mark  out  the  fur- 
rows at  right  angles,  five  or  six  feet  apart, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  soil".  At 
the  intersection  of  these  furrows  drop  two 
or  three  seeds,  four  or  five  incbes  apui-t, 
cover  them  about  three  inches  witli  ma- 
nure, and  afterwards  witli  mould  by  the 
hoe.  By  this  metbod  the  plants  come 
soon  up  and  flourish  vigorously :  when 
they  are  five  or  six  inches  higli  plougli  be- 
tween them,  taking  the  mould  from  the 
plants,  throwing  it  up  in  a  ridge,  and  witli 
a  hoe  cut  up  the  weeds  and  superHuous 
plants.  The  subsequent  periods  of 
ploughing  are  quite  arbitrary  :  but  an  at- 
tentive farmer  will  readily  discover  when 
the  plants  require  support,  or  when  tlie 
weeds  begin  to  filch  their  nourishment. 
The  next  ploughing-  the  mould  must  be 
removed  from  the  ridge  to  the  plants,  ta- 
king care  to  till  the  ground  between  them, 
and  to  destroy  all  the  weeds.  Tliis  is  of 
more  use  than  would  at  first  be  imagined, 
for  it  not  only  prevents  the  robbing  of  the 
plants,  but  admits  the  influence  of  the  air 
and  dews  to  penetrate  to  their  roots- 

The  third  ploughing  tlie  soil  must  again 
be  removed  ti-oin  the  plants,  and  the 
weeds  destroyed :  the  fourth  and  last 
ploughing  must  be  managed  like  the  se- 
cond by  throwing  up  the  mould  to  the 
stalks  of  corn. 

Previous  to  ploughing,  the  seed  should 
be  soaked  in  water  moderately  warm  over 
night :  then  add  a  small  quantity  of  tar, 
which  must  be  stirred  till  the  grains  ap- 
pear to  be  uniibrmiy  coated  with  it.  After 
the  water  has  been  drained  off,  add  as 
much  slacked  lime,  ashes,  or  gypsiun,  as 
will  adhere  to  the  grains,  which  will  cause 
the  grains  to  separate,  so  that  they  may  be 
as  conveniiutly  planted  as  though  they 
had  never  been  tarred. 

This  preparation  will  preserve  the  ten- 
der plants  iiom  tlie  ravages  of  the  birds, 
squirrels,  &c.  which  piove  vciy  destruc- 
tive to  the  fields  of  corn  in  many  parts  of 
the  United  States  Corn  that  lias  been 
steeped  in  a  strong  infusion  of  Indian  poke 
or  tobacco,  and  scattered  over  the  field 
before  the  plants  are  up,  is  also  an  excel- 
lent preventive. 

At  the  second  or  third  hoeing,  the 
suckers  should  be  bent  down  and  buried 
vmder  the  soil ;  to  break  theni  wounds  and 
materially  injures  the  parent  stock.  Some 
think  high  bills  are  necessary  to  make  the 


corn  stand  upright ;  but  it  is  undoubtedly 
oftener  broke  when  the  hills  are  high, 
which  is  a  greater  evil  than  for  it  to  lean, 
\yhich  would  be  the  consequence  if  the 
hills  were  low ;  nor  would  this  circum- 
stance prevent  their  maturing  to  a  tolera- 
ble degree  of  perieetioii.  The  fanner  who 
wishes  for  a  long  crop  should  not  annoy 
his  corn  with  running  beans  or  pump- 
kins  ;  the  former,  by  winding  round  the 
stalks  ;md  ear  cramp  them  in  their  growth 
and  often  bnid  them  by  the  weight.  The 
latter  rob  the  soil  of  much  vegetable 
food,  and  by  their  shade  shut  out  the  in- 
fluence of  the  sun  from  the  roots  of  the 
corn.  Neither  should  he, for  the  sake  of 
the  fodder,  cut  or  top-stalk  the  plant,  for 
by  such  a  wound  the  corn  is  much  more 
injured,  than  the  difference  in  the  quality 
of  the  fodder  will  compensate  for.  The 
time  tor  corn  planting  depends  on  the  cli- 
mate and  season  :  it,  lioviever,  should  be 
got  in  as  early  as  possible  after  the  season 
of  frost,  that  it  may  be  advanced  in 
strength  and  constitution,  to  enable  it  tlie 
better  to  conflict  with  the  drought  which 
sometimes  occurs. 

When  the  pei-iod  for  harvesting  has  ar- 
rived, which  will  be  readily  known  by  the 
consistency  of  the  kernel,'  cut  the  stalks 
close  to  the  ground,  i-emove  the  whole 
near  the  farm  house,  strip  the  husks  from 
the  ear,  and  after  pei'mitling  both  to  dry, 
place  the  corn  in  cribs  to  be  ready  for 
llmishlng,  and  stack  the  husks,  Sic.  to  be 
distributed  to  the  cattle  during  the  ap- 
proaching  winter. 

The  best  method  of  preserving  com, 
and  in  fact  every  species  of  grain,  is  to 
move  and  air  it  frequently  for  the  first  six 
months  ;  after  that  time  it  will  require  less 
labour,  if  kept  in  a  di-y  place.  When  the 
corn  has  been  preserved  from  all  impuri- 
ties for  the  sjiace  of  two  years,  and  has  ex- 
haled all  its /)/;-!«,  it  may  be  kept  for  any 
length  of  time  by  lodging  it  in  pits  cover- 
ed with  plank,  closely  joined  together : 
but  the  safer  way  idWb  cover  the  heap  with 
quick-linic,  which  should  be  dissolved  by 
sprinkling  it  over  with  a  small  quantity  of 
water  ;  this  causes  tl)e  grains  to  shoot  to 
the  depth  of  two  or  three  fingers,  and  in- 
closes the  heap  with  an  incrustation, 
through  which  neither  air  nor  insects  can 
penetrate.  For  a  further  account  of  tlie 
difierent  species  of  grain,  see  the  Domes- 
tic  Encydoptdiu,  lU'ticles  Wheat,  Corn, 
&c. 

Of  Beans  and  Pease. — As  the  plants  of 
beans  and  pease  are  of  a  hardy  constitu- 
tion, these  articles  requiring  little  more 
than  to  be  deposited  in  the  earth  to  cause 
a  generous  reproduction ;  so  also  their 
cultivation  is  little  more  attended  to  hi  this 


AGH 


AGR 


country  than  to  obtain  a  garden  supply, 
and  as  the  attention  they  require  is  so  ge- 
nerally understood,  a  particular  account 
of  their  cultivation  is  thought  unnecessa- 
ry. Those  of"  our  readers,  however,  who 
are  desirous  of  information  on  this  liead, 
are  referred  to  M'Mahon's  System  of 
Horticulture,  and  Bvewster's  Encyclopedia, 
article  Agriculture. 

Of  Potatoes. — Considering  potatoes  as 
an  article  of  human  food,  next  to  wheat  of 
the  greatest  importance,  in  the  eye  of  a 
pohtical  economist,  it  is  proper  to  illus- 
trate the  culture  of  this  esculent  in  the  va- 
rious stages,  from  preparing  the  gTound, 
till  the  crop  is  digged  up  and  ready  for 
mai'ket. 
#  Preparatio7i  of  the  ground. — To  work  the 
ground  till  it  is  completely  reduced  and 
free  from  root-weeds,  may  be  considered 
as  a  desideratum  in  potatoe  husbandly; 
though  in  many  seasons  these  operations 
cannot  be  perfectly  executed,  without 
losing  the  proper  time  for  planting,  which 
never  ought  to  be  beyond  the  first  of  May, 
if  circumstances  do  not  absolutely  inter- 
dict it.  Three  ploughings,  with  frequent 
harrowings  and  rollings,  are  necessary  in 
both  cases,  before  the  land  is  in  suitable 
condition.  When  this  is  accompUshed, 
form  the  drills  from  two  to  three  feet 
apart;  cart  out  the  manure,  which  ought 
not  to  be  sparingly  applied,  plant  tlie  seed 
above  the  manure,  reverse  the  drills  for 
covering  it  and  the  seed,  then  harrow  the 
drills  in  length,  which  completes  the  pre- 
paration and  seed  process. 

They  are  sometimes  planted  with  the 
hoe,  in  the  same  manner  as  corn,  though 
somewhat  nearer. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — It  is  not  advantageous 
to  cut  tlie  seed  into  small  slips ;  for  the 
strength  of  the  stem  at  the  outset  depends 
in  direct  proportion  upon  the  vigour  and 
power  of  the  seed-plant.  At  all  events, 
rather  err  in  giving  over  large  seed  tlian 
in  making  it  too  small ;  because  by  the 
first  error,  no  great  loss  can  ever  be  sus- 
tained; wliereas,  by  the  other,  a  feeble  and 
late  crop  may  be  the  consecj  uence.  Vx'^hen 
the  seed  is  properly  cut,  it  requires  from 
ten  to  twelve  hundred  weig'ht  of  potatoes 
to  plant  'an  acre  of  groimd,  where  tiie 
rows  are  at  27  inches  distance;  but  this 
quantity  depends  greatly  u})()n  the  size  of 
the  potatoes  used;  if  they  are  large,  a 
greater  weight  may  be  required,  but  the 
extra  quantity  will  be  abundantly  repaid 
by  the  superiority  of  crop  which  large 
seed  usually  produces. 

Ofth(  kinds  cf  Potatoe  lohick  can  beviost 
successfully   cultivated. — The   varieties    of 
this  excellent  root  are  become  so  nume 
rous,  that  it  is  impossible  to  treat  of  each. 


or  even  to  give  a  list  of  their  naiiies  or 
particular  properties.  It  Is  almost  cev- 
tain,  that  a  new  variety  may  be  propagated 
at  any  time,  by  mixmg  contrary  sorts  iu 
the  same  drill ;  and  if  tliese  are  allowed  to 
come  to  maturity,  a  kind  of  connection 
takes  place  betwixt  the  blossoms  of  each, 
winch  produces  a  new  race  or  variety. 
In  this  way,  the  numerous  varieties  of  the 
potatoe  root  have  been  procreated  and  in- 
troduced. 

Cleaning  of  Potatoes. — After  having  de- 
tailed the  method  of  cleaning  corn  so  cir- 
cumstantially, it  appears  tuinecessary  to 
enter  at  much  length  upon  what  is  re- 
quired for  potatoes,  because  one  and  all 
of  the  green  crops  require  somewhat  simi- 
lar management. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  green  crops 
of  eveiy  kind  are  greatly  benefited  by 
frequent  hoeings,  and  that  their  growth,  in 
some  measure,  is  regulated  by  the  extent 
of  labour  bestowed  on  them.  When 
treated  in  a  slovenly  manner,  or  left  to 
fight  with  weeds,  or  even  to  encounter  a 
fii-m  soil,  the  plants  are  deprived  of  nou- 
rishment, and  unable  to  procreate  their 
kind  in  due  abundance;  on  the  contrary, 
wlien  the  soil  is  sufficiently  stirred  up,  and 
kept  free  of  weeds,  natiu'e  will  return  a 
croj)  in  direct  proportion  to  the  quality  of 
the  soil,  and  the  quantity  of  manure  be- 
stowed upon  it  by  the  cultivator.  Na- 
ture may  be  improved  by  art,  but  when 
her  bounties  are  neglected,  and  not  im- 
proved, she  generally  turns  aside,  and  re- 
pays the  contempt  with  interest. 

JMethod  of  taking  up  the  crop,  and  storing 
it  for  consumption. — Potatoes  are  general- 
ly digged  up  with  a  hoe,  three-prong 
grape,  or  fork ;  but  at  other  times,  when 
the  weather  is  dry,  the  plough  is  used, 
which  is  the  most  expeditious  implement. 
After  gathering  the  interval,  the  furrow 
taken  by  the  plough  is  broken  and  sepa- 
rated; in  which  way  the  crop  may  be 
more  completely  gathered  than  when  ta- 
ken up  by  the  grape.  The  potatoes  are 
then  stored  \ip  for  winter  and  spring  use ; 
and  as  it  is  of  importance  to  keep  them  as 
long  through  siunmer  as  possible,  every 
endeavour  ought  to  be  made  to  preserve 
them  from  frost,  and  from  sprouting  in  the 
spring  months.  The  former  is  accom- 
plished by  covering  them  well  with  straw 
when  lodged  in  a  house,  and  by  a  thick 
coat  of  earth,  v/hen  deposited  in  a  pit ;  and 
the  latter,  by  picking  them  carefully,  at 
different  times,  when  they  begin  to  sprout, 
drying  them  sufficiently  by  exposure  to 
the  sun,  or  by  a  gentle  toast  on  a  kiln. 
Careful  people  often  preserve  potatoes  in 
perfection  till  the  succeeding  crop  is  fit 
for  use;  though  it  rarely  happens  that 


AGR 


AGR 


they  possess  their  original  qualities  after 
fcumiDL     ommences. 

Of  turnips. — Tlie  benefits  derived  from 
turnip  husbandry,  are  of  gi-eat  magnitude  ; 
lig-lit  soils  are  cultivated  with  profit  and 
I'acility  ;  abundance  of  food  is  provided  for 
man  and  beast ;  the  eartli  is  turnetl  to  the 
uses  for  whicli  it  is  jihysically  calculated ; 
and,  by  being  suitably  cleaned  with  this 
preparatory  cro]:),  a  bed  is  provided  for 
gi-ass  seeds,  wherein  they  flourisli  and 
prosper  with  greater  vigour  than  after  any 
otljer  preparation. 

Preparation. — The  first  and  second 
ploughings  are  given  usually  in  contrary 
directions.  It  is  then  repeatedly  harrow- 
ed, often  rolled  between  the  liarro wines, 
and  every  particle  of  root  weeds  carefully 
picked  off  with  the  Iiand;  a  third  plough- 
ing is  then  bestowed,  and  the  other  ope- 
rations are  repeated.  In  this  stage,  if  the 
ground  has  not  been  very  foul,  the  seed 
process  generally  commences;  but  often 
a  fourth  ploughing,  sometimes  a  fifth,  is 
necessarv',  before  the  ground  is  sufficient- 
ly cleaned. 

Turnip  land  cannot  be  made  too  rich, 
for,  in  fact,  the  weight  of  the  crop  depends 
in  a  great  measure  upon  its  condition  in 
this  respect. 

The  next  part  of  the  process  is  the  sow- 
ing of  the  seed.  From  two  to  three 
pounds  of  seed  are  sown  upon  the  acre, 
though  the  smallest  of  these  quantities 
will  give  many  more  plants,  in  ordinary 
seasons,  than  are  necessary ;  but,  as  the 
seed  is  not  an  expensive  article,  the 
greater  part  of  farmers  incline  to  sow 
thick,  which  both  provides  against  the  dan- 
ger of  part  of  the  seed  perishing,  and  gives 
the  young  plants  an  advantage  at  the  outset. 

Turnips  are  sown  from  the  beginning 
of  June  to  the  middle  of  August;  but  the 
last  of  July  is,  by  judicious  farmers,  ac- 
counted the  most  proper  time.  As  a  ge- 
neral rule,  it  may  be  bid  down,  that  the 
earliest  sowing  should  be  on  the  latest 
soils ;  plants  on  such  soils  are  ofien  long 
before  the}  make  any  great  progress  ;  and 
in  the  end,  may  be  i'ar  behind  those,  in 
other  situations,  which  were  mucli  later 
sown.  Tiie  turnip  plant,  indeed,  does  not 
thrive  rapidly  till  its  roots  reach  the  dung. 

The  hand-hoeing  then  commences,  by 
which  the  turnips  are  all  singled  out,  at  a 
distance  of  eight  inches,  which  is  an  ope- 
ration of  great  im])ortance,  for  an  error 
committed  in  tliis  j)rocess  can  hardly  be 
afterwards  rectified.  Care  must  after- 
wards be  taken  to  stir  the  soil  often,  de- 
stroy the  superfluous  plants,  and  keep  the 
weeds  down. 

On  Crops  to  be  used  in  Manufactures. — 
Three  other  crops  remain  to  be  treated 


of;  namely,  hemp,  flax,  and  hops.  None 
of  these,  however,  can  fje  viewed  as  im 
proving  crops  ;  on  the  contraiy,  they  ma\ 
be  characterized  as  robbers,  ihat  exhaust 
llie  soil,  and  return  little,  orratiiorno  ma- 
nure for  restoring  it  to  fertility.  'I'hey  are, 
however,  all  necessary  articles,  and  ui  the 
present  state  of  public  affairs,  tiie  culuii« 
of  the  two  first,  viz.  hemp  and  flax,  may 
be  considered  as  materially  connected 
with  national  prosperity. 

On  Hemp. — This  is  a  plant  of  the  her- 
baceous fibrous-rooted  kind,  which  has  a 
thick  strong  stem,  that  rises  to  a  consider- 
able height,  and  aftords  a  rind  or  covering 
of  a  fii-m  strong  texture,  that  is  valuable 
for  the  purpose  of  being  maimfactured  in- 
to cloth,  cordage,  &c.  « 

The  soils  most  suited  to  the  culture  of 
this  plant,  are  those  of  the  deep,  black, 
putrid,  vegetable  kind,  that  are  low,  and 
rather  inclined  to  moisture,  and  those  ol 
the  deep,  mellow,  loamy,  or  sandy  de- 
scriptions. The  quantity  of  produce  is 
generally  much  greater  on  the  former  than 
on  the  latter ;  but  it  is  said  to  be  greatly 
inferior  in  quality.  It  may,  however,  be 
gro\vn  with  success  on  lands  of  a  less  rich 
and  fertile  kind,  by  proper  care  and  at- 
tention in  Iheir  culture  and  preparation. 

In  order  to  render  the  gi-ounds  proper 
for  the  reception  of  the  crop,  they  should 
be  reduced  into  a  fine  mellow  state  of 
mould,  and  be  perfectly  cleared  from 
weeds,  by  repeated  ploughing.  When  it 
succeeds  grain  crops,  the  work  is  mostl\' 
accomplished  by  three  ploughings,  and  as 
many  hanowings ;  the  first  being  given 
immediately  after  the  preceding  crop  is 
removed,  the  second  early  in  the  spring, 
and  the  last,  or  .seed  earth,  just  before  the 
seed  is  to  be  put  in.  In  the  last  plough- 
ing, well  rotted  manure,  in  the  proportion 
of  fifteen  or  twenty,  or  good  compost,  in 
the  quantity  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  cart 
loads  per  acre,  should  be  tvn-ned  into  the 
land  ;  as  without  this  it  is  seldom  that  gooil 
crops  can  be  produced.  The  surface  of 
the  ground  being  left  perfectly  flat,  and  as 
free  from  furrows  as  possible  ;  as  by  these 
means  the  moisture  is  more  efl'ectually 
retained,  and  the  growth  of  the  plants 
more  fully  promoted. 

S<ttd,  and  Method  of  Sowing. — It  is  of 
much  importance  in  the  cultivation  of 
hemp  crojjs,  that  the  seed  be  new,  find  of 
a  gi)od  quality,  which  may  in  some  mea- 
sure be  known  by  its  feeling  heavy  in  the 
hands,  and  being  of  a  bright  shining  colon  i-. 

Tlie  proportion  of  seed,  that  is  most 
commonly  employed,  is  from  two  to  three 
bushels,  according  to  the  (juality  of  the 
land ;  but,  as  the  crops  are  greatly  injured 
by  the  plants  standing  too  closely  togetli- 


AGR 


AGR 


«r,  Iwo  bushels  or  two  bushels  and  a  half, 
may  be  a  more  advantageous  quantity. 

As  the  hemp  plant  is  extremal)"  tender 
in  its  early  growtli,  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  put  the  seed  into  the  ground  at  so 
early  a  period,  as  that  it  may  be  liable  to 
be  injured  by  the  effects  offi'ost ;  nor  to 
protract  the  sowing  to  so  late  a  season,  as 
that  the  quality  of  the  produce  may  be  af- 
fected. The  best  season,  on  the  drier 
sorts  of  land,  is,  probably,  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  the  frosts  are  over  in  April. 
But,  when  the  ground  is  more  inclined  to 
moisture,  it  maj-  be  a  better  practice  to 
delay  the  sowing  to  a  later  period,  choos- 
ing, if  possible,  a  time  when  the  land  is 
neither  too  dry  nor  too  moist  for  perform- 
ing the  business.  Sowing  as  early  as  pos- 
sible is,  however,  in  general,  to  be  prefer- 
red ;  as,  where  this  is  the  case,  by  the  crops 
becoming  more  strong  and  vigorous  in  the 
early  pai-t  of  their  growth,  the  hemp  is 
found  to  withstand  the  various  operations 
that  are  afterwaids  to  be  pertbrmedupon 
it  in  a  better  manner. 

The  most  general  method  of  putting 
crops  of  tliis  sort  into  the  soil  is  the  broad- 
cast, the  seed  being  dispersed  over  the 
surface  of  the  land  in  as  even  a  manner  as 
possible,  and  afterwards  covered  in  by 
means  of  a  very  light  harrowing.  Care 
must  constantly  be  taken  to  keep  the  birds 
from  it  for  some  time  afterwai-ds. 

This  soi't  of  crop  is  fi-equently  cultivat- 
ed on  the  same  piece  of  ground  for  a  great 
number  of  years,  without  any  other  kind 
intervening;  but,  in  such  cases,  manure 
must  be  applied,  ^\•ith  almost  every  crop, 
in  pretty  large  propoitions,  to  prevent  the 
exhaustion  that  must  otherwise  take  place 
It  may  be  sown  after  most  sorts  of  grain 
crops,  especially  where  the  land  possess- 
es sufficient  fertility,  and  is  in  a  proper 
state  of  tillage. 

^fifter  Culture. — As  hemp,  from  its  tall 
growth  and  thick  foliage,  soon  covers  the 
surface  of  the  land,  and  prevents  the  ri- 
sing of  weeds,  little  attention  is  necessarj- 
aiter  the  seed  has  been  put  into  the 
ground. 

In  the  culture  of  this  plant,  it  is  parti- 
cularly necessary,  that  ^le  same  piece  of 
land  contains  both  male  and  female^  or 
what  is  sometimes  denominated  simple 
hemp.     The  latter  kind  contains  the  seed. 

When  the  crop  is  ripe,  which  is  known 
by  its  becoming  of  a  whitish  yellow  co- 
lour, and  a  few  of  the  leaves  beginning  to 
drop  from  the  stems,  which  happens  com- 
monly about  thirteen  or  fourteen  weeks 
from  the  period  of  its  being  sown,accoi-d- 
mg  as  the  season  may  be  dry  or  wet,  the 
first  sort  being  mostly  ripe  some  weeks 
iefore  the  latter  ; — the  next  operation  is 
r        TOE.    I» 


that  of  taking  it  from  the  ground,  which 
is  effected  by  pulling  it  up  by  the  roots,  in 
small  parcels  at  a  time,  by  the  hand,  tak- 
ing care  to  shake  off  the  mould  well  from 
them  before  the  handfuls  are  laid  down. 
In  some  districts,  the  whole  crop  is  pulled 
together,  witliout  any  distinction  being 
made  between  the  different  kinds  of 
hemp  ;  wliile,  in  others,  it  is  the  practice 
to  separate  and  pull  them  at  different 
times,  according  to  their  ripeness.  The 
latter  is  obviously  tlie  better  practice  ;  as 
by  pulling  a  large  proportion  of  tlie  crop 
before  it  is  in  a  proper  state  of  maturity, 
the  quantity  of  produce  must  not  only  be 
considerably  lessened,  but  its  quality 
greatly  injured,  by  being  rendered  less 
durable.  After  being  thus  pulled,  it  is 
tied  up  in  small  parcels,  or  what  are 
sometimes  provincially  tei-med  baits. 

Where  crops  of  tliis  kind  are  intended 
for  seeding,  they  should  be  suffered  to 
stand  till  the  seed  becomes  in  a  perfect 
state  of  maturity,  which  is  easily  known  by 
the  appearance  of  it  on  inspection.  The 
stems  are  then  pulled  and  boimd  up,  as  in 
the  otlier  case,  the  bundles  being  set  up 
in  the  same  manner  as  grain,  until  the 
seed  becomes  so  dry  and  firm  as  to  shed 
freely.  It  is  then  either  immediately 
thrashed  out  upon  large  cloths  for  the 
purpose  in  the  field,  or  taken  home  to 
have  the  operation  afterwards  performed. 

The  after-management  of  hemp  crops 
vaiies  greatly  in  different  places,  where 
their  culture  is  encouraged.  In  some,  it 
is  the  practice  only  to,  what  is  called, 
de'a-ripen,  or  ret,  the  produce,  while  in 
others  the  genersd  custom  is  to  ijater-ret 
it. 

In  the  former  metliod,  ti»e  hemp,  imme- 
diately after  being  pulled,  is  carefully 
spread  out  in  a  very  even,  regular,  and 
thin  manner,  on  a  piece  of  level  old  pas- 
ture, on  which  it  is  to  remain  for  five,  six, 
or  more  weeks,  according  to  circumstan- 
ces, being  occasionally  turned  duiing  the 
time.  When  the  weaker  is  showery,  this 
is  mostly  done  three  times  in  the  week  ; 
but  in  other  cases  twice  is  commonly  suf- 
ficient When  the  rind  or  hempy  sub- 
stance becomes  easily  separable  from  the 
woody  part,  or  stem,  it  is  taken  up  and 
tied  into  bundles,  either  to  be  stacked  up 
on  the  spot,  or  carried  home  and  placed 
in  some  convenient  situation,  where  it 
mav  remain  until  it  can  be  manufactured. 
In  this  process,  which  is  termed  grassing, 
great  attention  is  requisite  to  prevent  the 
texture  of  the  hemp  from  being  injured  by 
its  remaining  too  long  on  the  grass. 

But  the  latter  practice  is  much  better, 
and  more  expeditious  as  well  as  more  ge- 
neral. In  tii!s,  the  hemp,  as  soon  as  pull- 
E 


AGR 


AGR 


cd,  is  tied  up  in  small  bundles,  frequently 
■it  both  ends.  It  is  then  conveyed  to  pits, 
or  ponds  of  stagnant  water,  about  six  or 
eig-lit  feet  in  depth,  such  as  have  a  clayey 
soil  being  in  general  preferred,  and  depo- 
sited in  beds,  according  to  their  si/e  and 
depth  ;  the  small  bundles  being  laid  both 
in  a  straight  direction  and  crosswise  of 
each  other,  so  as  to  bind  perfectly  togeth- 
er ;  the  whole  being  loaded  witli  timber, 
or  other  materials,  so  as  to  keep  the  beds 
of  hemp  just  below  the  surface  of  the  wa- 
ter :  the  quantity  of  an  acre,  or  three  small 
waggon-loads,  being  in  some  instances 
piled  in  one  bed.  But  as  the  action  of  the 
atmospheric  air  is  essentially  necessary  to 
produce  that  degree  of  putrefaction, 
which  is  requisite  for  destroying  the  small 
fibres  and  vegetable  gluten,  by  which  the 
bark  or  Iicmpy  substance  adlieres  to  the 
hin,  or  stem,  it  may  be  more  advantageous 
to  build  them  in  much  smaller  beds  ;  as 
by  such  means  the  business  may  not  only 
be  more  expeditiously  accomplished,  but 
the  danger  of  rotting  the  hemp  too  much, 
prevented.  On  the  same  principle,  the 
depth  of  the  ponds  should  not  exceed  the 
dimensions  given  above  It  is  not  usual 
to  water  more  than  four  or  five  times  in 
the  same  pit,  till  it  has  been  tilled  with 
fresh  water.  Where  the  ponds  are  not 
sufficiently  large  to  contain  the  whole  of 
the  produce  at  once,  it  is  the  practice  to 
pull  the  hemp  only  as  it  can  be  admitted 
into  them,  it  being  thought  disadvanta- 
geous to  leave  the  hemp  on  the  ground, 
after  being  pulled  It  is  left  in  these  pits, 
four,  five,  or  six  days,  or  even  more,  ac- 
cording to  the  warmth  of  the  season,  and 
the  judgment  of  the  operator,  on  his  ex- 
amining whether  the  hempy  material  rea- 
dily se[)arates  fi-om  the  reed  or  stem  ;  and 
then  taken  up  and  conveyed  to  a  pasture 
field,  which  is  clean  and  even,  the  bun- 
dles being  loosed,  and  spread  out  thinly 
stem  by  stem,  turning  it  every  second  or 
third  day,  especially  in  damp  weather,  to 
prevent  its  being  injured  by  worms,  or 
other  insects  It  should  remain  in  this  si- 
tuation for  two,  three,  four,  or  more 
weeks,  according  to  circum.stanccs,  and 
be  then  collected  together  when  in  a  per- 
fectly dry  slate,  tied  up  into  large  bundles, 
and  placed  in  some  seciu'e  building  until 
an  opportunity  is  afibrded  for  breaking  it 
in  order  to  separate  the  liemp.  By  this 
means,  the  process  of  grossing  is  not  only 
shortened,  but  the  more  expensive  ones  of 
breaking,  scutching-,  and  bleaching  the 
yarn,  rendered  less  violent  and  trouble- 
some. Besides,  the  hemp  managed  in 
this  way,  sells  much  dearer  tlian  when  the 
former  method  is  adopted.  After  the 
hcinp  has  been  removed  from  the  field, 


and  the  business  of  ^rawin^  properly  per- 
formed, it  is  in  a  state  to  be  broken  and 
swingled,  operations  that  aie  mostly  per- 
formed by  common  labourers,  by  means 
of  machinery  for  the  purpose,  the  produce 
being  tied  up  in  stones.  The  refuse,  col- 
lected in  the  latter  processes,  is  denomi- 
nated sheaves,  and  is, in  some  districts,  em- 
ployed for  the  purposes  of  fuel,  being  sold 
at  two  pence  the  stone.  After  having  un- 
dergone these  different  operations,  it  is 
ready  for  the  purposes  of  the  manufactu- 
rer. 

On  Flax.— Flax  is  not  a  severe  crop  on 
the  soil,  wlien  pulled  green,  as  it  ought  to 
be,  if  an  article  of  good  quality  is  wished 
for ;  though,  when  allowed  to  stand  for 
seed,  it  is  as  severe  a  scourge  as  can  be 
inflicted.  The  soils  most  suitable  for  flax, 
besides  the  alluvial  kind  are  deep  and  fria- 
ble loams,  and  such  as  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  vegetable  matter  in  their 
composition.  Strong  clays  do  not  answer 
well,-  nor  soils  of  a  gravelly  or  dry  sandy 
nature.  But  whatever  be  the  kind  of  soil, 
it  ought  neither  to  be  in  too  poor  nor  in 
too  rich  a  condition ;,  because,  in  the  lat- 
ter case,  the  flax  is  apt  to  grow  too  luxu- 
riant, and  to  produce  a  coarse  sort ;  and, 
in  the  former  case,  the  plant,  from  grow- 
ing weakly,  affords  only  a  small  produce. 

Preparation. — Wlien  grass  land  is  in- 
tended for  flax,  it  ought  to  be  broke  up  as 
early  in  the  season  as  possible,  ^o  that  the 
soil  may  be  duly  mellowed  by  the  winter 
ft'osts,  and  in  good  order  for  being  reduc- 
ed by  the  harrov/s,  wlien  the  seed  process 
is  attempted  If  flax  is  to  succeed  a  corn 
crop,  the  like  care  is  required  to  jjrocure 
the  aid  of  frost,  without  which  the  svu'fiice 
cannot  be  rendered  fine  enough  for  re- 
ceiving the  seed.  Less  frost,  however, 
will  do  in  the  last,  than  in  the  first  case  ; 
therefore  the  grass  land  ought  alwa)'s  to 
be  earliest  ploftghed-  At  seed  time,  bar- 
row the  land  well  before  the  seed  is  dis- 
tributed, then  cover  the  seed  to  a  suffi- 
cient depth,  by  giving  a  double  to 
the  harrows.  Water-furrow  the  land, 
and  remove  any  stones  and  roots  that  may 
remain  on  the  surface ;  which  finishes  tlie 
seed  process. 

Quantity  rf  Seed. — When  a  crop  of  seed 
is  intended  to  be  taken,  thin  sowing  is  pre- 
ferable, in  order  that  tlie  plants  may  have 
room  to  fork  or  s])read  out  their  leaves, 
and  to  obtain  air  in  the  blossoming  and 
filling  seasons.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  sow 
thin,  when  flax  is  intended  to  be  taken  ;  for 
the  crop  then  becomes  coarse,  and  often 
improductive.  From  eight  to  ten  pecks 
per  acre  is  a  proper  quantity  in  the  last 
case  ;  but  whe:i  seed  is  the  object,  six 
pecks  will  do  verj-  well. 


AGR 


AGR 


Fime  of  Pulling. — Different  opinions  are 
neld  respecting  the  period  when  flax  can 
be  most  profitably  pulled ;  but,  generally 
speaking,  it  is  the  safest  coiu-se  to  take  it 
a  litUe  eai-ly,  anything  wanting  in  quantity 
being,  in  this  way,  made  up  by  supei'iori- 
ty  of  quahty  ;  besides,  when  pulled  in  a 
gi-een  si.ate,"flas  is  not  a  scourge,  though 
this  objection  has  been  urged  a  hundred 
times  against  its  culture.  When  suffered 
to  ripen  its  seed  sufficiently,  there  is  no 
question  but  that  flax  is  a  severe  crop, 
though  not  much  more  so  than  rye-^ass, 
when  allowed  to  stand  till  the  seed  is  per- 
fectly ripened.  But  as  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  allowing  any  great  breadth  of  flax 
to  remain  for  seed,  the  benefits  to  be  de- 
rived from  this  crop  are  numerous,  wJiile 
the  evils  attending  it  are  only  partial;  and, 
were  sufficient  care  bestowed,  even  these 
evils  might  be  done  away  almost  altogeth- 
er. Were  flax  for  seed  only  sown  on  pai*- 
ticular  soils  for  example,  on  new  broken 
up  moors,  no  detriment  would  follow  ;  be- 
cause these  soils  are  fresh,  and,  in  ihe  first 
ins':ance,  will  produce  excellent  seed,  even 
of  superior  quality  to  what  can  be  raised 
on  lands  of  three  times  more  value,  when 
applied  to  corn  culture 

.Method, if  Watering  — Whenflax  is  pull- 
ed it  ought  10  be  immediately  put  intotlie 
water,  so  that  it  may  part  with  the  rind  or 
shaw,  and  be  fit  tor  the  manufactujer 
Standing  pools,  for  many  reasons,  are 
most  proper  for  the  purpose,  occasioning 
the  flax  to  have  a  better  colour,  to  be 
sooner  ready  for  the  grass,  and  even  to  be 
of  superior  quality  in  every  respect. 
When  put  into  tiae  water,  it  is  tied  up  in 
beets,  or  small  sheaves ;  tlie  smaller  the 
better,  because  it  is  then  most  equally 
watered.  These  sheaves  ought  to  be 
built  in  the  pool  in  a  reclining  upright  pos- 
ture, so  that  the  weight  placed  above  may 
keep  the  whole  firm  down.  In  warm 
weather,  ten  days  of  the  watering  process 
is  sufficient ;  biit  it  is  proper  to  examine 
the  pools  regularly  after  the  seventh  da}-, 
lest  the  flax  should  putrefy  or  rot,  whicb 
sometimes  happens  in  very  warm  weath- 
er. Twelve  days  will  answer  in  any  sort 
of  weather ;  though  it  may  be  remarked, 
that  it  is  better  to  give  rather  too  little  gf 
tlie  water,  than  too  much,  as  any  deficien- 
cy may  be  easily  made  up  by  suffering  it 
to  lie  longer  on  the  grass,  whereas  an  ex- 
cess of  water  admits  of  no  remedy.  Alter 
lying  on  the  grass  for  a  dvie  time,  till  any 
defect  of  tlie  watering  process  is  rectified, 
flax  is  taken  up,  tied  when  dry  in  lai'ge 
sheaves,  and  cai-ried  to  t!ie  mill  to  be 
switched  and  prepared  for  the  heckle. 
Switching  may  also  be  performed  byhand- 
iabo'ai"  4  tbouach  in  this  case  it  Is  rarely  so 


perfectly  accomplished  as  when  machine- 
ry is  employed. 

On  Hops. — Hops  are  a  necessary  article 
in  brewing,  but  not  advantageous  in  an 
agricultural  point  of  view;  because  much 
manure  is  abstracted  by  them,  while  little 
or  none  is  returned.  1  hey  are  an  uncer- 
tain article  of  growth,  otten  j-ielding  large 
profits  to  the  cultivator,  and  as  often  mak- 
ing an  imperfect  retum,  barely  sufl[\cient 
to  defi-ay  the  expenses  of  labour.  In  fact, 
hops  are  exposed  to  many  more  diseases 
than  any  other  plant  wiUi  which  we  ai-e 
acquainted. 

When  a  piece  of  land  is  intended  to  be 
planted,  the  first  thing  is  to  plough  the 
land  as  deep  as  possible,  early  in  October, 
and  to  harrow  it  level :  it  is  then  meted 
each  way  with  a  four  rod  chain,  placing 
pieces  of  reed  or  stick  at  every  tenth 
link,  to  mark  the  place  of  the  hills,  which 
makes  1000  per  acre.  This  is  the  general 
method;  but  some  few  grounds  are  plant- 
ed 800,  and  some  12U0  per  acre;  some 
are  planted  wider  one  way  than  the  other, 
in  order  to  admit  ploughing  between  the 
hills,  instead  of  digging.  But  this  prac- 
tice, altliough  it  has  been  ti-ied  many 
years,  does  not  seem  to  increase,  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulty  of  digging  along  the 
rows,  where  the  plough  cannot  go ;  that 
part,  being  much  trodden  with  the  horses 
in  ploughing,  digs  so  much  the  worse, 
that  an  extra  expense  is  incurred,  which 
in  some  measure  defeats  the  economy  of 
the  plan.  W'hen  the  hills  are  marked  out, 
small  holes  are  dug,  which  are  filled  with 
fine  mould,  and  the  nursery-plants  placed 
in  them. 

Some  put  three  plants,  others  two,  and 
some  only  one  good  plant  to  each  hole  If 
the  land  is  planted  witli  cuttings,  instead 
of  nursery-plants,  the  holes  are  dug  in 
the  spring,  as  soon  as  cutting  time  com- 
mences. Some  fine  mould  is  provided  to 
fill  up  the  holes,  in  which  are  placed  four 
or  five  cuttings,  each  about  three  or  four 
inches  in  length.  They  are  covered  about 
an  inch  deep  with  fine  mould,  and  pressed 
down  close  with  the  hand.  When  the 
land  is  planted  with  cuttings,  no  sticks 
are  required ;  but,  if  nursery  plants  are 
used,  they  require  sticks,  or  small  poles, 
six  or  seven  feet  high  the  first  year.  In 
both  cases,  the  land  is  kept  clear,  dur- 
ing  the  summer,  by  horse  and  hand  hoe- 
ing ;  tile  next  winter  dug  with  a  spade ; 
and  early  in  the  spring  the  old  binds  are 
cut  off  smooth,  about  an  inch  below  the 
surface  ;  a  little  fine  mould  is  then  drawn 
over  the  crown  of  die  hills.  As  soon  as 
the  young  shoots  appeal-,  so  that  the  hills 
may  be  seen,  they  are  stuck  with  small 
poles^  from  seven  to  ten  feet  bng,  in  prQ^ 


AGR 


AGR 


Rortion  to  the  lengtli  it  is  expected  the 
Dind  will  run.  As  soon  as  the  binds  get 
about  two  feet  in  length,  women  are  em- 
ployed to  tie  them  to  the  poles.  The  land 
is  kept  clean  during  tlie  summ(;i-,  by 
horse  :nul  liaiid  hoeing,  as  before  mention- 
ed The  proper  time  for  gathering  Uiem 
is  known  by  the  hop  rubbnig  fiuely  to 
pieces,  and  the  seed  beginning  to  turn 
brown.  They  are  picked  in  baskets, 
and  carried  to  the  oast  or  kiln  in  bags, 
at  noon  and  evening,  for  drying.  Great 
care  and  skill  are  necessary  in  this  Ivanch 
of  the  business ;  the  smallest  neglect 
or  ignorance  in  the  management  of  the 
fires,  will  spoil  tlie  hops,  and  occasion 
great  loss  to  the  planter.  When  dried, 
and  sufficiently  cool  to  get  a  little  tough, 
so  as  not  to  crumble  to  powder,  they 
ai'e  put  into  bags,  or  pockets,  the  former 
containing  two  hundred  weight  and  a 
half,  and  the  latter,  an  hundred  and  a 
quarter  :  they  are  then  trodden  very  close, 
and  weighed  for  sale. 

The  second  year  after  planting,  full- 
sized  poles,  from  1 5  to  20  feet  in  length, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  land,  arc 
placed  to  the  liills  instead  of  the  seconds, 
wliich  are  removed  to  3()unger  grounds. 
Here  great  ciu-e  is  necessarj-  not  to  over- 
pole,  for  by  that  means  young'  grovmds  are 
often  much  weakened ;  and  it  is  equally 
so  not  to  over-dung  them,  as  that  will 
make  them  mouldy  Fifty  cart-loads  of 
well  rotted  farm-yard  dung  and  mould, 
once  in  three  years,  are  generally  esteem- 
ed sufficient  fo''  rm  acre  of  land. 

Productions — There  can  be  no  certain 
report  made  of  the  produce  of  the  I'lop 
plant.ations  ;  because,  in  some  years,  the 
growth  is  less  than  two  hundred  weight 
per  acre,  and  in  others  it  is  fourteen  or 
fifteen  ;  the  average  may  be  seven  or 
eight. 

On  Grasses  for  Cutting. — We  are  unac- 
quainted with  any  variety  of  grass,  that 
will  jield  a  greater  return  to  the  farmer, 
when  cut  by  the  siihe,  t!)an  broad  or  red 
clo\er  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
timothy  or  rye-gi:'Ks.  The  fir.st  mentioned 
may  be  regarded  in  most  cases,  as  the 
parent  which  produces  tlie  crop,  and  the 
other  only  in  the  light  of  an  assistant,  or 
nurse,  wliich  sei'ves  to  train  lip  the  crop 
to  maturity,  and  to  jirotect  it  from  rude 
blasts  and  inclement  storms.  Fine  soils 
alone  are  calculated  to  produce  an  heavy 
crop  ot  gi'uss,  when  clover  is  only  used  as 
the  seed  plant ;  but  wlun  a  small  qnantily 
of  rye-grass  is  sown  along  v.  iih  the  clover, 
it  is  wonderful  what  vcighl  of  crop  may 
be  obtained,  even  from  inlerior  soils,  when 
the  seeds  are  sown  at  a  proper  season,  on 
l:i^d  in  g<r)d  order  and  condition.     Some 


people  make  a  greater  mixture,  and  add 
a  portion  of  w  hite  and  yellow  clover  ;  buV 
the  addition  is  unnecessary,  when  a  cut- 
ting crop  only  is  meant  to  be  taken ;  and 
we  are  convinced,  that  grass  cut  in  one 
year  ought  to  be  ploughed  in  the  next, 
otherwise  a  crop  of  inferior  value  will  cer- 
tainly be  obtained.  Laying  this  down 
therefore  as  a  fixed  rule,  we  consider  six- 
teen pounds  weight  of  red  or  broad  clover, 
and  two  pecks  of  rye-grass  seed,  as  a  full 
allowance  for  an  acre  of  ground.  The 
seeds,  to  ensure  a  good  crop  of  grass, 
ought  always  to  be  sown  with  a  tallow 
crop  ;  and,'  if  with  winter  wheat,  great 
care  ought  to  he  used  to  cover  them  pro- 
perly, even  though  the  welfare  of  the 
wheat  should  be  hazarded  by  the  har- 
rowing process ;  if  with  spring  wheat  or 
barley,  the  grass  seeds  should  be  sown  at 
the  same  time  with  tliese  crops,  none  of 
which  ought  to  be  thickly  seeded,  so  that 
th.e  grasses  mav  not  be  smothered  or  des- 
troyed. Unless  in  very  favourable  sea- 
sons, and  when  the  grass  has  grown  to  a 
great  length  at  harvest,  neither  slieej) 
nor  cattle  ought  to  be  allowed  to  set  a 
foot  upon  the  stubbles  ;  and  next  spring 
the  ground  should  be  carefully  stoned, 
and  afterwards  rolled,  so  that  the  sithe 
may  run  smoothly  upon  the  surface,  and 
cut  the  crop  as  close  as  possible.  The 
closer  the  first  crop  is  cut,  so  mtich  faster 
will  the  second  one  rush  up,  and  so  much 
thicker  will  the  roots  set  out  i'resh  stems, 
and  thus  produce  a  weighty  after-ci"op. 
To  cut  the  aftei'crop  with  the  sithe  is  also 
the  most  profitable  way  of  using  it ;  be- 
cause a  great  quantity  of  food  is  thereby 
provided  for  live-stock,  and  a  large  in- 
crease made  to  the  dung-hill. 

On  the  JMcthud  of  consuming  cut  Grass . 
— Clover  and  rye-grass,  sown  for  a  cut- 
ting crop,  may  be  used  in  various  ways  : 

1 .  As  green  food  for  the  working  stock. 

2.  For  fattening  the  cattle,  either  put  up  in 
the  stable,  or  kept  in  a  court  or  farm-yard. 

3.  For  hay.  On  each  of  these  points  we 
shall  say  a  few  words. 

1.  As  gi-een  food  for  the  working  stock, 
clover  and  lye-grass  may  -be  used  with 
great  advantage,  when  in  a  succulent 
slate  ;  and  when  cut  fresh,  and  fiunished 
regularly,  the  animals  will  thrive  equally 
well  as  if  allowed  to  roam  at  large,  while 
at  least  one-half  less  ground  is  required  to 
sup])ort  them  in  the  former  case  than  in 
the  latter.  Besides,  horses  kept  in  this 
\\i\y  are  always  at  hand,  and  ready  for 
seivicc.  They  are  not  injured,  as  in  the 
field,  by  galloping  about  and  kicking  at 
each  otiier;  nor  is  their  dung  lost,  as  it  is 
in  a  great  measure  when  the  field  is 
pastured  ;  but  it  is  preserved  in  a  moist 


AGR 


AGR 


heap,  the  straw  used  for  litter  being 
saturated  with  the  water,  which,  when  on 
this  food,  they  make  in  great  quantities. 

2.  The  next  way  of  using  clover  and 
rye-grass  cut  by  the  sithe,  is  to  feed  cattle 
upon  the  grass  by  tying  them  up  in  a  shade, 
or  allowing  them  to  run  at  large  in  a  farm- 
yard. This  is  a  practice  of  more  recent 
date  than  that  of  feeding  horses,  tliough, 
by  analogy,  it  may  be  inferred,  that  if  this 
mode  of  feeding  answers  in  the  one  case, 
it  will  do  equally  well  in  tlie  other. 

3.  To  convert  clover  and  i-ye-grass  into 
hay,  or  dry  fodder,  for  winter  consump- 
tion, is  another  way  in  which  these  gras- 
ses may  be  profitably  used.  It  is  well 
known,  that,  in  common  seasons,  tlie  pro- 
cess of  cutting  clover  and  rje-grass,  and 
making  them  into  excellent  hay,  is  a  very 
simple  matter,  and  that  with  no  other 
grasses  can  the  hay  process  be  so  easily 
or  speedily  executed.  To  cut  the  plants 
a  Uttle  quick,  is  obviously  the  best  method 
of  procuring  good  hay,  and  likewise  of  the 
most  advantage  to  the  ground ;  because 
the  plants,  not  having  perfected  their 
seeds,  extract  from  the  ground  much  less 
of  its  strength  or  substance  than  would 
undoubtedly  be  drawn  out,  were  they  suf- 
fered to  stand  till  they  arrived  at  matui-ity. 
In  fact,  improvement  from  these  varieties 
of  grass  is  regulated  entirely  by  the  time 
of  Uieir  cutting;  and  as  it  is  early  or  lute 
in  the  season  when  the  cutting  process  is 
performed,  so  will  the  advantage  to  be 
derived  fi'om  these  grasses  be  ascer- 
tained. We  here  speak  of  the  soil,  not 
of  the  weight  of  the  crop  which  may  be 
I'eaped  from  it ;  though,  when  the  first 
crop  is  late,  or  stands  long  uncut,  the 
second  is  rarely  of  much  value. 

Grass,  when  cut  for  h?y,  ought  to  be 
quickly  raked,  in  order  tliat  its  powers 
may  neither  be  exhausted  by  the  sun,  nor 
dissipated  by  the  air.  In  tlie  first  stage 
small  cocks  are  preferable ;  and  on  after 
days,  these  may  be  gathered  into  larger 
ones,  or  hand-ricks,  by  which  method  the 
hay  is  equally  made,  and  properly  sweat- 
ed. After  standing  two  or  three  days  in 
these  ricks,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
weather,  hay  may  be  carted  liome,  and 
built  in  stacks  of  sufficient  size  for  stand- 
ing through  the  winter  months,  or  stored 
in  farm  houses.  In  ordinary  weatlier,  the 
processes  of  preparing  hay  and  bringing 
it  into  good  condition  ai"e  easily  executed, 
though,  in  bad  weather,  few  branches  of 
rural  economy  are  attended  with  more 
vexation  or  performed  with  more  diffi- 
culty. If  this  is  the  case  with  clover  and 
rye-grass,  the  hazard  and  trouble  are  ten 
times  greater  when  natural  or  meadow 
grasses  are  made  into  hay.  Iti  a  wet  season. 


these  are  rarely  preserved  in  healthy  con- 
dition ;  and  in  the  very  best,  much  more  at- 
tention and  work  are  required,  than  when 
artificial  grasses  are  to  be  harvested. 

Of  Grass,  •when  consumed  by  Live  Stock. 
— Pasturage  is  the  ancient  and  common 
method  of  consuming  grass ;  and  as  many 
soils  do  not  yield  crops  which  can  be  con- 
sumed in  any  other  way,  it  o"bviously  must 
continue  to  be  followed  as  the  best  way  in 
wliich  live  stock  can  in  general  cases  be 
ted  or  supported. 

The  grasses  most  fit  for  the  sithe  are 
not  best  calculated  to  make  a  good  pas- 
turage ;  nor  ought  seeds  in  the  first  men- 
tioned instance  to  be  sown  so  thick  as  -is 
necessary  when  the  grazing  system  is  to 
be  adopted.  We  have  already  said,  that 
red  clover  and  rye  grass  are  the  proper 
seeds  for  a  crop,  either  to  be  used  in  soil- 
ing, or  to  be  manufactured  into  hay ;  but 
when  pasture  is  intended,  white  clover 
should  be  liberally  used.  A  pasture  field 
can  scarcely  be  too  thickly  planted  at  the 
outset;  because,  being  constantly  eaten 
down  by  the  cattle,  the  thickness  of  bot- 
tom is  not  detrimental,  nay  rather  advan- 
tageous to  its  after  growth.  It  is  of  im- 
portance, however,  not  to  put  beasts  too 
early  in  the  season  upon  new  grass,  and 
particularly  to  keep  them  off  when  the 
weather  is  wet.  After  the  surface  is  con- 
solidated, less  risk  of  damage  is  encoun- 
tered, though  at  all  times  pasturing  by 
hea\y  cattle  is  attended  with  evil  conse- 
quences during  wet  weather. 

We  are  friends  to  alternate  husbandry, 
and  therefore  hostile  to  every  scheme  cal- 
culated to  keep  land  in  grass  constantly, 
or  for  any  period  comparatively  long. 
There  are  many  soils,  however,  which  re- 
quire to  be  longer  grazed,  not  on  account 
of  the  profit  obtained  by  allowing  tliem  to 
remain  in  that  state,  but  entii'ely  because 
they  will  not  pay  for  ploughing,  unless 
freshened  and  invigorated  by  grass. 

Upon  thin  soils  of  every  description, 
sheep  are  a  safer  stock  than  black  cattle, 
because  the  former  will  thrive  where  the 
latter  will  starve.  An  annual  stock  may 
also  be  considered  as  preferable  to  a 
breeding  or  standing  one  in  all  low  coun- 
try districts ;  and  perhaps  rearing  of  lambs 
for  the  butcher,  and  feeding  their  dams 
afterwards,  is  the  most  profitable  way  of 
keeping  sheep. 

On  Draining. — Few  improvements  ai'e 
attended  with  more  salutary  effects,  tliau 
those  accomplished  by  the  removal  of  su- 
perfluous moisture  from  arable  land;  be- 
cause, when  such  moisture  is  suflered  to 
remain,  ploughing  can  only  be  imperfectly 
performed,  whilst  the  benefit  of  manure 
is  in  a  gi-cat  measure  lost-.     To  carry  off 


AGR 


AGR 


superfluous  water  is,  therefore,  an  impor- 
tant object  in  the  sight  of  every  good  far- 
mer, meiiling  at  all  times  his  most  assi- 
duous uttention. 

AVhercver  a  burst  of  water  appears  in 
any  particuFar  spot,  tlie  sure  and  certain 
way  of  getting  quit  of  such  an  evil  is  to 
dig  hollow  drains,  to  such  a  depth  below 
the  surface  as,  is  required  by  the  fall  or 
level  that  can  be  gained,  and  by  the  quan- 
tity of  water  expected  to  pi-ocepd  from 
the  burst  or  spring.  Having  ascertained 
the  extent  of  water  to  be  carried  of}",  ta- 
ken the  necessary  levels,  and  cleared  a 
mouth,  or  leading  passage  for  the  water, 
begin  the  drain  at  the  extremity  next  to 
that  leader,  and  go  on  with  the  work  till 
the  top  of  the  spring  is  touched,  which 
probably  will  accomplish  the  intended 
object.  But  if  it  should  not  be  complete- 
ly accomplished,  run  off  from  the  main 
drain  with  such  a  number  of  branches,  as 
jnay  be  required  to  intercept  the  water, 
and  in  this  v/ay,  disa])pointment  will  Iiard- 
}y  be  experienced.  Drains,  to  be  substan- 
tially useful,  should  seldom  be  less  than 
three  feet  in  depth,  twenty  or  twenty-four 
inches  thereof  to  be  close  packed  \\ith 
stones  or  wood,  according  to  circum- 
stances. The  former  are  the  best  mate- 
rials, but  in  many  places  are  not  to  be  got 
in  sufficient  quantities;  recourse  there- 
fiire  must  often  be  made  to  the  latter, 
though  not  so  effectual  or  duiable. 

It  is  of  vast  importance  to  fill  up  drains 
as  fast  as  lliey  are  dug  out ;  because^  if 
left  open  for  any  Ungth  of  time,  the  earth 
is  not  only  apt  to  fall  in,  but  the  sides  get 
into  a  broken  irregular  state,  which  can- 
not afterwards  be  completely  rectified. 
Jt  also  deserves  attention,  that  a  proj^er 
covering  of  straw  or  sod  should  be  put 
upon  the  top  of  the  materials,  to  keep  the 
surface  earth  from  mixing  v.'ith  them 
Man)r  farmers,  nevertheless,  drahi  much 
less  in  depth,  and  leave  them  cnth-ely 
open. 

TJie  pit  method  of  draining  is  a  very 
♦  n'ectual  one,  if  executed  with  judgment. 
AV  lien  it  is  sufficiently  ascertained  where 
the  bed  of  water  is  deposited,  which  can 
easily  be  done  by  boring  with  an  auger, 
sink  a  pit  ijito  the  jilace,  of  a  siie  which 
■will  allow  a  man  freely  to  work  within  its 
Iwuuds,  Dig  this  pit  of  such  a  depth  as 
to  reach  the  bed  of  the  water  meant  to  be 
carried  off;  and  wiien  this  depth  is  at- 
tained, which  is  easily  discerned  by  the 
rising  of  the  water,  fill  up  the  pit  with  big 
iai.d  stones,  and  carry  off  the  water  by  a 
stout  drain  to  some  adjoining  ditch  or 
mo\ith,  whence  it  may  proceed  to  the 
tu-arcst  river.  Indeed,  if  the  proper  spot 
-  pitched  upon  for  putting  down  the  i)it, 


the  object  must  be  attained;  because  the 
water  being  there  stopped  or  impeded  by 
a  close  substratum,  is  immediately  set  at 
liberty,  when  that  substratum  is  pierced 
and  cut  through. 

What  is  called  the  sod  or  pipe  drain 
consists  of  a  trench  dug  to  a  proper  depth  ; 
after  wliich  a  last  spadeful  is  taken  out  in 
such  a  way  as  to  leave  a  narrow  channel, 
which  can  be  covered  by  a  sod  or  turf 
dug  in  grass  land,  and  laid  over  it,  the 
grass  side  downwards.  Such  drams  are 
said  to  continue  hollow,  and  to  discharge 
well  for  a  great  nvmiber  of  j-ears. 

Another  sod  drain  is  thus  made:  When 
the  line  of  drain  is  marked  out,  a  sod  is 
cut  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  the  grass  side 
being  the  nr.rrowest,  and  the  sods  being 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  length. 
The  drain  is  then  cut  to  the  depth  re- 
quired, but  it  is  contracted  to  a  very  nar- 
row bottom.  The  sods  are  then  set  in 
with  the  grass  side  downwards,  and  press- 
ed as  far  as  they  will  go.  As  the  figure 
of  the  drain  does  not  suH'er  them  to  go  to 
the  bottom,  a  cavity  is  left  which  serves 
as  a  water  course ;  and  the  space  above 
is  filled  with  the  earth  thrown  out. 

Another  invention  for  draining  land  is 
described  in  the  Agricultural  Report  of 
the  County  of  Essex.  It  consists  of  a 
draining  wheel  of  cast  iron,  that  weighs 
about  four  cwt.  It  is  four  feet  in  diameter, 
the  cutting  edge  or  extremity  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  wheel  is  half  an  inch 
tliiek,  and  it  increases  in  thickness  to- 
wards the  centre.  At  fifteen  inches  deep 
it  will  cut  a  <lrain  half  an  incli  wide  at  tl)e 
bottom,  and  four  inches  wide  at  the  top. 
The  wheel  is  so  placed  in  a  frame,  that 
it  may  be  loaded  at  pleasure,  and  made  to 
operate  to  a  greater  or  less  deptli,  accord, 
ing  to  tlie  resi.stance  made  by  the  groimd. 
It  is  used  in  winter  when  the  soil  is  soft; 
and  the  wiieel  tracks  are  either  imme- 
diately filled  with  straw  ropes,  and  light- 
ly covered  over  wiiii  earth,  or  they  are 
left  to  crack  wider  and  deeper  till  the  en- 
suing summer;  after  which  the  fissures 
are  filled  with  ropes  of"  straw  or  of  twist- 
ed tw  igs,  and  lightly  covered  over  with 
the  most  porous  earth  that  is  at  hand. 
Thus,  upon  grass  lands,  hollow  drains, 
which  answer  extremely  well,  are  form- 
ed at  a  trifling  expense.  It  is  said  that 
twelve  acres  may  be  fully  gone  over 
with  this  di-aining  wheel  in  one  day,  so 
as  to  make  cuts  at  all  necesssary  dis- 
tances. 

On  pastures  a  still  simjjler  nwde  of  re- 
moving surface  water  is  practised  in  some 
places,  ^^■herever  the  water  is  a])t  to 
stagnate,  a  deep  furrow  is  turned  uj)  with 
a  stout  plough.    4fter  this,  a  man  with  a 


AGR 


AGll 


spade  pares  off  the  loose  soil  from  t!ie  in- 
verted sod,  and  scatters  it  over  tlie  field, 
or  casts  it  into  hollow  places.  The  sod 
thus  pared,  and  brought  to  the  thickness 
of  about  three  inches,  is  restored  to  its 
original  situation,  with  the  grassy  side  up- 
permost, as  if  no  furrow  had  been  made. 
A  j)ipe  or  opening  is  thus  formed  beneath 
it  two  or  three  inches  deep  in  the  bottom 
of  the  fuiTow,  which  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
charge a  considerable  quantity  of  sin-face 
water,  which  readily  sinks  into  it.  These 
furrows,  indeed,  are  easily  choked  up  by 
any  pressure,  or  by  the  growth  of  the 
roots  of  the  grass ;  but  they  are  also  easi- 
ly restored,  and  no  surface  is  lost  by  means 
of  them. 

Tliough  many  of  the  above  methods  of 
draimng  are  confessedly  of  a  superficial 
nature,  and  only  calculated  to  serve  for  a 
short  period,  yet  a  proof  is  furnished  from 
them,  that  agriculturists  in  every  quarter 
consider  drainage  as  a  most  useful  and 
necessary  measure.  Perhaps  an  over 
abundance  of  water  is  no  less  pernicious 
to  many  plants  than  the  total  want  of  it 
At  all  events,  when  water  stagnates  upon 
the  soil,  the  roots  of  plants  will  be  I'otted 
and  destroyed.  Even  a  temporary  stag- 
nation renders  land  unproductive ;  and 
the  merits  of  every  farmer  may  be  com- 
pletely ascertained,  by  the  degree  of  at- 
tention employed  to  prevent  such  an 
evil.    See  Draining. 

On  Irrigation,  or  the  method  of  improv- 
ing Land  by  flooding  it  ivith  Water. — R-om 
this  a  benefit  has  been  derived  sufficiently 
extensive,  not  only  to  defray  the  expenses 
incurred,  but  to  afford  a  handsome  return 
to  the  occupiers. 

"  The  quality  of  the  water  most  suitable 
for  this  piu'pose,"  says  Dr.  Singers,  "  may 
be  ascertained  by  experiment.  Let  a 
small  portion  of  land  be  floated  with  it  for 
a  month,  about  the  latter  end  of  IVarvest ; 
and  afterwards  for  a  week  or  two,  about 
the  end  of  spring.  The  effects  of  this 
easy  experiment  will  appear  on  the  grass  ; 
either  in  respect  of  quantity,  oi"  quality,  or 
both :  and  the  warmth  of  the  water  may 
be  sufficiently  discovered,  by  its  power  of 
resisting  early  frosts,  a  matter  of  impor 
tance  in  irrigation. 

The  appearance  of  the  water  is  not  -suf- 
ficient to  determine  its  qualities.  Thick 
muddy  rivers,  enriched  in  their  passage 
through  towns,  and  fertile  soils,  are  not  so 
frequently  to  be  met  with,  as  the  friends  of 
irrigation  would  wish.  When  these  can 
be  obtained,  the  operator  may  depend  on 
their  efficacy.  Kut  clear  alpine  streams 
differ  essentially  in  their  qualities ;  and 
these  are  safest  and  most  certainly  ascer- 
tained, by  observ  ing  the  effect  of  the  wa- 


ter and  the  periods  of  its  fi-eezing-,  as  re- 
commended above.  AVith  regard  to  tho-so 
waters  ^vhich  are  known  to  flow  through 
beds  of  marl,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  much  advantage  may  be  obtained 
from  the  use  of  them,  in  a  sweet  and  rich 
verdure,  valuable  tor  pasturage.  Warm 
rivulets,  containing  gi-eat  quantities  of 
spring  water,  and  resisting  early  frosts, 
may  be  expected  to  encoiu-age  an  early 
pasturage,  and  probably  also  tolerable 
crops  of  hav.  But  mossy  waters,  darken- 
ed by  tbc  tincture  of  peat  bogs,  ai-e  very 
unpromising  for  the  purposes  of  iwiga- 
tion ;  though  it  is  proper  to  give  them  a 
trial ;  and  if  mixed  with  mai-1  waters,  or 
conducted  upon  soils  abounding  with  cal- 
careous matters,  they  may  be  productive 
of  benefit. 

It  is  of  importance,  in  many  dry  pas- 
tures, to  water  lands  covered  with  moss, 
or  with  broom,  heath,  or  other  plants  of 
less  value  to  the  farmer,  for  tlie  purpose 
of  extirpating  these  plants,  and  encou- 
raging palatable  grasses.  On  farms,  which 
have  no  tendency  to  produce  the  rot,  this 
practice  may  prove  useful;  but  v/hen  there 
is  any  degree  of  risk  from  this  distemper, 
the  farmer  will  be  cautious  ;  he  will  suf- 
fer no  summer  watering;,  and  he  will 
allow  no  water  to  stagnate  any  where. 

When  lime  and  marl  are  very  expen- 
sive, or  difficult  to  be  obtained,  and  water 
is  at  command,  farmers  sometimes  water 
dry  slopes,  with  a  view  to  enrich  them  for 
crops  of  grjin.  This  practice  is  ancient, 
and  has  often  succeeded.  But,  it  is  ad- 
mitted, that  water  enriches  the  soil  for 
grass  better  than  for  corn. — The  grain  is 
often  late  and  husky. 

A  flat  meadow  can  only  be  watered  in 
ridges,  and  requires  a  man  of  skill  to  lay 
it  out  in  proper  form,  and  the  work  is  ac- 
corapii.shed  at  a  considerable  expense. 

A  gfiitle  declivity,  which  can  be  water- 
ed in  catciiwork,  is  an  inviting  subject. 
It  perliaps  produces  little  in  the  state 
of  nature,  but  it  mav  become  productive 
by  the  application  otwatex'. 

The  qualiLy  of  the  soil  is  of  little  im- 
portance, when  the  water  deposits  a  gi-eat 
deal  of  enriching  sediment;  for  by  mean's 
of  that  substance,  any  soil  is  rendered 
productive.  Loam  appears  always  to  re- 
pay the  irrigator  with  tlie  hea\'iest  and 
best  crops;  mossy  soils  answer  very  well; 
clay  does  not  protiuce  so  abundantly;  and 
g-i'Hvel  is  geijcrally  poor  and  unproduc- 
tive, in  comparison, — at  least  for  some 
}-ears,  and  imless  fully  watered,  or  the 
water  good. 

It  will  readily  occur  to  the  reader,  that 
streams  of  equal  quality  may  differ  mate- 
rially in  respect  of  the  facility  and  safety 


AGR 


AGR 


wkh  which  tlicy  can  be  managed,  and 
conducted  to  the  i;round9  which  arc  in- 
tended to  be  floated :  that  whatever 
stream  is  fixed  on  for  this  purpose,  the 
operator  should  determine,  by  means  of  a 
level,  wliat  lands  are  capable  of  being'  wa- 
terecl  from  it :  that  it  is  always  convenient, 
and  generally  necessary,  to  enclose  the 
meadows  with  proper  fences,  wears,  or 
dams :  and  that  a  man  of  prudence  will 
liavc  an  eye  to  the  quantity  of  water,  the 
demands  of  his  farm,  the  chance  of  mar- 
kets for  any  surplus  he  may  have  to  spare, 
and  tlu-  prospect  of  obtaining-  sufficient  as- 
sistance in  making  his  crops  of  hay,  with 
c-ast:  ai-.d  expedition.  All  these  mutters 
will  i;ave  tiieir  due  weight,  in  determining 
the  grounds  where  a  meadow  shall  be 
formed,  and  in  fixing  on  the  extent  of  it. 
The  >ery  common  error,  of  lajing  out  a 
greater  quantity  of  meadow,  than  can  be 
i'ully  and  properly  floated,  should  by  all 
means  be  avoided ;  as  it  leads  to  great  ex- 
penses, and  brings  the  practice  of  irriga- 
tion into  discredit. 

"  It  ought  to  be  observed,  that  in  catch - 
work,  the  surface  of  the  meadow  is  sel- 
dom very  much  bioken.  Rough  parts 
may  be  pared  oif,  and  some  trivial  work 
done  in  rafter  levelling-,  which  Ica^'es  a 
part  of  the  sward,  li'  any  seeds  are 
wanted,  the  proper  kinds  may  be  under- 
stood, by  attendnig  to  what  follows  re- 
specting flat  meadows. 

These  are  formed  hito  ridges  by  the 
spade  or  plough,  and  are  therefore  almost 
totallj-  destitute  of  grass,  when  newly  laid 
down.  To  sow  any  seeds  that  are  not  pe- 
rennial, or  that  woidd  not  agree  with  the 
soil  and  water,  would  prove  a  serious 
loss. 

"If  any  trial  has  been  made  of  the  wa- 
ter, and  it  has  been  found  to  encourag-e 
a  set  of  good  plants,  these  ought  to  be 
preferred.  But  it  is  also  necessary  to 
consider  the  soil,  and  to  sow  the  seeds  of 
such  plants  as  are  known  to  prosper  in 
soils  of  a  similar  description.  Attention 
and  experience  will  be  found  the  surest 
guides  in  this  unportant  point;  that  from 
the  first,  the  meadow  may  be  stocked 
with  such  plants  as  may  answer  every 
purpose." 

We  now  come  to  anotlier  branch  of  ir- 
xigation,  calk  d  -wurping;  which  is  one  of 
the  greatest  improvements  that  can  be 
exercised,  adding  to  the  value  and  thick- 
ness of  the  soil  every  time  it  is  repeated. 
In  fact,  a  new  soil  is  artificially  created 
by  the  operation  to  be  treated  of,  and  of 
a  ([uality  superior  to  tliat  of  every  natural 
one.  It  is  only  in  certain  situations,  how- 
ever, that  warping  can  be  used;  but 
vvlierc   sucli  an  opportunity  occu"s,   it 


I  ought  never  to  be  omitted.  The  erjjense 
varies  according  to  situation,  but  can 
never  in  the  slightest  degree  be  compar- 
ed with  the  immense  benefit  derived 
from  it. 

Most  rivers  are  constantly  stored  with 
mud  and  all  sorts  of  alluvial  matter ;  and 
these  being  stirred  and  kept  in  motion  by 
the  tide,  are  conveyed  over  such  adjoin- 
ing grounds,  as  are  flat  and  easily  flood- 
ed. Embankments,  however,  are  previ- 
ously required  before  warping  can  be  ex- 
ecuted ;  and  these  embankments  are  made 
of  earth  taken  from  the  land,  and  built 
with  a  slope  of  three  feet  on  each  side  for 
every  perpendicular  foot  of  rise,  'i'here 
are  mcn-e  or  fewer  openings  in  the  banks 
according  to  the  extent  of  gi-ound  pro- 
posed to  be  warped ;  but,  in  general,  two 
sluices  are  only  necessary,  one  called  the 
flood-gate  to  admit,  tlie  other  called  the 
cloui^h  to  let  off  the  water.  When  the 
spring  tide  begins  to  ebb,  the  floodgate  is 
opened  to  admit  the  water,  while  the 
dough  is  kept  close  by  the  flow,  or  tide. 
As  the  tide  ebbs  down  the  river,  the  pres- 
sure upon  the  outside  is  taken  from  the 
dough,  when  the  weight  of  water  admit- 
ted by  the  flood-gate  pushes  open  the 
dough,  and  is  discharged  slowly  thi'ougli 
it.  The  doughs  are  so  constructed,  as  to 
let  the  water  run  off  between  the  ebb  of 
one  tide,  and  the  flow  of  another ;  and  to 
this  pohit  particular  attention  is  paid.  Tlie 
flood-gates  are  j^laced  above  the  level  of 
common  tides,  it  beins^  only  the  water  of 
spring  tides  that  is  admitted. 

It  will  be  understood,  from  what  h 
stated,  that  warp  consists  of  the  mud  and 
salts  left  by  the  water  that  has  been  ad- 
mitted; and  that  the  technical  phrase 
luarping,  comprehends  all  the  processes 
necessary  to  admit  the  tide  water,  and  to 
deposit  its  sediment  upon  the  field  that  is 
meant  to  be  improved  Letting  in  fresh 
water  would  not  be  called  warping,  but 
simply  flooding.  Fresh  water,  though 
useful  at  proper  seasons,  would  by  no 
means  answer  the  same  jnirpose  as  y'wqy 
water  stiired  up  by  the  tide ;  because  it 
never  could  furnish  a  sufficient  sediment 
for  thickening  the  soil ;  neither  would  the 
sediment  left  be  of  so  rich  a  nature  as 
what  is  furnished  by  tide  water. 

On  Enclosures. — l-'.nclosures,  with  some 
trifling  exceptions,  are  formed  by  build- 
ing stone  walls,  or  with  posts  and  rails, 
and  sometimes  by  planting  tliorn  hedges. 

To  render  a  stone  wall  useful  as  a 
fence,  its  height  ought  never  to  be  less 
than  five  feet  three  inches,  otherwise  it 
will  not  keep  in  many  of  the  breeds  of 
sheep  which  prevail  in  the  country.  In 
erecting  the  fence,  great  care  ought  to  be 


...^ci.  i,y  u^tiWi  upon  a  solid  foundation, 
otherwise  ilie  wuU  is  apt  to  incline  to  a 
.■Ide  and  gradually  to  fall  down.  The  con- 
-iruclion  of  the  rail  enclosure  is  so  simple 
IS  torendt-radehcripiionof  it  unnecessary. 

On    Thorn    J/cil^'es.       A  ihorn    hedge 
nakes   an    excellent    fence,  when    orice 
rained  up  and  bi-ou(jht  to  maturity  ;  but 
he  length  of  lime  which  elapses  betbreit 
an  prove  of  much  benefit,  and  the  great 
'xpense  incurred  in  training  it  up,  ren- 
der such  a  fence  not  much  clicaper  tlian 
I  stone  wall  ;  especially  if  the  loss  frojii 
■he  want  of  it  in  the  first  instance  is  dnly 
jstimuted.     Tlie  price  of  such  a  fence, 
however,  being   gradually   expended  by 
'die  farmer,  he  is  not  so  sensible  of  its 
nriount  as  of  that  of  a  stone  wall,  and  is 
herefore  generally    disposed  to  give  a 
preference  to  the  former.     If  the  several, 
expenses   belonging  to  hedges,  and  tlie 
extent  of  ground  wasted  by  this  mode  of 
fencing,  are  fully  considered,  we  arc  not 
-■ertain  that  the  balai\ce  will  be  mucli  in 
'avour  of  them  as  fences.     At  all  events, 
^  stone  wall  is  useful  in  the  first  year, 
'.yiiereas  a  dozen  at  least  must  elapse  be- 
fore a  hedge  can  be  of  much  benefit. 

When  a  thorn  hedge  is  to  be  planted 
I  is  of  advantage  to  fallow  the  ground  a 
-ear  befoi-e  hand;  and  if  the  soil  is  poor, 
.0  dress  it  with  dung,  so  that  the  young 
.ilants  may  not  be  opjiressed  with  weeds, 
■jv  Stunted  f  )r  want  of  food,  when  weak 
uul  unable  to  send  forlli  their  fibres  in 
search  of  nourishment.  These  things 
-ting  attended  to,  :-nd  the  hedge  plant- 
-d,  an  annual  cleaning  ought  to  be  given; 
sometimes  two  cleanings  are  necessary 
before  tin;  hedge  will  thrive.  It  is  also 
i^ecessary  to  fence  it  at  the  back  with 
l^aling,  that  beasts  may  be  restrained  from 
going  over  it,  and  to  switch  it  over  when 
two  or  three  years  of  age,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  kejJt  close  at  the  bottom.  It  may 
be  remarked,  that  a  gap'  once  made  is 
never  efiectually  filled  up  ;  and  therefore 
the  utmost  care  ought  to  be  exerted  to 
keep  cattle  of  all  kinds  from  making  tres- 
passes. As  the  hedge  grows  up,  repeat- 
ed cuttings  are  necessary,  so  that  a  wide 
bottom  may  be  gained,  without  which  no 
hedge  can  be  considered  as  a  suitable 
Fence  ;  and  some  attention  is  required  to 
give  a  proper  shape  to  the  top,  which  is 
a  matter  of  much  importance  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  hedge.  When  thorns  are  al- 
lowed to  grow  to  unequal  heights,  the 
strong  plants  are  sure  to  smother  the 
weak  ones  ;  and  when  the  hedge  becomes 
broad  at  the  top,  it  retains  water  'and 
snow,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  plants. 
All  these  evils  may  be  avoided  by  proper 
VOL.  I.  ' 


•;,^ 


ALA 


management ;  though,  us  we  have  already 
said,  twelve  years  must  elapse  before  the 
best  managed  iiedge  can  be  considlered 
as  a  sufilcient  fence:  and  in  many  cases 
double  that  time  must  intervene  betwixt 
planting  and  perfection  Upon  many  soils, 
the  most  arduous  endeavours  will  not 
make  a  fence  from  thorns,  though  this, 
after  all,  depends  nuich  upon  the  atten- 
tion bestowed  at  the  outset.  If  once  mar- 
red  in  its  growth  by  carelessness  and  ne- 
gligence, it  is  hardly  practicable  to  make 
up  for  former  enors,  by  additional  dili- 
gence. In  fact,  it  is  an  easier  business  to 
root  up  the  old  hedge,  and  train  up  & 
new  one,  than  to  recover  a  hedge  'which 
has  been  mismanaged,  or  suffered  to  get 
into  bad  condition,  from  want  of  attention 
to  the  cleaning  and  cutting  processes. 

Concluding  Observations.  To  give  a  cor- 
recL  idea  of  the  agriculture  ot  the  United 
States,  would  require  a  very  consider- 
able volume ;  since  it  embraces  all  the 
productions  of  Europe,  except  wine  and 
oil,  and  some  even  of  those  which  are  not 
found  there,  such  as  sugar  and  indigo. 
Us  staple  commodities  may  be  numbered 
under  the  following  heads.  Grain  of 
every  species  produced  in  the  temperate 
climates  of  Europe,  cattle  of  every  kind, 
except  the  buflaloe  ;  sheep,  horses,  asses, 
mules  and  swine,  tobacco,  cotton,  rice, 
indigo,  sugar,  flax,  hemp,  hops,  and  every 
species  of  fruit  and  legumens  reared  in 
any  part  of  Europe. 

•  To  treat  of  the  culture  of  each  of  these 
would  lead  us  beyond  the  limits  of  this 
work  ;  we  are,  therefore,  obliged,  much 
against  our  wishes  to  omit  the  considera- 
tion  of  many  important  articles;  neverthe- 
less the  foregoing  we  flatter  ourselves, 
contains  such  judicious  remarks  on  the 
theory  and  practice  of  the  primary 
branches  of  agriculture,  as.  If  adopted, 
cannot  fail  to  redound  to  the  very  great 
advantage  of  the  agriculturist.  Those  of 
our  readers,  htuvever,  who  are  desirous 
of  more  comprehensive  and  detailed  ac- 
counts of  the  history,  theory,  and  prac- 
tice of  agriculture,  are  referred  to  the 
American  edition  of  the  Edinburgh  En- 
cyctopadia.  Art.  Agricultuke,  and  the 
Do7ncstic  Encyclopedia.  See  als"  Ani- 
mals, Domestic. 

ALABASTER.  Alabaster  h  a  kind  of 
stone  softer  than  marble,  and  more  easily 
worked.  Its  colours  are  various,  but  the 
white  is  the  most  beautiful.  Soro  ■  sorts 
are  extremely  wliite  a.'id  shinipg  ;  some 
red,  like  coral ;  some  of  a  da»*  horny  co- 
lour,^ resembling  onyxj  and  another  sort 
of  ayellowish  coloui',-like  honey,  variegat- 
ed with  .specks  and  Utile  veins.  See  Gyp- 


,  ..-<«* 


ALC 


soM,  or  Plaster  oj  Paris,  under  the  arti- 
cle AcRieuLTURE. 

ALCARKAZAS,  in  Pottery ^'dvcViMmd  of 
vessels  for  coolintj  wine  or  water.  As  tliey 
are  exceeding  porous,  the  liquor  oozes 
tlirough  them  on  all  sides  ;  tlie  air  which 
comes  in  contact  witii  it,  by  making'  it 
evaporate,  carries  otftlie  heat  contained  in 
tiie  water,  &c.  in  the  \  I'ssel ;  thus  the  h- 
quid  remaining  in  the  jar,  continues  at  a 
temperature  considerably  below  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere. 

The  pecidiur  convenience  attathed  to 
these  vessels,  has  iiilrodnccd  tliem  to  nu- 
merous places  in  the  world,  where  heat, 
by  caushig  evaporation,  renders  the  cool- 
ness of  what  is  drank  greatly  to  be  de.sir- 
ed.  Thus  they  ^le  used  in  Kgypt,  and 
other  pai-ts  of  Afi-ica,  the  Kast  and  West 
Indies,  some  parts  of  Europe,  Syria,  I'cr- 
sia  and  China. 

Tlie  manufactory  of  Alcarrazas  possess- 
i;s  recomniendaiions,  which  mosi  others 
do  not  easily  admit.  The  expense  of  form- 
ing establishments  for  tliis  purpose  is  very 
U'ifling.  The  process,  by  wliich  ihe  jars 
are  made,  as  we  shall  see  below,  is  very 
simple  and  the  profits  are  very  certain, 
when  so  useful  a  practice  is  generally 
,  adopted. 

'  The  preparation  given  to  the  earth 
may  be  reduced  to  three  principal  ope- 
rations. 

First.  Su])pose  it  were  necessary  to 
manufacture  150  pounds  of  earth  :  after 
it  has  been  dried  and  divided  into  por- 
tions of  the  size  of  a  walnut,  it  is  macerat- 
ed in  a  basin  or  tub,  by  proceeding  in  the 
foHowing  manner :  The  workman  takes 
fiom  12  to  15  quarts  of  earth,  wliich  are 
s]iread  out  etiualiy  in  the  basin  and  water, 
is  poured  over  it ;  the  same  operation  is  to 
i)e  repeated  till  the  tub  is  sufliciently  fidl. 
fn  pouring  on  the  last  water,  more  is  not 
required  than  may  be  necessary  to  cover 
the  whole  mass.  In  this  state,  itis  sufier- 
f>d  to  remain  12  hours,  when  il  is  to  be 
Uneadcd  by  the  hands  to  the  con.sisteuce 
of  .1  tough  i)aste.  The  earth  Is  then  to  be 
>"-eposited  to  a  clean  tiled  form,  over  which 
IS  strewed  a  little  sifted  ashes.  It  is  form- 
ed ii.io  a  cake  about  6  inches  in  thickn'ess, 
which  is  smoothed  at  the  surface  as  well 
as  at  the  sides.  It  is  left  in  that  state  till 
it  begins  U  crack,  after  which  it  is  freed 
from  the  as)ics,  wiilcii  adhere  to  It,  and 
removed  to  a  sinilhu-  f >iin  made  exceed- 
ingly clean. 

Second  preparation.  To  this  earth,  the 
workman  Mds  7  poands  of  sea-salt,  if  he 
wishes  to  maVe  jarras,  and  only  hatt.lhat 
quantity  if  it  is  destined  for  the  forni\icion 
of  botizas  or  camtaros.  This  difference 
arises  frorA  the  grea,ter  or  less  opacity  in- 


'\^\ 


ALC  #^t 

leiKieci  to  oe  given  to  the  vases  ;  thftlai'™ 
gcv  the  vase  is  so  much  the  thicker  tlie 
sides  require  to  be,  that  it  may  have  the 
necessary  strength  ;  it  nfust-also  bfe  more 
porous,  as  the  thickness  of  tiie  sides  in 
creases,  which  quality  dope'iids  on  tlic 
quantity  of  salt  added,  the  largest  requir- 
ing more,  and  the  least,  less. 

The  fcarih  is  kneaded  with  thefeet,add- 
ing  the  salt  gradually,  and  this  labour  is 
repeated  at  least  three  times  without  the 
necessity  of  adding  more  water,  as  thc 
moisture  retained  by  the  material  is  sufh- 
cient. 

,  Third  preparation.  T!ie  earth  after  be- 
ing thus  subjected  to  these  various  mani- 
pulations, is  now  fit  to-be  applied  to  the 
lathe.  .  The  man  who  is  employed  for 
this  work,  ought  U>  beat  it  well  with  his 
Jiands,  taking  care  to  extract  the  stones, 
as  v^ell  as  every  other  foreign  body.  Me 
then  forms  it  into  lumps,  which  he  ap- 
plies to  the  lathes  to  be  made  into  vases 
or  jars. 

The  alcarrazas  may  be  baked  in  any 
kind  of  furnace  used  by  p>)tters  ;  as  they 
requii-e  to  be  only  half  baked,  ten  or 
twelve  hours,  according  to  the  quantity  of 
fuel,  or  degree  of  temperature,  is  suffi- 
cient for  the  purpose.  Care  is  always  ta- 
ken to  choose  earth  of  a  proper  quality, 
without  ever  having  occiision  to  add  to  it 
a  mixture  of  sand.  TJie  same  earth  that 
is  used  in  common  j^oitery,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  salt,  is  the  clay  employed  for  tlie 
alcai'razns. 

ALCOHOL,  or  Sphif-of  Wine,  is  the 
constant  and  more  cliaractcristic  product 
of  the  vinous  fermentation,  produced 
equally  from  all  fermented  intoxicating 
liquors,  by  the  process  of  distillation. 

Spirit  of  wine  is  immediately  obtained 
by  (listillution  from  every  species  of  ardent 
spiiitSi  The  latter  again,  are  the  pro- 
ducts of  a  previous  distillation  of  any  li- 
quor wliich  has  undergone  the  vinous  fer- 
mentation, so  that  at  least  two  distillations 
are  reciuisite  to  obtain  the  purely  spiri- 
tuous  part  of  vinous  liquorsi  We  shall 
refer  to  tiie  article."!  l)isrii.LiNC,  or 
Distillation,  the  many  important  ob- 
servations to  be  made  on  the  business  of 
tlie  distillery,  and  the  manufactureof  i)ran- 
dy,  rum,  .-^.nd  malt  spirits  ;  and  shall  here 
only  describe  the  chemical  process  of  rf c- 
f(/fc(if;on,  rtr  the~  preparation  of  alcohol 
from  these  spirits. 

The  simplest  process  is  the  followiiiL;- 
Tut  any  quantity  of  brandy  or  malt  spirits, 
or  rum,  into  an  alembic,johi  to  it  the  refii  - 
geratory,and  (Ustil  with  a  gentle  heat.  Ihe 
first  product  is  invariably  the  strongest 
and  purest.  The  spirit  coiitinues  to  come 
over  colourless,  but  gradually  diminish- 


ALC 


ALC 


jiig'  in  strengtli  and  purity,  till  at  last  it  is 
so  watei'y  as  no  longer  to  take  fire  by  a 
lighted  match.  After  this,  if  the  distilla- 
tion be  continued,  the  liquor  becomes 
milky,  scarcely  spirituous  to  the  smell, 
and  of  a  sourish  taste.  In  this  process  no 
advantage  is  gained  by  continuing  it  after 
the  liquor  is  no  'onger  inflammable,  which 
happens  when  about  3-4ths  or  4-5ths  of 
the  wliole  contents  of  the  alembic  have 
passed  over.  If  the  first  fourth  or  third  of 
the  distilled  spirit  be  set  apart,  it  forms  a 
moderately  strong  alcohol,  and  the  re- 
mainder, one  more  dilute,  which  will  serve 
for  many  purposes. 

Simple  distillation  will  therefore  sepa- 
rate tiie  alcohol  of  any  ardent  spirit  from 
the  water,  colouiing  matter  and  acciden- 
tal impurity  ;  but  diere  are  t\\  o  principles 
which  are  not  entirely  got  rid  of  in  tins 
manner ;  these  are,  an  empyreumatic  fla- 
vour often  given  by  a  careless  or  too  has- 
ty previous  distillation  of  the  spirit,  and  a 
strong,  often  foetid  oil,  which  the  spirit  has 
dissolved,  either  out  of  the  cask  in  which 
it  is  kept,  or  from  some  of  the  materials  of 
fermentation,  or  from  intentional  additions 
by  the  manufacturer.  The  flavour  of  this 
oil  is  best  perceived  on  rubbing  some  of 
the  spirit  on  the  warm  hands,  whereby  it 
readily  evaporates,  and  a  stale  nauseous 
smell,  like  the  breath  of  drunkards,  is  left. 
The  mere  empyreuma,  or  burnt  smeil, 
goes  off  in  a  great  degree  by  keeping  in 
charred  casks,  but  the  oil  more  obstinate- 
ly adheres. 

Alum,  sea  salt,  Glauber's  salt,  calcined 
bone,  chalk,  toasted  crumbs  of  bread,  and 
many  other  substances  have  been  added, 
during  distillation,  to  keep  down  tlie  oil, 
all  of  them  with  considerable  but  not  com- 
pleat  success. 

Alkalies  and  lime  remove  it  entirely, 
but  with  some  alteration  of  the  spirit  it- 
self, as  we  shall  presently  mention. 

Beaume  recommends  the  following  ju- 
dicious management  in  distillation,  to  ob- 
tain part  of  the  spirit  considerably  freed 
from  the  oil :  it  is  fovuided  on  the  fact 
that  the  first  portion  distilled  contains 
scarcely  any  oil,  but  the  latter  product  is 
almost  saturated  with  it.  Heat  brandy  in 
an  alembic  as  usual,  and  when  about  a 
quarter  of  the  liquor  has  passed,  set  it 
aside,  and  continue  the  process  as  long  as 
the  spirit  is  inflammable  This  latter  spir- 
it re-distil  as  before,  separating  the  first 
from  the  last  product  Still  repeat  the 
distillation  on  the  last  product  of  the  fore- 
going process,  as  long  as  the  first  quai'ter 
of  the  product  comes  over  tolerably  pure. 
Tlien  mix  all  the  first  products  together 
and  distil,  reserving  the  first  half  for  the 


purest  alcohol,  and  the  last  for  ordinary 
purposes.  Thus  the  oil  is  constantly  con- 
centrated into  the  latter  distilled  portions, 
whilst  the  first  are  obtained  proportion- 
ably  purer. 

We  iiave  mentioned  that  simple  distil- 
lation of  alcohol,  however  often  repeated, 
and  only  the  first  product  reserved,  will 
yield  a  spirit  of  the  specific  gi-avity  of 
about  .825  at  60°,  but  the  highest  concen- 
tration is  given  by  the  use  of  alkalies  or 
lime,  or  in  some  degree  by  any  salt  which 
has  a  very  strong  affinity  with  water;  and 
the  two  former  have  the  additional  advan- 
tage of  desti'oyhig  the  empyreumatic  oil, 
though  the  alkalies  are  apt,  in  return,  to 
communicate  somewhat  of  an  urinous  fla- 
vour. 

Though  both  the  carbonated  and  caus- 
tic alkalies  have  the  effect  of  concentrat- 
ing alcohol,  a  difference  takes  place  in 
their  action  on  this  liquid.  The  carbonat- 
ed alkalies  are  insoluble  in  the^spiiit,  but 
the  caustic  alkalies  compleatly  absolve  in 
it.  If  to  a  weak  spkit  is  added  some  dry 
cai'bonated  potash,  and  shaken  together, 
the  alkali  becomes  dissolved  only  in  the 
water  of  the  spirit,  and  thus  two  liquors 
appear  of  very  different  specific  gi'avit}^ 
and  absolutely  immiscible  b)^  agitation. 
The  lower  liquor  is  the  alkaline  solution, 
tlie  upper  the  alcohol,  now  rendered 
stronger  by  the  loss  of  the  water,  which 
the  alkali  lias  separated  from  it.  If  the 
alcohol  alone  be  poured  off",  and  mixed 
with  a  fresh  quantity  of  di-y  carbonated 
potash,  the  alkali  will  again  either  entire- 
ly dissolve,  or  become  pasty,  according  to 
the  quantity  of  superfluous  water  left  in 
the  spirit ;  if  there  is  none,  it  will  remain 
at  the  bottTom  untouched. 

Tills  is  a  ready  way  of  bringing  alcohol 
to  very  great  concentration  witliout  distil- 
lation, and  would  answer  every  purpose, 
if  it  were  not  that  the  dry  carbonated  al- 
kalies (except  the  cr3^stallized)  all  con- 
tain  a  cei'tain  portion  of  the  salt,  in  a  state 
sufficiently  approaching  to  causticity  to 
be  soluble  in  alcohol ;  so  that,  in  the  above 
process,  the  liquid  swimming  above  the 
watery  solution  of  carbonated  potasli,  is 
not  pure  spirit,  but  a  very  weak  solution  of 
caustic  alkali  in  alcohol.  To  obtain  it  quite 
pure,  add  one  part  of  very  hot  dry  carbo- 
nated potash  (good  pearl-ash  will  do)  to 
about  six  or  eight  parts  of  alcohol,  already 
brought  to  considerable  strength  by  dis- 
tillation, let  them  stand  together  for  some 
hours,  frequently  shalcing  them  ;  tlien  dis- 
til  with  a  gentle  heat,  and  the  first  half  or 
two-thirds  of  the  product  is  th.e  purest  al- 
cohol. 

Or,  with  less  trouble,  add  one  part  of 


ALC 


ALC 


the  «lkali  to  four  parts  of  brandy,  anddis- 
til,*f"tcT  standiuj^totjelher  for  about  a  day  : 
but  tlie  former  process  is  the  best- 
Burnt  alum,  dried  Glauber's  salt,  or 
decrepitated  c/immon  salt  may  be  very 
coiivciiiently  substituted  for  the  carbonat- 
ed alkali. 

Hot,  drj',  caustic  alkali  is  still  more  ef- 
ficiicious  in  separating  the  water  fi-om  Uie 
alcoliol,  wliicli,  carefully  distilled,  is  ex- 
tremely pure.  But  caustic  alkalies,  as 
well  as  lime,  decompose  so  much  of  tlie 
alcohol,  as  to  render  it  both  a  wasteful 
process  and  one  ihat  requires  more  cai'e 
in  conducting  it. 

By  the  above  means  the  levity  and  pro- 
portionable dephlegmation  of  alcoiiol  may 
be  brought  from  the  specific  gravity  of 
.825  at  60"  of  heat,  to  about  .813"  or  per- 
haps still  lower.  Malt  spirits  yield  as 
strong  and  pui-e  an  alcohol  as  wine,  bran- 
dy, or  other  spirits. 

Various  methods  have  been  employed 
for  ascertaining  tlie  strength  of  ardent  spi- 
rit, but  this  is  attended  with  more  diffi- 
culty tlian  might  at  first  be  imagined. 
Long  habit  will  enable  a  person  to  judge 
with  tolerable  accuracy  by  the  taste,  and 
the  frotliiness  and  size  of  tlie  bubbles 
when  sliaken,  but  tliis  is  obviously  liable 
to  error.  The  test  of  burning  the  spirit 
has  long  been  used,  and,  with  proper  pre- 
caution, it  may  be  brought  to  some  degree 
of  accuracy. '  It  has  been  already  men- 
tioned, tliat  a  very  pure  alcohol  will  burn 
away  without  leaving  any  residue,  and 
tliat  the  weaker  the  spirit  is,  the  more  wa- 
ter will  be  left  after  combustion.  In  ma- 
3iy  countries  this  trial  is  actually  perform- 
ed in  the  following  simple  manner.  A 
cylindrical  silver  cup,  properly  graduated 
and  made  for  this  purpose,  is  filled  to  a 
known  h.eight  with  the  spirit,  wliicli  is 
then  kindled,  and  is  suffered  to  burn  till 
the  flame  goes  out,  after  which  the  quan- 
tity of  watery  residue  is  noted.  Pure  al- 
cohol leaves  n©ne,  rectified  spirit  of  mode- 
rate strength  about  25  per  cent,  French 
brandy  about  56,  common  good  malt  spir- 
it about  65,  and  the  like.  The  principal 
imperfection  of  this  method,  is  the  difficul- 
ty of  always  jjcrformin^  the  experiment 
under  similar  external  circumstances  :  and 
besides,  it  is  by  no  means  proved  tlial  the 
combustion  of  compound  spirits  will  fol- 
low the  same  rules  as  that  of  simple  mix- 
tures of  alcohol  and  water.  In  this  trial 
•J)e  residue  still  contains  a  portion  of  al- 
cohol, the  combustion  ceasing  before  all 
the  spirit  is  burnt  off;  but  on  the  oilier 
hand,  some  of  the  water  must  necessjirily 
have  been  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  com- 
bustion. 
Another  trial,  though  extremely  incor- 


rect, is  to  pour  a  few  drops  of  the  spirit 
on  a  very  small  heap  of  gunpowder,  and 
kindle  it.  The  spirit  first  burns  as  usual, 
and  when  the  last  portion  is  burning  off, 
the  powder  explodes,  if  the  spirit  has  not 
been  too  watery  to  leave  the  powder  very 
damp.  Cotton  wool  burns  in  like  manner 
at  tlie  end  of  the  combustion  of  the  spirit, 
if  not  too  damp.  But  it  is  well  known  tliat 
a  little  heap  of  powder  drenched  with 
even  a  strong  spirit,  will  not  take  fire,  and 
a  large  heap  will  explode  if  only  a  tew 
drops  of  a  watery  spirit  is  used.  Besides, 
these  tests,  were  tliey  accurate,  would  on- 
ly  indicate  two  degrees  of  strength,  that 
wliich  would  fire  tlie  powder,  and  that 
wiiich  would  not. 

Anotlier  test,  sufficiently  accurate  for  a 
rough  estimation  of  the  strength  of  the 
spirit,  is  to  sliake  it  in  a  bottle  with  some 
dry  carbonat  of  potash,  and  to  judge  of  its 
strength  by  the  quantity  of  water  which 
the  alkali  attracts  from  it. 

A  spirit  that  swims  in  olive  oil  has 
sometimes  been  considered  as  proof,  and 
this  method  is  actually  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  rum,  but  this  test  also  only  in- 
dicates two  degrees. 

The  only  mode  of  ascertaining  the  rela- 
tive strength  of  every  species  of  ai'dent 
spirit,  with  any  considerable  accuracy, has 
been  by  determining  its  specific  giavity; 
and  the  high  public  importance  of  the 
subject  in  countries  where  the  consump- 
tion of  spirits  adds  a  vast  sum  to  the  pub- 
lic revenue,  has  been  the  means  of  insti- 
tuting many  very  interesting  series  of  ex- 
periments to  this  purpose. 

\s  our  limits  will  not  allow  a  complete 
notice  of  all  that  has  been  done  on  this 
subject  in  different  countiies,  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  to  the  very  minute,  accu- 
rate, and  every  way  excellent  series  of 
experiments  made  for  the  Board  of  Ex- 
cise in  London,  by  Sir  Charles  Blagden, 
assisted  by  Mr  Gilpin,  and  published  in 
the  79tii  and  8\l  volumes  of  the  Philoso- 
phical Transactions. 

'Iheir  object  was  to  determine,  by  ac- 
tual experiment,  the  specific  gi-avity  of 
mixtures  of  different  proportions  of  alco- 
hol of  a  determinate  strengtli,  with  pure 
distilled  water  at  difierent  degrees  of  the 
thermometer ;  and  tiiese  experiments 
were  carried  to  a  minuteness  much  more 
than  necessary  even  for  the  high  duties 
now  levied  on  spirits,  where  a  trifling  dif- 
ference in  strength  becomes  an  object  of 
attention. 

It  is  assumed  as  a  principle  in  the  pre- 
sent mode  of  laying  the  duties,  that  all 
kinds  of  distilled  spirits  conniin  an  equal 
proportion  of  real  alcohol  v.  h  a  mixture 
of  pure  alcohol  and  water,  brought  to  the 


ALC 


ALC 


same  specific  gravity,  and  therefore  it  is 
on  the  absolute  quantity  of  alcohol  m  any 
mijrtiu-e  tliat  the  duty  is  levied.  This  po- 
sition though  sufficiently  accurate  for  tlie 
purposes  of  the  revenue,  is  not  absolutely 
true  ;  since  ardent  spirit  will  dissolve  vari- 
ous substances,  such  as  sugar,  colouring 
mutter,  &c.  the  effect  of  which  solution 
will  be  to  increase  its  density,  and  there- 
fore to  make  it  appear  to  contain  less  al- 
cohol than  is  really  the  case. 

The  whole  expansion  of  alcohol  as  pure 
as  simple  distillation  will  give,  when  rais- 
ed fi'om  the  temperature  of  30"  to  lOO**  is 
about  one-twelfth  of  the  bulk  which  it  had 
at  30°  ;  and,  witliiu  this  range,  the  expan- 
sion is  pretty  equal  for  equal  increments 
of  heat.  On  the  other  hand,  the  expansion 
of  water  within  the  same  range  of  from 
30°  to  100°  is  only  one  hujidred  and 
forty-fifth  of  its  bulk  at  30*.  Besides,  a 
curious  property  of  water,  discovered  by 
Dr.  Blagden,  hei'e  comes  into  action  ; 
which  is,  that  (contrary  to  the  nature  of  all 
other  known  liquids)  it  has  arrived  at  its 
greatest  density  much  before  it  is  cooled 
down  to  its  fi-eezing  point,  namely  at  40*^ 
or  42",  and  that  between  this  temperature 
and  30"  its  specific  gi-avity  regularly  goes 
on  diminishing  till  congealed.  So  that  the 
gravitv  of  water  at  30"  is  found  to  be  no 
more  than  at  48  1-2". 

When  alcohol  and  water  are  mixed,  a 
mutual  peneti-ation  of  the  two  liquors 
takes  place,  as  we  have  already  mentioned, 
and  the  liquors  occupy  less  room  mixed 
than  separate,  so  that  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  mixture  is  greater  than  the  mean 
specific  gravity  of  the  two,  before  mix- 
ture. The  anomaly  in  the  action  of  heat 
on  water  below  42"  has  just  been  noted, 
but  another  source  of  complication  in  cal- 
culating the  densities  of  spu-it  and  water, 
arises  from  the  following  circumstance 
witli  a  heat  gradually  raised  from  42°  up- 
wai-ds  to  100'',  water  at  first  expands 
slower  in  comparison  to  its  entire  increase, 
than  alcohol ;  but  afterwards,  wlien  ap- 
proaching  to  the  liighest  term  of  heat,  its 
expansion  is  proportionably  gi*eater  than 
that  of  alcohol.  Hence  it  is  that  a  mixture 


of  these  two  liquids  will  approach  tlie 
nearer  to  the  pi-ogressive  ratio  of  expan- 
sion of  the  one  or  of  the  otlier,  in  proportion 
as  one  or  the  other  liquor  predominates  in 
the  mixture.  But,  again,  the  absolute  ex- 
pansion will  be  greater  as  there  is  more 
alcohol  in  tlie  mixture. 

All  these  circumstances  indicated  the 
danger  of  trusting  to  mere  calculation 
from  a  very  few  data  (as  had  been  done 
by  other  scientific  persons)  to  compose 
tables  of  the  expansion  of  alcohol  and  wa- 
ter, witli  even  tolerable  correctness  ;  and 
hence  Sir  C  Blagden,  and  liis  coadjutor, 
determined  to  undertake  so  many  actual 
experiments  on  the  spepific  gravity  of  mix- 
tiu-es  of  alcohol  and  water,  at  various 
temperatures,  as  to  leave  but  ^  ery  little 
room  for  incorrectness  in  the  spaces  on 
the  scale  filled  up  by  interpolation.  The 
pure,  or  standard  alcohol,  was  that  of  .825 
at  60",  being  tlie  purest  obtainable  by 
simple  distillation,  lowered  a  very  little  by 
water  to  bring  it  to  even  numbers  for  the 
convenience  of  calculation.  The  specific 
gravity  was  taken,  in  every  case,  by  fill- 
ing the  same  bottle  to  a  known  height 
with  the  spirit,  and  weighing  it.  To  en- 
sure a  perfect  penetration  of  the  spirit  and 
water,  they  were  never  used  till  they  had 
been  mixed  for  a  montli,  and  often  sha- 
ken. The  extreme  precautions  taken  to 
ensure  as  great  accuracy  as  human  instru- 
ments can  command,  are  given  in  detail  hi 
the  original  memoirs.  Tlie  actual  expe- 
riments were,  the  specific  gravities,  first 
of  the  pure  spirit,  then  of  lOO  parts  of  i*: 
(by  weight)  witli  every  five  parts  of  wa- 
ter, from  5  to  100,  and  lastly  of  100  parts 
of  water  with  every  five  parts  ofspirit;;^! 
of  them  tiikcn  at  every  fifth  degree  of  heat, 
from  .30  to  100.  The  intermediate  de- 
grees, both  of  temperature  and  of  propor- 
tion of  water  or  spirit,  are  filled  by  inter- 
polation. 

The  following  Table,  extracted  from 
Mr.  Gilpin's  corrected  tables,  in  the  82d 
vol.  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  will 
apply  to  most  cases  which  may  be  wanted 
in  chemical  enquiry. 


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3     lOOAlc  90  Alf  J^O  A)c.]70  Ale 


One  hundred  parts  (by  weight)  of  Water 
will) 
-A.. 


40' 
45 
.50 
.55 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 


.93827 
.936'] 
.93419 
.93208 
.9300? 
.92794 
.9  580 
.92364 
.92142 


.9429.5 
.94ij9fi 
.93897 
.93696 
.93493 
.9.;285 
93076 
.92865 
.92646 


60  Ale.  60  Ale.  40  Ale.  30  Ale  2u  Ale  10  Ale. 


94802 
.94605 
.94414 
94213 
.940 18j 
.938221 
.93616 
.93413 
.9320ll 


<J5328 
.95143 
.9495t 
.94767 
.94579 
.94388 
.94193 
.93989 
.93785 


0  Ale. 

60  Ale. 

.95879 

96434 

.95705 

.96280 

95534 

.96126 

.95357 

.95966 

95181 

.95804 

95000 

.95635 

.94813 

.954(^9 

.94623 

.95292 

.94431 

.95111 

.96967 
.96840 
.96708 
96575 
.96437 
96288 
96143 
.95987 
.95826 


.97472 
.97.584 
97284 
.97181 
.97074 
.96959 
.968  6 
.96708 
.96568 


.98033 
.97980 
.97920 
97847 
.97771 
.97688 
.97596 
.9749  i 
.97385 


.98795 
.98774 
.98745 
.V8702 
.98654 
.98594 
^J8527 
.98454 
.98367 


ALC 


ALK 


Besides  the  specific  gravities  here  j  and  the  like.  Some  of  these  chiefly  cou- 
given,  the  original  tables  contain  several  cern  the  business  of  the  exciseman,  but 
particulars  deduced  from  the  experi-  with  regard  to  the  condensation,  we  shall 
ments,  such  as  the  quantity  of  real  spirit  extract  the  following  results  deduced  from 
in  a  given  bulk  of  the  mixtures,  the  ac-|the  same  tables, 
tual  condensation  expressed  in  numbers,  ( 

Oyie  hundred  fiarts,  in  bulk,  of  the  pure  spirit^  at  the  temperature  of  60^, 
of  water                              parts 
ynixed  ivith  25  diminish  in  bulk  2.31  being  about  -jJ—  of  the  ivhole  before 
50                                3.76     .     .     .       Jj,°^  mixture 

75  4.82 
100  5.60 
125  6.15 
150  6.53 
175  6.76 
200  6.81      .      .      .       

Hence  it  appears  that  the  greatest  di-i  Nicholson's  Chlm,.  Dictionary,  Art  Al- 
minution  in  bulk,  or  concentration,  in  pro-\  cohol,  for  a  fui'ther  account  of  this  sub- 
portion  to  the  quantity  of  ingredients,  which  ■  ject. 

takes  place  between  alcohol  and  water,  ALE,  a  fermented  liquor,  made  from 
occurs,  when  equal  bulks  of  each  are 'malt  and  hops.  This  drink  was  original- 
used,  being  more  than  a  thirty-sixth  ofily  made  in  Egypt,  where  it  supplied  the 
the  whole  ;  but  the  greatest  possible  di-Uvant  of  liquors  prepared  from  the  grape; 
minution  obtainable  by  any  admixture  of  and  has  been  a  favoiunte  beverage  in  al- 
water,  happens  when  two  parts  of  water  most  all  countries.  For  the  facts  con- 
are  added  to  one  of  alcohol,  being  6.81  (nected  with  the  history  of  this  liquor,  see 
parts  where  100  of  alcohol  are  employed,  j  Hume's  History  of  England,  vol.  11.  p.  224; 
This  last  is  the  highest  term  of  «c^«rt/ di- land  I'inkerton's  Geography,  vol.  i.  p.  65. 


_1P 
_io 

3G  3 
1  0 

3TT 

36  5 
_1  0 

3  5"? 

406 


minution,  as  it  is  again  less  than  6.81  in 
100,  if  still  more  water  is  added. 

Alcohol  is  a  most  powerful  antisep- 
tic, and  it  exerts  this  power  upon  eve- 
ry substance,  animal  or  vegetable,  ca- 
pable of  fermentation  or  spontaneous 
cliange. 

The  uses  of  alcohol  in  its  various  forms 
are  very  numerous  and  important.  As 
the  intoxicating  basis  of  all  vinous  or  spi- 
rituous liquors,  it  is  only  employed  in  the 
intermediate  state  of  distilled  spirits.  In 
tl\e  arts  it  forms  a  most  important  ingi-e- 
dient  in  many  varnishes  ;  in  pharmacy  it 
is  the  liquid  component  of  tinctures  and 
other  preparations  ;  it  preserves  from  cor- 
ruption all  the  wet  preparations  of  the 
anatomist ;  and  to  the  chemist  it  is  an  in- 
valuable agent,  bperating  on  a  great  num- 
ber of  substances  for  which  no  otlier  pro- 
per solvent  could  be  found,  ajid  at  the 
same  time  altering  their  nature  so  little 
as  to  exhibit  them  nearly  in  then*  original 
state  when  expelled  by  evaporation.  Many 
other  less  important  uses  might  be  men- 
tioned, such  as  filling  thermometers, 
and  another  of  great  advantage  in  nice 
chemical  operations,  is  that,  as  a  cf)ni- 
bustiiitv-,  it  aftbrds  a  gentle  steady  fianie. 


On  the  salubrity  of  ale,  see  Cullen's  Mate- 
ria Jledica,  vol.  i.  p. 418.  See  also  Brew- 
ing. 

ALKALIES  and  ALKALINE  EARTHS. 
The  class  of  alkalies  is  amongst  tlie  most 
ancient  in  chemical  science,  and  one  which 
has  stood  its  ground  through  all  the 
changes  occasioned  by  modern  discove- 
ries, though  with  some  modification. 

The  original  application  of  the  term  al- 
kali  (which  is  of  Arabian  origin)  was  to 
express  the  acrid  sal'ne  residue  left  in  the 
ashes  of  the  plant  kali,  after  its  combus- 
tion in  open  air.  This  was  also  verj-  ear- 
ly known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans;  by 
the  latter  termed,  lixivia!,  which  term  is 
still  retained,  lixivium,  or  ley,  meaning, 
properly,  the  soluble  salt  extracted  out  of 
vegetable  ashes  by  the  addition  of  water. 
From  the  circumstance  of  the  ashes  being 
the  fixed  or  unvolatilized  part  of  the 
plant,  the  rest  liaving  been  dissipated  by 
the  combustion,  the  lixi\iary  salt  was  also 
called_/?x:f£/  alkali,  a  term  still  in  universal 
use.  The  proper  fixed  alkalies  are  of  two 
kinds,  the  vegetable  ov  potash,  and  the  mi- 
neral or  noda;  the  latter  is  fouiid,  often  na- 
tive, in  immense  quantities,  being  tlie  basis 
of  rock  salt,  and  is  also  the  principal  sa- 


unfouled  by  smoke  or  any  vapour  which  i  line  residue  of  many  plants  growing  on  the 
can  obscure  the  sight  of  the  process  which  j  sea  shore;  and  the  former  is  coitainedin, 
is  going  on  in  the  vessel  so  heated.    See  land  almost  entirely  procured  from,   the 


ALK 


ALU 


ashes  of  vegetables  in  general,  not  grow- 
ing contiguous  to  the  sea.  See  the  arti- 
cles Po  lASH  and  SodA. 

Ap^iiin,  us  the  volatile  ammoniacal  salt 
procurable  tVom  most  animal  substances, 
also  of  great  antiquity,  was  found  to  agree 
with  the  otiier  alkalies  in  taste,  and  in 
many  chemical  properties,  though  not  in 
fixity,  this  ammoniacal  salt  was  also  term- 
ed an  alkali,  but  volatile,  in  opposition  to 
the  two  fonner,  which  remain  imaltered  in 
very  considerable  heat,  and  are  therefore, 
comparati  vel}',  fixed. 

Of  late  years,  some  of  the  earths  (espe- 
cially barytes  and  strontian,  which  were 
unknown  to  antiquity)  having  been  found 
to  possess  alkaline  properties  in  no  am- 
biguous degree,  these  have  been  by  some 
chemists  absolutely  associated  with  the 
alkalies;  by  others  have  received  the  term 
alkaline  earths,  to  express  this  resem- 
blance, whicl.,  in  the  two  above  mentioned, 
almost  amounts  to  identity  of  properties ; 
but  in  the  two  others,  lime  and  magnesia, 
the  agreement  is  only  partial. 

As  it  is  but  of  little  consequence  which 
arrangement,  be  adopted,  provided  an  uni- 
formity be  observed,  we  have  tliroughout 
the  present  work  restricted  the  term  alka- 
li, to  the  tiiree  ancient  salts  of  that  name; 
the  two  fixed,  potash  and  soda,  and  the 
Tjo/ati/e,  anmionia.  Under  the  appellation 
alkaline  earth,  we  include  tlie  following, 
Barytes,  Strontian,  Lime,  and  Magne- 
sia. 

We  shall  now  enumerate  the  properties 
usually  described  as  belonging  to  alka- 
lies. 

^'he  taste  of  an  alkali  is  acrid,  burning-, 
and  nauseous.  It  acts  with  so  much  ener- 
gy and  rapidity  on  the  tongue,  as  to  de- 
stroy, if  concentrated,  the  skin  of  the  pail 
whicli  it  touches,  and  hence  its  extreme 
causticity.  The  three  alkalies  possess 
this  in  the  higiiest  degree,  being  more  ra- 
jndly  soluble  than  the  earths,  and  of  the 
latter  only  barytes,  strontian,  and  lime, 
exhibit  this  corrosive  taste,  magnesia  be- 
ing absolutely  insipid. 

A13  the  alkalies,  except  ammonia,  are 
witiiout  smell,  or  nearly  so :  a  particulai- 
urinovis  odour  however  arises  during  the 
solution,  witli  heat,  of  the  other  alkalies 
and  earths,  magnesia  excepted. 

Tlie  alkalies  are  extremely  soluble  in 
water,  barytes  and  strontian  in  considera- 
ble quantity.  Ume,  sparingly;  magnesia 
scarcely  at  all. 

Of  all  other  bodies  they  possess  the 
strongest  aftinity  for  acids,  uniting  with 
ihem  generally  to  such  a  degree  as  \to 
produce  perfect  neutralization,  or  such  a 
.sUite  of  union,  that  the  characteristic  pro- 
jiertics  of  both  acid  and  alkali  are  lost,  | 


and  new  ones  acquired.  Most  of  tlie 
combinations  with  acids  are  considerably 
soluble  in  water,  and  all  crystaUizable 
with  more  or  less  ease. 

Lastly,  they  all  produce  certain  changes 
on  some  vegetable  colours ;  and  this  test 
is  perhaps  the  most  striking  of  all  above 
enumerated,  since  it  is  possessed  by  all 
without  exception,  though  with  some  va- 
riety. The  blue  colours  of  man)-  plants 
are  changed  by  them  to  green,  of  wiiich 
the  syrup  or  tincture  of  violets,  affords  a 
ready  uistance ;  many  of  the  reds,  such  as 
that  of  logwood  and  litmus,  are  changed 
into  violet;  and  the  \ellow  of  a  great 
many  plants,  such  as  turmeric,  rhubarb, 
or  liquorice  root,  is  changed  to  a  brown, 
or  dirty  bi  ick  red. 

It  appears  therefore,  that  there  is  scarce- 
ly a  single  characteristic  except  the 
change  of  certain  colours,  that  will  apply 
equally  to  all  the  akalies  and  alkaline 
eai'ths,  but  yet  the  general  resemblance 
is  so  great  as  to  justify  this  classification. 
Magnesia  alone  has  the  least  claim  to  tlie 
title  of  an  alkaline  earth,  and  yet  its  affini- 
ty to  acids  is  strong,  and  its  power  of 
changing  some  of  the  vegetable  colours  is 
very  considerable.     See  Earths. 

ALKANET,  a  colouring  root,  culti- 
vated in  many  parts  of  the  sotuh  of  Eu- 
tope,  and  brought  in  small  quantities  ti-om 
the  Levant.  'I'he  plant  grows  to  about  a 
foot  in  height.  The  root,  which  is  the 
pai't  used  as  a  dye,  is  as  big  as  the  thumb, 
red  without  and  white  in  its  inner  part. 
The  outer  red  portion  is  alone  tised  for 
colouring.  It  gi-ows  in  abundance  in 
Languedoc,  in  dry  sandy  soils.  The  root 
is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  undergoes  no 
other  preparation.  When  good  it  is 
somewliat  elastic  though  dry,  of  a  deep 
red  without,  and  should  stain  the  finger 
nail  freely  when  rubbed  upon  it,  wet  or 
dry. 

Alkanet  root  imparts  its  deep  red  co- 
lour very  freely  to  spirit  of  wine,  the  essen- 
tial and  fixed  oils,  wax,  fat,  and  any  other 
unctuous  substance  ;  and  hence  it  is  of 
considerable  use  in  making  some  of  the 
coloured  oils  or  vaiMiishes.  To  give  a 
red  colour  to  wax,  for  example,  melt  it, 
and  infuse  small  pieces  of  the  root  in  ii 
for  a  few  minutes,  till  it  has  acquired  the 
requisite  colour;  when,  if  it  be  applied  to 
warm  marble,  it  impresses  a  durable  stain 
of  flesh  colour  into  tlie  stone. 

ALUM  is  a  crystalline  salt,  of  a  sweet- 
ish acidulous  taste,  and  extreniely  astrin- 
gent ;  and  is  by  far  the  most  import.'mt  of 
all  those  \\ith  earthy  bases.  Wc  shall, 
there{<)re,  treat  of  it  aj;  considerable 
length. 

Alum  is  product'd  but  in  a  very  small 


ALlj 


ALU 


(lutiiiity,  ill  the  native  stale;  and  this  is 
mixed  with  heterngeiieoiis  matters.  The 
greater  part  of  tliis  salt  is  factitious,  being- 
extracted  from  \arious  minerals  called 
alum  ores;  such  as  sulphureted  and  pyri- 
taceous  clay,  shale  or  bituminous  alum 
ore,  and  volcanic  aluminous  ore.  It  might 
also  be  exti'acted  from  many  species  of 
pyrites,  but  so  contaminated  with  iron 
as  to  scarce  pay  the  expense  of  opera- 
tion. 

The  simplest  process  by  which  alum  is 
prepared  is  that  in  use  at  the  Solfatara, 
near  Naples. 

The  Solfatara,  called  by  the  ancients 


Abbe  Afaiers  and  Fouzcroux  de  Boude- 
roy.     • 

The  ore  made  use  of  at  La  Tolfa,  is 
procured  about  a  mile  off  the  place  where 
it  is  manufacttn-ed.  It  is  found  in  irregu- 
lar strata,  and  deep,  almost  perpendicu- 
lar, veins  in  the  side  of  a  hill ;  and  when 
uimaixed  with  other  substances,  is  of  a 
yellowish  white  colour,  and  so  hai-d  as  to 
require  blasting-  by  gunpowder  Being 
broken  into  pieces  ifof  a  moderate  size,  it 
is  first  of  all  roasted.  The  furnace  made 
use  of  for  this  purpose  is  a  cylindrical  ca- 
vity in  a  mass  of  masonry,  the  greater 
part  of  which  is  occupied  by  a  hemisphe- 


Forum  Vulcani,  Campi  leucogei,  is  a  small  j  rical  dome,  with  a  large  round  aperture 
plain  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  covered  with  a   in  its  top     J'he  fuel,  which  is  wood,  is 


white  soil,  which  being  penetrated  and 
entirely  impregnated  by  sulphureous  va- 
pours, forms  a  rich  ore  of  alum,  as  may 
be  ascertained  by  its  strong  styptic  taste 
when  applied  to  the  tongue.     In  order  to 
extract  the  salt,  a  shed  is  erected,  in  the 
middle  of  which  is  placed  a  large  oblong 
leaden  cistern,  let  into  the  ground  almost 
up  to  the  brim,  in  order  to  receive  a  pro- 
per quantity  of  the  subterranean  heat : 
this    cistern   is    surrounded   by    smaller 
cauldrons,  let  into  the  ground  in  the  same 
manner.     When  all  is  prepared,  the  ex- 
traction of  the  alum  is  effected  by  putting 
some  of  the  aluminous  earth  into  the  cis- 
tei"n,  and   pouring   water   upon  it ;  this 
mixture  is  carefully  stirred,  till  the  whole 
of  the  salt  is  dissolved;  after  which,  the 
earth  being  removed,  a  fresh  portion  is 
put  In,  so  as  to  bring  the  water  almost  to 
a  state  of  saturation.     The  liquor  is  now 
removed  into  the  smaller  cauldrons,  an?^ 
the  loss  by  evaporation  is  supplied  by 
fresh  liquor,  till  a  pellicle  begins  to  ap- 
pear on  the  surface.     It  is  then  removed 
into  tubs,  where,  as  it  cools,  it  deposits 
a  large  quantity  of  crystals  of  alum.    The 
mother  liquor  is  returned  to  tlie  cistern, 
where  it  is  mixed  with  earth  as  before. 
The  crystals  of  alum  are  purified  by  a  se- 
cond  solution  and   crystallization,  after 
which  they  are  fit  for  the  market.     Hence 
it  appears  that   the   alum  exists  ready 
formed  in  the  earth  of  the  Solfatara,  and 
that  the  whole  of  the  manufacturing  part 
is  reduced  merely  to  lixiviation  and  puri- 
fication.   This  alum,  from  the   careless 
method  of  preparing  it,  is  considerably 
fouled  by  sulphat  of  iron,  or  copperas, 
and  is  in  consequence  little   known  be- 
yond the  Neapolitan  territories. 

TJie  alum  works  of  La  Tolfa,  near  Ci- 
vita  Vecchia,  in  the  Roman  state,  are 
among  the  oldest  in  Europe,  and  as  the 
alum  manufactured  here  is  reckoned  the 
purest  of  any,  we  shall  give  a  detailed 
account  oftiie  process,  as  reported  by  the 
VOT..  I. 


conveyed  by  a  side  door  into  the  dome, 
and  the  alum  ore  is  piled  skilfully  over 
the   aperture,  so   as  to  form    a  smaller 
dome,  whose  diameter  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  aperture  in  the  lower  one.     As  soon 
as  the  fire    is  kindled,  the    smoke  and 
flame  penetrate  tlirough  the  interstices  of 
the  pieces  of  ore,  and  quickly  heat  the 
whole  mass      For  the  first  three  or  four 
hours,  the  smoke  escapes  in  dense  black 
volumes,  but  by   degrees    it  acquires  a 
whiter  colour,  the  pieces  of  ore  become 
of  a  light  red  or  rose  colour,  and  a  faint 
smell  of  liver  of  sulphur  becomes  mani- 
fest.     At  the  end  of  twelve  or  fourteen 
hours  the  fire  is  extinguished,  and  when 
the  alum  stones  are  grown  cool,  they  are 
taken  down,  and  again  arranged  in  the 
same  manner  as  before,  only   observing 
to  place  those  pieces  near  the  centre  of 
the  fire  which  were  before  at  the  sides, 
that  the  whole  may  be  equally  calcined. 
The  second  roasting  continues  nearly  as 
long  as  the  first,  and  the  stones  are  con- 
sidered to  have   been  properly  managed 
if  they  are  of  an  unifi:)rm  white  colour, 
and  considerably  styptic  when  applied  to 
the  tongue. 

The  second  process  commences  bypil. 
ing  the  stones  upon  a  smooth  sloping 
floor,  in  long  parallel  ridges,  between 
each  of  which  is  a  trench  filled  with  wa- 
ter; from  this  trench  the  beds  ai-e  fre- 
quently sprinkled,  in  proportion  as  they 
become  dry  by  the  action  of  the  sun  and 
wind.  After  a  few  days  the  pieces  of 
roasted  ore  begin  to  swell  and  crack,  and 
fiiU  to  powder  like  quick  lime  when  it  i.s 
slacked,  acquiring  at  the  same  time  a 
light  reddish  colour ;  and  at  the  end  of 
forty  days,  more  or  less,  this  operation 
is  completed.  Its  success  is  materially 
influenced  by  sunshiny  weather,  the  hot- 
test periods  of  the  year  producing  the 
best  alum,  and  in  the  largest  proportions, 
while  long-continued  rains  entirely  ex- 
haust and  spoil  Jlie  oi-e. 
c 


ALU 


ALU 


The  next  staple  of  the  manufacture  con- 
sists in  dissolving  the  alum  •  ut  of  the  ore, 
and  disposing  it  Id  crystallize  For  this 
purpose  a  leaden  boiler  is  lilled  two-tliirds 
with  water,  and  piH-tions  of  the  decom- 
posed ore  are  successively  stirred  in,  till 
the  vessel  is  nearly  fliU  :  w^hen  tlie  liquor 
bet^ins  to  boil  it  is  diUgentK  stirred  op 
from  the  bottom,  that  tiie  whole  of  the 
alum  may  be  disaolvtci,  and  the  waste  by 
evaporation  is  supplied  from  time  to 
time  by  the  mothc/  water  of  a  preced- 
ing crystallization  At  the  end  of  about 
twenty -four  hours  the  fire  is  extinguish- 
ed, a^d  ilie  liquor  is  left  at  rest  for  the 
particles  of  earth  to  subside:  as  soon  as 
this  has  taken  place,  a  sto^-cock,  fixed 
in  the  side  of  the  boiler,  about  one-third 
of  its  heightli  from  the  bottom  is  open- 
ed, and  the  clear  solution  is  transferred 
along  a  wooden  spout,  into  square  wooden 
reservoirs,  seven  feet  high  by  five  wide, 
so  constructed  as  to  be  readily  taken 
to  pieces;  in  these  it  remains  about  a 
fortnight,  during  which  time  the  alum 
Crystaili7.es  in  irregular  masses  upon  the 
.sides  and  bottom  The  mother  liquor  is 
of  a  flesh  colour  and  unctuous  appear- 
ance, and  still  rich  in  alum ;  it  is  there- 
fore transferred  into  shallow  receptacles, 
where  it  deposits,  after  a  time,  both  earth 
and  crystals ;  these  latter  are  taken  out 
and  separated  fi'om  the  impurities  by 
washing  in  the  residual  fluid.  Finally, 
this  fluid  itself  is  let  out  into  a  deep  re- 
servoir, whence  it  is  pumped,  to  be  mix- 
ed with  fresh  water  and  earth  in  the  leaden 
boiler,  as  already  mentioned.  The  earth, 
after  havingbeen  once  lixiviated,  is  tl.rown 
away,  although  by  simple  boiling  with 
sulphuric  acid,  it  may  be  made  to  yield  a 
considerable  quantity  of  pure  alum. 

Hitherto  we  have  noticed  only  those 
ores  which  aflTord  alum  without  the  ad- 
dition of  potash  or  ammonia :  by  far  the 
greater  part  however  of  the  European 
alum  is  prepared  from  the  aluminous 
slate  (Alaunsciiiefer)  or  the  alumi- 
nous earth  (Alaunerde)  and  as  these 
minerals  contain  only  the  remote  prin 
clples  of  this  salt,  a  much  more  compli- 
cated process  is  required  than  where  the 
alum  exists  ready  formed  in  the  ore.  The 
only  necessary  ingredients  in  the  pyrito- 
aUiminous  ores  are  clay  and  pyrites,  or 
sulphuret  of  iron ;  in  addition  however  to 
these,  there  is  always  a  variable  propor- 
tion of  bitumen,  lime,  and  magnesia. 

The  first  process  in  the  manufacture  of 
alum  from  the  pyritous  ores,  is  the  acidi- 
fication of  the  sulphur,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  sulphat  of  alumuie :  to  eftect 
which  the  common  practice  is  to  roast 
the  ore  as  soon  as  it  is  prpcureU  from  the 


mine.     Upon  a  hard  floor  of  rock,  or  well 
rammed   clay,  is  laid  a  bed  of  faggots 
and  coal,  v^'hich  is  covered  all  over  to  the 
thickness  of  two  or  three  feet  with  pieces 
of  ore  :  fire  is  now  applied,  and  as  the 
heat  penetrates  tlirough  the  mass,  fresh 
quantities  of  ore  are  added,  till  tlie  pile 
attains  the  heighth  of  thirty  or  forty  feet. 
In  Sweden,  where  they  lixi\iate the  same 
parcel  of  ore  repeatedly,  tiic  pile  is  built 
up  with  alternate  strata  of  Iresh  ore,  and 
that  which  has  already  been  used  one, 
two,   or  tliree   times.    In  two  or  thfee 
months  the  fire  goes  out  of  itscH',  and  the 
ore,  if  properly  roasted,  will  be  of  a  brown 
colour,  and  astringent  to  the  taste  :  a  red 
colour  indicates  that  the  heat  has  been 
too  great,  and  the  produce  of  alum  is 
considerably  diminished.    The  most  judi- 
cious method,  however,  of  preparing  the 
ore   for  lixiviation,  is  that  practised  at 
Flone,  in  the  department  of  I'Ourte,  in 
France.     When  procured  from  ti)e  mine, 
it  is  sorted,  according  to  its   degree  of 
hardness,  and  laid  lightly  in  heaps  ten  or 
twelve  feet  high,  which  are   sedu  ously 
watered  during  dry  weatl\cr,  as  a  certain 
degree  of  moisture  greatly  hastens  this 
part  of  the  process.  The  spontaneous  de- 
composition of  the  pyiites,  which  is  thus 
brought  about,  is  very  slow,  the  hardest 
kinds  of  ore  requiring  from  three  to  four 
years.    When  upon  examination  the  mass 
appears  sufficiently  impregnated  v  ith  salt, 
the  contents  are  made  into  a  pile,  with 
alternate  strata  of  faggots,  and  by  a  very 
judicious  and  gentle  roasting,  ihe  sulphat 
of  iron  is  for  the  most  part  decomposed, 
and  its   acid,  uniting  with  the  alumine 
and  the  potash  produced  by  the  com- 
bustion of  the  wood,  forms  alum.     After 
the  ore  has  been  prepared  by  one  of  the 
methods  above  mentioned,  it  is  lixiviated. 
For  this  purpose    large    receptacles   of 
wood,  or  masonry,  furnished  with  a  dou- 
ble bottom  and  stop-cock,  arc  nearly  fil- 
led  with  the  ore ;  upon  which  water  is 
poured  in  various  proportions,  according 
to  the  custom  of  tlie  manufactory  or  the 
supposed  richness  of  the  materials.    The 
most   economical   method  is  to   let"  tlie 
water  remain  for  twelve  hours  in  the  first 
reservoir,  cont:uning  ore  that  has   been 
already  twice  lixiviated  ;  then  to  transfer 
it  for   an  equal  time  to  that  which  has 
been  once  lixiviated ;  and  last  of  all  to 
mix  it  for  the  same  number  of  hours  witli 
fresh  roasted  ore ;  after  which  it  is  turned 
into  a  large  vat,  where  the  earthy  sedi- 
ment is  for  the  most  part  deposited.  The 
liquor  is  judged  to  be  suflTicicntly  strong 
if  its  specific  gravity  is  one-eighth  greater 
than  tiiat  of  pure  water. 

The  boiling  down  succeeds  to  the  lisl- 


ALU 


AlAJ 


^iation,  and  is  always  performed  in  leaden 
vessels,  copper  being  for  the  most  par 
mo  dear  a  material,  and  iron  being'  ai 
tended  with  the  inconvenience  of  decom- 
posing the  alum  in  a  considerable  degiee. 
The  object  in  boiling  is  two-fold,  first  to 
evaporate  a  part  of  the  water,  and  thus 
induce  the  salt  to  crj  staUize,  and  second- 
ly to  decompose  the  sulphat  of  iron.  The 
lixivium  being  mixed  witli  tlie  mother 
water  of  a  former  crystallization,  is  boil- 
ed for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours, 
according  to  the  concentration  of  tlie  li- 
quor; dui'ing  which  much  selenite  and 
oxyd  of  iron  is  deposited,  forming  a  crust 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  tliat  requires  to 
be  removed  from  time  to  time. 

In  Saxony,  wliere  the  proportion  of  mo- 
ther water  is  large  and  the  iixiviam  is 
brought  to  a  high  degree  of  concenti-a- 
tion,  the  boiling  continues  without  inter- 
ruption for  a  week.  At  the  end  of  these 
respective  periods,  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  liquor  is  assayed  by  a  leaden  hydro- 
meter, or  b}-  tilling  a  bottle  of  known  size 
\vith  the  liquor,  and  tlien  ascertaining  by 
the  balance  the  comparative  weight  be- 
tween it  and  water.  This  being  done,  an 
alkaline  solution  is  added,  and  the  first 
crystallization  is  brought  about.  In  the 
Saxon  manufactories,  where  tlie  liquor  is 
uncommonly  concenti-ated,  as  soon  as  the 
evaporation  is  finished,  die  contents  of  the 
boiler  are  let  out  into  a  reservoir,  where 
they  are  strongly  agitated  for  half  an 
hour,  duriBg  which  time  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  soap-makei-s  lees  and  putrified 
urine  is  added.  At  Saarbruck,  the  pot- 
ash is  added  twelve  hours  before  tiie  boil- 
ing is  finished.  In  the  English  works, 
when  the  liquor  appeai-s  by  the  hjdrome- 
ter  to  be  sufficiently  evaporated,  tlie  fire 
is  witlidrawn  from  tlie  boiler,  and  a  stream 
of  impure  alkaline  lixivium,  from  kelp 
and  soap-makers  ashes,  is  let  into  the  li- 
quor already  in  tlie  boUer ;  at  the  same 
time  the  cock  of  the  boiler  is  turned,  so 
as  to  allow  the  contents  of  it  to  flow  into 
a  reservou',  by  which  management  tlie 
two  liquors  are  speedily  and  eflTectually 
mixed.  It  remains  in  this  reservoir  for 
three  hours,  during  which  it  deposits  an 
earthy  and  ferruginous  sediment,  and  be- 
comes of  a  clearer  colour ;  it  is  now  trans- 
feiTed  to  another  large  vat,  and  has  its 
specific  giavity  again  taken,  according  to 
which  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  putrid 
urine  is  added,  to  lower  it  to  the  requir- 
ed standard  ;  being  then  agitated  briskly 
for  a  quai'ter  of  an  hour  it  is  left  at  rest, 
and  in  tlie  coiu'se  of  five  days  tlie  crystals 
are  deposited  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 
In  some  French  and  Swedish  manufac- 
tories, the  liquor,  after  being  boiled  down. 


is  merely  agitated  for  some  time,  without 
adding  an}'  alkali,  and  then  passed  into 
the  crystallising  tub.  The  i-ough  alum, 
or  of  the  fii'St  crystallization,  is  always 
contaminated  by  a  small  quaiitity  of  sul- 
jjhat  of  u'on,  from  which  it  is  mostly  freed 
by  washing  in  cold  water,  the  latter  salt 
being  f:u-  more  soluble  in  this  fluid  thaii 
the  former.  When  washed  it  is  ready  to 
be  refined :  for  this  pm'pose  a  few  hun- 
dred weights  of  alum  are  put  into  a  pan, 
with  as  much  sofl  water  as  is  just  suffici- 
ent for  its  solution  when  boiling  hot ;  after 
tlie  solution  is  effected,  some  bullock's 
blood  is  added,  for  tlie  purpose  of  clari- 
fication ;  and  at  the  end  of  about  six  or 
eight  hours,  when  the  alum  is  held  in 
solution  by  only  a  little  more  fluid  than 
its  own  water  of  crj  staUization,  the  liquor 
is  run  into  casks,  where  it  concretes  al- 
most entii-ely  in  a  single  mass.  Afi:er  ten 
or  twelve  davs,  the  residual  liquor  i:i 
poured  out,  and  the  salt  being  broken 
into  pieces  of  about  a  hundi-ed  v.-eight,  ii 
ready  for  salc- 

Tiie  only  manufacture  of  alum  which 
has  been  conducted  throughout  on  strict 
chemical  piinciples,'  is  that  estabhshed 
some  years  ago  by  Chaptal,  at  Javelle, 
neai-  Paris,  with  which  we  shall  termi- 
nate our  account  of  the  modes  of  prepar- 
ing this  important  salL 

According  to  the  modern  way  of  pre- 
paring Sulphuric  Acid,  the  requisite 
proportions  of  sulphur  and  nitre  being 
mixed  together,  are  brought  to  combus- 
tion in  a  close  chamber  lined  with  lead  : 
the  sulphur  is  Uius  acidified  and  convert- 
ed to  vapour,  which,  by  degrees,  unites 
\rith  the  water  with  which  the  floor  of 
the  chamber  is  overspread,  and  forms  a 
diluted  sulphuric  acid.  A  similar  pro- 
cess was  established  by  Chaptal,  only 
substitutmg  dried  clay  for  the  water,  tlie 
result  of  which  was  so  favourable,  tiiat  a 
large  manufactory  on  the  same  plan  was 
set  on  foot,  which  has  continued  in  full 
activity  for  several  years,  producing  alum 
inferior  only  to  that  of  La  Tolfa- 

The  chamber  in  which  the  combustion 
is  carried  on  is  91  feet  long,  48  feet  wide, 
and  31  feet  in  heighth,  to  the  pitch  of  the 
roof  The  walls  ai-e  of  common  masonry, 
fined  with  a  moderately  thick  coating  oi 
white  plaster  :  the  floor  is  a  jjavemcnt  of 
bricks,  set  in  a  mortar  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  baked  and  unbaked  clay ;  and 
tliis  first  pavement  is  covered  by  a  se- 
cond, tiie  bricks  of  which  are  placed  so 
as  to  lie  over  the  joints  of  the  lower  one, 
and  are  themselves  firmly  connected  to 
each  other  by  a  cement,  composed  oi 
equal  parts  of  pitch,  turpentine  and  wax. 
made  boiling  hot,  a^id  pouvod  betweeu 


ALU 


AMA 


the  joints  instead  of  mortar.  The  roolis  i 
of  wood,  and  vhc  beams  are  set  at  much 
less  distances  than  common ;  they  arc 
also  channelled  with  deep  longitudinal 
grooves,  for  tlie  purpose  of  receiving-  the 
planks  that  fill  up  tiie  space  between  the 
beams,  so  that  tlie  whole  of  this  great 
area  of  caqientry  does  not  present  a  sin- 
gle nail.  The  cliamber  tlnis  constructed, 
was  covered  on  the  sides  and  top  with  a 
layer  of  tlie  cement  just  mentioned,  ap- 
plied as  hot  as  possible,  so  as  to  pene- 
trate into  all  the  pores  of  the  wood  and 
plaster ;  three  more  successive  layers 
were  then  laid  on,  and  the  last  was  po- 
lished, so  as  to  present  an  unii'orm  even 
face.  In  order  to  prevent  the  wood-work 
of  the  cieling  from  warping-,  it  was  co- 
vert-d  on  the  outside  with  a  thick  coating 
of  cement,  and  a  light  roof  of  tiles  was 
laid  over  the  whole.  By  substituting  this 
ceni'.nt  for  a  lining  of  lead,  a  vast  saving 
was  effected  in  the  first  expence  ;  and  it 
luis  been  foiuid  by  long  experience  to  re- 
quire fewer  repairs  than  even  lead  itself. 

The  clay  made  use  of  is  of  the  purest 
kind,  sucli  as  pipe-clay,  that  it  may  con- 
tain neither  lime  nor  magnesia,  and  as 
lit,  A-  as  possible  of  u-on  It  is  to  be  tern 
peied  with  water,  and  made  into  balls, 
fiv.  or  hix'inches  in  diameter  :  these  be- 
ing du<d  in  the  sun  are  afterwards  cal- 
cined in  a  furnace:  the  first  effect  of  the 
heat  is  to  blacken  them ;  but  soon  after 
the,  become  red  hot  the  carbonaceous 
mailer  which  causes  the  blackness  is 
burnt  out  Bving  witlulrawn  from  the 
fire  and  cooled,  they  are  broken  down 
into  small  frui^-nients,  and  spread  over 
the  floor  of  the  chamber  In  this  stale 
they  are  exposed  to  the  vapour  of  sul- 
phuric, acid,  fiom  the  cimibustion  ofsul- 
phui  and  nitre,  and  in  a  few  days  the 
pieces  are  observed  to  crack  and  open, 
and  to  be  penetrated  with  slender  saline 
or}  .suds.  The  earth  being  at  lengili  co- 
vered with  effloi'escenees,  it  is  i-enioved 
front  the  cliamber  and  exposed  to  the  air, 
under  shelter  of  a  shed,  that  the  acid  may 
be  conipteiely  oxygenated  and  bcccmie 
thoioiiglily  united  with  the  earth.  It  is 
now  lixiviated,  and  tlie  liquor  contahis  in 
solufi'in  little  else  than  acidulous  snlphat 
of  ahunine  :  this  being  lioilcd  (h)\\ n  to  the 
proper  consistence,  a  solution  of  acid  sul- 
phat  of  potash  (lieing  the  residue  in  tlie 
pots  of  combustion,  from  \\hic!\  the  sul- 
phuric acid  was  proiluced  in  tlic  cham- 
ber, and  consisting  of  the  alkaline  base  of 
the  nitre,  combined  with  some  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid)  is  pourcil  in  ;  and  tlie  liquor 
being  then  transferred  into  a  large  val ,  |)er 
feet  crystals  of  alum  are  dejiosited,  which 
nrc  afterwards  refined  in  the  usual  manner. 


Tlie  advantages  of  this  process  are  nu- 
merous. It  may  be  tarried  on  wherever 
a  proper  supplj-  of  clay  can  be  had.  The 
space  taken  up  by  the  works  is  much 
less  extensive  than  what  is  requu-ed  ac- 
cording to  the  common  methods.  The 
whole  manufacture  is  performed  in  ai 
most  one  third  of  the  time  usually  neces- 
sary. A  large  quantity  of  fuel  is  saved; 
the  extraneous  salts  in  the  mother  water 
are  fewer  ;  an  important  use  is  made  of 
the  residual  sulphat  of  potash  ;  and  last- 
[y,  the  alum  itself  is  much  purer  than 
usual,  and  almost  equally  well  adapted 
to  fix  the  delicate  dyes  as  that  of  La  Tolfa, 
the  commercial  price  of  which  is  general- 
ly about  double  that  of  the  English  alum. 

The  uses  of  alum  are  various  and  im- 
portant. It  is  an  article  of  the  Materia 
Medica;  it  is  a  necessary  ingredient  in 
most  kinds  of  pigments  and  lake-coh.urs, 
and  in  the  various  processes  of  d\  eing.  All 
leather  that  is  not  tanned  or  dri  ssed  with 
oil  is  prepared  for  use  by  means  of  alum. 
It  is  used  by  candle-makers  to  harden 
their  tallow  and  render  it  white  ;  and  an 
I  unauthoi-ized  use  is  occasionally  made  of 
it  by  bakers  in  tlie  preparation  of  the 
finest  white  bread.  See  Abbe  Mazers, 
:  and  Fouieroux  de  Bouderoy,  in  the  JWcwi. 
de  /'  .icad  des  Scieiices,  vol.  v  p.  389. 

Al.UMlNH     SeeKARTHS. 

AMAl;OU.  A  combustible  prepara- 
tion, applied  to  the  same  uses  on  the  con- 
tinent as  tinder  is  among  us.  It  is  made 
chieHy  in  Germany,  whence  it  is  imported 
in  large  quantities  to  France.  The  basis 
of  the  amadiiu  consists  of  the  large  spun- 
gy boleti  that  are  fi)und  on  the  trunks  of 
old  oaks,  ashes,  and  various  other  kinds 
of  timber  trees.  As  soon  as  gathered, 
they  are  boiled  in  plain  water,  to  extract 
all  the  peculiar  juices ;  this  being  done 
they  are  dried,  and  then  well  beaten  with 
a  wooden  mallet,  in  order  to  render  them 
soft :  they  are  also  by  this  means  stretch- 
ed, so  as  to  be  reduced  to  the  thickness  of 
strong  buff  leather.  A  boiling  hot  solu- 
tion of  nitre  is  now  prci)ared,  in  which  tlie 
boleti  are  immersed  ibr  a  short  time  ;  they 
are  then  taken  out,  drained,  and  finally 
dried  in  an  oven.  Good  amadou  is  of  a 
yellowish  brown  colour ;  is  sofl  to  tlic 
touch  like  the  finest  felt,  perfectly  pliable, 
tough,  and  somewhat  elastic  It  takes 
fire  like  tinder,  by  a  spark  from  the  colli- 
sion of  a  flint  and  steel,  and  burns  slowly 
but  is  very  difficult  to  extinguish. 

AMALGAM.  This  name  is  .applied  to 
the  eombination  or  mixtures  of  mercury 
with  other  metals.  Amalgams  are  api)lied 
to  a  considerable  uiNnber  of  useful  purpo- 
ses. The  amalgam  with  gold  is  used  in 
the  process  called  water  gilding,  in  which 


AMB 


AMP 


tlie  mercury  ser\-es  in  the  first  place  as 
the  medium  of  adhesion  between  the  g-old 
;ind  copper,  and  is  afterwards  drawn  oft" 
by  heat.  See  Gilding.  Looking  glas- 
ses are  silvered  by  an  amalgam  of  tin. 
See  Silvering.  The  amalgam  of  zinc, 
triturated  with  tallow,  is  found  to  assist 
the  excitation  of  electi-icity  by  the  friction 
of  a  cui'tain  against  glass,  in  a  wonderful 
degree. 

AMBER.  This  is  a  pellucid  and  very 
hai'd  inflammable  substance,  of  one  imi- 
form  structure,  a  bituminous  taste,  very 
fragrant  smell,  and  highly  elective. 

The  generality  of  authors  contend  for 
this  substance  being  a  bitumen,  which 
trickling  into  the  sea  fi'om  some  subterra- 
neous sotirces,  and  then  mixing  with  the 
>itriolic  salts,  that  abound  in  tliose  parts, 
becomes  congealed  and  fixed.  However, 
as  good  amber  is  found  by  digging  a  great 
distance  from  the  sea,  it  is  piobable  that 
it  is  a  bitumen  of  the  naphtha  or  petroleum 
kind,  hardened  into  its  present  state  by  a 
vitriolic  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol. 

The  natural  colour  of  amber  is  a  fine 
pale  yellow,  but  it  is  often  made  white, 
and  sometimes  black ;  in  botli  cases,  it  is 
rendered  opaque,  by  the  admixture  of  ex- 
traneous bodies.  The  most  frequent  va- 
riation, however,  from  the  yellow,  is  into  a 
dusky  brown.  Sometimes  it  is  tinged 
with  metalline  particles,  and  remains  pel- 
lucid. 

The  salt,  oil,  and  tincture  of  Amber, 
have  been  variously  applied  in  medicine  ; 
but  its  mechanical  use  for  toys,  beads,  ca- 
binets, and  utensils,  and  the  better  soi"ts 
of  varnishes,  ai'e  of  more  importance.  See 
Varnish. 

This  substance  is  principally  to  be  met 
with  on  the  sea  coasts  of  Prussia  The 
river  Giaretta  in  Sicily,  formerly  called 
Simetus,  which  takes  its  rise  on  the  north 
side  of  Mount  Etna,  throws  up  near  its 
mouth,  great  quantities  of  fine  amber, 
some  of  which  is  more  electric,  and  emits 
a  stronger  smell,  than  what  is  received 
from  the  Baltic. 

Some  pieces  of  this  amber  contain  flies 
and  other  insects,  curiously  preserved.  It 
is  generally  supposed  to  issue  from  the 
earth  in  a  liquid  state,  at  which  time  the 
insects  that  alight  upon  it,  are  caught,  and 
by  their  struggle  to  get  loose,  soon  work 
themselves  into  its  substance ;  which 
hardening  round  them,  they  are  for  ever 
preserved  in  the  greatest  perfection. 

AMBER-GREASE,  Amber-Grise,  or 
Grey  Amber,  i<  ii  solid,  opaque,  gene- 
rally ash  coloured,  fatty,  inflammable 
substance,  variegated  like  "marble,  re- 
markably light,  rugged  and  uneven  in  its 
surface,  and  has  a  fragrant  odour  when 


heated.  It  does  not  effervesce  with  acids, 
melts  freely  over  the  fire  into  a  kind  of 
yellow  rosin,  and  is  hardly  soluble  in  spi- 
rits of  wine. 

It  is  found  on  the  sea  coasts,  or  swim- 
ming on  the  sea,  or  in  the  abdomen  of 
whales,  in  various  shapes  and  sizes, 
weiphing  from  half  an  ounce  to  upwards 
of  one  hundred  pounds. 

The  ambergTease  found  in  the  abdomen 
of  the  whale,  is  not  so  hard  or  fragrant  as 
that,  wiiich  is  found  on  the  sea  coast,  but 
soon  grows  hard  m  the  air,  and  acquires 
tb.at  particular  odour,  so  agreeable  to 
most  people.  It  is  known,  tJiat  the  cuttle 
fish  is  the  constant  food  of  the  sjjcrmaceti 
whale  ;  hence  it  is  easy  to  account  for  the 
many  beaks,  or  pieces  of  beaks,  found  in 
all  anibergrease.  Dr.  Swediaur  therefore 
defines  anibergrease,  to  be  the  preterna- 
tui'ally  hardened  dung  or  faeces  of  the 
spermaceti  whale,  mixed  with  some  in- 
digestible relics  of  its  food. 

The  colours  of  ambergrease  vary ; 
there  is,  first,  the  white  ambergrease, 
which  is  scarce  and  of  little  value  ;  as  it 
seems,  eitlier  not  to  be  ripe,  or  mixed  with 
some  heterogeneous  matter ;  then,  the  asli 
coloured  or  true  ambergrease ;  afterwards 
the  black  ambergrease,  which  is  inferior 
to  the  preceding  soi't,  and  frequently 
adulterated ;  lastly,  the  brown  amber- 
grease, which  has  a  particular,  unpleasant 
smell.  It  looks  mostly  sleek  or  smooth, 
as  if  covered  with  a  skin. 

Ambergi'euse  ought  to  be  chosen  in 
large  pieces,  of  an  agreeable  odour,  en- 
tii'eh'  grey  on  the  outside,  and  grey  with 
Utile  black  spots  wiiliin.  The  purchaser 
should  be  extremely  cautious,  as  this  arti- 
cle is  easily  counterfeited  with  gums  and 
other  drugs. 

Ambergrease  is  chiefly  found  in  tlie 
Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  sea  coast  of  Brasil, 
ofi"the  East  Indies,  Cliina,  Japan,  and  tlie 
Molucca  and  West  India  Islands. 

The  use  of  ambergrease  is  now  nearly 
confined  to  perfumer}' ;  it  was  formerly 
recommended  in  medicine  by  eminent 
physicians.  In  .Asia  and  part  of  Africa  i", 
is  also  used  as  a  spice  in  cookerv. 

AM.MO.VIA.     See  Alkalies. 

AMPELJTfiS,  (cannel  or  candle  coal,  • 
a  hard,  opaque,  fossil,  inflammable  sub- 
stance,  of  a  black  colour.  Though  much 
inferior  to  jet,  it  is  a  very  beautiful  foisilc, 
and  for  a  body  of  so  compact  a  structure, 
remarkably  fight.  ■I'hevo  is  a  large  quar- 
ry of  it  near  Alencon  in  France;  it  is  also 
dug  in  many  parts  of  England,  of  which 
the  finest  is  in  Lancasiiire  and  Cheshire. 
It  makes  a  very  bii>:li  fii-e,  flaming  violently 
for  a  short  time,  and  after  that  continuing 
red  and  .'"lov.lne-  hcH  fov  a  long  while.     ]: 


ANI 


ANI 


1    rapnlilc  of  a  very  high  and  elegant  po 
lish,  and  in  the  countries  \\  here  it  is  pro 
duccd,  it  is  turned  into  u  vast  number  of 
toys.     It  is  likewise  used  for  dyeing' the 
hair  black. 

An  alum  ore  found  in  Burgundy,  and 
consisting  of  clay,  ))y rites,  and  bitu- 
men, is  also  distiiiguibhed  by  this  name. 
See  Coals. 

ANIMALS,  DOMESTIC,  Under  this 
head  we  shall  treat  only  of  such  animals 
as  contribute,  in  an  eniineut  degree,  to 
supply  the  necessaries  and  conveniences 
of  man ;  as  the  horse,  sheep.  See.  nor  do 
Me  deem  a  very  detailed  account  of  these 
important,  since  their  use  and  value  are  so 
generally  know  n. 

Of  Horses. — Of  all  the  .inimals  in  the 
brute  creation,  the  horse  doubtless  claims 
pre-eminence,  whether  we  consider  him 
beautiful  in  form,  swifi  in  motion,  or  bene- 
ricial  to  the  ease  and  comfort  of  mankind. 
It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  say  to  wliat 
rountry  horses  originally  belonged;  or,  if 
We  take  into  considei-ation  their  extensive 
utility,  where  they  are  produced  in  the 
greatest  perfection. 

Climate  produces  an  astonishing  effect 
on  thesiz,e,  strength,  and  elegance  of  this 
animal;  yet  food  and  attention  to  keeping 
and  breeders,  causes  still  greater.  The 
horses  of  Canada  are  small  and  ill  shaped, 
though  strong  and  hardy;  those  of  Penn- 
sylvania, if  we  except  strengtli,  are,  in  ge- 
neral, the  reverse;  while  those  of  Virgi- 
2iia  and  the  Carolinas,  are  on  a  medium  ; 
though  recently,  by  attending  to  breed, 
they  have  produced  some  that  may  vie,  in 
point  of  beauty  and  swiftness,  with  all  tlic 
rest  of  the  world.  But  notwithstanding 
this  great  diiTcrence,  there  are,  indisputa- 
bly, good  hoi'ses  in  every  breed;  and  the 
chief  object  of  the  farmer  is  to  select  such 
as  are  best  qualified  for  the  uses  to 
•which  they  are  to  be  appropriated.  Foi 
the  plough,  both  strength  and  agihty 
are  required ;  a  dash  or  mixture  of 
blood,  tlierefore,  is  not  disadvanla- 
geou.s. 

It  is  not  size  that  confers  strength,  the 
largest  horse  bi  nig  often  soonest  worn  out. 
A  clever  step,  an  easy  movement,  and  a 
good  temper,  are  qualities  of  the  first  im- 
portance to  a  working  iiorse  ;  and  tlie  pos- 
session of  these  is  of  more  avail  than  big 
bones,  long  legs,  and  a  hunpy  carcase. 
To  feed  well  is  also  a  property  of  great 
\;due;  and  this  property,  as  all  judges 
know,  depends  much  on  the  shape  of  the 
barrel,  deepness  of  chest,  strengtli  of 
back,  and  size  of  the  hips  or  hooks  with 
v.'liicli  the  animal  is  ftirnished.  If  straight 
in  the  back,  and  not  over-short, — high  in 
the  ribs,  axid  withhook"^  flo.sc  and  round, — 


the  animal  is  generally  hardy,  capable  of 
undergohig  a  great  deal  of  fatigue,  with- 
out lessening  his  appetite,  or  impairing 
liis  working  powers ;  whereas  horses  that 
are  shaip  pointed,  flat  ribbed,  hollow 
backed,  and  wide  set  in  the  hooks,  are 
usually  bad  feeders,  and  soon  done  up 
when  put  to  hard  work:  Hence  it  is  mat- 
ter of  serious  consideration,  to  breed  only 
from  the  hardy  and  well  proportioned 
tribes,  these  being  supported  at  the  least 
e.Npense,  and  capable  of  undergoing,  with- 
out injuiy,  a  degree  of  labour  which 
would  disable  those  of  a  diilerent  consti- 
tution. 

Tlie  female  brings  forth  one  colt  after  a 
gestation  of  eleven  months :  none  of  the 
parent  creatures  should  be  under  foiu* 
years  of  age.  Castration  is  commonly 
performed  when  the  colt  is  twelve  or  eigh- 
teen months  old ;  but  the  best  practice  is 
to  delay  that  operation  till  the  animal  at- 
tains the  age  of  two  years,  for  they  will 
then  retain  a  greater  degree  of  strength 
and  spirit.  If  properly  kept,  they  wiU 
live  to  the  age  of  forty  years ;  but  mares  do 
not  breed  after  eighteen,  and  studs,  or 
stallions,  are  useless  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
so  that  they  are  fit  only  for  the  harness. 
Potatoes,  carrots,  fui'7,e,  cabbage,  EiC.  have 
been  successfully  tried  as  substitutes  for 
oats,  and  the  more  expensive  method  of 
corn  feeding.  When,  however,  grain  is 
used,  tlie  most  economical  way  will  be  to 
boil  and  give  it,  with  the  liquor  in  a  cool 
state,  to  the  animal,  by  wliich  simple 
means  one  halt  may  be  saved.  Broken 
winded  horses,  when  fed  on  carrots,  soon 
recover. 

A  considerable  reduction  may  also  be 
made  by  cutting  the  hay  into  a  kind  of 
cliafl',  and  mixing  it  with  straw,  or  broken 
ears  of  corn,  whicii  arise  in  dressing  grain  ; 
and  also  by  soiling  horses,  as  observed 
under  the  ailicle  Agriculture. 

The  management  of  horses,  after  hav- 
ing performed  the  labour  of  the  day,  is  a 
matter  of  equal  moment  witli  their  feed- 
ing; and  as  considerable  expense  has  in- 
judiciously been  incurred  by  erecting  ele- 
gant stables,  we  propose  the  following 
practice  to  the  eonsideratirn  of  the  rural 
economist.  It  coiibists  sinipiy  in  forming 
a  small  yard,  proviiled  with  a  shed  that  is 
open  in  "front,  and  furnished  with  racks, 
as  well  as  with  a  pump  and  cistern.  A  su- 
persU'ucture  of  this  kind,  if  well  littered, 
is  in  every  respect  jjieferable  to  a  stable, 
and  will  preserve  horses  in  better  health, 
without  rec[uiring  any  other  covering  or 
dressing  tlian  is  usually  given  when  othei'- 
wise  stabled.     See  Farriekv. 

Of  the  Ass. — The  ass  by  naturalists  is 
i-anivcd  as  a  species  of  the  horse,  and  bv 


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same,  lirom  his  very  ^eat  similitude  in 
habits,  while  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  re- 
semblance of  external  and  internal  parts, 
thought  to  be  only  a  degeneracy  of  that 
noble  animal.  As,  however,  bis  history  is 
foreign  to  the  design  of  our  work,  we  leave 
it  for  the  investigation  of  the  naturalist. 

This  animal  in  his  natural  state  is  swift, 
formidable,  bold,  and  fierce  ;  but  the  mo- 
ment he  has  lost  his  freedom,  his  disposi- 
tion and  habits  are  totally  changed,  and 
he  becomes  remarkable  for  meekness,  pa- 
tience, and  tranquillity.  He  submits  with 
firmness  to  chastisement,  is  temperate  in 
his  food,  contenting  himself  with  the  re- 
fuse of  other  animals,  but  is  extremely 
delicate  in  the  choice  of  his  drink,  prefer- 
ing  the  inconvenience  of  thirst  to  impure 
•water.  This  animal  is  esteemed  for  his 
attachment;  and,  though  treated  with 
harshness  and  cruelty,  is  fond  of  his  mas- 
ter, will  trace  him  out  by  scent,  and  readi- 
ly distinguishes  him  from  other  persons. 

Of  all  animals  tlie  ass  perhaps  is  capa- 
ble of  supporting  the  heaviest  burthen  in 
proportion  to  his  size ;  and,  on  account  of 
his  slow  and  regular  pace,  is  particularly 
usefiil  in  journe\"ing  over  mountainous 
countries.  He  is  regarded  of  little  value 
in  the  United  States,  except  in  studs  wltli 
the  horse,  which  produces  the  mule,  a 
mongi-el  animal,  partaking  both  of  the  na- 
ture of  a  horse  and  an  ass. 

Of  mules.— The  mule  is  a  \evx  hardy 
animal,  and  will  undergo  changes  in  cli- 
mate withotit  being  either  unfitted  for 
labour,  or  constitutionally  injured. 

On  this  account  he  is  preferred  in  warm 
countries  for  the  purposes  eitlier  of 
draught  or  carriage,  and  in  cold,  though 
not  so  much  used,  he  deserves  to  be  more 
generally  propagated,  on  account  of  his 
disposition,  and  stability,  as  also  tlie  lit- 
tle expence  of  keeping,  his  habits  being 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  ass.  These 
animals  some  times  attain  the  height  of 
15  or  16  hands,  earn.-  heavy  burthens, 
.ire  sure  footed  and  attain  to  a  very  great 
age. 

Mares  selected  for  tiie  stud  should  be 
young,  of  a  Hvely  tiu-n,  small  limbed, 
and  with  a  head  of  moderate  size  ;  these 
witli  proper  attention,  will  drop  folds, 
which  it  will  benecessaiy  to  house,  in  or- 
der to  render  them  ti'actable,  by  being 
frequently  handled.  "When  three  ycai*s 
old,  they  may  be  broken  in ;  but  it  will  not 
be  adviseable  to  work  them  to  any  consi- 
derable extent,  till  they  have  attained  the 
fourth  }ear  of  their  age.  After  which 
4.ime,  tiicy  will,  if  properly  treated,  conti- 
nue in  full  vigour  till  they  are  past  oO, 
and  sometimes  40  years.  It  should  however 
be  remarked,  that  wheat  and ne  stxjiw, 


disagree  with  their  natm-e,  and  incapaci- 
tate diem  for  hard  labour.  For  the  treat- 
ment of  diseases  incident  to  the  Horse, 
Ass  and  Mide,  see  the  article  Farriery. 

On  v\<?at  Cattle. — In  treating  on  this  va- 
luable class  of  animals,  we  shall  point  out 
such  vegetables  as  may  be  given  them 
with  advantage,  state  a  few  supplementa- 
ry rules  to  be  observed  in  their  breeding, 
and  conclude  with  some  observations  on 
the  most  common  distempers  to  which 
diey  are  liable. 

1.  With  respect  to  food- 

The  first  object  in  tlie  article  of  food,  is 
wholesomeness  :  wild  cattle  feed  entirely 
on  the  green  vegetables,  which  they  find 
throughout  the  year.  Similar  nutriment 
should  tlierefore,  if  possible,  be  procured 
for  tame  cattle,  in  all  seasons  ;  but  such 
food  can  be  foimd  only  among  those 
plants,  which  are  either  constantly  green, 
or  arrive  at  maturity  in  the  winter.  Of  all 
vegetable  productions,  the  most  exube- 
rant, for  this  purpose,  appears  to  be  the 
cabbage,  with  its  numerous  varieties  :  thr" 
disagreeable  taste,  which  that  plant  Is 
supposed  to  impart  to  milk,  can  be  no  rea- 
sonable objection  to  its  use  ;  as  it  may  be 
obviated  by  boiling. 

Turnips  and  carrots  constitute  the  next 
article,  and  cannot  be  too  forciblv  recom- 
mended, especially  as  a  winter  food. 

Almost  every  English  book  on  farming 
extols  the  great  benefit  derived  from 
feeding  cattle  during  winter  on  tuntips. 
In  the  United  States  the  practice  is  not 
adopted  of  choice,  and  where  an  experi- 
ment has  been  made  of  tlus  food,  ow- 
ing probably  to  some  mismanagement,  a 
favourable  opinion  of  it  has  not  been  the 
consequence. 

Potatoes  furnish  a  suppij',  equaily  ex- 
cellent and  wholesome  Horses  are  pai'- 
ticularly  fond  of  them.  To  tliese  may  be 
aHded,  the  plant,  called  whins,  the  utility 
of  which  has  but  lately  become  generalK 
known  They  require,  jt  is  true,  to  be 
ground  in  a  mill,  before  they  are  given  to 
cattle,  and  do  not  materially  ameliorate 
the  ground,  a  circumstance  considered  ap 
an  objection  to  their  culture :  but,  not- 
withstanding tliese  apparent  disadvanta- 
ges, they  produce  an  excellent  and  invigo, 
rating  fodder,  and  constitute  one  of  tJie 
cheapest  articles  of  winter  provision ;  a.<; 
they  continue  green  during  the  whole 
year,  and  will  grow  on  the  most  indifier- 
ent  soils. 

In  enumerating  the  various  vegetables, 
which  appear  to  be  the  most  beneficial 
food  for  cattle,  v.e  have  necessarily  avoid- 
ed entering  into  any  particular  detaik 
concerning  their  culture  ;  but  Ihey  willbt 
noticed  unde:"  tlieai-llc'e  GAF.nzs-rv^. 


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Two  articles  ha\'e  lately  been  employed 
with  considerable  success  in  fattening 
c:ittle.  The  first  is  -wath,  or  the  rt  fuse  of 
grains  remuining  after  distillation :  tliis 
iqiior  is  conveyed  from  the  distillery  in 
large  ciuts,  closelv jointed  and  well  cov- 
ered, so  as  to  prevent  leaking.  It  is  then 
discharged  into  vats  or  other  vessels,  and 
when  these  are  about  two-thirds  full,  a 
([uantity  of  sweet  hay,  previously  cut 
smull,  is  immersed  for  two  or  three  days, 
in  order  that  the  wash  may  imbibe  the  fla- 
vour of  the  hay,  before  it  is  used.  In  this 
state,  the  mixture  is  carried  to  the  stalls, 
and  poured  into  troughs,  from  whicli  it  is 
eagerly  eaten  by  cattle  Some  animals, 
however,  shew  at  first  an  aversion  to  such 
food  ;  in  which  case  their  hay  should  be 
frequently  spi  inkled  with  the  wash ;  so 
that,  by  having  the  smell  constantly  before 
them,  and  seeing  others  eat  with  avidity 
the  same  preparation,  it  gradually  be 
comes  less  nauseous,  and  is  at  lengtli 
much  relished.  Tiie  cows  and  oxen  thus 
fed,  not  only  repay  the  expence  of  their 
keeping,  by  iTattening  speedily,  but  yield  a 
large  quantity  oi"  lich  manure,  which  is 
moVe  valuable  than  that  from  any  other 
food. 

An  equally  successful  method  of  fatten- 
ing cattle  in  general,  and  oxen  in  parti- 
cular, consists  in  gi'ing  from   half  to  a 
whole  pint  of  molasses,  twice  in  the  day, 
to  every  starving  a;iimai,  that  has  been 
exhausted  by  continual    and  severe   la- 
bour, for  a  series  of  years     For  this  pur- 
pose,   a   gallon    of   oats,    or    any   othe:- 
grain,    roughly    ground,    or    the     same 
])roportion  of  potatoes,    should  be   boil- 
ed in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  to 
form  a  thick  mash.     It  must  be  ncll  sti  - 
icd  while  on  the  fire,  to  prevent  its  biu-n- 
iig,  or  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  vcs- 
•I ;  and,  when  it  becomes  cool,  the  mix- 
u-e  is  formed  into  balls,  each  wcigliing 
liout  a  p;)und.     One  half  of  these  balls, 
iter  dipiiing  them  into  the  molasses  in 
'.'.c  morning  (the  remainder  in  the  even- 
g)  is  given  to  the  cattle,  winch  devour 
iiem  with  great  eagerness,  ai\d  speedily 
row  fat,  by  the  addition  of  a  little  hay, 
r  any  green  fodder  that  is  not  too  siic- 
ulent.     Besides,  one  or  two    spoonfuls 
i'salt  ate  generally  dissolved  in  the  cont- 
, osition,  uhich  contributes  to   preserve 
ilie  l»«i'lh   of  the  animals;  and  in  case 
ground  corn  cannot  be  i)rocured,  oil-cake, 
diluted  with  water,  seasoned  with  a  little 
^ali,  and  moistened  with  the  same  ([uan- 
lity  of  molasses,  maybe  advantageously 
■  ul)3iitutcd. 

As  the  cattle  of  the  United  States  have 

:  lostly  originated  from  those  of  Great  llri- 

.in,  liic  subsequent  observations  on  their 


breeding  made  on  the  latter  will  justly 
apply  to  both. 

II  The  breedivg  of  cattle. 
The  English  cattle  are  divided  into  se- 
veral classes,  or  breeds,  denominated 
from  the  different  couiities  in  which  they 
are  reared  ;  as  the  J  .mcolnshire  and  IIol- 
derness,  which  are  distinguished  for  their 
size;  the  Welsh  and  Norfolk  breeds, 
which  are  as  remarkable  for  their  lean 
and  wrenched  appearance,  as  the  Lanca- 
shire and  Herefordsiiire  are  for  tiieir 
beautiful  and  healthy  look.  Besides  these, 
there  are  several  others,  as  the  Sussex, 
Devonshire,  or  Somersetshire,  which, 
though  fine  cattle,  do  not  attract  that  at- 
tention which  is  generally,  aitd  deserved- 
ly, paid  to  the  »  ancashire  and  Hereford- 
shire breeds.  The  former  of  these  is 
particularly  celebrated  for  the  improve- 
ments made  by  the  late  ingenious  VIr. 
Bake  well,  of  whose  mode  of  breeding  we 
shall  give  a  concise  account- 
There  was  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in 
Mr.  Bake  '  ell's  cattle ;  namely,  their  un- 
common docility  and  meekness,  which 
were  so  great,  that  a  boy  with  a  switch 
could,  without  any  difficulty,  conduct 
them  from  one  part  of  his  farm  to  another. 
This  gentleness  was  the  effect  of  manage- 
ment, and  evinces  the  s.ipeiiority  of  his 
mode  of  bi'eeding.  While  we  admire  and 
acknowledge  its  excellence,  we  cannot 
but  advi  ri  to  the  mischief  which  is  fre- 
quently done  by  horned  cattle,  and  doubt- 
less arises  from  very  contrary  practices. 
Such  ii'juiious  consequences,  however, 
might  be  prevented  by  tipping,  that  is,  by 
sawing  off'the  points  of  the  horns  of  cows, 
bulls,  and  oxen,  and  fixing  on  them  small 
knobs  of  wood,  about  three  inches  in  di- 
ameter ;  then  boring  a  hole  through  the 
horn  and  wood,  and  clinching  a  nail  on 
the  ojjposite  side.  Although,  by  this  pre- 
caution, the  horns  are  in  a  manner  de- 
spoiled of  their  beauty,  yet,  when  com- 
pared with  the  advantages  resulting  from 
it,  this  trifling  loss  cannon  be  regretted. 

Besides  the  rules  we  shall  give  under 
the  head  of  Breeding,  we  shall  in  this 
place  observe,  that  cattle  may  be  much 
improved  bv  crossing  the  strain,  or  breed; 
which  is  said  to  be  attended  with  the 
most  beneficial  consequences  This  prac- 
tice, though  ridiculed  by  some  prejudiced 
farmcis,  is  nevertheless  sanctioned  by 
the  opinion  and  long  experience  of  many 
successful  breeders,  and  especially  the. 
late  Mr.  Bakcwcll ;  who  has  recommend- 
ed the  pro])agating  from  the  old  breed, 
only  till  a  better  could  be  procured 

In  kee{)ing  live-stock  on  grain  as  well 
as  on  grass-ijirms,  their  kinds,  size,  and 
number,  in  proportion  to  the  means  of 


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subsistence,  desen'e  unremitted  atten 
tion  ;  as  likewise  the  modes  of  keeping 
them,  and  saving  their  manure.  It  is  as 
serted,  that  English  cows  require,  in  ge- 
neral, from  one  to  two  acres  of  pasture  : 
this  is  mostly  -inadc  by  sowing  grass- 
seeds  after  the  groundhas  produced  crops 
for  many  years,  being  both  ameliorated 
and  exhausted  under  manurings  and  good 
tillage  Such  land  continues  several  years 
afterwards  in  grass,  which  is  carefully 
cleared  of  brambles  and  strong  weeds. 

Some  persons  contend  that  pastures 
ought  to  be  stocked  very  lightly ;  alledg- 
ing,  that  although  much  of  the  produce 
is  thus  allowed  to  run  to  seed,  which  the 
beasts  will  not  eat,-  and  which  of  course 
is  trodden  under  foot,  and  rotted  by  rain 
and  thus  wasted ;  yet  experience  they  say, 
proves,  that  a  greater  profit  will  be  thus 
derived  from  it,  upon  the  whole,  than  by 
any  other  practice,  on  account  of  the  su- 
perior thi'iving  of  the  animals. 

Others  pretend  on  the  contrarj',  that 
light  stocking  of  grass  land  is  a  practice 
highly  to  be  condemned  ;  as  it  tends  not 
only  gradually  to  diminish  its  produce, 
but  also  to  encourage  the  growth  of  coarse 
and  unprofitable  grasses,  which  greatly 
deteriorate  the  pastures  ;  and  ihat  hard 
stocking  of  grass  lands,  especially  those 
of  a  rich  quality,  is  an  indispensable  re- 
quisite of  good  management. 

These  two  opinions  so  diametrically 
opposite  to  each  other,  and  which  are 
equally  maintained  by  sensible  men,  clear- 
ly proves  the  embarrassment  to  which 
they  are  subjected,  in  consequence  of 
not  having  adverted  to  the  circumstances 
stated  above,  and  many  other  pai-ticidars 
that  require  still  to  be  developed,  as  ef- 
fecting the  economical  consumption  of  the 
produce  of  grass-lands. 

A  third  party,  who  approach  perhaps 
nearer  to  the  truth  than  either  of  the 
above,  advise,  that  mixed  stock  should 
be  always  kept  upon  the  same  field :  and 
were  the  consumption  of  the  foul  grass 
produced  by  the  dung  of  the  animals,  the 
only  article  to  be  adverted  to,  it  might 
be,  doubtless,  so  managed  as  to  correct 
this  evil :  but  there  are  so  many  other 
circumstances  to  be  adverted  to,  that  it 
is  not  easy,  by  tliis  means,  to  get  them 
all  remedied. 

In  every  field,  a  variety  of  plants  spon- 
taneously spring  up,  some  of  which  are 
disrelished  by  one  class  of  animals,  while 
they  are  eaten  by  some  others  ;  and  some 
of  whicli  plants,  though  eaten  readily  by 
some  animals  at  a  particular  period  of 
their  growth,  are  rejected  by  them  en- 
tirely .at  another  age.  Thus  it  becomes 
VOL.    I. 


necessary,  not  only  to  have  a  vast  variety 
of  animals  in  the  same  pasture  ;  but  also 
a  very  particular  attention  is  required  to 
augment  or  to  diminish  the  proportion  of 
some  of  these  classes  of  animals,  at  par- 
ticiUar  seasons  of  the  year,  otherwise 
some  part  of  the  produce  will  be  allowed 
to  run  to  waste,  unless  it  be  hard  stocked 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  retard  their 
thriving. 

But  if  a  great  variety  of  animals  be  al- 
lowed to  go  at  large  in  the  same  pasture, 
they  are  never  suffered  to  feed  with  that 
tranquillity  which  is  necessary  to  insure 
thriving  in  the  highest  degree.  One  class 
of  these  wishes  to  feed,  or  to  play,  while 
the  others  would  incline  to  rest.  They 
thus  mutually  disturb  and  tease  each 
other :  and  this  inconvenience  is  greatly 
augmented,  if  penning  of  any  sort  be  at- 
tempted. From  these  considerations,  the 
practice  of  intermixing  various  kinds  of 
stock  very  much  together,  is  found  to  be 
productive  of  evils,  in  many  cases,  great- 
er than  tiiose  which  result  from  the  waste 
of  food  this  practice  was  intended  to  pre- 
vent. And  though  there  is  no  doubt  that 
by  hai'd  stocking  the  grass  will  be  kept 
shorter,  and  consequently  will  be  moi*e 
palatable  in  general  to  the  animals  which 
eat  it,  than  if  it  were  allowed  to  run  to  a 
great  length,  and  that  thus  even  unpleas- 
ing  patches  may  be  consumed ;  yet  as 
animals,  which  are  to  be  fattened,  mtist 
have  not  only  sweet  food,  but  an  abun- 
dant bite  at  all  times,  to  bring  them  for- 
ward in  a  kindly  manner,  it  seems  to  be 
nearly  impossible  to  obtain  both  these  ad- 
vantages together  in  the  practice  of  pas- 
turage. 

Under  every  point  of  view,  that  this 
question  can  be  considered,  we  are  forced 
to  conclude,  that  the  practice  of  cutting 
of  grass,  and  consuming  it  gi'een,  in  all 
cases  where  the  ground  is  in  a  state  that 
can  admit  of  it,  when  compaied  with  that 
of  pasturage  appears  to  be  .so  gi'eatly 
economical,  that  the  particulars  under 
w^iich  that  mode  of  management  can  be 
practised,  and  the  peculiarities  affecting 
it,  deserve  to  be  much  more  minutely  in- 
vestigated, than  they  ever  yet  have  been. 

In  confirmation  of  the  justness  of  this 
conclusion,  it  is  now  universally  admit- 
ted as  a  fact,  that  a  crop  of  red  clover, 
when  cut  and  consumed  in  the  house 
green,  in  all  cases,  will  go  at  least  twice 
as  far,  when  cut,  as  when  pastured  upon : 
some  go  as  high  as  to  say  it  will  go  four 
times  as  far.  As  every  person,  who  has 
tried  the  experiment,  agrees,  that  the 
saving,  by  cutting  this  crop,  is  very 
great,  that  practice  has  of  late  years  be-- 
Tl 


ANI 


ANI 


jfun  to  prevail  very  much ;  though  reason 
li.'is  not  yet  been  able  to  stem  the  torrent 
of  ancient  prejudice,  so  as  to  render  it 
entirely  luiiversal. 

But  tlie  cutting  of  other  grass  grounds, 
and  consuming  their  produce  green, 
seems  not  to  liave  been  deemed  even 
practicable,  and  has  not  of  course  been 
ever  thought  ofbeing experimentally  tried. 

The  field  should  begin  to  be  cut  when 
the  longest  piles  of  grass  on  it  have  at- 
tained the  height  of  two  inches  at  most, 
and  proceed  regularly  day  by  day,  cut- 
ting as  fast  as  the  beasts  consume  it,  so 
as  to  go  over  the  whole  in  three  or  four 
weeks  as  the  weather  is  warm  or  cold ; 
when  that  which  was  first  cut  will  be 
ready  to  be  cut  a  second  time,  and  so  on. 
The  grass  should  be  carried  off  in  a  light 
sparred  or  wicker  cart,  di-awn  by  one 
small  horse ;  this  cart  to  move  upon 
three  broad  low  wlicels,  placed  two  on 
one  axis  and  one  on  anotber,  below 
the  body  of  the  cart,  so  as  to  act  as  a 
roller  when  going  over  the  ground :  a 
cart  or  rather  bari-ow,  of  this  construc- 
tion, has  been  fomid  a  most  conve- 
nient implement.  In  this  manner  the 
work  will  proceed  reguhuh ,  and  with- 
out ti'ouble  tlu'oughout  the  wliole  sea- 
son :  the  beasts  should  be  regularly 
fed ;  getting  only  a  small  quantity  at  a 
time,  but  frequently,  and  fresh ;  giv 
ing  them  sweet  water  when  necessary, 
and  as  much  grass  as  they  will  eat,  al- 
lowing them  proper  time  for  rest.  No- 
thing should  be  left  in  tlieir  stalls,  at 
these  times,  to  be  breathed  upon,  and 
thus  rendered  disgustful  to  them  ;  and  if 
the  house  be  so  constructed  as  that  the 
beasts  can  be  easily  kept  cool  to  a  proper 
degree,  quiet  and  clean,  they  will  thrive 
abundantly. 

Gtiiss  lands,  if  constantly  ait,  are  not 
deteriorated. — What  the  chajiges  would 
be,  both  in  regard  to  the  quantity  and 
the  nature  of  tlie  produce  from  the  same 
iield,  if  annually  cut,  and  the  produce 
carried  off,  as  above  mentioned,  or  if  con- 
sumed by  sufiering  beasts  to  pasture 
upon  it,  cannot  at  present  be  told  with 
certainty ;  but  there  are  not  wanting  facts 
that  enable  us  to  have  some  idea  of  the 
probable  result. 

But  surely  stalls  may  be  constructed 
under  trees,  so  as  effectually  to  secure 
the  animals  from  the  flies,  and  at  the 
same  time  enable  them  to  enjoy  air.  An 
attention  to  both  these  particulars  is  in- 
dispensable to  the  preservation  of  their 
health,  and  the  speedy  fattening  of  tlie 
animals. 

The  grass  must  be  cut  in  the  morning 


for  the  evening  food,  and  in  the  afternoon 
for  the  morning  mess ;  the  afternoon  crop 
must  be  carried  to  the  barn,  and  spread 
to  exhale  its  superfluous  moisture  ;  and 
in  rainy  weather,  both  crops  must  be 
taken  olf  the  ground.  Attention  must 
however  be  paid  to  the  due  proportion  to 
be  cut. 

Upland  blue  grass  is  particularly  pro- 
per for  soiling,  because  it  inclines  to  grow 
lank  and  liard,  and  to  bind  the  soil,  and 
therefore  will  bear  close  and  frequent 
mowing.  But  whether  the  practice  of 
soiling  or  pasturing  be  followed,  it  is  es- 
sential that  the  grass  be  occasion Uly 
changed.  All  animals  thrive  better  from  a 
change  of  food. 

In  cases,  however,  where  it  is  impos- 
sible to  soil,  the  next  best  method  is  to 
make  a  proper  division  of  the  lai  d,  and 
to  proportion  the  ntimber  of  head  to  the 
quantity  of  acres.  Cattle  should  be  chang- 
ed  from  a  field  whenever  the  grass  is 
eaten  short :  otherwise  they  will  fall  in 
flesh,  and  additional  time  and  grass  will 
be  required  to  bring  them  to  their  for- 
mer standing.  It  is  only  by  regular  full 
feeding,  that  cattle  will  soon  be  brought 
to  look  well,  and  to  be  fit  for  market. 

Where  a  small  number  of  cattle  are 
fed,  and  it  is  necessary  to  turn  them  into 
a  clover  field  in  the  close  of  the  day,  a 
man  should  watch  and  tuni  tliem  out  the 
moment  they  are  satisfied,  otherwise  they 
will  lie  down,  or  stroll  about,  and  by 
blowing  on  the  grass,  will  cause  great 
waste. 

Di'.  Mease  observes,  that  cattle  fed 
in  the  meadows  south  of  Philadelphia, 
are  generally  kept  one  year  before  they 
are  sold — They  are  pastured  one  sum- 
mer, and  then  stall  fed  upon  ha}-,  and 
fotu-  quarts  of  meal  of  Indian  corn, 
and  three  quarts  of  chopped  potatoes 
three  times  a  day.  In  the  spring  and 
early  in  the  summer,  they  are  sold.  In 
some  cases  they  are  fed  on  hay  alone, 
in  which  case  they  reqtiire  two  tons  per 
head;  btit  having  short  feed  as  above, 
each  requires  but  one  ton.  Hay  com- 
posed of  white  clover  and  timothy  fattens 
quickest.  One  grazier  thinks  that  the 
second  crop  of  blue  grass  and  clover  is 
best  to  make  hay ;  but  a  farming  friend 
thinks  that  this  mixture  is  not  nourish- 
ing, though  cattle  will  eat  more  of  it.  In 
stall  feeding  cattle,  it  is  a  common  prac- 
tice to  give  a  certain  mess  every  day  with- 
out  regard  to  any  circumstance,  but  an 
experienced  feeder  deems  this  practice 
absuid,  and  justly  observes  that  a  bul- 
lock will  eat  with  a  much  keener  appe- 
tite on  a  clear  cold  day,  than  in  warm 


ANI 


ANI 


damp  weather ;  his  mess  ought  to  be  pro- 
portioned accordingly.  By  giving  the 
same  quantity  every  day,  the  animal  may 
be  induced  to  over-eat  itself,  and  many 
days  may  elapse  before  he  will  recover 
his  appetite.  By  this  delay  he  may  fall 
away,  and  time  will  be  requii'ed  to  bring 
him  to  his  former  good  flesh.  The  waste 
hay,  or  that  mad£  from  grass  mowed 
after  the  cattle,  is  used  commonly  to  feed 
the  stock  when  the  winter  sets  in;  the 
best  hay  being  reserved  for  the  spring  be- 
fore the  beasts  are  turned  out  to  grass. 
A  handful  of  salt  is  broad  cast  over  every 
load  as  packed  in  the  loft,  and  so  grate- 
ful is  tliis  condiment  to  them,  that  tliey 
have  been  obseived  to  prefer  poor  hay 
salted,  to  good  hay  unsalted. 

The  economical  Flemish  and  German 
practice  of  boiUng  the  potatoes,  corn,  &c. 
is  not  followed.  But  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  a  portion  of  liquid  food  given 
every  day,  would  have  an  excellent  efiect 
in  pi'oducing  an  open  state  of  the  bowels, 
in  loosening  and  softening  the  hide,  and 
keep  tlie  animals  in  better  plight,  than 
by  confining  them  to  dry  food.  Beans, 
mashed  potatoes,  mashed  tvu-nips,  i-ye, 
Indian  corn  and  oats,  coarsely  broken, 
should  be  boiled  with  a  large  proportion 
of  water,  and  given  warm  :  salt  may  be 
added  when  the  mess  is  poured  into  the 
troughs  Corn  blades  and  corn  stalks 
may  be  also  boiled  with  double  advan- 
tage instead  of  giving  them  dry.  The 
Gennans  in  Lancaster  county,  now  chop 
their  corn  cobs  by  means  of  mills,  and 
with  great  benefit.  If  boiled,  tliey  would 
still  go  further,  for  their  juices  having 
been  extracted  by  the  water,  would  nour- 
ish, while  the  solid  substance  would  sti 
mulate  by  its  quantity,  and  tlms  combine 
the  characters  of  a  strong  food. 

A  boiler  properly  constructed,  so  as  to 
save  the  heat,  would  render  the  expense 
of  its  erection  a  trifle;  and  this  trifle 
would  be  more  than  balanced  by  the 
greater  quantity  of  nourishment  aiforded 
by  the  process. 

Cattle  fed  on  a  mess  of  sour  food,  pre 
pared  by  fermenting  rye  flour  and  water, 
and  then  diluted  with  water,  and  thick- 
ened with  hay  cut  small,  are  said  to  fat 
ten  quickly.    It  is  known  that  hogs  derive 
more  benefit  from  sour  milk  and  swill 
than  when  fresh,  and  it  is  highly  proba 
])le  that  good  effects  may  be  derived  from 
acid  food  for  horses,  but  it  can  only  be 
considered  as  preparatory  to  the  essential 
article  Indian  corn  without  which  neither 
steer,  or  hog  will  acquire  that  firmness 
in  muscle  and  fat  which  are  so  deservedly 
admired. 


Much,  however,  depends  in  the  fatten- 
ing of  cattle,  on  their'  "  thriving  disposi- 
tion :  singular  as  it  may  appear  to  many 
of  our  readers,  the  tendency  of  animals 
to  become  fat,  is  not  a  little  promoted  by 
what  is  called  avseating  them ;  a  practice 
which  has  been  attended  with  uncommon 
success  This  has  been  particularly  ex- 
perienced by  the  ingenious  Mr.  Moody, 
who  asserts,  that  the  hotter  cattle  are 
kept,  the  better  they  will  fatten.  He 
therefore  shuts  them  up  in  an  ox-house, 
and  for  some  time  admits  no  ah*  to  enter 
through  the  holes  of  the  doors.  The 
breath  of  so  many  beasts,  and  the  heat  of 
their  bodies,  soon  make  them  sweat  ex- 
ceedingly, and  when  this  is  at  its  highest 
point,  tliey  most  speedily  fatten.  After 
sweating  two  weeks  all  the  hair  falls  olT, 
a  fresh  coat  appears,  and  they  sweat  no 
more :  but  those  beasts  which  do  not  sen- 
sibly perspire,  seldom  grow  fat. 

Linseed  oil-cake  remarkably  contributes 
to  the  fattening  of  cattle,  and  renders 
their  dung  much  richer  than  any  other 
vegetable  aliment ;  but,  as  this  article  is 
advancing  in  price,  and  difficult  to  be 
procured,  it  has  lately  been  superseded 
by  linseed-jelly,  which  is  incompai'ably 
superior,  and  when  given  with  hay  or 
meal,  makes  an  excellent  mixture  for 
stall-fattening.  It  is  prepared  as  follows  -. 
To  seven  parts  of  water  put  one  of  lin- 
seed, for  48  hours ;  then  boil  it  gently 
for  two  hours,  stirring  the  mass  continu- 
ally, to  prevent  it  from  burning.  It  should 
afterwards  be  cooled  in  tubs,  and  mixed 
with  meal,  bran,  or  cut  chaff'.  Mr.  Moody 
gave  two  quarts  of  this  jelly  every  day 
to  each  large  bullock,  which  amounts  to 
Uttle  more  tlian  one  quart  of  seed  in  four 
days,  and  is  a  great  saving  in  the  article 
of  food. 

Flaxseed  jelly  would  no  doubt  be  more 
agreeable  to  the  animals,  less  liable  to 
surfeit  from  an  accidental  over  propor- 
tion, and  less  liable  to  aflTect  the  meal 
wdth  a  peculiar  taste,  than  either  oil  or 
cake,  and  therefore  deserves  to  be  tried. 

To  each  head  may  be  given,  about  half 
a  gallon  of  jelly  daily,  mixed  with  meal 
and  cut  straw.  But  this  food  ought  to 
be  changed  about  one  month,  before  the 
animal  is  killed,  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  the  flavour  of  the  oil,  cake,  or  jelly, 
remaining  in  the  flesh. 

IlL  The  Diseases  of  Cattle. 

No  distemper  is  perhaps  more  common 
among  these  usetul  animals,  than  that  of 
being  swoln,  that  is,  blown  or  hoxen,  as  it 
is  termed  by  farmers.  It  arises  either  from 
their  being  exposed  to  damp  situations,  or 
from  eating  too  greedily  of  any  succulent 


ANl 


ANI 


food,  such  as  turnips,  clover,  pai-ticularly 
reil  clover,  which  i^  a  dangerous  food  for 
horned  cattle  ;  for,  when  wetted  by  dew 
or  rain,  it  may  prove  a  destructive  poison. 
For  this  fatal  malady,  vai-ious  remedies 
have  been  tried,  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess, of  which  we  shall  select  the  most  ef- 
fectual and  expeditious.  Tbe  general  prac- 
tice is,  to  make  an  incision  with  a  pen- 
knife in  the  body  of  the  affected  animal, 
launder  the  short  ribs,  and  a  tube  of  ivory, 
bone,  or  smoothed  elder  put  in  :]  in  order 
to  give  vent  to  the  confined  air :  the 
wound  is  then  covered  with  a  common  or 
adhesive  plaster,  to  prevent  external  cold 
from  penetrating  it ;  and  thus  the  danger, 
in  general,  is  sjieedily  removed.  But, 
where  it  is  practicable,  it  surely  behoves 
us  to  employ  more  gentle  remedies 
for  the  alleviation  of  this  disorder :  we, 
therefore,  extract  with  satisfaction,  the 
following  recipe  from  the  Annals  of 
Agriculture ;  where  it  is  announced  as  a 
specific  for  hoven  cattle,  even  in  the  most 
desperate  cases;  effecting  a  cure  within 
the  short  space  of  half  an  hour. — Take 
three  quarters  of  a  pint  of  olive  oil ;  one 
pint  of  melted  butter,  or  hog's  lard ;  give 
this  mixture  by  means  of  a  horn  or  bottle ; 
and  ii'  it  docs  not  produce  a  favourable 
change  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  repeat  the 
same  quantity,  and  walk  the  anin«al  gent- 
ly about.  For  sheep  attacked  with  this 
malady,  the  dose  is,  from  a  wine  glass  and 
a  half  to  two  glasses.  Besides  these  re- 
medies, instruments  have  been  invented 
for  the  purpose  of  velieving  blown  cattle  : 
two  of  these  contrivances  we  shall  de- 
scribe, as  being  particularly  distinguish- 
ed for  the  ingenuity  of  their  construction, 
and  the  spet  dy  relief  they  afford  The 
first  is  a  flexible  tube,  invented  by  the  ce- 
lebrated Dr.  Minn-o,  Professor  of  Anato- 
tomy  at  Edinburg :  it  consists  of  iron  wire, 
about  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, twisted  round  a  rod  three  eighths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  made  of  polished 
iron,  in  order  to  give  it  a  cylindrical  form  ; 
the  wire,  after  being  taken  off  the  rod, 
shoidd  be  covered  with  smooth  leather. 
To  the  end  of  the  tube,  which  is  intended 
to  be  passed  into  tlic  stomach,  a  brass  pipe 
two  inches  long,  of  the  same  size,  or  i-a- 
ther  laigei- ilian  the  tube,  is  to  be  firnily 
connected  :  and  to  prevent  the  tube  from 
bending  too  much  within  the  mouth,  or 
gullet,  an  iron  wire,  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  of  tlie  same  length  as  the 
tube,  is  put  within  h,  but  afterwards 
withdrawn,  when  tlic  tube  has  entered  the 
stomach. — As  Dr  Munro  has  ascertained 
that  the  distance  from  the  fore-teelh  to 
the  bottom  of  the  first  stomacli  of  a  large 


ox,  is  about  six  feet,  the  tube  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  at  least  two  jards  long, 
that  it  may  operate  effectually  in  the  lar- 
gest oxen.  When  the  instrument  has 
been  introduced  into  the  stomach,  it  may 
remain  there  for  any  length  of  time,  as  it 
d.ies  not  obstruct  the  respiration  of  the 
animal  :  the  greater  part  of  the  conden&ed 
air  will  be  speedily  discharged  through 
the  tube ;  and,  should  any  ardent  spirits, 
or  other  liquor  calculated  to  check  the  fer- 
mentation, be  deemed  necessary,  it  may 
be  safely  injected  through  this  pipe.  In 
short,  the  flexible  tube  here  described, 
has  been  found  of  infinite  service  in  saving 
the  lives  of  cattle,  and  especially  of  sheep, 
when  subject  to  similar  disorders,  or  any 
other  swelling  peculiar  to  these  creatures. 
Another  Instrument  for  relieving  hoven 
cattle  awi  sheep,  is  that  contrived  by  Mr. 
Richard  Eager,  of  Graffham  farm,  near 
Guildford.  Its  peculiar  simphcity,  and 
great  utility,  have  induced  us  to  subjoin 
the  following  representation. 


A,  A,  is  the  knob  of  wood,  and  part  of 
llie  cane  to  which  it  is  fastened,  of  a  pro- 
per size  for  oxen  :  the  length  of  the  cane 
should  be  at  least  six  feet. 

B,  H,  is  the  knob  of  wood  and  part  of 
tlie  cane,  calculated  for  sheep,  and  the 


AM 


AKI 


length  of  which  ought  to  be  about  three 
feet. 

"When  any  beast  is  blown  or  hoven,  Mr. 
Eager  directs  a  person  to  lay  hold  of  it  by 
the  nostril,  and  one  horn,  while  an  assist- 
ant steadily  holds  its  tongtie  with  one 
hand,  and  pushes  tlie  cane  down  its 
throat  with  the  other.  Care,  however, 
should  be  taken,  not  to  let  the  animal  get 
tlieknob  of  the  cane  between  bis  grijiders, 
and  also  to  thrust  it  down  fur  enough  ;  be- 
cause its  whole  lengtli  will  do  no  injury. 
As  there  will  be  found  an  obstacle  at  the 
entrance  of  the  paunch,  the  cane  must  be 
pushed  witli  additional  force  ;  and,  as  soon 
as  a  smell  is  obsei'ved  to  proceed  from 
that  place,  and  the  animal's  body  sinks, 
tlie  cure  is  performed,  and  Nature  will 
complete  the  rest. 

Mr.  Eager  justly  attributes  this  disorder 
to  the  superabundance  of  air  introduced 
into  the  stomach,  by  eating  too  la-.ge 
quantities  of  succulent  food,  which  occa- 
sions a  greater  tiisn  natural  portion  of 
wind  to  ascend  from  the  paunch  of  tlie 
beast.  This  forces  the  broad  leaves  be- 
fore the  passage,  at  tlie  entrance  of  the 
stomach ;  and  these  leaves  prevent  the 
wind  from  passing  upwards  in  its  regular 
course.  Thus  the  paunch  immediately 
begins  to  swell ;  tlie  heat  of  the  body  rare- 
fies the  air,  so  rapidly  as  to  impede  tiie  cir- 
culation of  the  blood,  and  the  animal, 
whether  bullock  or  sheep,  unless  instanta- 
neous relief  be  procured,  expiies  in  hah" 
an  hour. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  E.  Parsons  of  E.  Had- 
dam,  Connecticut,  describes  a  disease  m 
the  Jfedical  Repository,  J\'t-j-Tork.  vol.  1. 
which  has  been  very  destructive  to  horn- 
ed cattle  in  Connecticut  for  ten  years  past. 
It  is  chiefly  confined  to  cattle  under  tJiree 
yeais — Cows  are  sometimes  attacked,  but 
oxen  rarely.  It  has  been  most  fatal  to 
calves  in  autumn  and  to  yearhngs  in  May 
and  June.  The  largest  and  highest  fleshed 
are  most  liable  to  the  disease. 

The  vulgar  name  for  the  disease  is 
"  The  Tnortification."  The  symptoms  are, 
unwiUingness  to  move,  a  soft  sweUing  in 
the  leg,  shoulder,  flank,  side,  but  oftener 
in  the  back  and  region  of  the  kidneys.  Li 
the  course  of  six,  twelve,  or  twenty -four 
hours,  hte  terminates  witii  httle  expression 
of  pain.  The  stink  before  death  is  intole- 
rable. Upon  skinning,  the  swollen  spot  is 
found  to  contain  a  jelly  and  black  blood. 

The  cause  of  the  disease  is  supposed  to 
be  too  much  lulness,  or  plethora,  as  it 
proves  destructive  to  cattle  after  a  chanare 
of  pasture  or  fodder,  from  bad  to  good. 
Many  calves  have  died  after  feeding  in  the 
fields  of  grain. 

The  remedies  are  chiefly  of  the  preven- 


tive kind,  such  as  bleeding,  or  a  change 
of  pasture  of  a  beUcr  quahly,  and  care  not 
to  permit  a  sudden  ch.inge',  from  bure  to 
full  bite.  One  person  bled  copiouslv  in  tlie 
neck,  gave  the  animal  iiis  own  blood  to 
drink,  which  purged ;  and  then  made  an 
incision  in  the  swollen  spot,  took  out  die 
jelly  and  gore,  and  filled  the  ca^-itv  with 
rum  and  salt ;  after  wiiich  ilie  recovery- 
was  gradual.  Three  head  of  cattle  thus 
Ueaied,  recovered :  on  all  the  rest  tl.is 
treatment  had  no  effect,  either  good  or 
bad. 

A  disexse  which  originally  appeared  m 
a  drove  from  Noitii  Ciuolina,  in  the  au- 
tumn of  ir96.  spread  devastation  through- 
out the  counuy  among  the  cattle  as  it 
passed,  near  Columbia,  on  the  Susque- 
hannah,  where  the  drove  remained  ong 
night  in  a  ploughed  field.  The  stock  of 
tlie  farm  were  seized  m  ;ifew  da\i,  aiter- 
waj-ds,  and  many  perished.  At  ihe  same 
time  the  beasts  in  the  di-ove  appearcd/wr- 
Jectlv  lifiV.  The  disease  was  tracctl  d^vwa 
to  Derby,  8  miles  S.  W.  of  Philadelphia, 
where  great  havoc  was  occasioned  by  it. 
The  symptoms  were  first,  disinclination  to 
food,  inability  to  stand,  tumbling,  labcri- 
ous  breatliing,  and  deep  groaning :  bloody 
urine  was  sometimes  discharged.  Cos- 
tiveness,  in  general,  was  a  symptom.  The 
blood  was  dissolved  when  drawn.  No  re- 
medy was  found  efiectual. 

The  circumstance  attending  the  above- 
mentioned  disease,  suggests  the  propriety 
of  keeping  drove  cattle  separate  from  an 
old  stock  for  some  time,  and  of  permitting 
the  latter  to  mix  witli  the  former  by  de- 
grees, in  order  to  see  whether  a  disease 
appears. 

The  little  attention  that  has  hilherto 
been  paid  to  the  diseases  of  cattle  in  the 
United  States,  is  a  matter  of  very  serious 
concern.  It  frequently  happens  that  an 
epidemic  rages  among  homed  cattle  with 
great  violence,  and  no  more  information  is 
communicated  respecting  it,  than  what  is 
contained  in  a  newspaper  paragraph, 
though  the  countij  abounds  with  men  of 
education,  fully  capable  of  recording  a 
good  account  of  die  disease.  Such  negli- 
gence is  highly  reprehensible,  and  by  con- 
tinuing it,  we  shall  always  remain  station- 
ary in  our  knowledge  of  the  diseases  of 
cattle.  The  sj-mptoms  ought  to  be  de- 
scribed, whether  the  complaint  may  or 
may  not  be  cured  and  the  various  reme- 
dies stated,  in  order  to  du-ect  the  mode  of 
CLU'e,  or  prevent  the  loss  of  time  on  fu- 
ture occasions.  Many  thousands  of  dol- 
lars were  lost  by  the  fatal  disease  men- 
tioned above,  and  noticed  first  among  the 
North  Carohna  drove,  and  yet  no  other  ac- 
count of  it  is  to  be  found,  except  the  im- 


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perfect  one  here  given.  In  Europe,  llie 
diseases  of  cattle  ai'e  deemed  worthy  of 
particular  attention  by  men  of  science, 
und  piofessorsliips  are  endowed  in  many 
universities,  for  ihe  express  purpose  of 
having  tlie  physical  economy  of  all  domes- 
tic animals  properly  examined.  The  ad- 
vanta,^es  of  these  establishments  ai-e  often 
perceived,  and  no  tinii."  ouglil  to  be  lost  in 
following  the  example  in  tlie  various  col- 
leges in  the  United  States.  It  is  well 
known  that  England  was  indebted  to  a 
physician  (Dr.  Ledyard)  for  the  stoppage 
of  tlie  ravages  of  a  wide  spreading  epi- 
demic which  raged  among  the  liorned  cat- 
tle between  1750  and  l"60. 

Cattle  are  also  sometimes  affected  by 
diseases  of  the  iioof ;  in  consequence  of 
feeding  upon  hay  made  of  the  bog  mea- 
dow grass.  Such  a  disease  was  seen  in 
Blooming  Grove,  near  Gray  Court,  New- 
York,  in  the  winter  succeeding  the  dry 
summer  of  1793.  Many  beasts  lost  their 
hoofs  entireh'. 

A  similar  complaint  prevails  among 
cattle  from  feeding  upon  the  natural 
grass  which  comes  upon  meadows  made 
by  banking  out  the  river  Delaware,  and 
which  are  not  duly  watered.  'J'he  ends  of 
the  blades  of  the  grass  become  tipped 
with  a  black  powder  similar  to  rust  on 
grain.  Cattle  do  not  relisii  the  grass,  and 
will  not  eat  it  unless  forced  by  necessity. 
Care  must  therefore  be  taken  to  water  such 
meadows  at  proper  seasons. 

There  are  various  other  distempers,  to 
which  the  farmer's  live-stock  are  fre- 
quently subject.  With  respt-ct  to  tbe 
nature  and  cure  of  which,  we  refer  such 
of  our  readers,  as  may  wish  for  more  mi- 
nute.information,  on  tiie  subject  of  cattle, 
to  Mr.  Culley's  Observations  on  JAve- 
Utock,  a  small  work  that  was  pubUsh- 
ed  a  few  years  since,  and  is  believed  to 
possess  considerable  merit:  also  Mr. 
Tojiham's  J\  ew  and  compendious  System  on 
severai  Diseases  incident  to  Cattle;  a 
work  containing  some  valuable  hints, 
and  of  wliich  a  new  edition  was  lately 
published. 

Bi foie  we  conclude  this  interesting  ar- 
ticle of  national  importance,  we  shall  add 
ji  few  general  remarks,  tending  chiefly  to 
preserve  the  health,  and  improve  the  phy- 
sical properties  of  cattle.  It  is  admitted, 
by  all  enlightened  breeders,  that  cleanli- 
ness is  one  of  the  most  essential  reqivisites 
lo  the  prosperity  of  tliose  animals;  and 
•»v  f  may  venture  to  add  that,  in  this  re- 
spect, a  degree  of  attention  ought  to  be 
paid,  little  inferior  to  that  bestowed  on 
the  hunian  frame.  Hence,  frequent  wash- 
ing, especially  after  hard  labour ;  friction 
v.itli  proper  brushes,  and  cuny -combs. 


gentle  walking  after  a  fatiguing  journey ; 
and  ilie  immediate  removal  of  litter,  both 
from  the  stalls,  and  farm-yards,  should  not 
be  neglected. 

Cattle  should  be  supplied  with  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  common  salt;  and  for  the 
reasons  already  stated,  we  are  of  opinion, 
that  ALL  kmds  of  cattle,  es])ecially  j/iff/', 
would  be  much  benefited  by  the  continual 
use  of  this  simple  and  natural  spice, 
which  eminently  conduces  to  the  diges- 
tion of  succulent  vegetables,  and  is  almost 
a  specific  for  preventing  the  effects  of  fla- 
tulence Salt  cannot  be  given  in  excess  : 
it  is  affirmed,  that  it  enables  the  fanner  to 
increi  se  his  live-stock  ;  as  it  augmerts  tlie 
nourishinentofthej'ood  eaten,  in  proportion 
lu  the  quantity  of  saline  matter.  It  is  also 
said  greatly  to  improve  tlie  wool  in  quali- 
t)',  as  well  as  quantity.  Hence  it  ought 
to  be  freely  given  to  sheep,  and  cattle  of 
ever)  description  :  but,  to  imitate  Nature, 
it  should  be  previously  dissolved,  and 
then  mixed  witli  a  pure,  fine  clay,  in  a 
mass,  wliich  is  to  be  placed  under  shelter, 
so  that  the  animals  may  lap  it  at  plea- 
sure :  such  is  the  process  which  the  un- 
prejudiced gi-azier  will  be  disposed  to 
adopt  Mr.  Bordley,  relates  a  fact  wor- 
tliy  attention  About  sixty  years  ago,  he 
leal  nt,  from  a  counti-y  farrier,  that,  "  once 
or  twice  a  week,  giving  salt  to  horses  ef- 
fectually secures  them  against  botts ;" — 
ever  since  that  period,  he  has  experienced 
the  good  effects  of  this  management;  and 
adds  that,  during  twenty  yejirs'  residence 
on  his  faim,  at  AV'ye,  in  SJaryland,  he  al- 
ways kept  u]n\  aids  of  fifty  horses  on  the 
banks  of  a  river,  contaimng-  salt-water,  and 
never  met  with  a  single  instance  of  that 
disease. 

Of  Sheep. — Sheep  are  a  genus  of  quad- 
rupcds  consisting,  according  to  Linn?etis, 
oi' three  species;  tlioujrh  later  naturaUsts 
admit  only  one,  and  consider  the  others  as 
varieties.  The  princijjal  is  the  aries,  or 
common  ram  and  ewe.  Their  bodies  are 
covered  with  long',  whitish,  slender  inter- 
woven hair,  which  is  termed  wool;  and, 
when  shorn,  the  Jiecce. 

In  a  wild  state,  the  sheep  is  lively,  ro- 
bust, and  able  to  support  fatigue;  but, 
when  domesticated;  and  fed  in  pastures, 
it  becomes  timid,  and  resorts  in  the  hour 
of  danger  to  the  shepherd  and  his  dog,  for 
protection. 

Ewes  generally  breed  at  tlie  age  of 
eighteen  months ;  though  the  most  expe- 
rienced  breeders  never  suiler  them  to  in-, 
crease  their  species,  till  they  arc  at  least 
two  years  old ;  and,  as  these  animals  are 
of  considerable  value,  great  attention  is 
bestowed  on  their  management  at  this 
period. 


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The  first  object  therefore  is,  whether  j 
the  breeder  has  svifficient  grass  to  main- 
tain the  ewes  and  theii-  lambs  in  ilie 
spring';  or,  whether  he  has  a  stock  of  tur- 
nips adequate  to  their  sup]iort,  till  the 
pasture  affords  them  food  The  next  con- 
sideration is  the  choice  of  ewes,  in  which 
case  the  same  characteristic  marks  should 
be  observed  as  in  the  choice  of  the  rain. 
another  circumstance  of  ^eat  importance, 
is  that  of  attendhig  to  the  breed;  because  no 
certain  de^-ee  of  excellency  can  be  at- 
tained in  any  species  of  cattle,  unless  the 
female  possess  an  equal  degree  of  blood 
with  the  male. 

Ewes  bring  forth  one,  two,  and  some- 
times three  lambs,  after  a  gestation  of 
twenty  weeks ;  so  that  the  most  advan- 
tageous period  may,  in  general,  be  easily 
ascertained.  The  best  time  of  yeaning  is 
the  month  of  April ;  unless  the  owner  have 
very  forward  turnips  or  grass,  or  the  ani 
mals  be  Jield-shetp;  and  in  the  course  of 
sixteen  or  eighteen  weeks  after  the  lambs 
are  dropped,  they  may  be  taken  from 
theh-  dams.  They  are,  however,  very 
tender,  and  require  the  greatest  care,  es- 
pecially during  stormy  weather.  They 
are  subject  to  few  disorders.  When  they 
are  sick,  the  drinking  of  mares'  or  goats' 
milk  diluted  with  warm  water,  will  great- 
ly tend  to  preserve  them ;  and  as  many, 
when  yeaned,  are  apparently  dead,  it  is 
advisable  to  blow  into  their  mouth  and 
nostrils,  by  which  simple  means  numbers 
have  been  immediately  restored.  The 
most  fatal  distemper,  however,  with  which 
Iambs  are  afflicted,  is  the  blood  or  red 
water.  The  disoi"dered  animals  are,  in 
general,  seized  with  lameness,  swelling  of 
the  joints,  which  is  attended  with  violent 
«  inflammation  over  all  parts  of  the  body, 
and,  if  neglected,  proves  fatal  in  the  course 
of  twenty-four  hours. 

The  red  water  is  occasioned  by  too 
great  a  quantity  of  undigested  food  re- 
maining on  the  stomach  ;  as  soon,  there- 
fore, as  the  lambs  are  attacked,  bleed 
them,  and  administer  emollient  clysters 
occasionally,  till  an  evacuation  takes 
place.  Two  or  three  grains  of  tartar 
emetic,  or  as  many  ounces  of  sweet  oil, 
are  now  to  be  given,  and  the  bleeding 
repeated,  if  the  animal  does  not  appear  to 
recover.  This  treatment  is  to  be  conti- 
nued four  or  five  days,  dvu-ing  which  the 
diseased  creature  should  be  fed  with 
milk. 

If,  however,  the  males  are  designed  for 
wethers,  the  necessary  operation  sJiould 
be  performed  early,  except  when  they 
ai'e  unusually  weak;  in  which  case  it  will 
be  advisable  to  defer  iti  till  they  acquire 
sufficient  strength  :  on  weaning  tl\e  lambs. 


their  dams  may  be  milked  two  or  thrde 
times,  in  order  to  relieve  their  ud- 
ders. 

The  most  proper  time  for  shearing 
sheepi  is  towards  the  middle  of  May,  or 
at  the  farthest,  about  midsummer ;  though 
some  breeders  defer  it  till  the  middle  of 
July :  because  they  suppose  that  an  addi- 
tional half-poimd  weight  in  every  fleece 
may  be  obtained,  by  the  increased  perspi- 
ration of  the  animaJ.  An  early  sheering, 
however,  is  preferable;  for  tlie  new  wool 
will  thus  not  only  gain  time  to  ^ef  «-Aea(/, 
but  the  animals  are  also  secured  f  om  the 
attacks  of  the  fly ;  whereas,  by  delaying 
the  operation,  they  become  a  more  easy 
prey  to  the  maggot ;  in  consequence  of 
which,  they  pine  away,  and  lose  all  their 
flesh.  But,  previously  to  shearing,  the 
sheep  ought  to  be  washed,  and  kept  for  a 
few  days  in  a  clean  yard,  or  in  a  dry 
pasture,  whence  they  should  be  taken 
out  separately ;  after  they  are  shorn,  it  has 
been  recommended  to  wash  them  witli 
sea-water;  or,  where  tliis  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, with  a  brine  made  of  common 
salt  and  soft  water ;  as  such  practice  is 
calculated  to  prevent  the  various  dis- 
eases, incident  to  these  useful  crea- 
tures. 

Farther,  it  is  usual  to  mark  sheep  when 
di\ested  of  their  wool,  with  some  colour- 
ing matter;  in  order  to  distinguish  those 
belonging  to  different  proprietors.  The 
fossil  known  under  the  name  oi  reddle,  or 
ruddle,  is  generally  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose. Dr.  Lewis,  with  the  same  intention, 
directs  finely  levigated  charcoal,  (or  pre- 
ferably lamp-black,)  to  be  mixed  with  tal- 
low, over  a  moderate  fire,  in  a  proportion 
sufficient  to  produce  a  deep  black  colour, 
and  a  proper  consistence.  To  render 
this  compound  more  durable,  he  observes, 
that  one-fourth,  sixth,  or  eighth  part  of 
tar  may  be  melted  together  with  the  tal- 
low ;  tlie  whole  of  which,  however,  will 
be  readily  discharged  from  the  wool,  by 
washing  it  in  soap  water. 

With  respect  to  tlie  feeding  and  fatten- 
ing of  sheep,  the  nourishment  derived 
from  turnips  experience  has  evinced  to  be 
one  of  the  most  lucrative  methods.  Some 
farmers  turn  the  sheep  into  a  field  promis- 
cuously, suffering  them  to  eat  the  roots  at 
pleasure;  but  this. practice  is  by  no  means 
economical.  Others  divide  the  land  by 
hurdles,  and  inclose  the  anim.als  in  such  ii 
space  as  they  are  able  to  clear  in  one  day  ^ 
advancing  progressively  till  all  the  turnips 
are  consumed.  Another  mode  consists 
in  digging  or  pulling  up  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  tm-nips,  and  then  admitting  the 
sheep  into  the  Inclosure.  The  most  ad- 
vantageous expedient,  ih'r/cfore,  is  that  of 


AN  I 


AIM 


exposing  these  roots  on  the  surface  of  the 
soU,  and  removing  the  sheep  to  a  fresh 
place  every  day ;  and  if  a  small  quantity 
of  pease  (not  exceeding  two  or  three 
bushels  per  diem  for  150  wethers)  be  al- 
lowed, the  animals  will  eat  both  turnips 
and  their  leaves,  from  which  they  will 
obtain  additional  nutriment,  and  grow  un- 
commonly fat.  Farther,  this  manage- 
ment will  be  attended  with  beneficial  ef- 
fects on  the  soil ;  so  that  a  piece  of  land, 
contiguous  to  the  turnip-field,  maybe  ma- 
nured witliout  the  expense  of  conveying 
dung  by  carriage.  And,  as  the  ground 
on  wliich  turnips  are  generally  cultivated, 
is  too  moist  for  sheep  in  autumn  or  win- 
ter, it  would  not  only  be  poached  by  the 
opposite  old  method,  but  tiie  roots  would 
also  be  trodden  in  ;  and,  from  their  great 
moisture,  the  animals  become  liable  to  be 
seized  with  the  rot. 

Sheep  are  subject  to  various  diseases, 
in  common  with  otlier  cattle,  such  as  that 
of  being  hoven,  &c. ;  but  there  are  several 
disorders  peculiar  to  the  former;  and 
wiiicli,  it  will  be  useful  to  state,  together 
with  the  most  approved  remedies :  name- 

1.  The  Fly-struck,  a  disorder  that  is  oc- 
casioned bv  a  fly  tliat  settles  and  deposits 
its  eggs  on  them,  and  very  materially  in- 
jures the  quality  of  tlie  fleece.  In  order 
to  remove  this  mahuly,  cut  off  the  wool  as 
far  as  it  is  aflfected,  then  pour  a  few  drops 
of  the  following  mixture  in  a  circle  round 
the  maggots,  produced  from  the  flies,  to 
prevent  their  escape.  Dissolve  half  an 
ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  two  quarts 
of  rain  water,  to  which  add  one  fourth  of 
a  pint  of  spirits  of  tiu'pentine.  After  the 
circle  has  been  made,  as  above  directed, 
the  shepherd  ought  to  drop  a  little  among 
the  magg<ns,  which  being  rubbed  with 
the  finger,  will  be  immediately  destroyed. 
Another  remedy,  after  clipping  the  wool, 
is  to  rub  tlie  parts  infected  with  finely 
powdered  lime,  or  wood  ashes,  and  after- 
wards to  anoint  tliem  with  curriers'  oil, 
which  will  Ileal  the  wounds  and  secure 
the  animals  from  being  stricken  again. 

2.  The  Rubs  or  Huhbers,  may  be  known 
by  the  restlessness  of  the  animals,  which 
rub  themselves  in  every  attitude;  their 
skins  being  perfectly  clean,  without  any 
trace  or  scab :  wlieu  dead,  their  flesh  as- 
sumes a  greenish  east,  but  does  not  pos- 
sess a  bad  taste.  Sheej)  fed  in  fine  niea- 
dows  are  more  liable  to  he  thus  affected, 
than  such  as  are  pastuivd  on  poor  soils : 
the  disease  generally  terminates  at  the  end 
of  three  or  four  nionlhs.  No  cause  has 
yet  been  assigned  fur  the  Jiiibs;  the  mala- 
dy having  hitlurto  appeared  chiefly  in  the 
county  of  Norfolk.     Mr.  Young,  however, 


informs  us,  that  it  originates  fi'om  -j^ 
whitish-yellow  worm  which  settles  in  the 
brain;  being  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
length,  and  of  the  thickness  of  a  common 
goose-quill.  He  observes,  that,  at  present, 
tiiere  is  no  prospect  of  cure ;  but,  if  the  ge- 
neration of  this  insect  could  be  discover- 
ed, the  disorder  may  possibly  be  prevent- 
ed. 

3.  The  Rot  is  a  very  fatal  disorder, 
which  exclusively  affects  sheep.  It  is 
known  by  the  dullness  of  the  animal's 
eyes;  the  livid  hue  of  the  gums  ;  foulness 
of  the  teeth ;  the  ill  scent  of  the  breath ; 
and  the  facility  with  which  the  wool,  and, 
in  the  last  stage,  the  horns  may  be 
pulled  out,  or  separated  from  their  roots. 

Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for 
the  origin  of  this  malady;  but,  as  the  ge- 
neral predisposing  causes  obviously  con- 
sist in  too  moist  food,  or  damp  and  wet 
situations,  it  follows  that  moisture  may  be 
considered  as  the  principal  source  of  the 
rot 

The  remedies  contrived  for  the  preven- 
tion and  cure  of  this  distem])er,  are  as  va- 
rious as  tlte  conjectures  respecting  its  ori- 
gin. Miller  recommends  parsley,  as  be- 
ing eminently  serviceable.  Mr.  Price  re- 
commends every  farmer  to  remove  his 
slieep,  in  wet  and  warm  seasons,  from 
such  lands  as  are  liable  to  occasion  the 
rot;  but,  if  this  be  impracticable,  he  pre- 
scribes a  sjioonful  of  common  salt  for 
each,  together  with  a  similar  cjuantity  of 
flour,  in  a  jiint  of  water,  once  or  twice  in 
the  vv'eek,  by  way  of  preventive :  and,  if 
the  disorder  be  in  an  incipient  state,  a  si- 
milar dose  administered  four  or  five  suc- 
cessive mornings,  will,  in  his  opinion,  pro- 
bably effect  a  cure;  as  the  addition  of  the 
flour  and  water  not  only  abates  tlie  ptm- 
gency  of  the  salt,  but  also  disposes  it  to 
mix  more  gradually,  though  at  the  same, 
time  more  efficaciously,  with  the  chyle. 
Dr.  Darwin,  however,  thinks  the  salt 
would  be  more  serviceable,  if  it  were  com- 
bined into  a  ball  with  about  sixty  grains 
of  iron  filings,  by  means  of  flour,  and  in- 
troduced into  the  slieep's  throat  every 
morning,  for  one  week. 

The  following  remedy  we  state  on  the 
authority  of  the  Gentleman's  JMagazine, 
vol.  36,  for  1766:— Put  a  handful  of  rue 
nto  a  pail  of  water,  over-night;  and,  hi 
tlie  morning,  add  such  a  pi'oportion  of 
salt  as  will  make  a  brine  sufficiently 
sti'ong  to  support  an  c^^-  Half  a  pint  of 
this  liquor  must  be  swallowed  by  each 
sheep,  three  times,  in  tlie  course  of  six 
days  ;  that  is,  every  forty -eight  hours  one 
do.se. 

In  October,  1794,  a  patent  was  granted 
to   Mr.  Thomas  Fleet,   for   a   medicliie 


ANI 


ANI 


which  is  affirmed  to  prevent  the  rot  in 
sheep,  and  also  to  check  the  farther  pro- 
gress of  the  disease  in  animals  already 
infected ;  so  as  to  render  them  capable  of 
beingfattenedon  the  same  herbage  which 
produced  the  distemper  His  restorative 
consists  of  turpentine,  Armenian  bole, 
turmeric,  mercury,  salt,  sulphur,  opium, 
alkanet  root,  bark,  camphor,  antimony, 
and  distilled  water.  These  ingredients 
are  to  be  prepared  according  to  chemical, 
and  compoimded  according  to  medical 
art.  Although  the  patentee  has  not  deem- 
ed proper  to  info  m  the  public  of  the  pro- 
portions employed  in  compounding  these 
multifarious  ingredients,  yet  it  deserves  to 
be  remarked,  that  in  such  a  mass  of  dif- 
ferent drugs,  tlie  principal  effects  will  be 
produced  by  a^/ew,  while  the  others  are 
added  only  with  a  view  to  disguise  those, 
which  are  more  efficacious.  Hence  we 
believe,  that  a  few  grains  of  muriated 
quicksilver,  combined  with  camphor,  and 
opium,  if  judiciously  administered,  would 
answer  a  similar  purpose. 

4.  The  Scab,  or  Shab,  is  attended  with 
an  intense  itching  and  scabby  eruptions 
on  the  skin,  occasioned  by  an  impure 
state  of  the  blood ;  and  being  most  pi-eva 
lent  in  wet  land,  or  during  rainy  seasons. 
As  this  disease  is  generally  beUeved  to  be 
infectious,  the  animals  under  its  influence 
ought  to  be  carefully  separated  from  the 
fJock. 

Various  remedies  have  been  devised 
for  the  cure  of  the  scab :  the  most  com- 
mon is  that  of  washing  the  part  with  a  de- 
coction of  sti'ong  tobacco  in  water,  to 
which  is  added  a  small  portion  of  oil  of 
turpentine.  Another  application  consists 
in  rubbing  the  sheep  with  tobacco-water, 
sulphur,  and  alum  boiled  together,  if 
the  eruption  extend  over  the  whole 
animal;  but,  if  it  be  only /'arf/a/,  a  mix- 
ture of  tar  and  grease  will  be  suffi- 
cient. 

In  an  inveterate  scab,  the  anonymous 
author  of  the  larnier^s  Calender  recom- 
mends sulphur  and  bay  salt,  or  purging 
salts,  to  be  given  internally,  and  the  dis- 
tempered beast  to  be  dressed  with  a  strong 
mercurial  ointment  mixed  with  Mel  •./£- 
gyptiacum ;  or  to  be  washed  with  a  lather 
of  black  soap,  or  sublimate-water,  lime- 
water,  and  oil  of  turpentine.  The  treat- 
ment, stated  under  the  head  Fly-struck, 
Ts  likewise  said  to  be  efficacious  in  this 
malady. 

Tlie  following  preparation  is  stated  in 
the  Cardiganshire  Landlord's  Advice  to  his 
Tenants,  as  being  effectual  in  removing 
the  scab,  namely:  Take  one  pound  of  to- 
bacco, six  quarts  of  beef  brine,  six  penny- 
worths (or  about  an  ounce)  of  white  arse- 
VOL.    I. 


nic,  and  one  pint  of  oil  of  turpentine. 
These  ingredients  are  to  be  mixed  with  a 
small  portion  of  tar,  and  boiled :  previous- 
ly to  the  use  of  this  liniment,  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary to  break  every  scab,  and  the  sheep 
must  be  well  rubbed,  so  that  the  liquid 
may  thoroughly  penetrate. 

In  some  places,  the  animals  affected 
with  tiie  scab,  are  usually  washed  witli 
hinnan  urine:  but  such  treatment  is  per- 
nicious ;  for,  if  the  disorder  be  only  par- 
tial, it  will  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
days  spread  as  far  as  the  sheep  may  have 
been  wetted. 

There  are  various  other  expedients  sug- 
gested for  the  cure  of  this  eruption ;  but 
we  believe  the  following  to  be  one  of  the 
most  efficacious :  it  was  communicated  by 
sir  Joseph  Banks  to  the  Society  for  the 
Encouragement  of  Arts,  &c.  in  1789.  He 
directs  of  pui'e  quicksilver  one  pound ;  of 
Venice  turpentine  and  common  oil  of  tur- 
pentine half  a  pound  each ;  and  of  hog's 
lard  four  pounds,  to  be  triturated  in  a 
mortar,  till  the  mercury  be  completely  in- 
corporated with  the  ingredients. 

The  method  of  using  tliis  ointment  is  as 
follows  :  The  head  of  the  bheep  must  first 
be  rubbed ;  after  which  a  furrow  is  to  be 
drawn  with  the  finger,  from  tiie  region  be- 
tween the  ears,  along  the  back  to  the 
point  of  the  tail,  so  as  to  divide  the  wool, 
till  the  skin  be  exposed  to  the  touch. 
Next,  the  finger,  being  slightly  dipped  in 
the  preparation,  should  be  drawn  along 
the  skin.  Similar  lines  should  farther  be 
opened  down  the  shoulders  and  thighs,  as 
far  as  the  wool  extends ;  and,  if  the  animal 
be  considerably  infected,  two  other  fur- 
rows are  directed  to  be  traced,  parallel  to 
that  on  the  back,  and  one  should  likewise 
be  drawn  downwards,  on  each  side  be- 
tween the  fore  and  hind  legs. 

After  this  application,  the  sheep  may 
be  turned  among  the  flock,  without  any 
danger  of  the  infection  being  communi- 
cated ;  because,  in  afew  days,  the  blotches 
wiU  dry  up ;  the  itching  will  cease  ;  and 
the  animals  be  completely  ciu-ed ;  nor 
have  any  instances  occurred,  in  which 
such  unction  has  been  in  the  least  inju- 
rious Sir  Joseph  Banks,  however  ob- 
sei-ves,  that  the  external  remedy  ought 
not  to  be  delayed  to  a  later  period  thaii 
Michaelmas. 

5.  The  Dunt  IS  occasioned  by  a  vesicu- 
lar collection  of  water  in  the  head  ;  aijd 
for  which  no  cure  has  hitherto  been  de- 
vised. 

6.  The  Fly  or  Maggot,  is  an  insect  that 
breeds  in  the  skin  of  sheep.  If  the  ani- 
mal be  attacked  before  shearing,  it  be- 
comes sickly  and  indisposed  ;  its  wool,  not 
vielding  a  sufficient  quantity  of  yolk,  af- 


ANI 


ANI 


ibrds  a  warm  nest  for  the  reception  of  the 
eggs,  which  are  speedily  hatched.  The 
maggots  immediately  feed  on  the  flesh  of 
the  slicep ;  and,  if  they  be  not  timely  de- 
sti'oycd  by  the  apphcation  of  tar,  the  ver- 
min will  multiply  so  rapidly,  us  to  destroy 
the  animal  in  a  short  time. 

7.  Giddiness  is  conjectured  to  proceed 
from  a  worm,  which  insinuates  itself  un- 
der the  horns,  and  causes  the  sheep  to 
stagger,  or  reel :  it  may  be  cured  by  per- 
foratmg  thosi;  parts.  Such  distemper  is 
also  said  to  be  induced  by  weakness,  in 
consequence  of  poor  keeping  ,•  hence,  relief 
may  be  afforded  by  removing  the  animal 
to  better  pasture,  and  allowing  it  a  suffi- 
ciency of  dry  nourishing  food. 

8.  Hunger-rot  generally  arises  from  po- 
verty of  winter  provender,  and  may  be  as- 
certamed  by  the  leanness  of  the  animals. 
The  proper  cure  is  an  immediate  change 
of  fodder. 

9.  The  Tici  is  a  small,  flat,  brownish 
insect,  that  infests  sheep ;  and,  if  it  be  not 
speedily  destrojed,  is  very  detrimental 
boUi  to  the  flesh  and  wool :  it  has  six  legs, 
and  a  flat  proboscis  with  three  notches  on 
eacii  side;  by  means  of  which  it  insinuates 
itself  into  the  pelt  or  skin.  Soon  after  the 
insect  has  tims  settled,  its  legs  drop  off, 
and  a  scab  is  formed  on  the  surface  ;  from 
which  a  small  portion  of  ichorous  matter 
is  discharged.  The  scabby  crust  hicrea- 
ses  with  the  growth  of  the  tick ;  which, 
Avhen  arrived  at  its  full  size,  neai'ly  re- 
sembles that  of  a  middling  horse-bean  ; 
and  other  insects  are  generated,  to  the 
gi-eat  injury  of  the  flock.  In  order  to  re- 
move these  troublesome  vermin,  it  has 
been  recommended  to  mix  an  ounce  of 
corrosive  sublimate,  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  bay-salt,  and  one  ounce  of  cream  of 
tartar  (the  last  two  articles  being  previ 
ously  pulverized  and  sifted),  with  two 
quarts  of  soft  water.  The  wool  must  be 
separated,  and  the  diseased  spots  washed 
with  this  liniment  two  or  three  times,  or 
oftener,  if  it  be  found  necessary ;  till  the 
insects  be  efl'ectually  destroyed. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  llelers  of  London,  who 
formerly  resided  in  tlic  United  States,  pa- 
triotically published  the  following  reme- 
dy, for  ticks,  in  the  news-papers,  last  year, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  American  farmer. 
Tlie  remedy  is  to  be  applied  in  October. 

*'  The  inode  nj  tnaking  the  unction  to  de- 
stroy ticks  on  Sheep,  viz  — Take  one  gal- 
Ion  of  tar,  put  it  into  an  iron  kettle,  over 
a  slow  fire,  until  rendered  liquid  ;  then 
having  eight  poimds  of  salt  butter  melted 
in  another  kettle,  pour  it  gently  into  the 
tar-kettlc,  stirring  them  well  together, 
leaving  the  salt  of  the  butter  at  the  bot- 


tom, then  increase  the  fire,  and  make  tlie 
tar  and  butter  boil  together,  stirring  them 
all  the  time  ;  after  boiling,  pour  it  into  any 
dish  to  cool.  The  next  morning  the  unc- 
tion  will  be  of  a  proper  thickness,  and  fit 
for  use. 

The  next  day  after  washing  the  sheep, 
they  are  sheared,  and  no  ticks  will  appear 
until  the  wool  becomes  long  in  Oclober,. 
and  incommoded  by  summer  damps  and 
ill  health  which  are  removed  by  a  new 
salving. 

To  salve  a  sheep ;  the  shepherd  parts 
the  wool  with  his  fingers  on  the  backbone 
from  the  head  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  then 
with  two  fingers  rubs  the  unction  plenti- 
fully on  the  skin  or  flesh  ;  so  that  the 
ointment  may  spread  by  heat  of  the  body, 
two  or  three  inches  down  each  side  from 
the  ridge  bone. 

The  shepherd  then  parts  the  wool  as 
before,  two  or  three  inches  from  the  ridge 
bone,  and  rubs  tlie  unction  as  before  in 
such  abundance,  as  it  will  spread  two  or 
three  inches  downwards,  then  continues 
the  same  method  all  around  the  sheep. 
The  shepherd  will  salve  a  score  of  sheep 
in  one  day ;  and  the  unction  will  kill  and 
destroy  all  ticks,  cure  and  prevent  the 
scab,  soften  and  supple  the  skin,  promote 
the  growth  and  increase  the  quantity  of 
wool.  The  sheep  being  freed  of  ticks  will 
be  quiet,  comfortable  and  health},  whe- 
tlier  fat  or  lean,  and  whether  with  a  large 
fleece  on,  or  shorn.  The  expence  and 
trouble  is  too  small  to  be  mentioned,  when 
compared  to  the  profit,  advantage,  and 
humanity  of  the  action." 

10.  The  IVhite  Scour  is  an  uncommon 
looseness,  occasioned  by  feeding  sheep  on 
putrescent  vegetables  ;  and  particularly  on 
the  shells  of  turnips,  which  have  been  suf- 
fered to  lie  on  the  ground  for  some  time, 
after  the  animals  have  eaten  or  scooped 
out  the  substance  of  the  root.  As  soon  as 
this  malady  appears,  it  has  been  directed 
to  pulverize  and  sift  half  a  pound  of  dry 
bay-salt,  which  is  first  to  be  gradually 
mixed  with  a  pint  of  old  veijuice,  and 
then  with  half  a  pint  of  common  gin  The 
diseased  quadrupeds  must  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and  three  large 
spoonfuls  be  given  to  each  ;  tlie  dose  be- 
ing repeated  on  the  second  or  third  suc- 
ceeding day,  according  to  the  exigency  of 
the  case. 

11.  Staggeks,  in  Sheep,  is  a  species  of 
apoplexy,  arising  from  too  gi-eat  fulness  of 
blood.  It  principally  attacks  young  lambs, 
which  fall  down  ;  and,  if  not  timely  reliev- 
ed, they  speedily  perish.  The  mode  of 
cure  generally  adopted  by  shepherds,  is 
to  bleed  the  creatures  frequently  in  the 


ANI 


Am 


eye-ttein,  and  to  remove  them  to  a  coarse 
pasture,  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  dan- 
ger of  a  relapse. 

12.  Foot-Halt, is  occasioned  by  an  in- 
sect resembUng  a  worm,  two,  tliree,  and 
sometimes  four  inches  in  'ength.  The 
first  appearance  of  this  malady  is  manifest 
by  the  lameness  of  the  animal ;  a  symptom 
which  increases  to  so  high  a  degree,  as  to 
prevent  it  fronr  grating.  In  consequence 
of  pain,  and  want  of  food,  the  sheep  lin- 
gers tiU  at  length  it  falls  a  victim  to  the 
disease,  unless  the  worm  be  timely  ex- 
tracted; an  operation  that  may  be  easily 
performed. 

As  soon  as  the  animal  begins  to  limp, 
the  lame  foot  should  be  examined  between 
the  close  of  the  claws,  where  the  skin 
will  be  found  perforated  with  a  hole, 
through  which  the  insect  has  worked  it- 
self a  passage  upwards,  between  tlie  ex- 
ternal membranes  and  the  bone.  In  order 
to  extract  the  worm,  the  claws  should  be 
moved  in  contrary  directions,  for  a  consi- 
derable time,  till  the  bisect  gradually 
makes  its  way  to  the  surface.  This  sim- 
ple operation  will  be  full}'  efficient,  with- 
out any  other  application ;  and  it  is  cer- 
tainly preferable  to  drawing  tlie  worm 
out ;  as  in  the  latter  case  there  is  always 
danger  of  its  breaking  off,  and  rotting  in 
the  sheep's  leg,  which  would  materially 
mjure  the  animal. 

The  foot-halt  occurs  more  frequently 
in  wet  ihan  in  dry  seasons  ;  generally  in 
the  spring  and  autumn,  but  seldom  in  the 
summer  and  winter.  Sheep  that  are  pas- 
tured in  high,  healthy  grounds,  are  less 
liable  to  be  attacked  by  tliis  insect,  tlian 
tliose  which  graze  in  low  meadows,  or 
marshy  soils 

13.  FooT-RoT,  a  disease  which  is  said 
to  be  contagious. 

The  first  symptom  of  the  disorder  is 
manifest,  when  the  animal  affected  begins 
to  limp  ;  though  no  injury-  will  be  percep- 
tible on  examining  the  foot,  which  is  ex- 
tremely hot- 

The  second  stage  of  the  distemper  is  a 
yellowish-white  spot,  that  appears  in  the 
cleft  of  the  hoof,  spreads  gradually,  and 
becomes  livid ;  destroying  tiie  hair,  which 
in  sound  animals  covers  the  foot.  At  this 
period,  the  diseased  pait  acquires  a  disa- 
gi-eeable  smell,  and  the  lameness  increas- 
es. 

In  the  third  stage,  the  malady  sinks  into 
the  frog  of  the  foot ;  the  shell  of  the  hoof 
loosens,  and  the  frog  is  filled  with  fetid 
matter,  that  oozes  out  when  pressed  by 
the  hand :  a  small  tumor  sometimes 
breaks  out  in  the  front  of  the  leg,  about  one 
inch  above  the  hoof,  which,  however,  is 
easily  dispersed. 


In  the  last  stage,  the  foot  is  so  com- 
pletely mortified  by  the  cancerous  hu- 
mour corroding  every  part  of  it,  as  to  be- 
come incurable ;  in  which  case,  the  skin 
is  the  only  valuable  part  of  the  animal. 

Through  these  different  periods,  the 
sheep  affected  retain  their  appetite,  and 
feed  apparently  as  well  as  when  in  health  ; 
but  they  very  soon  fall  away,  and  continue 
to  dechne,  till  they  have  lost  all  their  fat. — 
Notwithstanding  their  rapid  decay,  at  the 
end  of  the  second  and  the  commence, 
ment  of  tlie  third  stage,  they  are  so  eager 
for  food,  that  they  even  crawl  on  their 
knees  for  sustenance. 

For  tlie  cure  of  this  infectious  disorder, 
different  remedies  have  been  prescribed ; 
from  which  we  select  tlie  following :  the 
first  was  invented  by  tlie  late  Mr  Bake- 
well,  the  otlier  by  Mi*.  George  Culley  of 
Fenton,  Northumberland. 

1.  Take  3  oz.  of  verdigrease ;  of  vitriol, 
and  common  alum,  4  oz  each  ;  white  mer- 
cury 1  1-2  oz.  and  white  copperas  1  oz. 
The  whole  is  to  be  finely  pulverized,  and 
dissolved  ui  a  quart  of  white-wine  vinegar. 

2  Let  4  oz.  of  tlie  best  honey  ;  2  oz.  of 
burnt  alum  reduced  to  powder,  and  half  a 
pound  of  pulverized  Armenian  bole,  be 
mixed  in  as  much  train  or  fish  oil  as  will 
convert  these  ingredients  uito  the  consist- 
ence of  salve  :  the  honey  ought  fii'st  to  be 
pTadually  dissolved,  when  the  Armenian 
bole  should  be  properly  stirred  in,  after 
which  the  alum  and  train  oil  are  to  be 
added. 

The  parts  affected  may  be  rubbed  with 
either  of  these  compositions  ;  unless  tlie 
distemper  has  become  incurable  ;  but  in 
the  opinion  of  Mr.  Arthur  Young  (from 
the  -1st  vol.  of  whose  AnnaCs  we  have  ex- 
tracted these  recipes),  the  red  salve  of 
Mr.  Culley,  is  more  efficacious  than  Mr. 
Bakewell's  hquid,  having  cured  one  or 
two  diseased  feet,  where  the  latter  had 
failed ;  yet  Mr.  Young  always  employs  the 
liquid,  previous  to  anointing  tlie  animals 
with  tlie  salve. 

This  malady,  in  general,  arises  from 
long  gi'ass  in  wet  seasons ;  but,  if  sheep 
be  suffered  to  he  upon  theii*  own  dung,  a 
fermentation  will  take  place,  and  occasion 
either  thefoot-rot,  or  ihcfoot-halt ;  to  pre- 
vent which  fatal  disorders,  those  animals 
should  be  well  httered,  and  kept  witli  a 
strict  attention  to  cleanliness. 

14.  Felt-Rot,  is  a  disorder  in  which  the 
hair  or  wool  falls  off  spontaneously.  It 
aiises  from  various  causes,  but  more  es- 
pecially in  consequence  of  a  sudden 
change  from  scanty  or  bad  provender  to 
full  feeding ;  also  from  a  local  weakness 
in  the  skin,  which  parts  with  the  wool; 
and,  lastly,  fi-om  the  Scab,  loosening  the 


ANI 


ANI 


hair  at  its  roots.  This  malady  may  be' 
prevented  by  proper  attention  to  the  ani- 
mals ;  by  giving  them  wholesome  food, 
and  in  regular  proportions,  paiticularly 
durinjr  tlie  winter.  Should  it,  however, 
originate  from  the  scab,  tiie  removal  of 
that  distemper  will  also  cure  the  pelt-rot. 
15.  KiCKETS,  in  Sheep,  a  disorder  which 
occurs  chieHy  in  the  county  of  Hunting- 
don, whither  it  is  by  some  farmers  suppos- 
ed to  have  been  introduced  from  Holland . 
This  malady  is  one  of  the  most  fatal  that 
can  happen  in  a  flock ;  for,  as  its  causes 
have  never  been  clearly  ascertanied,  all 
the  remedies  hitherto  employed  for  its  re- 
moval, have  uniformly  failed  of  success. 

The  first  symptom  that  indicates  the 
presence  of  the  rickets  is,  a  species  of  gid- 
diness, in  consequence  of  which  the  sheep 
appears  unusually  wild  and  ferocious  ; 
starling'  up  suddenly,  and  running  to  a 
considerable  distance  on  the  approach  of 
any  person,  as  if  it  were  pursued  by  dogs, 
In  the  second  period,  the  chief  charac- 
teristic is  a  violont  and  mttammatory  itch- 
ing in  the  skin  ;  the  animal  rubs  itself  furi- 
ously against  trees,  hedges,  and  the  like, 
so  as  to  pull  off  the  wool,  and  even  to  tear 
away  the  flesh  :  no  critical  discharge,  or 
cutaneous  eruption  takes  place,  and  every 
circumstance  indicates  the  most  violent 
fever. 

The  last  stage  of  this  malady,  is  the 
progress  towards  dissolution,  which  at 
length  follows;  and  the  animal,  after  hav- 
ing reeled  about,  lain  down,  and  occasion- 
ally eaten  a  little,  falls  a  victim  to  a  gene- 
ral consumption. 

The  1  ickt  ts  appear  in  the  spring ;  and 
are  hereditary :  thus,  after  remainiitg  la- 
tent for  one  or  two  generations,  they 
break  forth  with  increased  violence.  And 
as  they  appear  suddenly,  the  utmost  pre- 
caution of  the  most  judicious  graziers  can- 
not detect  the  malady  ;  so  that  no  other 
choice  remains,  but  immediately  to  cease 
breeding  from  the  infected  stock. 

Having  already  observed,  that  the 
ca'ise  of  the  rickets  is  unknown,  it  is  to  be 
apprehended  that  the  aversion  evinced  by 
breeders,  to  make  ])roper  inquii  ies,  will 
probably  contribute  towards  perpetuating 
this  veil  of  ignorance.  Nevertheless,  we 
deemed  it  useful  to  state  the  symptoms 
that  indicate  the  disease  :  such  of  our  rea- 
ders as  may  wish  more  fully  to  investigaie 
this  subject,  may  constilt  Mr.  Comber's 
practical  essa>,  entitled  Real  Improve- 
ments in  .flgricultitre,  &c.  in  which  it 
is  amply  discussed ;  and  an  accotnu  is 
given  of  the  steps  that  have  been  taken 
to  ascertain  the  cavise,  and  seat  of  the 
rickets  in  sheep. 

Ifi.GALL  in  Sheep,  denotes  a  disorder. 


with  which  tliese  animals  are  affected 
during  the  winter,  and  which  is  probably 
occasioned  by  severe  frosts. 

Although  we  have  met  with  no  remedy 
for  the  cure  of  this  complaint,  yet  for  its 
prevention,  the  following  useful  fact  de- 
serves to  be  recorded.  Mr.  Ellman,  of 
Shoreham,  Sussex,  has  observed,  that  by 
giving  his  sheep  some  hay  in  mornings  of 
hoar-frosts,   it   preserves  them  from  the 

sail. 

17.  Flux,  a  disorder  to  which  sheep  are 
subject,  when  those  animals,  after  having 
been  kept  on  too  short  an  allowance,  sud- 
denly come  to  their  full  feed.  It  is  also 
sometimes  occasioned  by  their  eating  the 
Fetid  Chamomile,  or  May-weed.  This 
disease,  however, is  not  attended  with  any 
dangerous  consequences,  and  generally 
disappears  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  es- 
pecially in  dry  weather.  But,  if  it  conti- 
nue longer  than  a  week,  some  sweet  and 
well  dried  hay  should  be  given  them,  and 
a  decoction  of  clover-flowers,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  barley -meal ;  and  neither 
allowing  them  any  salt,  nor  to  feed  upon 
saline  plants  near  the  coast,  during  their 
convalescent  state. 

18.  The  Sheep fogg,  is  an  insect  well 
known  to  shephei  ds.  Its  beak  consisting 
of  two  valves,  is  cylindrical,  obtuse,  and 
pendent,  and  the  feet  have  several  claws. 
These  depredators  live  among  the  wool : 
they  materially  prevent  sheep  from  thriv- 
ing, in  consequence  of  the  severity  with 
wiiich  they  bite,  and  the  blood  they  ex- 
tract from  the  tortured  animals  ;  but,  on 
account  of  the  hard  shell,  or  cover  sur- 
rounding them,  they  are  with  difficulty 
destroyed — The  remedy  suggested  by  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  for  curing  the  rot  (which 
see)  may  also  be  safely  applied  to  the  ex- 
termination of  the  Skeep-fagg ;  as  thus 
the  quality  of  the  wool  will  not  be  in  the 
least  unpaired. 

19.  Obstructions  in  the  lacteal  ducts  of 
the  udders  of  eives,  after  the  lambs  are 
yeaned.  The  whole  udder  is  covered 
with  hard  tumors  or  knobs,  which,  in  a 
short  time  become  inflamed  ;  and  if  the 
parts  affected  be  not  speedily  relieved,  a 
mortification  will  take  place  in  the  course 
of  2'i  hours  ;  and  the  animal  must  conse- 
quently perish.  As  soon,  therefore,  as 
the  tumors  appear,  it  will  be  pi'opei-  to 
clip  of!  the  wool  closely  to  the  skin,  and 
to  open  the  principal  milk  vessels  with  a 
razor,  or  similar  shaip  instrviment ;  the 
morbid  matter  should  then  be  expressed, 
and  a  little  fi-esh  butter  applied  to  the 
wotind  Tlie  ewv,  thus  aflt-cted,  must 
be  separated  from  the  flock  ;  and,  though 
perhaps  U)suig  the  use  of  one  teat,  sh^ 
may  be  suflered  to  suckle  her  lamb;  but. 


ANI 


ANI 


if  both  teats  be  diseased,  the  latter  must 
be  reared  by  hand,  and  the  dam  fattened 
for  sale. 

Mr.  Livingston,  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Agricultural  Society,  New-York,  ob- 
serves that  the  legs  of  sheep  are  fui-nish- 
ed  with  a  duct,  terminating  in  tlie  fissure 
of  the  hoof;  from  which,  when  the  ani- 
mal  is  in  health,  there  is  secreted  a  white 
fluid,  but  when  sickly,  these  ducts  are 
stopped  by  the  hardening  of  the  fluid. 
He  has  in  some  instances  found,  that  the 
sheep  were  relieved,  merely  by  pressing 
out  the  hardened  matter  with  the  finger, 
from  the  orifice  of  the  duct  in  each  foot, 
and  thinks  that  it  may  in  some  cases,  be 
proper  to  place  their  feet  in  wann  water, 
or  to  use  a  probe  or  hard  brush,  for 
cleansing  this  passage- 
Sheep  are  farther  liable  to  be  bitten, 
torn,  or  uorried,  fi-om  the  carelessness,  or 
impatience  of  the  shepherd ;  or,  from  his 
dogs  not  being  sufficiently  broken,  as  well 
as  from  the  dogs  of  other  persons ;  in 
consequence  of  which,  the  wool  is  of- 
ten injured,  and  its  value  greatly  re- 
duced. Such  accidents,  however,  may 
be  prevented  by  proper  care  and  at- 
tention. 

Lastly,  to  preserve  the  health  of  sheep, 
it  will  be  advisable  that  ever)'  farmer,  or 
breeder,  daily  inspect  his  flock,  and  take 
particular  care,  that  their  tails  be  kept 
perfectly  clean  -.  nor  should  they  be  fold 
ed  two  successive  nights  on  the  same 


spot;  being  more  tender  and  obnoxious  to 
disease  than  other  quadrupeds. 

Xo  animal  is  more  useful  than  the 
sheep,  which  supplies  man  with  food  and 
clothing,  while  it  furnishes  numerous 
poor  famiUes  with  constant  employment, 
in  the  various  branches  of  the  woollen 
manufacture.  Its  milk  is  very  nutritious  ~ 
and  its  flesh  is  a  grateful  and  wholesome 
food ;  farther,  the  pi-incipal  parts  of  the 
skin  are  advantageously  converted  into 
parchment;  and  the  clippings,  or  shreds, 
are  boiled  into  glue;  a  substance  which 
is  indispensable  to  carpenters,  joiners, 
and  cabinet-makers.  The  homs  are  form- 
ed into  buttons,  and  various  other  arti- 
cles of  conveniency:  the  trotters  afford, 
on  expression,  an  oil  which  is  usefully 
employed  in  several  branches  of  the  arts  ; 
and,  when  boiled,  or  baked,  they  furnish 
a  nourishing  repast.  LasUy,  their  dung 
is  a  valuable  manure ;  and  even  their 
bones,  when  reduced  to  ashes,  constitute 
a  principle  ingredient  in  the  compositions 
for  artificial  stones,  for  ornamental  chim- 
ney-pieces, cornices,  &c. 

On  account  of  these  numerous  useful 
purposes,  the  sheep  has  desenedly  be- 
come an  object  of  national  consideration : 
It  will,  therefore,  not  be  uninteresting  to 
i^ive  a  concise  view  of  tlie  different  breeds, 
at  present  existing  in  Britain,  and  which 
IS  selected  from  Mr.  CuUev's  practical 
Observations  on  Live  Stoci,  8vo.  2d  edi- 
tion, Robinsons,  1795. 


1  Dishley 

2  Lincolnshire 

3  Tees- Water         i 

4  Dartmore  NattsJ 

5  Kxamoor 

6  Dorsetshire 

7  Herefordshire 

8  South-Down 

9  Norfolk 

10  Heath 

1 1  Hardwick 

12  Chevoit 


>• 


long  wool 


ditto 

fine  short  wool 

very  fine  short  wool 

ditto 

fine  short  wool 

coarse  long  wool 

short  wool 

fine  short  wool 


Average 

weight  of 

fleece 

Years 

old  when 

kiUed. 

per  lb. 
8 

n 

11 

3 

9 

2 

9 

6 

H 
2 

24 

2 

2 

H 

2 

41 
4| 

ir» 

4i 

ANI 


ANI 


AVERAGE  PRICES  OF  NATIVE  BRITISH  WOOL. 


LONG    WOOL. 


Lincoln 
Leicester 


*20s.  per  tod  of  28  lb. 
21s,  6rf.  ditto, 


84 


Norfolk 
South -Down 
Hereford,  trinded 


SHOUT    WOOL. 


48s.  6cl.  per  tod  of  28  lb. 


Is.  lOd.  per  lb. 
2s.  5d. 


To  these  different  breeds  must  be  add- 
ed, 1.  The  improved  Gloucester,  or  the 
Costwold  Sheep,  enlarged  Ijy  the  old  Lei- 
cester Cross ;  producing  full-sized  and 
well-flavoured  mutton  :  and,  2.  The  Staf- 
fordshire Cannock-heath  sheep,  which 
resembles  those  of  the  South  Down.  Uoth 
these  breeds  are  said  to  be  susceptible  of 
great  improvement  by  crossing,  and  have 
been  highly  recommended  to  the  atten- 
tion of  breeders. 

Beside  the  native  kinds,  or  varieties,  of 
this  valuable  animal,  we  cannot  in  this 
place  omit  to  mention  the  Spanish  or  ma- 
rino  sheep  Numerous  experiments  were 
instituted,  under  the  immediate  superin- 
tendance  of  LordSomerville,andthe  Board 
of^lgriculture ;  which  have  been  attended 
with  tiie  most  desirable  success.  Kay, 
tlial  patriotic  nobleman  lately  performed 
a  journey  into  Spain,  with  the  sole  design 
of  collecting  a  number  of  the  finest  Span- 
ish sheep :  and  thence  imported  tijielve 
rams. 

'1  he  following  directions  will  be  found 
useful,  by  those  who  are  inclined  to  im- 
prove the  breed  of  sheep  chujly  for  wool. 
They  are  taken  from  Dr.  Anderson,  and 
other  late  practical  writers. 

1.  Fineness  of  pile  and  softness  of 
texture,  are  the  peculiarities  chiefly 
wanted 

2.  When  two  or  more  sheep  are  found 
in  a  flock,  which  are  entirely  equal  in 
these  respects,  that  one  which  has  the 
fewest  hairs  through  the  fleece,  ouglit  to 
be  preferred,  for  although  these  hairs 
may  be  separated,  as  the  natives  of  Shet- 
land experience,  by  letting  the  wool  rise 
entirely  from  the  skin,  without  bemg 
shorn,  yet  in  large  flocks  that  practice 
woidd  be  very  inconvenient. 

3  If  fineness  of  pile  and  ])urity  arc 
equal,  that  sheep  which  has  the  closest 


pile,  or  thickest  fleece,  should  be  prefeiTed. 

4.  If  fineness,  purity,  and  closeness  of 
pile,  be  equal,  prefer  that  which  has  tlie 
greatest  uniformity  in  the  texture  of  the 
whole  fleece. 

5.  All  the  above  named  particulars  be- 
ing equal,  the  general  shape  and  figure 
of  the  animal  ought  to  influence  the 
choice.  A  round  compact  body,  a.  full  smd 
deep  chest,  straight  back,  straight  firm  legs, 
neither  very  long,  nor  too  short ;  and  a 
strong  hardy  figure,  upon  the  whole,  with 
a  lively  mild  looking  eye  ;  are  the  parti- 
culars respecting  shape,  that  should  be 
preferred  :  but  this  circumstance  should 
be  a  subordinate  consideration  to  those 
already  enumerated. 

6.  All  otiier  circumstances  being  equal, 
that  sheep  which  is  in  the  best  condition 
at  the  time,  if  their  pasture  has  been 
nearly  equal,  should  be  preferred. 

7-  If  two  sheep  are  equal  in  all  the 
foregoing  respects,  that  which  is  of  tlie 
larger  sixe,  may  be  preferred. 

8.  Ewes  should  be  chosen  as  nearly  as 
can  be  found,  of  the  same  quality  with 
the  ram.  It  is  only  after  the  best  breeds 
are  once  obtained  pure,  that  experiments 
should  be  tried,  to  see  what  will  be  the 
eflect  of  crossing  with  others. 

9.  In  every  case,  the  colour  ought  to 
be  particularly  adverted  to,  and  though 
there  may  be  exceptions,  it  will  be  found, 
that  a  pure  white  breed,  is  upon  the 
whole,  best  calculated  for  general  use, 
as  white  wool  admits  of  being  dyed  of  all 
colovu's  with  greater  facility  tlian  any 
other.  If,  however,  any  one  incUne  to 
try  to  improve  a  particular  colour,  it  may 
be  a  very  proper  subject  for  experiment 
— But,  in  every  case  of  this  sort,  the  ram 
and  ewes  selected,  ought  to  be  e.xactly 
of  the  same  kind,  and  should  be  carefully 
put  apart  by  themselves,  till  such  a  quan- 


•  Sterling  currency. 


ANI 


ANI 


tity  of  this  wool  could  be  obtained,  as 
might  serve,  to  ascertain  what  were  its 
peculiar  qualities,  and  iLs  intrinsic  value. 
In  no  cases  should  any  sheep  be  selected 
to  breed  from,  that  are  spotted  in  any 
way,  for  this  peculiarity  can  never  be  be- 
neficial to  the  rearer. 

Those  who  have  not  adverted  to  the 
effects  produced  by  selecting  proper 
breeds  of  sheep,  for  breeding  from,  but 
who  have  been  accustomed  to  let  theii" 
sheep  run  promiscuously,  and  breed  toge- 
ther without  any  selection,  can  iiave  no 
idea  of  tiie  surprising  effect  that  an  atten- 
tion continued  for  a  few  years,  would 
have,  on  improving  the  wool,  the  shape, 
and  the  general  hardiness  of  then-  whole 
flock  ;  and  will  therefore  be  inclined  to 
look  u7)on  these  directions  as  unnecessary 
refinements  : — but  the  farmer  may  rely, 
that  these  observations  are  the  result  of 
experience,  and  not  of  specidative  reason- 
ing ;  and  that,  if  any  of  them  shall  make 
trial  of  selecting  a  few  sheep,  and  of  seclu- 
ding them  during  the  rutting  season,  from 
all  others,  they  will  themselves  be  astonish- 
ed at  the  effects,  and  they  would  be  very 
agreeably  surprised,  to  find,  that  they 
might  be  able  to  obtain  from  6  to  12  cents 
per  pound  more,  for  their  wool,  than  their 
neighbour  who  was  not  careful.  It  de- 
serves also  to  be  mentioned  as  an  import- 
ant and  well  substantiated  fact,  that  the 
sheep  which  carry  the  finest  wool,  if  care- 
fully selected,  are  in  general  equally  hardy, 
and  as  easily  fed,  and  cariy  fleeces  of  equal 
weight,  with  other  sheep,  yielding  the 
coarsest  wool. 

A  small  size  in  sheep,  is  no  way  connect- 
ed with  the  quality  of  the  wool :  the  finest 
wooUed  Spanish  or  marino  sheep,  is  a  large 
well  bodied  hardy  animal,  and  the  Thibet 
sheep  which  carry  the  finest  wool  in  the 
world  is  still  of  a  larger  size.  Fine  wool, 
therefore,  may  be  obtained  without  dimin- 
ishing the  size  of  the  cai'case  of  the  sheep 
in  the  smallest  degree,  and  also  without 
diminishing  the  weight  of  the  fleece,  or 
losing  any  other  peculiarity  that  could 
render  any  particular  breed  desirable. 
This  would,  no  doubt,  require  pains,  and 
a  careful  selection  of  the  best  breeds, 
wherever  they  could  be  found,  and  an 
attentive  and  cautious  procedure,  but  no 
one  can  easily  imagine,  how  much  can  be 
done  by  attention  in  tliis  respect.  Mr 
Bakewell,  the  famous  breeder  at  Dish- 
ley,  Leicestershire,  in  England,  began 
with  a  few  good  sheep ;  and  yet  by  a 
course  of  good  management,  brought" his 
sheep,  to  a  degree  of  perfection  hardlv^ 
credible  by  American  farmers.  Dr.  An- 
derson continued  his  expei-iments  but 
three  years,  and  yet  even  in  that  time,  he 


I  had  some  wool  that  measured  full  half  a 
yard  in  length,  which  was  equally  fine 
'  with  the  best  Spanish  wool,  and  much 
:  softer  to  the  touch.     If  such  were  the 
1  effects  of  only  three  years  attention,  in  a 
situation  that  did  not  admit  of  an  accurate 
I  seclusion  of  different  breeds  at  the  rutting 
I  season,  what  might   be  expected  from  a 
i  course  of  experiments   conducted   on  a 
,  more  enlarged  principle,  in  a  place  where 
I  an  entire  seclusion  of  breeds  could  be 
I  easily  affected,  continued  for  half  a  cen- 
tury ?  No  one  can  pretend  to  say  to  what 
perfection  we  might  arrive- 
i      Experiments  made  by  various  persons 
I  have  clearly  proved,  that  the  permanent 
I  quaUties  of  any  breed  of  sheep  can  only 
be  affected  by   a  change  in  the  parent 
stock,  and  that  of  course,  if  a  new  good 
breed  be  introduced  into  the  countiy,  it 
will  infallibly  be  debased  by  interniixing 
with  the  native  breed,  unless  acare/j</,and 
entire  seclusion  of  them   shall  be  made  at 
the  rutting  season    Let  the  farmer,  there- 
fore, who  is  disposed  to  improve  his  wool, 
examine  his  present  stock,  and  pick  out 
all  those  of  the  finest  fleeces,  and  pait 
with  the  rest.     Let  him  add  to  this  stock, 
all  those  of  equal  fineness,  which  he  may 
meet  with  among  the  droves  ;  if  he  should 
find  any  sheep  with  a  wool  of  a  finer 
quaUty,  let  liim  buy  these  also,  and  if  con- 
venient,  tliey  may  be  kept,  or  let  him  part 
with  his  former  stock,  and  keep  his  last 
purchase,  and  set  them  apart  for  the  ex- 
periment.     By  persevering  in  this  way, 
our  farmers  may  be  enabled  in  time,  to 
rear,  not  only  as  fine  wool  as  is  obtained 
from  any  other  country,  but  may  also  be 
able  to  conjoin  with  it  every  other  valua- 
ble peculiarity,  such  as  closeness  of  fleece, 
a  good  mould  of  carcase,  hardiness,  a 
capability  of  being  easily  fattened,  large- 
ness of  size,  and  every  other  valuable 
quality,  adapted  to  every  pecuharity  of 
situation  of  our  country ;  or  they  may  be 
enabled  to  ascertain  the  value  of  any  par- 
ticular breed  of  sheep,  that  might  be  sus- 
pected to  possess  particular  excellencies, 
so  as  to  enable  those  who  are  concerned, 
to  speak  with  certainty  of  the  particular 
value  of  each,  and  the  circumstances  in 
which  one  kind  could  be  kept  with  gi-eater 
profit  than  another. 

One  caution  must  be  suggested,  which 
observation  proves  to  be  highly  necessarv, 
with  respect  to  tiie  introduction  of  strange 
cattle  among  otiier  cattle  on  farms  :  and 
that  is,  the  danger  of  disease.  The  same 
thing  may  happen  to  sheep.  When,  there- 
fore, any  addition  is  to  be  made  to  the  old 
stock,  the  strangers  should  be  graduallv 
iiitroduced,  carefully  watched,  and  a 
separation  t'l'the  diseased  from  the  heal- 


ANI 


ANI 


ihy  ought  to  take  place,  the  first  moment 
iiiclisposition  y.ppears  in  tlie  flocks 

The  varieties  of  slieep  are  great.  Some 
are  distinguished  for  lineness  of  wool,  and 
for  flavour  of  flesh  ;  oiliers  ibr  short  wool, 
bare  belhcs,  and  for  bringing  very  early 
lambs  ;  others  for  smallness  of  size,  and 
superior  fineness  of  wool ;  others,  as  Mr. 
Bakewelu's  breed,  for  small  bones, 
fineness  of  flesh,  lightness  of  ofial,  dis- 
posiuon  to  quietness,  and  consequently, 
to  mature  and  fatten  with  less  food,  than 
other  sheep  of  equal  weight ;  and  again, 
some  for  cai-rying  long  coarse  wool,  and 
their  fat  ouiside,  and  some  for  earring  it 
within,  and  having  the  lean  marbled  witii 
fat;  and  ahhough  our  American  sheep, 
have  hitherto  been  almost  universally  per- 
mitted to  have  an  unrestrained  intercourse 
with  one  another,  yet  it  is  highly  proba- 
ble, that  in  some  districts,  sheep  may  be 
found  possessing  one  or  more  of  the  above 
peculiarities,  and  when  tiiey  do  appear, 
endeavours  ought  to  be  made  to  keep  ihe 
breed  pure,  or  cautiously  to  cross  it  with 
otliers,  that  may  possess  some  other  valua- 
ble pecuUarity.  It  is  by  a  proper  admix- 
ture of  two  bleeds,  with  a  judicious  selec- 
tion of  the  best  varieties  throwTi  out  from 
them,  tliat  can  insure  a  breeder  success  : 
to  obtain  which  requires  great  attention, 
not  only  to  know  the  best  sheep,  and  of 
what  descent  when  living,  but  in  seeing 
them  cut  up  after  they  are  dead  :  for 
when  the  improvement  of  the  carcase  is 
the  object,  we  should  breed  from  the  des- 
cendants of  such  only,  as  "  cut  up  u-eii," 
for  one  injtidicious  cross  may  cost  muii}' 
years  to  repair  the  injury  it  may  occasion, 
and  the  life  of  man  is  too  short  to  allow  of 
many  such  errors. 

Having  obtained  a  good  breed  of  sheep, 
the  next  object  of  the  farmer  should  be,  to 
preserve  it  pure  and  inimixed — ¥ov  tliis 
piupose,  the  most  certain  plan  woidd  be 
to  keep  no  other  Ijiced  upon  his  farm,  for 
experience  proves  that  during  the  rutting- 
season,  no  fences  the  farmer  can  rear,  are 
sufficient  to  keep  them  separate  They 
thcreiore  mix  and  degenerate,  in  spiK- 
of  every  eflort  that  can  be  made  to  pre- 
vent it. 

It  has  been  generally  supposed,  that  to 
prevent  the  degeneracy  of  any  particular 
breed,  it  is  necessary  to  breed  from  males 
and  females  not  related  to  each  other  : 
but  this  is  now  found  to  be  as  great  a 
mistake,  as  the  prejudice  respecting  the 
necessity  of  changing  seed,  which  has 
been  so  fully  disproved,  by  Mr.  .Iosf.imi 
Cooper  of  New-Jersey.  Good  animals 
and  good  seed,  willalwajs  preserve  their 
original  excellence  under  tlic  same  cir- 
cumstances, and  experience  has  fully  pro- 


ved, that  any  one  breed  may  be  kept  per- 
fectly uncontaminated  for  any  length  of 
time,  with  all  its  distinctive  peculiarities 
entire,  merely  by  preventing  an  intermix- 
ture. It  was  by  a  careful  attention  to  this 
principle,  that  the  late  Mr.  Bakevvell 
obtained  such  an  ascendency  over  every 
other  man  in  England,  for  the  various 
breeds  of  his  animals. 

The  food  of  slieep  has  a  very  considera- 
ble influence  upon  the  flesh  and  fleece. 
They  are  particularly  fond  of  sheep's  fes- 
cue-grass, of  yarrow,  of  rib-grass,  naiTOW- 
leaved  plantain,  and  of  common  melilot — 
Salt  pasture  is  also  highly  beneficial  in 
heightning  the  flavour  of  the  flesh,  and  in- 
creasing the  fineness  of  the  wool- 

The  sheep  of  the  Shetlawd  islands,  not- 
whhstanding  the  inclemency  of  the  wea- 
ther, produced  wool  of  the  finest  quality. 
We  also  know,  that  the  sheep  from  Cape- 
May,  Shrewsbury,  and  the  high  lands  of 
Neversink,  in  N.  Jersey,  produce  tire  finest 
mutton  and  wool,  of  any  brought  to  our 
market. 

Salt  is  essentially  necessary  to  sheep, 
and  should  be  freely  given.  In  Spain  they 
allow  one  pound  and  a  half  aseason  to 
each  animal.  It  is  given  to  them  upon 
flat  stones,  placed  about  "20  feet  from  one 
another.  This  practice  should  never  be 
neglected. 

'ihe  citizens  resident  in  tlie  lime-stone 
districts  of  the  country,  should  turn  their 
attention  to  the  raising  of  sheep  :  as  they 
will  be  saved  the  expence  of  salt,  which 
may  be  an  object  where  a  large  flock  is 
kept. 

In  England,  no  one  attentive  to  the  pre- 
servation of  the  quality  of  wool,  ever  puts 
a  ewe  to  a  ram  before  the  second  or  thii'd 
year  of  her  age.  This  practice  ought  to 
i)e  carefully  followed  in  the  United  States, 
for  obvious"  reasons.  The  strength  of  the 
animal  by  that  time,  is  perfect,  its  charac- 
ter, disposition  and  peculiarities  are  fully 
evolved,  ar.d  of  course  will  be  capable  of 
more  completely  transmitting-  them  to  its 
offsjM'ing,  than  by  becoming  a  parent  at  a 
more  early  peiiod,  and  before  its  constitu- 
tion is  fully  formed,  and  before  its  native 
good  qvialities  are  rendered  apparent. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  the  beauty 
of  the  animal,  that  nothing  interrupt  its 
growth  during  the  first  yeai*. 

By  experiments  it  appears  that  the  first 
cj'oss,  of  a  new  breed,  gives  to  the  lamb 
half  of  the  ram's  blood,  or  50  per  cent. 

The  second  gives  75  do. 

The  third  87-*-  do. 

The  fom-lh  93j  do. 

At  which  period  it  is  said,  that  if  the 
ewes  have  been  judiciously  selected,  the 
diftcrencc  of  wool  between  the  original- 


ANI 


ANI 


4tock,  and  the  mixed  breed,  is  scarcely  to 
be  discerned. 

Lord  SoMERViLLE,  says,  that  "In  ad- 
dition to  a  most  admirable  systematic 
management  of  tlie  flocks  of  sheep  in 
Spain,  the  superiority  of  tlie  wool  may 
depend  upon  three  circumstances.  1. 
The  use  of  salt :  this  prevents  the  injury 
arising  from  an  acidity  of  the  stomach,  a 
serious  disorder,  and  common  to  sheep, 
particulai'ly  when  stocked  on  green  floaty 
food,  such  as  tuniips,  vetches,  or  young 
clover.  The  salt  is  spread  on  tiles  or 
slates,  among  which  the  siiecp  are  driven. 
On  lime-stome  soils,  none  is  required.  2. 
To  the  practice  of  rubbing  into  tlie  wool, 
red  or  yellow  eaith,  in  September.  It  is 
supposed  to  mix  with,  and  quaUfy  the 
perspiration,  (which  \vould  othcrw  ise  give 
an  asperity  to  the  wool,)  and  to  form  a 
coat  impenetrable  to  rain  or  cold.  3. 
To  their  changing  their  climate  with  tlie 
season,  so  as  to  preserve  an  equal  tem- 
perature of  air.  Spanish  flocks  are  never 
let  out  of  the  fold  to  feed,  until  the  morn- 
ing dews  have  been  evaporated.  Tliis 
prevents  the  liver-wt :  probably  the  f out- 
rot  of  England  is  owing  to  the  dews,  as 
this  disease  never  appears  before  tlie  25tli 
of  August. 

Merino  sheep  are  sweated  a  day  or 
two  before  shearing,  to  make  the  wool 
part  easily  from  the  body ;  and  are  care- 
fully housed  during  the  night,  or  in  cold, 
raw  weather,  for  some  days  afier  shear- 
ing. 

In  England,  Lord  S.  finds,  that  the 
sheep  with  large  throats  are  not  good  in 
their  slcins,  and  evince  no  aptitude  to 
fatten  ;  the  Ryeland  breed  is  an  exception. 
This  last,  like  tlie  Sp.anish  breed,  carries 
wool  of  such  high  value,  as  to  counter- 
balance the  illimpression  of  throatiness. 
Their  skins  are  full  as  good,  and  in  some 
instances  more  clear  and  rosy,  a  stire  token 
of  vigour  and  consequent  disposition  to 
fatten.  Dr.  Garnept's  analysis  of  the 
substance  rubbed  on  tlie  wool  of  the 
Spanish  sheep,  proves  it  to  be  a  kind  of 
Fuller's  eailh  (but  not  an  ochrej  of  a 
soapy  nature. 

Lord  S.  says  the  Spanish  rams  have  a 
husT  tinge  in  their  countenance,  they  may 
reach  17  lb.  a  quarter,  when  tolerably  fat. 
The  ewes  are  not  low  on  their  leg.s,  are 
very  fne  in  bane,  and  may  reach  11  lb.  a 
quarter." 

The  following  excellent  extract,  is  part 
of  a  paper  presented  last  year,  to  the  Bos- 
ton  Society  cf  Agriculture,  by  Davi  o  Hum-  \ 
PHREYS,  the  late  minister  of  llie  United  '. 
States  to  Portugal,  which  it  is  to  be  \ 
regretted,  has  not  been  given  entire.  Mr. ! 
II.  has  laid  the  foundation  for  great  wealth  I 
VOL.    I. 


to  this  country,  by  bringing  over  with  him, 
on  his  return  from  Spain,  one  hundred 
Merino  sheep,  which  he  has  let  out  on  the 
most  liberal  terms.  As  a  comphment  for 
the  meritorious  act,  tlie  Boston  Society  h^s 
presented  Mr  Humphreys  with  a  gold 
medal. 

"  In  Spain,  two  distinct  species  of  sheep 
have  for  ages  existed,   the   one  named 
Merinos,  famous  for  their  short  and  fine 
wool,  peculiarly  fit  for  carding;  the  other 
denominated  Churros,  distinguished  for 
their  long  and  coarse  wool,  more  suita- 
ble for  combing.     The  former  are  so  prc- 
c;inus,  as  to  be  sought  with  eagerness  by 
all  who  wish  to  mehorate  flie  staple  for 
the  woollen  manufactory  in  any  country  of 
Europe;   while  the  latter,  tliough  much 
larger  in  size,  are  in  so  little  estimation  as 
never  to  be  procured  for  e.\portation.    My 
statements  and  reraaiks  will  be  confined 
to  tiic  Merinos.     The  height  of  Vhe  male 
is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  ordinary 
breed  in  this  country.     The  head  appears 
rather  bigger  and  straighter.     The  ears 
are  very    small.     The   eyes   remarkably 
bright.     The  horns  curved   in    a   spiral 
turn.     The   neck  is  short.     The   chest 
broad.     The  members  more  compact  and 
thick,  than  those  of  om-  former  breed  of 
Sheep  ;  and  the  carcase  is  thought  to  have 
smaller  bones  and  to  be  more  rounded  in 
the  hinder  part.    The  body,  face,  and  legs, 
are  covered  tvitli  a  deUcate  fleece,  which 
grows  amazingly  tliick,  without  any  mix- 
ture or  coarser  locks  of  hairs.   This  fleece 
is  remarked  to  be  much  more  impregna- 
ted than  that  of  any  other  breed,  with  an 
oily  substance,  apparently  exuded  in  pers- 
piration.    This  animal  is  perfectly  gentle, 
but  quick,  firm,  and  regular  in  all  his 
movements.      The  female  is   considered 
generally  as  having  tlie  more  characteris- 
tics of  the  pure  blood,  hi  proportion  as 
she  approximates  to  this  description — ^jet 
the  ewes  are  commonly  destitute  of  horns. 
"  A  few  well  attested  facts  will  serve 
to  shew  the  value  of  this  race.     None  of 
the   superfine  cloths  made   in  England, 
France,  or  Holland,    can   be   fabricated 
witiiout  the  mixture  of  a  certain  portion  of 
this  wool — The  price  is  more  than  twice 
as  high  per  pound,  as  it  is  for  ordinary 
kinds.     I  shall  mention,  in  another  placej 
the  increased  weight  of  the  fleece,  when 
this  breed  are  transfeiTcd  from  Spain  to 
another  country,  upon  the  testimony  of 
those  concerned  in  theu-  management — 
That  the  fle.sh  is  not  less  succulent  or  well 
flavoured  than  the  best  English  or  Ameri- 
can mutton,  I  have  had  frequent  oppor- 
tunities to  decide  for  mj^self     It  is  under- 
stood that  the  Merinos  are  moi-e  easily 
maintained  and  fat'tened  than  the  taller 
If 


Ajjii 


ANI 


and  larger  breed,  insomuch  that  tliefc  are 
persons  acquainted  with  both  breeds  who 
calculate  that  200  of  these  small  boned 
and  short  legged  sheep  may  be  kept  in 
tolerably  good  condition,  where  20  of  the 
other  would  suffer  for  want. 

••  To  establish  a  sti'ong  presumption  in 
favour  of  the  following  point,  viz.  that  the 
race  then  contemplated  to  be  inti'oduced 
into  the  United  States,  was  likely  to  pre- 
serve all  those  qualities  which  constituted 
the  original  superiority  of  value,  I  need 
only  refer  to  tiie  propagation  of  a  breed 
fi-om  the  same  stock,  with  fleeces  aug- 
mented in  quantity,  and  undiminished  in 
fineness,in  GreatBritain,  France,  Holland, 
Switzerland,  Germany,  Denmaik,  and 
Sweden.  In  the  most  nprthewi  climate 
to  which  they  have  been  carried^  they 
have  supported  the  cold  perfectly  well, 
and  even  without  suffering  any  injury  from 
having  been  in  some  instances  buried  for 
a  time  under  the  snow — At  the  national 
farm  of  Rambouillet,  in  France,  they 
are  reported,  on  good  authority,  to  have 
not  only^  resisted  the  unfavourable  influ- 
ence of  a  situation  naturally  too  low  and 
moist,  but  to  have  preserved  their  wool  in 
all  its  originalfineness,  andto  have  increas- 
ed the  weight  to  an  astonishing  degree. 

"  It  is  a  fact  confirmed  by  experience 
beyond  contradiction,  that  the  quality 
of  the  wool  does  not  depend  on  the 
quality  of  the  pastures  in  Spain,  because 
the  same  pastures  have  maintained,  from 
time  immemorial,  two  different  breeds, 
which  have  never  assimilated ;  one  remar- 
kable for  the  shortness  and  fineness,  the 
other  for  the  length  and  coarseness  of  tlie 
wool.  It  is  moreover  equally  well  proved, 
that  the  quality  does  not  depend  on  the 
journies  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
Alerinos  make  annually,  because  there 
are  other  flocks  of  the  same  race  which 
remain  perpetually  in.  the  same  district, 
/and  whose  fleeces  are  of  the  same  consis- 
tence precisely  as  the  others.  The  flocks 
that  do  travel,  or  do  not  ti-avel,  whicli  arc 
nourished  with  plentiful  food,  and  taken 
good  care  of,  by  excluding  the  deformed, 
sick  and  weak,  from  becoming  breeders, 
are  preserved  in  all  the  purity  of  the 
original  stock — while  those  in  either  pre- 
dicament, migrating  or  resident,  which 
arc  suljjected  to  feel  the  eflects  of  scarcity 
and  negligence,  invariably  degenerate. 

"  The  vigilance  of  the  Shepherds,  in 
remaining  day  and  night  with  their  charge, 
in  reserving  the  best  formed  and  finest 
wooUed  only  for  breeding,  anil  in  knowing 
and  attending  to  each  individual  of  tlieir 
flocks,  has,  doui)lless,  contributed  mucli 
to  preserve  them  from  degenerating  down 
to  the  present  day. 


"  This  breed,  like  most  of  all  otJier», 
thrives  best  in  uplands  and  short  pas- 
tures ;  but  it  is  reputed  to  be  so  singularly 
hardy,  as  to  endure  rain,  snow,  and  cold 
as  well  as  any  northern  race,  and  to  sup- 
port itself  in  parched  southern  climates, 
by  feeding  on  weeds  and  vegetables  which 
most  others  would  not  taste — Without 
entering  into  the  detail  of  enriclung  th<; 
land,  on  which  they  graze  or  are  folded, 
by  their  manure,  especially  where  a  rota- 
tion of  crops  is  systematically  pursued,  I 
should  not  omit  to  mention,  it  has  been 
asserted,  that  a  moderate  sized  fai'm,  for 
example,  a  hundred  acres,  skilfully  man- 
ured, may  be  made  to  maintain  100  sheep, 
and  moreover,  to  produce  as  much  in 
crops  as  it  would  have  done  had  it  been 
employed  only  in  cultivation,  and  not 
charged  with  their  nourishment. 

»•  That  rams  have  been  let  for  the  sea- 
son in  England,  for  from  100  to  1000 
guineas  each,  is  a  fact  sufficiently  known, 
to  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  his- 
tory of  agricultural  proceedings  in  that 
country  ;  and  it  demonstrates  conclusively 
the  wonderful  passion  that  prevails  for 
bettering  the  breed,  The  successful  ex- 
periments in  France,  on  the  same  subject, 
liave  been  announced  in  a  manner  wliich 
demands  credit.  At  Rambouillet,  a  farm 
originally  appropriated  for  making  im- 
provements by  the  ancient  Government, 
which  is  represented  not  to  be  a  very  good 
position,  on  account  of  its  humicUty,  a 
pure  Spanish  stock  has  been  maintained 
for  many  years  by  the  attention  and  care 
of  the  superintendanls,  not  only  in  a  per- 
fectly healthy  but  gi-adually  improving  con- 
dition, in  such  sort  that  the  quality  of  the 
wool  is  as  fine  as  that  of  the  best  Merinos 
actually  in  Spain,  while  the  quantity  is 
considerably  more  than  doubled.  Where 
large  flocks  are  kept  in  the  last  mentioned 
country,  the  sheep  do  not  produce,  upon 
an  average,  more  than  from  two  to  three 
pounds.  The  rams  at  Rambouillet,  yield 
from  10  to  12,  and  the  ewes  from  5  to  6 
each.  From  this  stock,  many  small  flocks, 
both  of  tlie  pure  and  mixed  breeds  have 
descended. 

"  Several  intelligent  authors  in  Europe, 
who  have  treated  of  the  most  speedy  and 
efficacious  modes  of  improving  wool,  have 
stated,  that,  where  the  smallness  of  the 
original  stock  of  Merinos  prevents  so 
rapid  a  propagation  of  the  pure  race  as 
could  be  wished,  a  mixed  breed  may  be 
Jjroduccd  by  Spanisli  rams,  and  well  cho- 
sen cwcs  of  the  country,  whose  descen- 
dants, in  the  fourth  or  fifth  generation,  will 
yield  fleeces  nearly  or  quite  as  fine  as  the 
first 'quality  of  those  whicii  are  produced 
in  Spain." 


ANI 


ANI 


shearing  Lambs. — It  has  been  a  ques- 
Ttion,  whetlier  the  practice  of  shearing 
Iambs,  is  prejudicial  or  useful.  By  a 
pubhcation  addressed  to  tlic  Philadelphia 
Society  of  agriculture,  fAinerican  ^Museum, 
vol,  9,  p.  Ill,)  by  Dr.  Logax,  it  appears, 
that  he  sheared  three  lambs  in  August, 
which  had  been  yeaned  the  preceding 
March,  and  that  the  wool,  taken  the  follow- 
ing spring  from  the  same  animals,  though 
it  was  not  so  long  as  that  of  two  others, 
yeaned  at  the  same  time,  but  not  shorn 
until  tlie  spring  after,  yet  the  fleeces  were 
much  thicker,  equally  fine,  and  not  the 
least  matted  : — and  he  is  so  convinced  of 
the  profit  and  utility  of  the  practice,  that 
he  intends  to  continue  it-  Mr.  John 
Philips,  of  the  township  of  Pittstowni, 
Luzerne  county,  Pennsylvania,  has  also 
announced  in  the  Wilkesbarre  Gazette  of 
August  27,  last,  that  "  he  sheared  from 
six  lambs,  fourteen  pounds  and  four  oun- 
ces of  wool ;  and  that  he  is  convinced  by 
seventeen  years  experience,  oi  the  great 
advantage  in  shearing  lambs  :  although 
the  wool  will  not  be  so  long  the  next 
spring,  yet  it  will  be  much  thicker  than 
on  those  which  are  not  shorn ;  and  the 
lambs  tliat  are  shorn  will  not  loose  their 
wool  like  those  that  are  not  shorn.  Be- 
sides shearing  will  relieve  them  from  ticks, 
and  they  will  certainly  grow  better  and 
make  larger  sheep."  Mr.  P.  shears  his 
lambs  sonn  after  the  nevj  tnoon,  in  the  last 
of  July,  or  first  of  August. 

The  testimony  of  two  American  far- 
mers, (and  that  of  others,  might  be  here 
added)  deserves  attention  ;  and  yet  it  may 
be  well  to  state,  that  from  a  report  made 
by  Tessier  and  Huzard,  concerning 
the  flock  of  Spanish  sheep  at  Rambouillel, 
(the  French  experimental  farm)  it  ap- 
pears that  some  sheep  were  allowed  to  be 
two  years  without  being  sheared,  and  then- 
•fleeces  were  found  to  be  twice  as  heavy, 
and  twice  as  long  as  the  yearly  fleece  of 
those,  which  had  been  sheared  twice  in 
the  same  period ;  nor  did  the  animals 
themselves  appear  to  be  at  all  incom- 
moded. 

Mr.  Chancellor  Livingston  adds 
another  reason  given  him  by  Mr.  Bour- 
geois, the  superintendant  of  the  French 
national  farm,  for  waiting  till  the  second 
year  before  shearing,  viz.  that  the  ewes 
are  worth  less  than  the  wool  they  yield, 
and  that  the  weight  of  the  first  fleece  at 
the  age  of  18  months,  is  eqvial  to  tliat  of 
the  two  shearings  in  the  old  way. 

The  state  of  Vermont  has  seta  praise 
worthy  example  to  the  other  states,  by  a 
1.1W  passed  last  year,  deducting  from  the 
poor  man's  poll  tax  the  full  of  its  amount, 
iin  his  proving  that  he  keeps  and  sheais 


20  sheep  ;  the  law  likewise  protects  the 
poor  man's  last  ten  sheep  from  attach- 
ment  or  execution. 

See  an  Essay  on  Sheep,  by  Robert  R. 
Livingston  L.  L.  U.  See  also  tlie  Shepherds 
Guide  by  Samuel  Bard,  M.  D. 

Goat.  A  genus  of  animals,  compris- 
ing more  than  30  species,  only  one  of 
which  is  reared  in  tliis  country,  namely, 
the  Hii-cus,  or  common  goat,  a  native  of 
Mount  Caucasus,  in  Asia,  whence  it  has 
been  dispersed  tlu'ougii  Europe. 

This  species  has  arched  and  keeled 
horns,  with  a  long  beard,  and  is  pecu- 
liarly attached  to  the  company  of  man, 
even  in  its  wild  state.  The  females  ge- 
nerally bring  forth  one  or  two,  and  very 
seldom  three  kids,  after  a  gestation  of 
about  five  months ;  they  attain  an  age  of 
twelve  years. 

Goats  are  sensible  of  carresses,  and 
display  a  remarkable  attachment  to  their 
friends.  They  are  stronger,  more  nimble, 
and  less  timid  than  sheep  ;  possess  a  live- 
ly, capricious  and  wandering  disposition  ; 
and  delight  in  elevated  and  solitary  places, 
frequently  sleeping  on  the  points  of  rocks 
and  precipices — These  animals  are  more 
easily  supported  than  any  others  of  the 
same  size  ;  for  there  are  few  herbs  which 
they  will  not  relish — Nor  are  they  liable 
to  so  many  disorders  as  sheep ;  and, 
though  able  to  support  the  vicissitudes  of 
heat  and  cold  more  easily  than  the  latter, 
yet  they  are  veiy  susceptible  of  severe 
frosts,  which  they  endure  with  less  difli- 
culty  in  the  society  of  other  animals 

Goats  emit,  at  all  times,  a  strong  and 
disagreeable  odour,  which  however  is  not 
without  its  use  :  for,  if  one  of  these  ani- 
mals be  kept  in  a  stable,  it  is  aflfirmed  thkt 
it  will  be  an  eflTectual  preventive  of  the 
staggers,  a  disorder  which  is  often  very 
fatal  to  horses.  Tliis  influence  of  the 
goat  is  not,  as  Mr.  Marshall  judiciously 
observes,  in  his  "  Rural  Economy  of  Glou- 
cester sfiire,^'  merely  that  of  a  charm  ;  for 
the  staggers  are  evidently  a  nervous  dis- 
order. Odours,  in  many  cases,  operate 
beneficially  on  tlie  human  nerves,  and 
probably  the  strong  scent  of  the  goat  has 
a  similai"  effect  on  those  of  the  horse  ;  a 
conjecture  which  is  partly  corroborated 
by  the  practice  adopted  in  Nortliumber- 
land,  where  a  few  goats  are  generally 
mixed  with  the  sheep,  for  the  preser\-a- 
tion  of  the  health  of  the  flock.  It  is  also 
well  known,  that  the  former  witli  safety 
eat  plants,  which  would  be  desti'uctive 
to  sheep  and  other  animals. 

Although  the  food  of  goats  is  attended 
with  little  expence,  as  they  maintain 
themselves  on  the  most  barren  moun- 
tains, yet  their  produce  is  of  considerable 


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AM 


value.  The  whitest  wij^s  are  made  of 
their  hair,  ibr  which  purpose  th:it  of  tlie 
Wcich  he-goat  is>  in  the  greatest  repute 
— Tlu'ir  fat  is  in  equal  esteem  with  the 
hair,  and  candles  are  made  of  it,  which, 
in  whiteness  and  quality  are  said  to  be 
superior  to  those  of  w  ax ;  their  horns  af' 
ford  excellent  handles  for  knives  and 
forks ;  and  their  skin  is  well  calculated 
for  g-loves,  especially  that  of  the  kid, 
which  is  dressed  abroad,  made  into  stock 
ingri,  Ijed-iicks,  bed-hanging-s,  sheets, 
and  even  shirts. 

The  flesh  of  these  animals,  however, 
is  hard,  and  almost  indig-estible :  lience 
the  meat  of  kids  only  should  be  eaten,  as 
it  is  more  tender,  and  aftbrds  good  nour- 
ishment. Goat's-milk  is  sweet,  nutritive, 
and  medichial ;  it  is  an  excellent  substi- 
tute for  that  of  asses;  and,  when  drank 
warm  in  the  morning  and  evening,  with  a 
tea-spoonful  of  Iiarlshorn,  for  several 
weeks,  it  has  been  productive  of  benefit 
to  phthisical  patients,  who  were  not  too 
much  reduced — Cheese  j)]epared  fi'om 
goat's  milk  is  much  valued  in  mountain- 
ous countries,  after  it  has  been  kept  to  a 
proper  age ;  but  possessing  a  peculiar 
flavour,  it  is  to  some  persons  very  un- 
pleasant ;  nor  is  it  more  easily  digested 
than  any  other  kind  of  caseous  matter. 

Jlog  A  genus  of  animals  consisting  of 
six  species,  the  most  remarkable  of  which 
is  Uie  scrnfa,  or  cimimon  hog.  Its  botly 
is  covered  with  bristles,  and  it  has  two 
large  teeth,  both  in  the  upper  and  lower 
jaw.  In  a  wild  state,  this  creature  is  of 
a  dark  brinded  colour,  and  beneath  the 
bristles  is  a  short  soft  liair ;  its  ears  are 
moi'e  diminutive  than  those  of  tame  hogs, 
whicii  ai-e  long,  sharp-pointed,  and  hang 
down ;  the  colour  of  the  latter  is  gene- 
rally white,  though  sometimes  mixed 
with  other  shades. 

The  hog  is  proverbially  the  most  rude 
and  brutal  of  quadrupeds  :  its  habits  are 
gross,  and  such  is  its  glutton}-,  t'lat  it  de- 
vours every  thing  indiscriminately.  But, 
tiiough  it  be  the  most  in\pure  and  filthy 
of  animals,  its  sordidnt.ss  is  usefid,  inas- 
mucii  as  it  swallows  with  avidity,  refuse 
and  offal  of  every  kind,  so  that  matters 
which  would  become  a  nuisance,  arc  con- 
verted into  the  richest  nutriment 

Sows  generally  breed  at  tiie  age  of  18 
months,  or  two  years,  and  bring  from 
five  to  ten  or  more  pigs,  twice  or  often- 
er  in  the  year,  alter  a  gestation  of  four 
months. 

As  hogs,  from  their  voracious  nature, 
\n\\  eat  almost  every  thing,  they  are  very 
generally  reared  in  all  situations,  being 
quickly  and  cheaply  fattened.  In  miry 
and  marshy  grounds,  where  they  dchght 


to  wallow,  they  devour  frogs,  fern,  the 
roots  of  rushes,  sedge,  &c.  In  the  drier 
countries,  they  feed  on  hips,  haws,  sloes, 
crabs,  beech -mast,  chesnuts,  aconis,  &c. 
on  the  last  of  which  they  thrive  exceed- 
ingly. Of  late  years,  the  management  of 
these  animals  has  become  an  object  of  at- 
tention. Clover,  potatoes,  turnips,  cab- 
bages, and  carrots,  are,  it  is  well  known, 
articles  with  which  they  may  be  fed,  and 
even  fattened,  at  a  small  expence.  Pars- 
nips are  of  considerable  utiUty  for  this 
purpose,  and  probably  the  roots  of  the 
white  beet,  if  it  were  fully  tried,  would 
be  found  still  more  useful ;  for  experi- 
ments have  shewn,  that  it  contains  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  saccharine  mat- 
ter, and  may  be  cidtivated  with  very  little 
difficulty,  Cos-lettuces  arc  likewise  emi- 
nently  serviceable,  especially  for  young 
pigs,  which  when  fed  on  them,  may  be 
weaned  a  fortnight  earlier  than  is  usual: 
Pease  also  aiford  an  excellent  food  for 
fattening,  and  if  duly  mixed  with  salt, 
will  render  the  animals  fit  for  sale  at  the 
end  of  five  weeks. 

In  the  vicinity  of  London,  vast  numbers 
of  hogs  are  annually  fattened  with  grains 
from  the  distilleries :  such  pork,  how- 
ever, does  not  take  the  salt  so  readily  as 
tl>e  flesh  of  those  pigs  which  have  been 
fed  witli  more  substantial  food,  and  been 
dri\  en  to  the  market  from  a  considerable 
distance. 

Hogs  may  with  great  advantage  be 
folded  on  wheat,  where  the  soil  is  loose, 
light,  and  fiiable;  for  they  will  drop  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dung,  and  tread 
the  looser  parts  of  tiie  land  so  closely  to- 
getlicr,  that  it  will  not  hove  during  sum- 
mer ;  nor  will  the  wheat  be  root  fallen. 
I'ai'ticular  care,  however,  ought  to  be 
taken,  tliat  these  animals  be  wf//  ringed ; 
an  operation  that  ought  to  be  performed 
as  early  as  jiossible. 

The  diseases  to  which  hogs  are  sub- 
ject, are  but  i'cw  :  nor  are  they  often 
troubled  with  them.  The  chief  are,  1. 
The  measles,  said  to  be  perceptible  only 
in  the  throat,  which,  on  opening  the 
mouth,  appears  full  of  small  tumors,  that 
in  some  cases  are  visible  externally.  The 
remedy  usually  applied  is  the  powder  of 
crude  antimony,  in  small  portions,  which 
generally  removes  the  affection.  2.  The 
fever,  which  is  also  called  the  heaving  of 
the  lights  :  it  is  cured  by  giving  the  dis- 
eased animal  a  mixture  of  oil  and  brim- 
stone :  3.  the  Mange,  a  disease  afiiLCting 
dogs  and  swine,  in  a  manner  siuiilar  to 
the  itch  in  the  human  body  ;  and  arising- 
from  an  insect  that  works  its  way  beneath 
the  uppermost  skin ;  where  it  causes  so 
great  an  ii-ritation,  that  the  animals  rub 


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AN£ 


r  scratch  themselves,  teai'ing  off"  the 
head  of  the  pustule,  which  occasions  a 
scab  and,  in  a  siiort  time,  an  ulceration. 
Tiiis  disorder,  especially  in  dog^s,  origi- 
nates from  too  high  feeding,  want  of  ex- 
ercise, and  an  opportunity  of  refreshing 
themselves  with  dog's  grass ;  from  being 
starved  at  home,  so  that  the  animals  are 
compelled  to  devour  carrion,  and  excre- 
ments abroad ;  from  want  of  water,  or 
neglect  of  cleanliness  in  their  kennels.  It 
is  induced  in  swine,  by  suffering  them  to 
lie  in  their  styes,  without  clearing  away 
their  ordure. 

As  tiic  malady  is  entirely  situated  in 
the  skin,  the  cure  may  be  effected  in 
dogs,  by  giving  them  a  small  quantity  of 
fine  pulveri2,ed  sulphur,  either  in  milk, 
or  incorporated  with  butter,  and  rubbing 
them  daily,  for  the  space  of  a  week,  witl> 
an  ointment  consisting  of  sulphur  and 
liog's-lard;  to  which  should  be  added  a 
small  portion  of  oil  of  turpentine.  Another 
remedy  is  obtained  we  are  told  by  boiling 
four  oimces  of  quicksilver  in  two  quarts 
of  watei",  till  the  quantity  be  reduced  to 
one  half:  with  this  liquid  the  animals  are 
to  be  washed  regularly,  and  ought  also 
to  take  a  small  draught  of  it  e\'ery  day, 
during  the  continuance  of  the  eruption. 

With  respect  to  the  mange  in  hogs.  Dr. 
Norford  recommends  the  following  oint- 
ment, which  seldom  fails  to  effect  a  per- 
fect cure,  provided  it  be  properly  ap- 
plied, and  the  animals  be  kept  clean, 
after  the  disease  is  removed — Take  three 
ounces  of  hog's-lard,  one  ounce  of  fine 
flower  of  suipluu",  two  drams  of  white 
hellebore,  newly  pulverized,  and  half  an 
ounce  of  the  water  of  kali,  prepared  in 
the  shops.  These  ingredients  are  to  be 
thoroughly  incorporated,  so  as  to  form 
an  unguent ;  the  whole  of  wliich  is  di- 
rected to  be  rubbed  on  the  animal  at  one 
time,  and  is  said  to  be  sufficient  for  a  hog 
of  six  or  seven  stone  :  if  the  ointment  be 
properly  applied,  there  will  be  no  occa- 
sion for  any  repetition — Should,  however, 
a  slight  cough  affect  these  quadrupeds, 
after  the  cure  is  performed,  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary to  give  each,  according  to  its 
size,  from  half  an  ounce,  to  an  ounce  and 
a  half,  or  even  two  ounces  of  crude  an- 
timony, properly  levigated  and  mixed 
with  some  of  his  daily  food,  for  the  space 
of  ten  days  or  a  fortnight,  by  which  sim- 
ple remedy,  the  hogs  will  be  effectually 
restored. 

When  these  animals  have  been  long  ne- 
glected, their  necks,  and  various  other 
parts  of  the  body  become  affected  with 
loathsome  chaps  or  cracks.  In  this  case, 
the  best  remedy  is,  to  anoint  the  ulcerat- 
ed parts  every  three  or  four  days,  till 


tliey  are  healed,  with  a  little  tar-oint- 
ment, prepared  by  mixing  equal  pai-ts 
of  tar  and  mutton  suet  over  a  gentle  fire, 
and  sti'aining  the  mixture  while  hot.  But 
the  most  ccrtaui  preventive  of  the  mange, 
and  its  subsequent  disagreeable  effects, 
is  the  strictest  attention  to  the  health  and 
cleanliness  of  the  animals.  For  this  pur- 
pose, every  part  both  of  the  kennel  and 
of  the  stye  ought  to  be  thoroughly  swept, 
before  they  are  littered  with  fresh  straw ; 
nor  siiould  a  clean  bed  be  spread  over  a 
foul  or  dirty  one,  as  is  too  frequently  the 
case  with  careless  and  negligent  servants  ; 
who,  regardless  of  their  master's  interest, 
thus  eventually  cause  the  destruction  of 
many  valuable  dogs  and  swine.  4.  JHur- 
rain  or  leprosy,  a  contagious  disease  in- 
cident to  cattle  and  swine ;  it  is  known  by 
the  animals  hanging  down  their  heads, 
which  are  swollen ;  by  short  and  liot 
breathing ;  palpitation  of  the  heart ;  stag- 
gering ;  an  abundant  secretion  of  viscid 
matter  in  the  eyes  ;  rattling  in  the  throat ; 
and  a  shining  tongue. 

In  the  36tli  vol.  of  the  Annals  of^gricul. 
ture,  the  following  recipe  is  inserted  for 
the  murrain  in  hogs :  A  handful  of  nettles 
is  to  be  previou.sly  boiled  in  a  gallon  of 
small-be«-,  when  half  a  pound  of  flour  of 
sulphur,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  elecam- 
pane, three  ounces  of  liquorice,  and  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  aniseeds,  are  to  be 
added  in  a  pulverized  state.  This  pre- 
paration should  be  administered  in  milk, 
and  the  quantity  here  stated,  is  said  to  be 
sufficient  for  six  doses. 

Hogs  are  very  valuable  quadrupeds, 
and  theu"  flesh  furnishes  at  all  times  an 
agreeable  meat.  (See  Bacon  and  Ham.) 
In  a  fre^ih  state,  it  is  called  pork,  and  af- 
fords a  wholesome  and  noia-ishing  food 
to  a  sound  stomach,  when  eaten  in  mo- 
deration, with  sub-acid  vegetables  or 
sauces.  Their  lard,  or  fat,  is  applicable 
to  various  purposes,  both  culinary  and 
medicinal.  Tiie  blood,  intestines,  feet, 
and  tongue,  are  all  used  in  the  kitchen ; 
though  the  first  is  indigestible.  The  fat 
of  the  bowels  and  web,  which  differs 
from  common  lard,  is  pi-eferably  employ- 
ed for  greasing  the  axles  of  wheels.  The 
bristles  are  made  into  brushes,  pencils, 
&c.  tlie  skins  into  sieves ;  yet  the  latter 
might  be  more  advantageously  tanned, 
and  converted  into  shoes,  as  is  the  prac- 
tice in  China,  where  all  the  shoes  sold  to 
the  Europeans  at  Canton,  are  made  of 
hogs'-leather,  the  hair  being  previously 
burnt  off"  with  a  red-hot  iron. 

The  dung  of  swine  is  reputed  to  be 
next  in  value  to  that  of  sheep,  and  is  par- 
ticularly useful  in  destroying  that  pernici- 
ous weed,  the  commau  coltsfoot. 


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ANI 


As  ho.E^s  are  animals  of  extensive  utili- 
ty, we  trust  it  will  not  be  uninteresting:  to 
point  out  those  remarkable  breeds  wliicli 
amply  repay  the  expence  of  fattening- 
them. 

1.  The  Bertshire  hog-  is  spotted  red 
and  brown,  attains  a  larg-e  size,  lias  small 
ears,  short  legs,  and  very  broad  sides. 
They  are  highly  valued;  but,  as  they 
grow  uncommonly  large,  no  person  shoidd 
attempt  to  keep  them,  unless  he  be  pro- 
vided v.ith  a  sufficient  stock  of  food  ;  as 
otherwise  they  will  dwindle  away,  be- 
come diseased,  and  yield  less  profit  than 
a  smaller  kind- 

2.  The  Shropshire  swine  g-row  to  a 
large  size :  they  are  generally  white,  have 
short  legs,  and  long-  ears,  which  hang 
down  upon  their  cheeks.  This  is  a  fine 
breed,  much  prized  and  bears  a  close  i-e- 
semblance  to 

o.  The  J^ortbatripton  hogs,  which  are 
%vliite,  have  very  short  leg's,  and  attain 
an  extraordinary  size,  especially  those 
reared  at  Naseby.  They  are  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished by  their  ears,  which  are  of  an 
enormous  si2.e,  much  larger  than  those 
of  the  preceding-  breed,  and  sweep  along 
the  ground,  so  as  almost  to  blind  them. 

4.  The  Chinese  breed  (which  is  one  of 
the  most  profitable  kinds  of  hogs  intro- 
duced into  this  covmtrj)  is  very  hardy  : 
will  live  on  less  food  than  any  of  the  ani- 
mals already  mentioned  ;  and  seldom  ap- 
pears lean,  'ihey  are  mostly  white,  at- 
tain to  a  large  siz.e,  and  \^  ill  fatten  ivell 
on  food  that  would  barely  keep  other  liogs. 
— To  these  may  be  added  the  Suffolk 
breed,  which,  in  the  estimation  of  some 
persons,  is  the  best;  and  the  Leicester, 
which  is  much  fatter  than  that  of  Suf- 
folk, but  is  said  to  produce  very  feiu 
pigs. 

5.  The  Large  Spotted  iloourn  Breed, 
introduced  by  the  late  duke  of  Bedford — 
from  the  experience  of  the  carl  of  P-gre- 
mont,  and  other  able  breeders,  it  clearly 
appears,  that  these  animals  are  superior 
to  the  Suffolk  breed ;  tlie  former  being 
not  only  more  hardy,  but  also  more  pro- 
lific, and  attaining  double  tlie  size,  in  the 
same  period  of  time. 

6.  The  Jiudgeiuick  Hogs,  are  thus  de- 
nominated fioni  a  village  on  the  borders 
of  Surray  and  Sussex:  this  race  of  ani- 
mals is  remarkable  for  the  astonishing 
weiglit  they  atfiin,  in  the  course  of  two 
years,  which  exceeds  that  of  other  swine 
iit  a  similar  age,  in  the  proportion  of  at 
least  two,  and  often  three,  to  one.  Hence, 
tliey  deserve  to  be  more  generally  rear- 
ed, and  their  number  ought  to  be  in- 
creased, because  they  repay  the  cxj)encc 


of  their  keeping  more  speedily  than  any 
other  breed. 

As  many  frauds  are  practised  at  mar- 
kets  and  fairs,  on  the  unsus|>ecting  far- 
mer or  cottager,  in  the  act  of  buying  or 
selling  hogs,  we  shall  briefly  communi- 
cate a  few  hints,  that  may  furnish  some 
rules  for  guarding  against  imposition. 

In  purchasing  lean  hogs,  the  most  cer- 
tain method  is  to  judge  by  weight,  if, 
therefore,  a  farmer  were  to  weigh  a  few 
lean  pigs  which  were  about  the  size  of 
those  he  intends  to  purchase,  he  would 
obtain  some  standard  on  which  to  pro- 
ceed, and  will  consequently  be  able  to 
bid  a  fair  price  in  the  market. 

With  respect  to  fat  hogs,  it  has  been 
proved  from  repeated  experiments,  that 
every  201bs.  live  weight  will  yield,  when 
killed,  from  12  to  14  nett  weight.  In 
those  which  do  not  exceed  12  stone 
Cl41bs.  to  the  stone,)  the  weight  will  be, 
121b  ;  but,  in  larger  animals,  it  will  in  ge- 
neral amount  to  about  141b.  If,  there- 
fore, a  farmer  weigR  them  alive^  he  will 
not  only  know  the  clear  profitable  weight 
when  killed,  and  consequently  its  value, 
but  he  will  also,  by  weighing  the  animal 
every  week,  be  able  to  ascertain  the  pro- 
])er  time  to  slaughter,  or  dispose  of  it  to 
the  best  advantage ;  for,  when  the  hog 
ceases  to  acquire  that  daily  increase 
which  renders  it  profitable,  the  best 
course  that  can  be  followed  is,  to  kill  him 

|inmiediately. 

]\fr.  Billingsley  prefers   large  hogs  to 

'small,  for  profit :  and  observes,  that  small 

'■  growing  pigs  ate  nearly  as  much  food  as 

;  the  large  full-grown  hogs,  and  yet  they 
did  not  ajjpear  propoi'tionably  to  improve 
either  in  size  or  fat ;  that  advantage  was 

j  derived  from   mixing  up  a   quantity  of 

j  meal  a  week  or  two  befijre  it  was  used ; 

•  thatno  kind  pay  more  for  food  than  splay- 
ed sows ;  they  fatten  quicker  and  on  less 

i  food. 

i     In  April  1769,  a  hog  was  killed  atWil- 

;  hamsburg,  Virginia,  which  weighed  1050 
lbs.  after  the  blood,  bowels,  and  hair  had 
been  taken  from  him.     It  is  supposed  he 

j  weighed  ujnvards  of  12001bs.  when  alive. 
In  March  1787,  another  hog  was  kil- 

I  led  .at  New  Port,  Rhode  Island,  which 
weighed,  when  gutted  and  dressed  834 
lbs.  The  length  of  the  animal  is  said  to 
have  been  nine  feet,  and  height  six  feet. 

1      'I'hc  owners  oi'  these  hogs  were  guilty 

I  of  a  very  unpatriotic  act,  in  sacrificing 
animals  which  would  have  been  so  high- 
ly valuable  for  breed.     In  future  it  is  lo 

■  be  hoped,  a  similar  error  will  not  be  com- 

I  milted. 

"  A  sow  kept  at  IloUowmire,  ncai*  I'l 


ANI 


ANI 


^pston,  only  four  yesrs  old  last  Septem- 
ber, has  farrowed  229  pigs,  which  is  on 
an  average  of  57  per  year  ;  and  except  at 
the  first  time,  always  brought  up  tliir- 
teen.  Within  19  weeks  and  three  days 
she  has  farrowed  twice.  The  animal  went 
to  the  male  the  next  day  after  the  pigs 
were  taken  away,  which  was  done  when 
they  were  three  weeks  old. 

Parsnips  ai-e  said  to  be  liighly  fatten- 
ing for  hogs,  and  to  give  a  fine  flavour  to 
the  meat.  This  vegetable  abounds  with 
sugar,  and  therefore  must  be  nourish- 
ing ;  but  it  is  probable  that  Indian  Corn 
would  be  required  to  harden  the  flesh  be- 
fore killing. 

The  economy  of  feeding  with  boiled 
food  has  been  mentioned  ;  though  no  di- 
rect experiment  v/as  adduced  to  support 
tlie  opinion,  yet  the  following  compara- 
tive experiment  settles  the  point.  Mr. 
Timothy  Kirk  of  York  Town,  Penn.  fed 
one  pig  with  boiled  potatoes  and  Indian 
corn,  and  anotlier  with  the  same  articles 
imboiled.  The  two  animals  we-re  weigh- 
ed everj'  week,  and  the  difference  be- 
tween tliem  was  as  6  to  g.  The  experi- 
ment was  contmued  several  weeks,  and 
the  animals  alternately  fed  upon  boiled 
and  unboi'ed  food,  with  an  uniformity  of 
result,  which  sufficiently  proved  the  very 
great  profit  arising  from  boiled  footl. 

The  little  care  required  to  raise  the 
hog,  I'enders  it  of  very  great  importance 
in  almost  every  part  of  tlie  world.  In 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  the  hog  runs 
at  large  in  the  extensive  forests  of  tliose 
countiies,  feeding  on  grass,  roots,  and 
nuts,  till  they  ai'e  in  a  suitable  condition 
for  market,  when  they  are  decoyed  into 
traps  or  pens,  and  often  their  fat  has 
been  hardened  by  more  substantial  food  ; 
tliey  afford  the  neighbouring  states  an 
abundant  supply  of  bacou  and  smoaked 
gammon,  which  from  the  peculiarity  of 
its  nourishment  and  preservation,  is  pos- 
sessed of  a  flavour  unequalled  in  richness 
and  delicacy  by  any  in  the  world.  In 
the  maritime  parts  of  the  United  States, 
vast  quantities  of  its  flesh  are  preserved, 
and  exported  to  variotis  parts  of  Eui'ope 
and  the  West  Indies,  thus  aflFording  » 
very  important  article  in  commerce. 

hog.  A  genus  of  animals  supposed  to  be 
orig-inally  natives  of  China,  and  consisting 
of  more  than  thirty  species,  of  winch  tliat 
most  generally  known  is  the  familiaris, 
or  domestic  dog :  this  again  produces  se- 
veral varieties. 

Dogs  are  remarkable  for  dieir  great 
docility,  fidelity,  and  affection  for  their 
master.  These  viseful  creatures  guard 
our  houses,  gardens,  and  cattle,  with  spi- 
rit and  vigilance.    By  their  assistance  we 


are  enabled  to  take  both  beasts  and  birds, 
and  also  to  pursue  game  through  the  wa- 
ters as  well  as  over  land ;  nay,  the  Norwe- 
gians render  them  also  useful  in  fish- 
ing. 

The  dog  is  an  animal  of  quick  motion, 
and  remarkable  for  travelling  long  jour- 
nies.  He  easily  follovvs  his  master,  whe-- 
tlier  on  foot  or  on  horse-back,  for  a  whole 
day ;  and,  wnen  fatigued,  does  not  sweat, 
but  lolls  out  his  tongue.  It  is  peculiar  to 
dogs,  before  they  lie  down,  to  run  about  in 
a  circular  direction,  with  a  view  to  disco- 
ver the  most  proper  situation  for  rest. 
They  sleep  Uttle,  frequendy  starting,  and 
seem  to  hear  witli  more  acuteness,  than 
while  awake. 

Dogs  possess  tlie  sense  of  smelling  in  a 
very  high  degree.  They  can  trace  their 
master  by  the  smell  of  his  feet  in  a  church, 
or  in  the  streets  of  a  populous  city.  In  a 
savage  state  they  are  of  a  fiei'ce,  cruel, 
and  voracious  disposition;  but  when  civi- 
hzed,  and  accustomed  to  live  in  the  socie- 
ty of  men,  they  acquu'e  every  endearing 
quality.  Gentle,  obedient,  submissive, 
and  faithful,  they  appear  to  have  no  other 
desire  than  to  serve  and  protect  their 
master.  These  qualifications,  added  to 
theu-  very  great  sagacity,  justly  claim  the 
esteem  of  mankind.  Accordingly,  no  ani- 
mal is  so  much  caressed  or  respected :  in 
s!iort,  dogs  are  so  tractable  and  so  much 
disposed  to  please,  that  they  assume  the 
very  air  and  temper  of  the  family  to  whichi 
they  belong. 

Proper  management  of  Dogs. — As  these 
are,  at  all  times,  very  valuable  animals,  it 
is  matter  of  some  importance  to  take  care 
of  their  health.  Tliis  depends  much  on 
their  diet  and  lodging:  the  frequent  clean- 
ing of  their  kennels,  and  giving  them  fresh 
straw  for  their  couch,  are  highly  necessa- 
ry ;  or,  during  the  summer,  deal  shavings 
may  be  substituted  for  straw,  as  the  for- 
mer will  prevent  the  breeding  of  fleas.  If 
they  be  rubbed  with  chalk,  and  brushed 
and  combed  once  or  twice  a  week,  tliey 
will  thrive  much  better  ;  the  chalk  will 
clear  their  skin  from  all  greashiess,  and 
they  will  be  less  Uable  to  the  disorder 
called  the  mange. 

Dogs  are  of  a  very  hot  nature ;  hence 
they  should  always  be  provided  with  cleaii 
water,  that  they  may  drink  when  thirsty. 
Witli  respect  to  food,  carrion  is  by  no 
means  proper  for  them,  as  it  must  hurt 
their  sense  of  smelling.  In  which  their  ex- 
cellence in  a  great  measure  consists. 
Barley-meal,  the  dross  or  grossest  part  of 
v.'lieaten  flour,  or'  both  mixed  together, 
with  brotli  or  skimmed  milk,  affijrd  very 
wholesome  nourishment.  Oil  account  of 
the  sanguine  constitution  of  these  animals. 


AKI 


AM 


the  ^atest  relief  to  them  in  summer  is 
Couch-grass,  or  Dog's-grass,  to  which 
•we  refer.  Those  who  keep  a  complete 
kennel  of  clogs,  should  purposely  culti- 
vate this  plant,  in  a  place  into  which  they 
may  be  turned  every  morning :  here  they 
will  eagerly  eat  it,  to  relieve  tlie  disorder 
to  which  they  are  subject,  and  thus  to 
cure  the  uncommon  heat  of  their  blood. 

These  animals  are  liable  to  various 
diseases ;  of  which  we  shall  mention  only 
the  following : 

1.  Jiites  and  stings.  If  dogs  are  bitten 
by  any  venomous  reptiles,  such  as  snakes, 
vipers,  &c.  the  blood  shoidd  be  squeezed 
out,  and  the  part  washed  with  salt  and 
urine :  a  plaster  composed  of  calamine, 
pounded  in  a  mortar,  and  mixed  with  tur- 
pentine and  yellow  wax,  till  it  acquire  the 
consistence  of  a  salve,  should  then  be  ap- 
plied to  the  wound.  A  drauglit,  consist- 
ing of  an  ounce  of  treacle  dissolved  in 
wine,  if  given  to  the  animal  affected,  will 
greatly  contribute  to  its  recovery. 

2.  Mange.  See  this  disease  in  the  pre- 
ceding article,  Siuine. 

3.  Poison.  If  there  be  reason  to  sus- 
pect that  a  dog  is  poisoned  with  mix  'vo- 
mica, (which  is  often  employed  for  that 
purpose  by  warreners,  and  causes  convul- 
sive fits,)  the  most  qilectual  remedy  is  to 
make-  him  swallow,'  without  loss  of  time, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  common  salt, 
dissolved  in  the  smallest  proportion  of  wa- 
ter: this  simple  remedy  may  be  adminis- 
tered by  opening  his  mouth,  and  placing  a 
stick  across,  to  prevent  him  from  shutting 
it,  while  his  throat  is  filled  with  the  solu- 
tion. Thus,  by  holding  his  mouth  up- 
wards, a  sufficient  dose  mitj  be  introduc- 
ed, both  to  purge  and  vomit  him.  As 
soon  as  the  stomach  is  proiJcrly  cleared 
by  a  free  passage  downward,  some  warm 
brotli  should  be  frequently  given  to  re- 
lieve his  extreme  faintness,  which  other- 
wise might  prove  fatal. 

4.  Worms,  a  disorder  with  which  young 
dogs  in  pai'ticular  are  very  frequentlij 
troubled.  All  bitter  substances  are  so  of- 
fensive and  nauseous  to  worms,  th.atthey 
arc  oflcn  voided  in  consequence  of  the  ani- 
mals taking  two  or  three  common  doses 
of  aloes,  in  the  course  of  a  week.  Should 
this  remedy  fail,  an  ounce  of  the  powder 
of  tin,  mixed  up  with  butter,  may  be  given 
in  three  portions,  which  generally  destroys 
the  worms,  togetiier  with  Ihcir  seed. 

5.  Cough  and  Colds  Dogs  are  very 
subject  to  a  cough,  attended  with  extra- 
ordinary paroxisms  of  clioaking,  which  is 
often  the  con.scquence  of  a  cold.  In  this 
case,  it  will  be  necessary  to  bleed  the  ani- 
mal affected,  in  small  quantities;  but  if 
the  disorder  proceed  from  what  is  called 


the  distemper  ij»  dogs,  and  they  appear  to 
be  very  low  in  spirits,  blood  letting  must 
not  be  attempted  Meat-broUi,  or  milk- 
broth  warmed,  shoidd  then  be  \hc  princi- 
pal part  of  tlicif  diet,  and  the  following 
medicine  administered :  Take  Hour  of 
sulphvir,  cold  drawn  linseed  oil,  and  salt- 
petre, of  each  one  ounce;  let  them  be  well 
mixed  together,  and  dividcil  into  four 
doses ;  one  of  which  is  to  be  taken  every 
other  day.  Meanwhile,  the  creatui'e  af- 
fected should  be  furnished  with  plenty 
of  clean  straw  to  lie  upon,  and  likewise 
swallow,  at  least,  one  spoonful  of  honey 
evei-y  day. 

6.  Tlie  scab,  or  itch,  tliough  a  rare  dis- 
ease in  dogs,  is  sometimes  very  obstinate : 
it  may,  however,  be  easily  cured  by  an 
ointment  made  of  hog's  lard  and  sulphur, 
with  which  a  part  of  the  back  of  the  ani- 
mal should  be  rubbed  every  day,  and  the 
application  gradually  extended,  till  the 
whole  back  from  head  to  tail,  and  at 
length  all  the  affected  parts,  have  been 
anointed.  Thus,  the  re([uisile  portion  of 
sulphur,  which  is  a  specific  in  those  cases, 
will  be  introduced  into  the  system,  both 
by  absorption,  and  the  constant  licking  of 
the  diseased  creature. 

7.  Madness  frequently  happens  in  hot 
summers,  or  very  cold  winters ;  and  i» 
supposed  to  be  occasioned  chiefly  by  suf- 
fering this  faithful  animal  to  feed  upon 
putrid  meat,  without  supplying  it  with 
sufficient  water;  but  more  probably  ori- 
ginates fi-oni  a  specific  contagion,  like  the 
small  pox,  &c. 

Tliis  virulent  disorder  does  not  in  gene- 
ral, manifest  itself  for  a  considerable  time 
after  tlic  bite,  for,  though  in  some  in- 
stances it  has  commenced  in  seven  or 
eigiit  daj's  after  the  accident,  tlie  patient 
often  continued  in  health  for  twenty,  thir- 
tj',  or  forty  days,  nay,  sometimes  for  se^■e- 
ral  mouths.  If  the  wound  be  not  jjrevent- 
ed,  it  will  in  most  instances,  be  healed 
long  before  the  symptoms  of  the  disease 
appear. 

In  oriler  to  ascertain  whether  a  .dog  is 
really  infected  with  th;it  distemper,  ttic 
following  particulars  deserve  attention. 
Several  days  previously  to  the  invasion  of 
the  disorder,  the  animal  becomes  sullen 
and  sliows  equal  iniiiirerence  to  his  mas- 
tor,  his  food,  and  drink.  His  ears  and 
tail  droop ;  instead  of  barking,  he  growls 
and  snaps  at  every  surrounding  object, 
runs  about  irregularly,  is  no  longer  able 
to  distinguish  liis  master  from  strangers, 
and  lolls  out  his  tongue, which  is  purih- 
cd,  and  of  a  livid  hue.  At  length,  he 
(Imps  down  suddenly,  starts  up  again, 
bites  whatever  seems  to  obstruct  his  pas- 
s.ige,  and  in  this  condition  he  seldom  sur- 


ANN 


ANO 


vives  twenty -four,  or,  at  the  farthest,  forty- 
eight  hours. 

No  danger  is  to  be  apprehended  fi-om 
the  s;diva  of  a  dog'  falling  upon  the  skin; 
nor  from  the  ba-eath  being  received  into 
the  lungs.  The  saliva  of  a  dog  must  be 
applied  to  a  broken  sui'face  to  infect. 
The  mere  insertion  of  the  tooth  of  a  dis- 
eased dog,  covered  with  saliva,  into  the 
flesh,  is  sufficient  to  produce  the  disease ; 
and  the  late  Dr.  Hutchinson  relates  a  case 
in  which  it  came  on  in  consequence  of  a 
dog  merely  licking  a  sore  on  the  leg. 
Another  case  is  recorded  in  the  J\Iedical 
Repository,  of  the  disease  being  ro  i.  c  ''. 
by  a  little  dog  licking  a  sore  in  the  ear.  hi 
botli  cases  the  dogs  discovered  no  symp- 
toms of  madness  at  the  time.  (Mease.) 
The  practice  of  worming  dogs  to  pre- 
vent their  being  attacked  by  .  madness 
is  highly  a])surd,  because  cjuite  use- 
less ;  and,  when  attacked,  no  specific  I'e- 
medy  has  yet  been  discovered  for  the 
cure    of    this    dreadful    disorder. 

ANNEALING.  When  a  substance 
melted  or  nearly  in  a  state  of  fusion,  is 
cooled  very  hastily,  its  textiue  is  so  much 
altered,  that,  if  a  ductile  metal,  it  loses 
much  of  its  malleability,  and  cannot  be  ex- 
tended far  under  the  hammer  without 
cracking ;  or,  if  a  brittle  metal,  a  glass,  or 
vitrescent  mi.vture,  it  is  liable  to  fly  to  pie- 
ces by  a  very  slight  change  of  temperature 
or  external  injury.  To  avoid  tliis  the  pro- 
cess of  annealing  is  resorted  to,  which  is 
nothing  more  than  cooling  the  heated  or 
melted  substance  as  slowly  and  equally  as 
possible,  often  in  a  separate  furnace  of  the 
requisite  heat,  and  sometimes  called  an 
aiviealing  oven..  The  utility  of  annealing 
is  shewn  very  conspicuously  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Glass,  tlie  casting  of  Speculum 
ATetal,  or  the  beating  of  Gold. 

The  difference  between  unannealed, 
and  annealed  glass,  is  very  remarkable. 
When  a  glass  vessel  that  has  not  under- 
gone this  process,  is  broken,  it  often  flies 
into  a  small  powder  with  a  violence  appa- 
rently disproportionate  to  the  stroke  which 
it  received.  In  general,  it  is  in  greater 
danger  of  being  broken  from  a  very  slight 
blow,  than  from  a  more  consideralile  one. 
Such  a  vessel  will  often  resist  the  effects 
of  a  pistol  bullet  dropt  into  it,  from  the 
height  of  two  or  three  feet,  yet  a  grain  of 
sand  faUing  into  it,  will  break  it  into  small 
ii-agments.  This  sometimes  takes  place 
immediately  on  dropping  the  sand  into  it, 
but  the  vessel  will  frequently  remain  ap- 
parently sound,  for  several  minutes  after  ; 
when,  without  the  least  touch,  it  will  sud- 
denly fly  to  pieces.  If  the  glass  be  very 
thin,  this  effect  does  not  take  place ;  and, 
VOL.  I. 


I  on  the  contrary,   it  seems  to  possess  all 
tlie  properties  of  such  as  are  annealed. 

Glass  is  one  of  tliose  bodies  which  in- 
crease  in  bulk,  on  passing  fiom  a  fluid  to 
a  solid  state.  When  it  is  allowed  to  crys- 
tallize regularly,  the  particles  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  has  a  fibrous  texture;  but, 
when  a  mass  of  melted  glass  is  suddenly 
exposed  to  a  cold  temperature,  the  sur- 
face ci-ystallizes,  and  forms  a  firm  shell 
I'ound  the  interior  fluid  parts,  by  which 
they  become  sohd,  and  ai'e  prevented 
from  expanding. 

By  the  process  of  annealing,  the  glass 
is  preserved  for  some  time  in  a  state  ap- 
proaching to  fluidity  ;  the  heat  increases 
the  bulk  of  the  crystallized  part,  and  ren- 
ders it  so  soft,  that  the  internal  fibres  have 
an  opportunity  of  expanduig  and  forming 
a  regular  crystallization. 

A  similar  process  is  now  used  for  ren- 
dering  kettles,  and  other  vessels  of  cast 
iron,  less  brittle ;  which  admits  of  the 
same  explanation  as  that  above  stated. 
The  greater  number  of  metals  diminish  in 
bulk  when  they  pass  from  a  fluid  to  a  so- 
lid state.     Iron,  on  the  contrary,  expands. 

ANOTTA,  Annotto  or  Arnoxto, 
is  a'  dry  hard  paste,  brownish  on  the  out- 
side and  red  within,  brought  from  Ca)- 
enne  and  various  otiier  parts  of  Ame- 
rica, and  much  used  in  Europe  in  dye- 
ing- This  article  is  procured  from  tlie 
seeds  of  a  large  ti'ee,.the  Bixu  Oiieana  of 
Linnseus,  lioucoyer,  or  ^Vaca-w  tree,  also 
called  by  the  Caribs  .  Ichiote,  Cochehue,  or 
Bichet,  and  by  the  Brazilians,  JJruai. 
They  are  thus  prepared:  the  seecV  when 
ripe  are  gathered,  the  husk  taken  oW, 
gently  bruised  and  put  into  a  trough  to 
soak  for  about  eight  or  ten  days,  being 
well  stirred  twice  a  day  w^ith  a  wooden 
implement.  They  are  then  beaten  with 
heavy  mallets  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  till 
they  are  thoroughly  bruised,  again  moist- 
ened with  water  and  passed  through  a 
sieve.  When  thus  reduced  to  a  kind  of 
pulp,  it  is  put  into  a  wooden  vat,  and  al- 
lowed to  ferment  or  putrify  for  a  week, 
during  which  time  it  gives  out  a  very  fe- 
tid smell,  and  moulds  on  the  surface.  Af- 
ter this  tlie  pulp  is  ag-ain  beaten,  and 
soaked  with  water  twice  successively. 

The  seed  is  now  nearly  exhausted  of 
its  coloiuing  matter,  which  has  passed  in- 
to the  several  waters  with  which  it  has 
been  washed,  and  which  are  cai-efully  re- 
served, strained  through,  sieves,  and  mix- 
ed in  diflerent  proportions.  This  water 
holding  the  colouring  matter  suspended, 
is  then  transferred  Into  iron  boilers,  and 
heated  gradually,  till  a  scum  rises  to  the 
surface,  which  is  successlveiy  removed  as 


ANT 


ANT 


it  forms  into  another  boiler.  This  scum 
is  the  annotta,  and  it  is  slowh-  diied  in  tlic 
last  boiler  with  perpetual  stirring',  till  it 
is  of  so  thick  a  consistence  as  not  lo  stick 
to  the  wetted  finger.  After  this  it  is  laid 
out  on  the  floor  to  dry,  and  made  up  into 
cakes,  (the  negro  who  does  tliis  part  of 
the  business  sme;iring  his  hands  with 
palm  oil)  and  finally  wrapped  up  in  p;dm 
leaves,  and  in  two  months  lime  it  is  tit  for 
exportation. 

The  Caribs  make  annotta  in  a  much 
simpler  manner.  They  lake  the  seeds 
wliL-n  ripe,  and  rub  ihem  for  a  long  time 
in  their  liaiids  smeared  with  j)alm  oil,  till 
the  fine  red  outer  coat  of  the  seed  is  rub- 
bed ofl' and  slicks  to  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
which  is  the  annotta,  and  imdergoes  no 
otlier  preparation  than  being  moulded  in- 
to large  cakes  and  dried,  Tliis  is  es- 
teemed ihe  purest,  as  it  has  undergone  no 
change  by  fermentation. 

Annotta  readily  dissolves  in  water,  and 
more  easily  in  alcohol.  Its  solutions  liave 
a  yellowish  red,  or  orange  cast,  and  are 
employed  m  the  counti-ies  where  it  grows 
for  various  purposes  of  colouring,  for 
staining  the  skin,  giving  a  coioiu-,  and  a 
pecidiar  taste  to  ceitain  articles  of  food, 
sometimes  lo  chocolate.  In  Europe  it  is 
used  largely  in  dyeing-,  particularly  silks 
and  wool,  of  difterent  hues  of  red,  orange, 
aurora,  &c.  In  this  case  it  is  always  pre- 
pared with  an  alkali,  wiilch  gives  a  cast  of 
red.  The  colour  is  fugiiive,  particularly 
in  the  sun's  liglit,  but  it  is  not  readilv 
washed  out,  ancl  is  a  very  powerful  d\e, 
asniall  (juantiiy  giving  a  tinge  to  a  verv 
large  bodv  of  licpior. 

A  peculiar  use  of  annotta  is  in  giving 
the  high  orange  yellow  to  Chesiuie  and 
Wiltshire  cheese,  so  much  in  fashion  at 
present,  i'o  employ  it,  the  annotta  is 
rubbed  on  a  stone  with  a  little  wiiey,  tili 
a  sufficiently  strong  solution  is  made, 
which  is  mixed  with  the  cheese-curd  just 
before  pressure. 

AXTI.MOW  is  a  compact  biittle  me- 
tal, of  a  brilliant  slightly  bluish-white  co- 
lour 

Antimony  is  found  in  occasional  mix 
ture  with  the  ores  of  lead,  of  copper,  and 
of  silver  ;  but  the  six  following  are  the 
only  species  which  aie  allowed  by  minera- 
logists to  rank  as  the  proper  ores  of  this 
metal. 

Sp.  I.  Native  Antimony. 

The  fresh-broken  surface  of  which  is  of 
a  pxu'e  tinwhilt;  colour,  but  by  exposure 
to  the  air  it  acquires  a  slightly  greyish  or 
yellowish  tinge. 

Antimony  when  native  is  by  no  means 
in  a  state  of  absolute  purity,  but  always 
c.ontains  u  portion  of  arsenic,  varying  from 


two  to  fifteen  per  cent,  hence  it  exhales  an 
alliaceous  odour  when  heated  before  the 
blow-|)ipc. 

Sp.  II.  Grey  Sidphuret  of  Antimony. 

'I  his  species  is  divided  by  the  German 
mineralogists  into  four  varieties,  the  com- 
pact, tolialed,  radiated  and  plumose. 

Var.  1.     Compact. 

This  variety  is  rarer  than  any  of  the 
following.  It  is  found  mixed  with  other 
antimonialorcsat  Braunsdorf,  in  Saxony; 
Goldkronach,  in  Uareith ;  Majurka,  in 
Hungary ;  and  in  Auvergne  :  it  is  usually 
accompanied  by  c]uartz  and  spathose  U"OQ 
ore 

Var.  2.     Foliated. 

'i  his  variety  diftlsrs  Irom  the  preceding 
in  Being  of  a  high  steel-grey  colour,  and 
in  presenting  a  fine  grained  fohated  frac- 
ture. 

Var.  3.  Radiated,  (Striated,  of  Kir- 
w^an.) 

The  recent  fracture  of  this  mineral  is, 
like  the  preceding,  of  a  light  steel  grey 
colour;  its  sui-face,  however,  presents  a 
blackish  grey  colour,  mixed  with  azure 
blue,  golden  yellow,  and  other  iridescent 
tuns.  It  occurs  in  mamillated,  glandular, 
and  stalactitic  masses,  or  disseminated, 
or  crystallized.  The  primitive  crystal- 
line form  of  sulphuretted  antimony  has 
not  yet  been  ascertained ;  it  is,  liov/ever, 
easily  and  very  neatly  divisible  by  sec- 
tions made  parallel  to  the  axes  of  iis 
prisms.  When  the  stria:  are  very  broad, 
tliey  give  almost  a  foliated  appeiO'ance, 
and  being  very  brilliant,  such  specimens 
have  obtained  the  name  of  Sfiecular  Anti- 
niony.  j^ccording  to  the  analysis  of 
Bergman,  it  consists  of  74  antimony  and 
26  sulijlutr, /;£•/■  cent.  The  Hungarian  anti- 
mony also  .contains  a  variable  proportion 
of  gold. 

This  variety  is  the  commonest  of  all  the 
antimonial  ores.  It  is  procured  in  Hun- 
gary, at  Felsobanya,  and  Kremnitz  ;  at 
])j-avilza,  in  the  Bannat;  at  Braunsdorf 
and  lloclilitz,  in  Saxony ;  at  Lubillac,  in 
Auvergne,  and  at  Allemont,  in  Dauphine, 
in  France;  at  I'ei'eta,  in  Tuscany;  in 
Cornwall,  in  Knglandj  also  in  Spain,  Mex- 
ico, and  Siberia.  The  most  splendid  iri- 
descent specimens  come  principally  fi'om 
Hungary  and  Auvergne. 

A'ar.  4.    Plumose. 

Its  colour  is  steel-grey,  passing  into 
greyish  black,  lead  or  smoke-grey ;  by 
exposure  to  I  he  air  it  tarnishes  to  an  ir- 
descent  blue  or  yellow.  It  has  not  yet  been 
accurately  analysed,  but  according  to 
Bergman  consists  of  antimony,  ii'on,  arse- 
nic, sulphur,  and  sometimes  silver.  The 
proportion  of  the  last  ingredient  is  very 
^•al■iuble,  never  exceeding  4  per  cent,  it  is 


ANT 


ANT 


ttierefore  improperly  ranked  by  some  mi- 
neralogists among^lhe  silver  ores. 

It  is  upon  the  whole  a  mineral  of  rare 
occurrence,  and  is  found  chiefly  at  Frey- 
l)erg  and  Braunsdorf,  in  Saxony  ;  and  at 
Stollbcrg-,  in  tlie  Hartz ;  also  at  Scliem- 
nitz,  in  Hungary.  It  is  accompanied  by 
quartz,  calcareous  spar,  brown  spai',  ga- 
lena, martial  pjTites,  and  blende. 

Sp.  III.     Red  Antimony. 

The  colour  of  this  mineral  is  a  cherry 
red,  more  or  less  deep,  passing-  on  the 
surface  into  brown,  i"eddish,  or  bjuisli.  Its 
lustj'e  is  little  shining,  vitieous;  itsiV.^tc- 
ture  is  fine  and  irreguhirly  fibrous.  It  is 
opaque,  brittle,  almost  friable 

Xo  a(  curate  analysis  has  yet  been  made 
of  this  mineral :  it  was  formerly  supposed, 
on  account  of  its  colour,  to  contain  arse- 
nic and  sulphuretted  antimony;  accord- 
ing to  Sage  it  is  a  native  kermes,  or  hy- 
drosidphuret  of  antimony :  thus  much, 
however,  is  certain,  that  it  occurs  in  tlie 
crevices  and  investing  the  surf.ice  of  the 
common  gre\"  sulphui-et  of  antimony,  and 
appears  to  originate  from  this  by  the  pro- 
cess of  spont.aneous  decomposition  :  the 
amorphous  or  massive  variety  is  frequent- 
ly studded  with  octahedrons  of  native 
sulphur. 

It  is  found  at  Braunsdorf,  in  Saxony  ; 
ZVIalazka  and  Kremnitz,  in  Hungary  ;  and 
Ailemontjin  Uauphine. 

S]3.  IV.  White  Antimony.  Muriated 
A.  of  Kir  wan.. 

The  colour  of  this  mineral  varies  from 
snow-white  or  yellowish  white  to  greyish 
and  ash-gre)-. 

The  tabular  crystals  of  tliis  mineral,  ac- 
cording to  Klaproth,  are  composed  of 
oxyd  of  antimony  with  muriatic  acid.  The 
needle-shaped  variety  from  Dauphine,  has 
been  analysed  by  Vauquelin,  and  appears 
to  contain 

86  oxyd  of  antimony, 
3  oxyd  of  iron  and  oxyd  of  anti- 
mony, 
8  silex. 


97 


loss 
100 

White  antimony  is  an  extremely  rare 
mineral. 

Sp.y.     Antimoni.al  Ochre. 

The  colour  of  this  substance  is  straw  or 
lemon  yellow,  passing  to  yellowish  grey. 
It  has  not  yet  been  analysed,  but  is  sup- 
posed by  Karsten  tg  be  an  oxyd  of  anti- 
mony. It  occurs  in  small  quantities  at 
Braunsdorf,  in  Saxony,  and  in  Hungary, 
mixed  with  grey  and  red  antimony. 


Sp.  \T.    Yellow  antimony. 

The  colour  of  this  mineral  is  orange  or 
wax-yellow,  or  yellowish  white,  often  bC' 
coming  dusky  by  exposure  to  the  air.  By 
Rasumousky  it  is  considered  as  a  phos- 
phat  of  antimony,  whereas  Boru  supposed 
it  to  be  a  combination  of  the  muriais  of 
antimony  and  lead. 

The  grey  sulphuret  of  antimony  is  the 
only  ore  of  this  metal  wiiich  is  foiuid  in 
siiflicient  quantity  for  the  purposes  of 
commerce,  and  it  is  fitted  for  market  in 
the  large  way  by  simple  fusion.  For  this 
purpost  the  ore  being  dressed  and  sepa- 
rated fiom  the  greater  part  of  its  stony 
gangue  by  hand,  is  placed  in  the  bed  of  a 
reveiberatory  furnace,  and  covered  with 
charcoal  powder ;  being  then  brougiu  to  a 
low  red  heat,  the  sulphuret  of  antimony 
enters  into  fusion,  while  the  earthy  parts 
float  on  the  surface,  and  ai"e  taken  off 
with  a  rake  or  ladle  ;  the  fluid  portion  is 
then  cast  into  the  form  of  loaves  or  large 
cakes,  and  is  fit  for  sale,  forming  the  covt- 
monov  crude  antimony  ofthe  shops.  The 
old  method  of  obtaining  crude  antimony, 
and  which  is  still  practised  in  some  ofthe 
French  founderies,  was  by  means  of  an 
apparatus  consisting  of  a  large  crucible, 
the  bottom  of  which  was  perforated,  and 
inserted  into  the  wide  end  of  a  conical 
tube,  passing  through  the  furnace,  and 
terminating  in  an  earthen  pot  or  reservoir. 
The  crucibU'  was  filled  witli  ore  broken 
into  small  pieces,  a  cover  was  luted  on, 
and  by  the  application  of  a  modeiate  heat, 
tlie  liquefied  antimony  dropped  tlirough 
the  tube  into  the  reservoir  below,  while 
the  stony  parts  were  detained  in  the  cru- 
cible. 

From  the  crude  or  sulphuretted  anti- 
mony thus  prepared,  there  are  several  me- 
thods of  sep:u-ating  tlie  sulphur,  and  pro- 
curing the  metal  in  a  state  of  piu'ity  ;  the 
best,  and  which  is  tlie  most  used  in  pro- 
cesses in  the  great  way,  is  the  following. 

Reduce  the  sulphuret  to  small  pieces, 
and  sti-ew  it  evenly  and  thinly  on  the  floor 
of  a  reverberatory  furnace,  in  order  to 
drive  oft'  the  sulphur  by  roasting.  The 
heat  at  first  must  be  very  gentle,  scarcely 
exceeding  that  required  for  the  fusion  of 
tin,  otherwise  the  antimony  will  clog  or 
even  melt :  in  a  short  time  a  lambent  blue 
flame,  proceeding  from  the  combusdon 
of  the  sulphui",  will  appear  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  ore,  wliich,  at  the  same  time, 
will  begin  to  lose  its  metallic  lustre,  and 
be  converted  into  a  greyish  oxyd.  By  as- 
siduously stirring  tlie''>re,  and'  cautiously 
Increasing  the  tempera:  re  as  its  lusibility 
decreases,  it  will,  in  the  course  of  some 
hours,  cease  to  emit  sulphureous  vapom-s, 
and  bear  a  moderate  red  heat  without 


ANT 


ANT 


melting.  The  roasting  is  now  fiiiislied, 
aiid  when  the  ore  is  removed  from  the 
fire,  and  becomes  cool,  it  will  be  found 
converted  into  an  ash-grey  oxyd,  weigh- 
ing from  thirty  to  thirty-six.  per  cent  less 
than  the  original  sulpiniret,  and  still  by 
no  means  entirely  free  from  sulphur.  In 
order  lo  obtain  the  regulus  from  tliis  grey 
oxyd,  it  is  to  be  mixed  with  half  its  weight 
of  crude  tartar,  and  exposed  to  a  fviU  red 
heat  in  a  covered  crucible.  The  carbona- 
ceous part  of  the  tartar  decomposes  the 
oxyd,  and  the  antimony,  reduced  to  the 
metallic  form,  collects  itself  in  a  mass  at 
the  bottom  of  the  crucible,  except  a  vari- 
able proportion,  which  is  held  in  solution 
by  the  sulphuret  of  potash  formed  by  the 
alkaline  base  of  the  tartar  and  the  sulphur 
of  the  oxyd.  The  quantity  of  metal  thus 
obtained  in  the  large  way,  equals  fiom  66 
to  70  per  cent,  of  the  o.vyd  employed  ;  but 
a  much  greater  loss  will  be  observed,  if 
the  ore  has  not  been  projjerly  roasted. 
Tlie  method  followed  by  T  Kunkel  ap- 
pears, liowever,  on  the  whole,  to  be  better 
and  more  economical  than  the  common 
practice.  He  mixes  the  roasted  oxyd  with 
oil  or  fat,  and  a  little  powdered  chai-coal, 
puts  the  mass  into  a  crucible  to  melt,  and 
as  soon  as  the  regulus  begins  to  show  it- 
self, injects,  by  degrees,  some  powdered 
nitre,  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  to  a 
pound  of  oxyd :  the  matter  soon  appears 
in  tiiin  fusion,  and  on  being  poured  out  af- 
fords a  pure  regulus,  in  considerably 
greater  pi'ojJortion  than  is  obtainable  by 
the  usual  vvaj' of  operating. 

The  cxpence  of  iiiire  and  tartar  in  pre- 
paring regulus  of  antimony  in  large  c|uan- 
tities,  for  the  purpose  of  commerce,  is  ve- 
ry considerable;  m  consequence  ofwliich 
a  sci'ies  of  experiments  were  undei-taken 
by  llassenfratz,  Vauquelin,  and  Bouillon 
la  Grange,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether 
the  use  of  these  substances  could  be  su- 
perseded by  cheaper  materials.  In  tlie 
prosecution  of  this  enquir)-,  ditt'erent  por- 
tions of  the  roasted  ore  were  mixed  with 
charcoal  powder,  with  tallow,  and  vvitli 
pitch,  and  exposed  in  covered  crucibles  to 
a  heat  sufficient  for  their  reduction  :  the 
crucibles  being  then  witlidrawn  were 
found  U)  contain  only  a  little  carbonaceous 
matter,  and  a  few  minute  globules  of  anti- 
mony, all  the  rest  being  evajiorated.  Some 
grey  oxyd  was  then  mixed  with  1st.  two 
])arts  of  lime  and  one  of  clay  ;  2d.  equal 
parts  of  sulpliat  of  barytes,  chalk  and 
clay;  3d.  with  common  salt;  4th.  with 
sulphat  of  soda:  ai\J  tiie  materials  bein;^- 
strongly  heated,  were  all  fountl  converted 
into  yellow  glasses,  withoui  any  a])pcar- 
ance  of  regulus.  These  being  each  pul- 
verized, and  mixed  w  ith  charcoal  jiowder,  I 


were  again  heated  as  before,  and  produc- 
ed only  vitreous  scorise,  with  a  few  mi.ute 
globules  of  amimony.  Lastly,  some  o"  ;he 
same  <vrey  oxyd  being  fluxed  with  half  its 
weight  of  tartar,  yielded  a  perfect  button 
of  pure  antimony.  Hence  it  appears  that 
potash  (and  probably  the  fixed  alkalies  in 
general)  exert  some  specific  action  on  an- 
timonial  oxyd,  which  renders  it  much 
more  fixed  while  converting  into  regulus, 
than  when  mere  carbonaceous  or  even  vi- 
trescent  fluxes  are  made  use  of. 

The  most  expeditious,  though  at  the 
same  time  the  most  expensive  and  inac- 
ciu'ate  manner  of  procuring  the  regulus  of 
antimony,  is  by  scorification.  For  this  pur- 
pose eight  parts  of  the  grey  sulphuret  are 
reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  and  mingled 
with  six  parts  of  tartar  and  three  of  nitre. 
The  mixture  is  projected  gradually  into  a 
red  hot  crucible,  till  it  is  nearly  filled,  a 
shght  detonation  taking  place  at  each  stic- 
cessive  projection  :  the  crucible  is  now- 
closed  with  its  cover,  and  a  brisk  heat  be- 
ing applied  for  nearly  half  an  hour,  the 
contents  are  either  suffered  to  cool  in  the 
crucible  or  are  poured  into  a  greased  and 
heated  iron  cone.  The  upper  part  of  the 
mass  consists  of  alkaline  scorije,  holding 
in  solution  a  portion  of  antimonial  oxyd, 
beneath  which  is  a  button  of  pure  antimo- 
ny, weighing  between  three  and  four 
eighths  of  the  original  sulphuret.  Some 
advise  that  the  nitre  and  tartar  should  be 
detonated  together  before  the  crude  anti- 
mony is  added ;  but  this  is  decidedly  an 
injudicious  way  of  proceeding,  the  use  of 
the  nitre  being  not  to  alkalize  tlie  tartar 
but  to  oxygenate  the  sulphur;  hence  it  is 
probable  that  the  yield  of  regulus  would 
be  increased  by  first  detonating  together 
the  nitre  and  sidphurct,  and  not  adding 
the  tartar  till  towards  the  end  of  the  pro- 
cess. 

An  excess  of  nitre  or  tartar,  or  both,  is 
carefully  to  be  avoided,  as  it  not  only  en- 
hances the  expence  but  diniinishis  the 
])roduce.  J^emery  fovuid  that  sixteen 
ounces  of  sulplun-elled  antimony,  mixed 
with  an  equal  weight  of  nitre,  and  the 
same  of  tartar,  yielded  only  five  ounces  and 
a  half  of  regulus  ;  whereas  sixteen  oimces 
of  sulphuret,  twelve  ounces  of  tartar,  and 
six  ounces  of  nitre,  afiorded  six  ounces 
and  one  dram  of  ret;ulus. 

There  is  yet  anoliier  way  of  sejjarating 
tlie  regulus  of  iuitimony  from  the  sulphur 
with  wliicli  it  is  naturally  combined,  by 
taking'  advantage  of  the  superior  affinity 
for  sulphur  wliich  other  metals  possess 
o^er  antimony.  'I'here  are  five  metallic 
substances  ca])able  of  decomposing  crude 
antimony  with  greater  or  less  accuracy, 
by  being  fused  together  with  it ;  these  .ire 


ANT 


ANT 


iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  and  tin ;  only  the  | 
former  is  at  present,  however,  made  use  ! 
of,  as  it  is  both  cheaper  and  more  eflectu- 
al  than  any  of  the  rest.     The  antimony 
procured  by  this  method  wab  called  by  i 
the  old.  chemists   Martial  n-gulus,  on  ac- j 
count  of  the  use  of  iron  in  its  preparation, ! 
a    name  which    may    very  properly    be : 
retained,  as  it  is  impossible  by  any  other  j 
means  than  solution  in  acids  to  render  this 
regulus  absolutely    free    from    iron :    in  j 
strictness,  therefore,  it  ought  to  be  consi-  j 
dered  as  antimony  alloyed  with  a  smuli ! 
and  variable  proportiim  of  iron.     In  order  I 
to  prepare  the  -martial   regulus    as  free  i 
from  iron  as  possible,  the  following'  me- 
thod,     recommended    by    Lemery     and ! 
Beaume,  appears    upon  the  vvliole  to  be 
the  best.  Take  eight  ounces  of  horse-shoe 
nails,  and  heat  them  in  a  crucible  almost 
to  whiteness;  then  add  sixteen  ounces  of 
coarsely  pounded  crude  antimony  ;  cover 
the  crucible  and  keep    up  the  fire  ;  in  a 
few  minutes  the  whole  will  be  melted  ;  at 
which  time  add  by  degrees  three  ounces 
of  nitre  :  after  a  slight  detonation  has  ta- 
ken place,  and  the  wliole  is  brought  to  a 
state  of  perfect  fusion,  pour  it  into  an  iron 
cone,  previously  heated  and  greased,  and 
strike  the  sides  of  it  gently  as  the  mass 
becomes  solid,  to  favour  the  precipitation 
of  the  regulus.     When   cold  it  will   be 
found  to  consist  of  a  mass  of  antimony, 
weighing  about  ten  ounces,  covered  by 
an  alkaline  ferruginous  scoria,  fiom  which 
it  may  be  readily  separated  by  a  blow  witii 
a  hammer.     Hie  regulus,  however,  still 
contauis  not    only  uon   but  sulphur  ;  it 
must   therefore  be    remelted,   and    two 
ounces  of  crude  antimony,  and  three  oun- 
ces of  niti-e  are  then  to  be  added ;  when  all 
detonation  has  ceased,  pour  it  into  a  cone 
as  before,  and  separaie  the  regulus  from 
the  scoria;.     Remelt  the  regulus,  and  pro- 
ject upon  it  three  ounces  of  nitre,  then 
separate  this  purified  regulus  from  the 
scoriae,    and  once    more   melt  it  with   a 
strong  and  rapid  heat ;  project  upon  it,  by 
degrees,  three  ounces  of  nitre,  and  imme- 
diately after  pour  it  into  a  cone  :  there  will 
be  obtained  about  eight  ounces  of  a  beau- 
tiful stellated  regulus,  covered  with  yel- 
lowish white  scorize.     In  this  process  the 
materials  employed  are,  eighteeji  ounces 
of  sulphuret,  eight  ounces  of  nails,  and 
twelve  ounces  of  nitre  ;  four  separate  fu- 
-sions  are  required,  and  the  product  is 
eight  ounces  of  regulus. 

The  martial  regulus  may  be  procured 
in  a  more  expeditious  way,  though  not  so 
free  from  iron,  by  bringing  five  ounces  of 
horse-shoe  nails  to  a  white  heat  in  a  cruci- 
cible,  and  then  adding  sixteen  ounces  of 


crude  antimony :  as  soon  as  the  whole  is 
in  very  liquid  fusion,  project,  at  several 
times,  one  ounce  of  pulverized  nitre; 
when  the  detonation  has  entirely  ceaSed, 
put  on  the  cover  of  the  crucible,  raise  the 
heat  for  a  tew  minutes,  then  remove  the 
crucible  from  the  furnace,  and  allow  it  to 
cool  very  gradually  ;  there  will  be  found 
beneath  the  scoriae  about  seven  ounces  of 
regulus. 

Perfectly  pure  antimony,  whether  pro- 
cured by  roasting  or  scoi'itication,  is  a  me- 
tal of  a  dusky  white  colour,  between  that 
of  tin  and  iron,  and  exhibhs,  when  recent- 
ly broken,  a  remarkable  degree  of  bril- 
liancy :  it  isentu'ely  destitute  of  ductility, 
and  may,  withotit  much  difficulty,  be  re- 
duced by  trituration  to  a  fine  powder ;  it 
is  moderately  hard,  yielding  easUy  to  a 
common  knife :  its  fusibility  is  rather  less 
than  that  of  zi  nc,  as  it  requires  a  low  red 
heat  to  be  kept  in  a  liquid  state.  Anti- 
mony unites  with  gold,  platina,  silver, 
copper,  iron,  mercury,  tin,  and  lead, 
forming  alloys,  if  we  except  the  two  last, 
of  little  importance. 

Antimony  and  tin  being  mixed  in  equal 
proportions,  form  a  moderately  hard,  brit- 
tle, and  very  brilliant  alloy,  capable  of  re- 
ceiving an  exquisite  polish,  and  not  easily 
tamislied  by  exposure  to  the  air  ;  it  has 
been  occasionally  manufactured  into  spe- 
culums  for  telescopes. 

Antimony  and  Lead.  Gmelin  found 
that  equal  parts  of  these  two  metals  pro- 
duced a  porous  brittle  alloy  ;  one  part  an- 
timony and  two  lead  gave  a  homog-eneous 
metal  much  liarder  than  lead,  but  ductile 
under  the  hammer  :  one  part  antimony  and 
eight  lead  formed  an  alloy  more  fusible, 
harder,  and  whiter  than  lead  without  im- 
pairing- its  ductility.  According  to  Gel- 
lert,  386  grains  of  lead  and  333  of  antimo- 
ny afforded  a  brittle  alloy,  with  a  granular 
somevi  hat  shining  fracture,  whose  specific 
gravity  was  greater  than  the  mean  of  its 
constituent  parts.  Antimony,  lead,  and  a 
little  copper,  form  type-metal. 

APPLET  REE,  7  „     „ 

APRICOT         ^  oeeHoRTicuLTURE. 

AQUEDUCT,  an  artificial  channel, 
made  for  conve)ing  water  from  one  place 
to  another,  without  employing  any  other 
mechanical  principle  than  this,  that  a 
body  will  descend  along  an  inclined  plane, 
or  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level.  Hence 
it  is  almost  imnecessary  to  observe,  that 
an  aquseduct  must  have  a  continued  slope 
from  its  source  to  the  place  for  which 
the  water  is  destined.  If  there  is  not  a 
sufficient  natural  source,  the  supply  must 
be  increased  by  artificial  cuts  or  drains ; 
and  the  water  may  also  be  augmented  in 


AQU 


ARG 


its  course  from  contiguous  springs,  by 
means  of  cuts  brancning-  oiU  from  puinls 
in  the  sides  of  tlie  iujueduct. 

It  may  sometimes  be  exiiedient  to  con- 
duct it  in  a  circuitous  diiection,  in  order 
to  lessen  the  expense  and  obtain  more 
abundant  collections  of  water  eiiiier  from 
sprini^s  or  artificial  excavations,  than 
would  result  by  conductnig  it  in  a  more 
dii'ect  course.  To  receive  such  supplies 
in  the  most  eflectual  munner,  the  channel 
should  be  left  without  any  building.  In 
that  state,  however,  it  is  liable  to  be  worn 
by  the  action  of  the  current,  the  course  of 
which  is  at  last  obstructed  by  accumula- 
tions of  sand,  mud,  &.C.  in  particular 
places ;  though  frequency  of  repairs,  in 
such  cases  may  be  diminisiied,  by  mak- 
ing at  intervals  large  pits  in  which  the 
sand  and  mud  may  be  deposited. 

If  the  collection  at  the  source  is  so 
great  as  to  render  all  further  supplies 
unnecessary,  the  channel  should  tlien  be 
well  built  of  stone  or  brick,  and  if  It  is 
also  wished  to  be  free  from  rain  water, 
which  often  having  fallen  would  run  inio 
the  cliannel  fi-equentiy  in  a  muddy  state, 
the  aquaeduct  must  be  covered  above. 
If  it  can  not  be  conducted  roiuid  a  valley 
at  less  expense  tlian  across,  the  valley 
must  be  built  up :  the  building  will  an- 
swer best  in  the  form  of  an  arch  or  a  suc- 
cession of  arches,  and  indeed  in  most 
cases  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  con- 
struct it  in  that  manner,  particularly 
when  the  valley  has  a  river  ruiming 
through  it.  It  is  chiefly  in  this  construc- 
tion of  tlie  arches  that  the  ancient  aque 
ducts  excite  our  astonishment.  When 
the  valley  is  deep  several  rows  of  arc  lies 
may  be  made  one  above  another. 

When  it  is  necessaw  to  pass  a  moiAii- 
tain,  the  aqueduct  may  either  be  carried 
round  it  or  tliiough  it  by  a  large  perfora.' 
tion.  In  such  cases  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  construction  of  acpiaeducts  must  be 
attended  with  enormous  expense  ;  and  in 
modern  times,  instead  of  allowing  the 
water  to  flow  in  an  open  channel,  it  is 
found  more  economical  to  employ  the- 
Jiydrdulical  principle ;  tiiat,  however,  the 
channel  may  rise  or  fall,  water  will  con- 
tinue to  run  in  it,  provided  it  be  enclosed 
on  all  sides,  and  no  wheie  earned  higher 
than  the  source.  It  will  however  be  re- 
membered, when  water  is  to  be  convey- 
ed in  any  considerable  quantity,  and  the 
ground  over  which  it  js  to  pass  is  not 
much  interrupted  by  hills  anil  valiies, 
that  an  aqueduct  from  a  combination  of 
circumstances  is  to  be  preferred.  The  Ro- 
mans were  either  ignonuit  of  this  piin- 
oiple,  or  thought  that  pipes  would  not 


aflford  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  ali 
th(;  purposes  they  had  in  view  The 
quuniity  of  ihis  necessary  article  of  life 
for  Uie  tai)le  as  weil  as  for  baths  and  fish 
ponds,  gave  rise  to  aqueducts  of  aston- 
ishing grandeur  and  ma^ijiiicence,  to 
which  even  emperors  were  proud  to  at- 
tach tlieir  names.  Three  of  tiiese  still 
exist  and  sni)plv  with  water  the  inhabi- 
tants of  modern  Rome.  The  remains  of 
aqueducts  may  be  traced  in  other  parts 
of  the  world ;  one  of  the  most  splen- 
did of  these  is  that  of  Segovia  in  Spain, 
of  which  159  arches  joined  without  mor- 
tar still  remain  to  attest  its  ancient  gran- 
deur. The  most  considerable  aquaeduct 
of  modern  times,  is  that  which  was  built 
near  .Maintcnon  by  Louis  XIV.  for  convey- 
ing to  Versailles  the  waters  of  the  river 
Eure.  Its  length  is  7000  fathoms,  its 
heigiit  2.560,  and  the  number  of  its  arches 
242,  arranged  in  three  stories. 

There  are  few  cities  in  the  world  bet- 
ter situated  to  receive  a  supply  of  water 
through  the  means  of  an  aqueduct  thai\ 
Philadelphia,  if,  for  tlie  purpose  of  pas- 
sing the  water  over  some  deep  valiies,  it 
be  combined  with  hydraulics  :  that  how- 
ever, these  advantages  will  be  adopted 
appears  doubtful,  at  least  till  by  experi- 
ence they  become  better  appreciated.  On 
tlie  whole,  we  think  where  a  constant 
supply  of  water  can  be  obtained,  and  the 
ground  for  tlie  conveyance  of  the  watei' 
is  tolerably  even,  an  union  of  the  aqueduct 
with  pipes  is  by  far  tlie  most  durable  and 
least  expensive  plan  of  supplying  lai'ge 
cities  with  this  necessary  article.  See 
Water  Wouks. 

AQUA-FOilTlS,  is  a  nitrous  acid  of  a 
certain  strength ;  when  concentrated  and 
smoaking,  it  is  called  spirit  of  nitre.  The 
Acjua-fortis  used  by  dyers,  brass-foun- 
(k'ls,  &.C.  is  not  only  weaker  than  s])irit 
of  nitre,  but  contains  abiiut  one  half  water 
and  sometimes  a  jjortion  of  vitriolic  acid. 
It  may  be  made,  by  distilling  crude  nitre 
with  calcined  vitriol,  equal  parts  ;  or  with 
somewhat  more  than  half  its  weight,  of  oil 
of  vitriol;  or  by  mixing  one  part  of  oil  of  vi- 
triol, with  nine  parts  of  pure  s])iiit  of  nitre. 

AQUA-TINT  A.     See  Engraving. 

AUAIU-K  L\»\F).  See  Agriculture. 

AI{(;1I1LL\  See  Orghella  {IJtmus) 

AUtiENTU.M  MOSAICUVI.  This  is  a 
metallic  :dloy  in  the  forni  of  silvery  flakes, 
used  as  a  ]iigincnt  for  giving  a  white  me- 
tallic lustre  to  plaster  casts,  paper,  por- 
celain, &c. 

It  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner. 
Take  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  grain  tin, 
and  the  same  quantity  of  bismuth,  melt 
them  together  in  a  clean  crucible,  and 


ARG 


ARR 


■diii'  l-he  mass  repeatedly  with  a  clean  iron 
rod  till  the  two  metals  are  accurately 
mixed.  TJien  remove  tl>e  crucible  from 
the  fire,  and  when  its  contenls  are  upon 
tlie  point  ot"  becoming  solid,  pour  in  an 
ounce  and  a  half  'of  warmed  quicksilver, 
stirring-  it  as  before.  Previously  to  using 
this  alloy,  it  must  be  ground  in  a  stone 
or  earthenware  mortar  with  white  of  egg 
and  spirit  varnish,  and  in  this  str.te  ap- 
plied to  the  intended  work.  AVhen  dried 
it  may  be  burnished  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  has  then  very  much  the  appearance 
of  silver. 

ARGOL,  or  TAIlTAll,  is  a  substance 
thrown  off  from  wine,  after  it  is  put  into 
casks  to  depurate.  Tiie  m.ove  tartar  is 
separated,  tlie  more  smooth  and  palatable 
is  the  wine.  This  substance  forms  a  thick 
hard  crust  on  the  sides  of  the  casks  :  and 
as  part  of  the  line  dregs  of  the  wine  ad- 
here to  it,  the  tartar  of  the  white  v/ines  is 
of  a  greyisli  white  colour,  called  white 
argol ;  and  that  of  red  wine  has  a  red  co- 
lour, and  is  called  red  argol. 

When  separated  from  tlie  cask  in  which 
it  is  formed,  argol  is  mixed  with  much 
heterogeneous  matter ;  from  which,  for 
the  purposes  of  medicine  and  chemistry, 
it  requires  to  be  purified.  This  purifica- 
tion consists  in  first  boiling  the  Arg-olin 
water,  filtrating  the  solution,  and  allow- 
ing the  salt  to  crystallize,  which  it  very 
soon  does,  as  it  requires  nearly  twenty 
times  its  weight  of  water  to  dissolve  it. 
The  crystals  of  tartar  obtained  by  tins 
operation,  are  far  from  being  perfectly 
pure  ;  and  therefore  they  are  again  boiled 
in  water,  with  an  addition  of  clay,  Avhicli 
absorbs  the  colouring  matter;  and  thus 
on  a  second  crystallization,  a  very  pure 
and  white  salt  is  obtained.  These  crys- 
tals ai'e  called  Cream  nf  Tartar,  and  are 
commonly  sold  under  that  name. 

Cream  of  Tartar  may  berecomposed  in 
the  following  manner;  upon  fixed  vege- 
table alkali  pour  a  solution  of  the  acid  of 
tartar ;  and  continue  this,  till  the  efier- 
vescence  is  over.  The  fluid  will  then  be 
transparent ;  but  if  more  of  the  acid  is 
added,  it  will  become  turbid  and  white, 
and  small  crystals  like  white  sand  wlW  be 
formed  in  it.  These  ciystals  are  a  \->&v- 
fect  Cream  of  Tartar.  Argol  therefore 
consists  of  fixed  vegetable  alkali,  over  sa- 
turated with  the  pure  acid  of  tartar,  and 
joined  by  a  great  deal  of  earthy  impuri- 
ties and  coloiu-ing  matter. 

The  white  Argol  is  preferable  to  the 
red,  as  containing  less  of  the  drossy  or 
earthy  matter.  The  marks  of  good  ai-gol 
of  either  kind,  are  its  being-  thick,  brit- 
tle, hard,  brilliant,  and  little  earthy.  That 
brought  from  Germany  is  the  best,  on  ac- 


count of  its  being  taken  ovit  of  tliose  great 
tuns,  wherein  the  salt  has  time  to  come 
to  its  consistence. 

Argol  is  of  considerable  use  air«ig 
dyers,  as  ser\ing  to  dispose  the  stuftij  to 
take  their  colours  the  better. 

ARMENIAN  EOLE,  is  a  soft  bole  of 
red  colour,  used  in  medicine.  An  indu- 
rated  kind  of  this  affords  the  material  for 
the  red  pencils. 

Bolus's  or  boles,  are  martial  clays,  con- 
taining a  fine  and  dense  clay  of  various 
colours,  with  a  large  quantity  of  iron. 

The  Armenian  Bole  was  formerly 
brought  from  Armenia,  but  it  is  now 
found  also  iu  several  parts  of  I'rance  and 
Germany. 

ARMENIAN  STONE.  This  substance 
is  improperly  called  a  stone,  being  no- 
thing else  than  an  ocherous  earth,  and 
properly  called  Blue  Oc/trc.  It  is  a  very 
valuable  substance  in  painting,  being  a 
bright  and  hvely  blue.  It  easily  breaks 
between  the  fingers,  and  does  not  stain 
the  hands.  It  is  of  a  brackish  disagree- 
able taste,  and  effervesces  with  acids.  It  is 
a  very  scarce  fossile,  and  was  in  so  high 
esteem  as  a  paint  amongst  the  ancients, 
that  counterfeits  were  continually  attempt- 
ed to  serve  in  its  place. 

Though  in  but  small  quantities,  it  is 
foiuid  very  pure  iu  the  mines  of  (iosslar 
in  Saxony. 

ARR.\CK,  Arac,  or  Rack,  is  a  spu'ituous 
liquor  imported  from  the  East  Indies,  and 
used  either  as  a  cordial,  or  an  ingredientin 
piuich.  It  is  obtained  by  distillation  from 
rice,  or  sugar,  fermented  with  the  juice 
of  cocoa-nuts.  Goa  and  Batavia  ai-e  the 
chief  places  from  which  arrack  is  export- 
ed. At  the  former,  there  are  three  sorts, 
viz.  the  single,  double,  and  treble  distilled. 
The  double  is  but  a  weak  spirit,  in  com- 
parison with  that  obtained  at  the  latter 
place ;  but,  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
flavour,  it  is  preferred  to  all  the  others. 

The  arrack  now  in  general  use  contains 
but  a  sixth,  and  sometimes  only  an  eighth 
part  of  alcohol,  or  pure  spirit.  A  spirituous 
liquor  of  this  name  is  also  extracted  by 
the  Tartars  of  Tungusia,fi-om  mare's  milk, 
which  is  first  suffered  to  turn  sour,  and 
then  distilled  two  or  three  times,  between 
two  close  earthen  pots,fi-om  which  it  runs 
through  a  small  wooden  pipe.  It  is  pos- 
sessed of  the  most  intoxicating  qualities ; 
so  that,  according  to  Professor  Pallas, 
men,women,and  ciiildren,  frequently  diink 
themselves  into  a  'semi -delirious  trance, 
which  continues  for  forty -eight  hours. 

Genuine  arrack  is  said  to  possess  bal- 
samic, softening',  and  restorative  proper- 
ties, and  to  be  less  liable  to  produce  the 
ustial  inconveniencies  of  other  spu-its.    It 


ARR 


ARR 


is  iUrlhci'  supposed  to  contain  a  fine  sub- 
tile oil,  so  minute  as  to  incorporate  rcailiiy 
witli  water  :  lience  it  is  generally  prcfl-rrtd 
in  ^ose  cases,  where  repeated  debauches 
have  abraded  the  internal  sides  of  the 
vessels.  Persons  who  are  unfortunately 
addicted  to  the  use  of  ardent  sj^irils,  as 
well  as  those  troubled  with  the  gout  or 
Theumatism,  and  who  cannot  comi)ly  with 
the  rules  of  sobriety  and  temperance  may 
use  arrack  in  preference  to  Hollan.ds,  or 
brandy.  On  account  of  its  strong  eru- 
pyreumatic  oil,  however,  it  is  difficult  of 
dig-estion,  soon  turns  rancid,  causes  nu- 
merous obstructions,  and  is  consequently 
injiu-ious  to  individuals  of  lax  solids,  and 
thick  or  sizy  fluids. 

ARROW-GRASS,  is  a  plant  fiequently 
met  with  in  marshy  grodnds,  or  near  the 
sea  coast,  and  in  saline  tracts.  As  they 
are  eaten  with  avidity  by  sheep,  for  which 
they  serve  as  an  excellent  and  wholesome 
food,  we  presume  strongly  to  recommend 
their  cultiu-e.  An  additional  motive  f  )r 
the  propagation  of  the  arrow-grass,  maj 
be  suggested  to  the  farmer  and  breeder 
of  sheep  ;  because  it  thrives  extremel}- 
well  in  moist  and  swampy  places,  where 
few  other  vegetables  would  grow. 

ARROW-HKAD,  Commo'm,  is  one  of 
those  neglected  plants,  which,  though 
growing  wild  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States,  especially  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
are  not  converted  to  any  useful  purpose  : 
The  root  of  the  arrow-head  is  composed 
of  numerous  stroivg  fibres,  which  strike 
into  the  mud  ;  the  toot  stalks  of  the  leaves 
are  of  a  length  in-opoi-tionate  to  the  depth 
of  the  water  in  which  they  gi-ow  ;  they  are 
thick,  fungous,  and  sometimes  three  feet 
high.  Its  sharp  pointed  leaves  resemble 
the  point  of  an  arrow,  aitd  float  upon  the 
water.  At  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
root,  there  is  always,  even  in  its  wild 
state,  a  bulb  which  grows  in  the  solid 
clay,  beneath  the  muddy  stratum. 

This  esculent  root  is  industriously  cul- 
tivated in  China  and  America,  where  it  at- 
tains to  the  size  of  several  inches  in  diame- 
ter. With  respect  to  the  mimner  of  ch'cs- 
sing  and  preparing  such  vegetables,  we 
shall  give  the  necessary  directions  under 
the  article  Bread 

The  arrow-head  requires  a  low,  cold, 
marshy  situation,  and  a  clayey  soil,  where 
scarcely  any  other  plant  woidd  thrive. 
Here  it  grows  luxuriantly,  and  produces 
an  oblong,  thick,  bulbous  root,  which, 
from  its  niea/y  nature,  may  be  easily  con- 
verted into  starch,  or  flour.  Even  in  its 
raw  and  unprej^ared  state,  it  :ifl'oi'ds  a  j>ro- 
per  and  wholesome  food  for  horses,  goats 
and  hogs  ;  though  cows  do  not  relish  it  — 
There  are  two 'methods  of  propagating 


this  beneficial  plant ;  either  by  the  wild- 
gj-owijig  fibres  of  the  root,  or  by  the  seed ; 
and  we  earnestly  recommend  its  culture, 
from  a  cMniction  of  its  great  utilitv. 

ARROW  KOO'I',  Indian,  or  the  Mar. 
anta,  a  plant  of  which  there  are  three 
species,  the  arundinacta,  gnlartga,  and 
coniosa ;  all  of  them  ai-e  herbaceous, 
perennial  exotics  of  the  Indies,  and  kept ' 
in  our  hot-houses  merely  for  curiosity. 
The  first  of  these  species  is  the  true  starch- 
plant,  and  is  likewise  used  by  the  Indians 
to  extract  the  poison  communicated  by 
their  ;u-rows. 

Dr.  Wright,  of  Jamaica,  appears  to 
be  the  first  who  informed  us  that  a  decoc- 
tion of  the  fresh  roots  makes  an  excellent 
ptisan  in  acute  diseases.  From  an  ingeni- 
ous pamphlet  published  in  1796,  by  Mr. 
T.  Ryder,  of  Oxtbrd-street,  we  farther 
learn,  that  one  of  his  West -Indian  patients, 
employed  it  as  an  arti(Je  of  diet,  and  since 
that  period  it  has  been  very  generally 
used  in  families- 

The  arrow-root  powder  unquestionably 
yields  a  larger  proportion  of  nutritive 
mucilage  than  any  European  vegetable,  if 
we  except  the  Salfp-root;  hence  a  single 
tablespoonful  of  either,  makes  a  pint  of 
strong  and  nourishing  jelly,  which  affords 
a  very  proper  food  in  acute  diseases  as 
well  as  in  all  those  complaints  where  ani- 
mal food  must  be  abstained  from. 

Mr.  Rvder,  befi)re  mentioned,  lias 
justly  recommended  the  culture  of  this 
root  to  the  AVest-lndian  Planters,  and  the 
new  African  Colonists,  as  an  object  of  com- 
merce, and  the  most  eligible  substitute  for 
suu'ch,  made  of  wheat  :  1-  Because  it 
would  save  annually  66,000  quarters  of 
that  valuable  grain,  in  Great  Britain  alone, 
where  the  average  quantum  of  starch 
made  in  the  years  1793,  1794,  and  1795, 
amounted  to  8  millions  of  pounds  weight, 
allowing  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds 
per  quarter  : — 2.  As  the  wholesale  price 
of  the  aiTOw-root  was,  in  1796,  fifteen 
pence  a  pound,  and  as  one  pound  of  its 
starch  is  equal  to  two  pounds  and  a  half 
prepared  from  wheat,  its  intrinsic  value 
would,  by  this  computation,  not  exceed 
s?»:-peMce  per  pound  :  whereas  the  average 
pri^e  of  starch  in  England  for  seven  years 
(from  1789  to  1795)  may  be  stated  at 
«/;/<' -pence  the  poimd.  3.  As  the  arrow- 
root contains  more  soluble,  gelatinous 
matter,  occupying  less  space,  being  less 
envelo])cil  in  earthy  particles  and  aflbrd- 
ing  a  ))urer  farina  than  any  other  plant,  it 
may  be  reasonably  inferred,  that  the 
stai'ch  obtained  from  it  must  be  of  the 
finest  quality  :  an  opinion  amply  confirmed 
by  thiee  clearstarchcrs,  who  were,  on 
this  occasion,  consulted  by  the  Society 


ARS 


ARS 


for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  Manufac- 
tures and  Commerce. 

The  plants  would  thi'ive  in  the  southern 
states,  ajid  oug-ht  to  be  introduced  into 
them,  by  some  of  t!ie  numerous  Americans 
who  visit  tlie  V/est-Indies.  • 

ARSENIC,  is  a  substance  of  very  fre- 
quent occurrence,  being  found  in  combi- 
n:ition  wiUi  almost  every  other  metal,  as 
well  as  with  sulphur  and  lime :  the  four 
following  species  however,  are  the  only 
ones  that  by  the  common  consent  of  mi- 
neralogists are  ranked  as  ores  of  this  me- 
tal, the  rest  being  considered  as  ar- 
senicated  ores  of  silver,  copper,  cobalt, 
&c. 

Sp.  1.  Xative  Arsenic. 

The  coloui'  of  this  mineral  when  newly 
broken,  is  a  light  lead-gray,  passing  into 
tin-white;  but  the  surfuce  by  exposure  to 
the  air  becomes  yellow,  then  blackish 
gray,  and  at  length  almost  black. 

Native  arsenic  has  not  been  accurately 
analysed  ;  but  besides  arsenic,  it  appears 
always  to  contain  a  little  iion,  to  which  its 
fusibility  is  owing,  and  occasionally  a  very 
small  portion  of  gold  or  silver. 

This  mineral  is  foimd  only  in  the  veins 
of  primitive  mountains,  accompanied  by 
red  silver,  realgar,  galena,  specular  cobalt, 
kupfernickel,  pjrites,  &c.  It.  occurs  in 
the  mines  of  Freyberg,  in  Saxony;  at 
Geisberg,  in  Carinthia;  at  Nagyag,  in 
Transylvania ;  and  Saint  ilai'ie  aux  Alines, 
in  France. 

Sp.  2.  Arsenic;d  pp-ltes,  Alarcasite,  or 
!Mispickel. 

The  colour  of  this  mineral,  when  re- 
cently broken,  is  a  silvery  white,  but  it 
soon  tarnishes  to  yellowish,  grayish,  blu- 
ish, or  u'idescent. 

This  miieral  has  not  been  accurately 
analysed,  or  rather  appears  to  contaiji 
arsenic,  h-on,  and  sulphur,  in  variable  pro- 
portions ;  mixed  with  which  is  occasional- 
ly found  from  one  to  ten  per  cent,  of  sil- 
ver. 

It  is  found  in  almost  all  metalliferous 
primitive  mountains ;  but  the  viU'iety  con- 
taining silver  has  hitherto  been  met  with 
only  at  Freyberg  luid  Braunsdorf,  in  Saxo- 
«y. 

Sp.  3.  Sulphuret  of  Arsenic. 

This  species  is  generally,  though  pcr- 
i"  iiaps  unnecessarily,  divided  into  two  va- 
rieties. 

Vai".  1.  Realgar;  the  colour  of  ^yhich 
is  a  bright  am-ora  red,  passhig  on  one  side 
into  scai-let,  on  the  other  to  Ught  orange. 
It  has  never  been  accurately  analysed, 
but  consists  for  the  most  part  of  arsenic 
and  sulphiu-. 

Realgai-  occurs  native  in  the  vicinity 
of  Etna  and  other  volcauoes,  Rod  in 
VOL.   I. 


the  primitive  mountains  of  Germany, 
Swisserland  and  Hungarj-.  The  sub- 
stances by  which  it  is  usually  accom- 
panied  are  native  arsenic,  red  silver,  and 
galena. 

Var.  2.  Orpiment. 

Orpiment  differs  from  realgar  m  the 
follow-ing  particulars.  Its  colom-  is  a 
bright  lemon  yellow,  passing  into  gold 
yellow  and  aui'ora-red. 

Sp.  4.  Native  AVhite  Arsenic. 

Its  colour  js  snow  white,  or  yellow- 
ish reddish,  or  smoke  gray. 

Tliis  mineral  is  of  very  rare  occur- 
rence, having  been  met  with  as  j-et 
only  in  the  cobalt  mines  of  Bohemia 
and  Saxony,  and  on  the  surface  of 
native  arsenic  in  Transylvania  and  Hun- 
gary. _ 

"White  Arsenic,  when  in  its  purest  state, 
appeoi-s  as  a  beautiful  white,  sonorous, 
\  itriform  mass,  very  brittle,  and  easily  re- 
duced to  powder.  When  recently  pre- 
pared it  is  considerably  transparent,  but 
becomes  opaque  by  keeping.  It  is  pre- 
pared in  the  large  way  by  a  second  subli- 
mation  of  the  impure  arsenic,  obtained  in 
the  roasting  of  the  arsenical  ores.  M. 
Fragoso  de  Sigueira  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  of  the  method  adopted  in 
Bohemia. 

The  subliming  vessels  are  strong 
square  boxes  of  cast  iron,  furnished  with 
conical  heads  of  the  samo- material,  close- 
ly luted  to  them  with  clay.  The  square 
boxes  are  disposed  in  a  lai-ge  brick  area, 
which  is  heated  by  the  flues  of  two  fur- 
naces placed  a  httle  below  them.  When 
red-hot,  the  impure  arsenic  is  laded  into 
the  boxes  by  fifteen  pounds  at  a  time, 
where  it  melts,  and  in  about  an  horn- 
after  it  beguis  to  subhme  into  the  conical 
head.  When  no  more  rises,  another  fif- 
teen pounds  is  put  into  the  vessel,  and 
treated  as  before ;  and  this  successive  ad- 
dition is  continued  till  about  150  pounds 
of  arsenic  have  been  used  to  each  vessel, 
the  sublimation  of  die  whole  of  which 
quantity  lasts  about  twelve  hours.  When 
cold,  the  workmen  take  off  the  coni- 
cal head,  and  carry  it  with  its  con- 
tents to  another  place,  where  they  break 
off  with  hammers  the  sublimed  arsenic, 
separating  any  impurity  for  a  second  ope- 
ration. 

The  yellow  glass  of  arsenic,  or  artificial 
orpiment,  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  same  apparatus,  but  for  this  the 
arsenic  is  previously  mixed  with  half  its 
weight  of  sulphur.  In  either  case  the 
heat  should  be  maintained  all  die  wliile 
uniformly  red,  so  as  to  keep  the  mate- 
rials in  the  lower  vessel  always  in  fu- 
sion. When  tjiese  ar^  tolerably  pure, 
M 


ARS 


ARS 


hnost  the  whole  rises  in  the  subUma- 
;on. 

'I'iie  rough  material  of  this  process  is 
the  oxj'd  of  arsenic,  olituinetl  by  roasting 
the  Tin  and  Cobalt  ores,  and  twice  tor- 
refied before  it  is  used  for  sublimation. 
If  these  precautions  are  not  observed,  the 
arsenic  remains  j'ellow  and  gray  instead 
of  wliite. 

Reguhis  of  Arsenic,  or  Arsenic,  proper- 
ly so  callci!,  may  be  prepared  in  several 
vi'ays,  and  ihe  most  convenient  substance 
for  proc\uing   it  is    the  common  wliite 
arsenic  of  the  shops.     This  is  a  simple 
oxyd  of  the  metal,  and  it  may  be  reduced 
by"  heating  witii  any  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter ;  but  as  arsenic  in  a  metallic  state  is 
even  more  volatile  than  its  oxyd,  the  com- 
mon mode  of  fusion  will  not  answer,  as 
the  metal  will  escape  in  dense  fumes  as 
fast  as  it  is  produced.     Sublimation  must 
tliereforc  l)c  used,  the  white  arsenic  and 
Us  reducing  flux  being  heated  together  in 
close  vessels,  and  tlic  fumes  of  the  regu- 
line  arsenic  being  condensed  on  a  cooler 
part  of  the  same  or  of  an  adjoining  vessel. 
The  following  mode  is  simple,  easily  per- 
formed, and  makes  an  interesting  experi- 
ment in  the  small  way.     Mix  white  arse- 
nic with  oil  into  a  mass  of  the  consistence 
of  soft  dough,  drop  it  into  a  dry  Florence 
flask,  taking  care  not  to  soil  the  neck  as 
tlie  mixture  passes  down  ;  put  the  vessel 
on  charcoal,  either  naked  or  in  a  sand  pot, 
and  l\eat  gradually.     When  hot  enough, 
the  oil  begins  to  burn,  and  partly  flies  oif 
in  thick  fumes,  blackening  the  neck  of  the 
flask ;  tliese  fumes  soon  acquire  a  strong 
and  most  olli;iisive  otlour,  somewhat  like 
garlick,  owing  to  the  escape  of  part  of  the 
arsenic,  whicJi  should  be  carefully  avoid- 
ed  by  the  oj^erator.     The   whole   flask 
now  becomes  obscure,  so  that  the  pro- 
cess can  only  be  judged  of  by  the  co- 
piousness of  the  fumes,  which  presently 
are  seen  to  deposit  black   films  on  the 
neck  of  the  flask,  like  soot,  but  symmetri- 
cally arranged.     The  heat  should  be  slow- 
ly raised,  so  as  to  redden  the  bottom  of 
the  flask,  and  wlicn  the  fumes  scarcely 
arise,  and  the  hottest  part  of  the  vessel  is 
found  to  be  nearly  empty,  the  whole  may 
be  allowed  to  cool.     On  breaking  the  ves- 
sel carefullj',  nothing  is  fiiund  in  the  bot- 
tom, as  l"ar  as  it  was  red-hot,  but  a  light 
spongy  coal,  the  renuiins  of  the  oil ;  all 
above  it,  to  the  very  top  of  the  neck  of  the 
flask,   is  lined  willi  a   light  black-gra/ 
crust,   beneath   which,   iuunediately  ad- 
hering to  the  glass  and  taking  the  impres- 
sion of  its  shape,  is  a  brittle  black  shining 
metallic  substance,  which  is  the  reguhis 
of  arsenic.    The  neck  of  the  flask  is  also 
eovercd  with  u  number  of  beautiftd  green- 


ish transparent  pyramidical  crystals  cf 
arsenic,  oxydated  by  the  access  of  air 
through  the  mouth,  which,  in  condensing, 
assume  this  elegant  form.  To  obtain  tiie 
reguhis  more  completely,  the  whole  of 
the»contents  of  the  flask  shoiild  be  mix- 
ed together  by  rubbing,  and  put  into  a 
fresh  flask  witliout  addition,  and  again 
sublimed  slowly,  stopjjing  the  mouth 
with  paper,  as  there  is  now  little  need  of 
giving  A  ent  to  any  fumes  during  the  pro- 
cess. The  sublimed  regulus  is  now  as 
perfect  as  it  can  be  obtained,  often  crys- 
tallized, and  exhibits  every  mark  of  a  true 
metal. 

The  old  method  of  preparing  tliis  me- 
tal was  the  following.  White  arsenic 
four  parts,  black  flux  two  parts,  iron 
flhngs  and  borax  each  one  part,  were  put 
into  a  covei'cd  crucible,  and  hastily  fused ; 
after  which  the  vessel  was  immediately 
removed  from  the  fire.  Much  of  the  arse- 
nic was  tlissipated  in  this  way,  but  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crucible  a  blueish  white 
regulus  was  found,  consisting  of  reguline 
arsenic,  combined  with  the  iron  into  a 
hard  alloy,  the  use  of  tlie  latter  metal  be- 
ing only  to  detain  the  arsenic  and  prevent 
its  volatilization. 

This  alloy  tarnishes  much  sooner  than, 
the  jnue  regidus.  By  sublimation  in  close 
vessels,  the  ai'senic  rises  much  soonc 
than  before,  but  is  thought  still  to  car- 
ry up  with  it  a  small  jjortion  of  iron, 
though  the  greater  part  is  left  behind. 

For  the  most  delicate  chemical  purpo- 
ses, a  beautiful  regulus  may  be  made  by 
mixing  arseniat  of  potash  with  about  one- 
eighth  of  charcoal,  and  subliming- in  a  close 
glass  vessel  slowly  heated  to  redness.  Tht- 
regulus  is  beautifully  brilliantaud  crystal 
lized. 

The  regulus  is  equally  prepared  in  tin 
large  way  by  sublimation,  in  earthen  ves- 
sels, of  the  oxyd,  mixed  with  a  reducing 
flux. 

Arsenic  when  pure  has  the  following- 
properties  :  its  colour  is  between  a  tin- 
white  and  lead-blue,  which  by  exposure 
to  air  readily  tarnishes,  the  later  as  it  is 
tlie  purer,  and  becomes  iirst  yellow,  and 
then  black  and  pulverulent ;  but  it  may  be 
kept  under  water  tmaltered.  Slowly  sub- 
lliwed  in  close  vessel;;,  it  crystallizes  in 
octahedrons.  Its  hardness  is  about  equal 
to  that  of  copper,  but  it  is  quite  brittle 
and  very  easily  pulverizable.  Of  all  me- 
tals arsenic  is  the  most  volatile  by  heat, 
for  it  begins  to  rise  \a  fumes  at  about 
356"  rahrenheit,  that  is,  long  before  it 
melts,  so  that  it  can  luu-dly  ever  be  seen 
in  a  state  of  fusion.  These  fumes  in 
the  open  air  are  dense,  white,  and  ex- 
hale a  very  pecidiar  and  noxious  smell. 


ARS 


ARS 


somewhat  resembling  gfarlick,  which  cir- 
cumstance forms  one  of  the  readiest  tests 
for  this  metal  or  its  oxyd.  Arsenic  sudden- 
ly heated  to  redness,  by  being  thrown  into  a 
vei-y  hot  crucible,  takes  fire,  and  burns 
with  a  whitish-blue  flame,  yellow  at  the 
«dges. 

The  condensed  fiune  of  arsenic  heated 
in  close  vessels  is  the  regulus  unaltered, 
but  in  the  open  air  it  condenses  into  a 
white,  sometimes  yellowish,  mealy  sub- 
stance, which  is  the  IVhite  Oxyd  cj  Arse- 
nic, similar  to  the  common  -xhite  arsenic 
of  the  shops.  This  oxyd  is  also  volatile 
per  se,  but  requires  for  the  purpose  a 
greater  heat  than  the  reguline  arsenic, 
and  when  mixed  with  eartliy  substarxes 
it  acquires  so  much  fixity  as  to  prove  a 
most  powerful  flux. 

This  semi-metallic  concrete  is  very  use- 
fully employed  in  various  branches  of  the 
arts  and  manufactures;  it  is  frequently 
added  as  an  ingredient,  to  facilitate  the 
fusion  of  glass,  and  to  produce  a  certain 
degree  of  opacity.  Painters  use  two 
arsenical  preparations,  namely,  the  orpi- 
ment  and  realgar.  A  very  beautiful 
green  pigment  may  be  precipitated  from 
blue  vitriol,  by  a  watery  solution  of  white 
arsenic  and  vegetable  alkali :  tliis,  when 
prepared  either  with  water  or  oil,  affords 
1  permanent  colour.  (See  Colour 
.Making.)  It  is  highly  probable  that,  if 
arsenic  were  added  to  tlie  paint  used 
for  wood,  it  might  form  an  ingredient 
which  would  not  be  liable  to  be  preyed 
upon  by  worms.  But  the  practice  of 
painting  the  toys  of  children  with  arseni- 
cal pigments,  deserves  severe  censure; 
as  they  are  accustomed  to  put  every  tiling 
into  theii-  mouth. 

In  dyeing,  it  is  likewise  of  great  ser- 
vice. Combined  with  sulphur,  it  has  the 
property  of  readily  dissolving  indigo ;  for 
which  purpose  it  is  used  in  the  printing  of 
calico,  and  other  cloth.  On  exposure  to 
the  air,  however,  the  arsenic  is  precipi- 
tated from  this  solution,  and  may  be  far- 
ther employed  in  pencil  colours.  Some 
dyers  are  said  to  understand  tlie  art  of  im- 
parting beautiful  shades  of  colours  to 
furs,  by  arsenical   solutions.     See  Dye- 

:  NTG- 

In  rural  and  domestic  economj-,  this 
oncrete  is  also  frequently  resorted  to 
with  gi-eat  advantage,  though  not  always 
with  due  precaution.  Farmers  dissolve 
it  in  lime-w  ater,  for  steeping  wheat,  in  or- 
der to  prevent  the  smut ;  and  it  is  likewise 
asserted,  that  the  husbandmen  of  Flan- 
ders and  Germany  use  it  for  fertilizing 
the  earth,  by  sprin^-Jing  the  soil  with  a  so- 
'ution   of   ai-senic    in    dung-water.     See 

-AGRICULTURE. 


Arsenic  is  one  of  the  most  sudden  and 
violent  poisons  we  are  acquainted  with. 
Its  fumes  are  so  deleterious  to  the  lungs, 
that  artists  ought  to  be  extremely  cautious 
to  preserve  themselves  from  its  influence 
on  tlieir  mouth  and  nostrils,  as  well  as 
from  touching  it  with  their  hands;  for 
every  external  contact  may  be  attended 
with  serious  consequences.  Hence  they 
should  dress  in  thick  and  firm  clothes, 
keep  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  ex- 
haling fumes,  and  cover  the  orifices  of 
the  face  with  a  mask,  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. -  In  their  system  of  diet,  we  advise 
them  to  make  use  of  a  great  pi'oportion  of 
bland  and  mucilaginous  nourishment ; 
such  as  fresh  butter,  pork,  sv.cet-oil, 
milk,  artichokes,  and  sunilar  vegeta- 
bles. 

ARSENIC  ACID.  We  are  indebted  to 
the  admirable  skill  and  sagacity  of  Scheele 
for  our  fii  st  knowledge  of  tliis  acid,  and 
of  most  of  its  known  combinations.  To 
prepare  it,  put  2  ounces  of  white  arsenic 
into  a  retort,  with  7  ounces  of  muriatic 
acid,  and  dissolve  the  arsenic  by  boiling : 
then,  when  still  hot,  add  3A  ounces  of 
pure  nitrous  acid,  and  again  heat.  The 
mixture  soon  foams,  and  red  nitrous  va- 
pour escapes.  When  this  last  appear- 
ance has  ceased,  add  another  ounce  of 
white  arsenic,  dissolve  by  boiling  as  be- 
fore, and  then  add  1  i  ounce  additional  of 
rdtrous  acid,  whereby  tlie  same  ebullition 
and  escape  of  red  vapour  will  be  renew- 
ed. Distil  the  whole  to  dryness,  till  a 
white  mass  remains  in  the  retort,  which 
should  be  gradually  heated  to  redness. 
When  the  retort  is  cold,  break  it,  and 
the  dry  substance  within  is  the  concrete 
acid  of  arsenic,  which  i»  transparent  when 
hot,  but  on  cooling  becomes  white  and 
opaque.  Dissolved  in  water,  it  forms  a 
strong  acid  liquor,  leaving  behind  some 
siliceous  eai-th,  acquired  from  tlie  retort, 
\vhich  is  much  corroded  in  the  process. 
The  concrete  acid  also  deliquesces  by 
keeping  in  a  moist  place,  and  runs  into 
the  same  acid  liquor. 

In  the  above  process,  the  use  of  the 
muriatic  acid  is  to  keep  the  arsenic  dis- 
solved whilst  the  nitrous  acidifies  it.  If 
economy  of  the  distilled  nitro-muriatic 
acid  be  no  object,  the  second  addition  of 
white  arsenic  and  nitric  acid  niay  be 
spared,  and  the  whole  taken  at  once  :  tliat 
is,  3  parts  of  white  oxyd,  dissolved  in  7 
parts  of  muriatic  acid,  and  .5  parts  of  ni- 
tric acid,  added  when  the  solution  is  ef- 
fected. Towards  tlie  end,  when  the  arse- 
nic acid  is  nearly  dry,  the  expulsion  of 
the  last-adliering  portion  of  nitric  acid  is 
attended  with  a  boiling  up,  which  is  apt 
to  carry  with  it  part  of  the  acid  of  arse- 


ARS 


AUS 


nJc,  and  thus  an  error  arises  in  estiinat- 
ing  the  quantity  produced.  To  prevent 
it,  Proust  gently  shakes  the  retort  at  tliis 
period  with  a  rotatory  motion,  wliich 
much  promotes  the  easy  volatihzation  of 
the  nitrous  acid,  prevents  the  ebullition, 
and  the  metalUc  acid  thickens  immediate- 
ly. In  applying  the  red  heat  to  dry  it 
thoroughly,  it  should  be  continued  till  a 
few  cryslalUne  streaks  of  sublimed  oxyd 
of  arsenic  appear  in  the  top  of  the  retort ; 
that  is,  till  the  acid  begins  to  be  spon- 
taneously decomposed  by  heat.  It  is  then 
quite  pure.  • 

A  sijeedier  way  of  preparing  this  acid 
is  the  following :  mix  together  in  a  cru- 
cible 2  parts  of  muriatic  acid  of  1.2 
specific  gravity,  8  parts  of  white  oxyd  of 
ai'senic,  and  24  parts  of  nitric  acid  of  1.25 
specific  gravity.  Evaporate  to  dryness, 
and  expose  the  mass  to  a  slight  red  lieat. 
The  quantity  of  the  acids  recommended 
varies  considerably,  but  no  harm  can  en- 
sue from  using  an  excess  of  them,  beyond 
the  loss  of  acid ;  and  on  the  other  iiand, 
if  too  little  be  employed  for  acidifying  all 
the  arsenic,  it  is  probable  that  all  the  im- 
perfectly oxidated  portion  will  fly  off  in 
the  heat,  and  the  arsenic  acid  left  beliind 
will  be  equally  pure. 

Arsenic  acid  has  but  little  taste  till  pre- 
viously dissolved  in  water,  when  it  is  ex- 
tremely sour.  Its  specific  gravity  when 
dry  is  about  3.391. 

According  to  Proust,  and  other  con- 
firming calculations,  100  parts  of  arsenic 
in  the  metallic  state  acquire  33  of  oxygen 
when  converted  into  the  white  ox}d,  and 
20  additional  oxygen  when  completely 
acidified.  So  that  100  parts  of  the  white 
oxyd  are  composed  of  about  75  of  arsenic 
and  25  of  oxygen  ;  and  100  parts  of  tjie 
acid  contaui  65.4  of  arsenic  and  34.6  of 
oxygen. 

The  compounds  of  arsenic  w\{h  sulphur 
merit  attention,  lloth  tiie  regulus  and 
white  oxyd  unite  readily  with  sulpluu-, 
and  the  result  is  an  amorphous  mass,  of  a 
fine  yellow  or  red,  according  to  the  ]iro- 
portions,  called  in  the  former  casejcZ/ow 
arsenic,  in  the  latter  sandarac  or  realgar. 
Similar  combinations  are  also  found  na- 
tive. The  exact  ]n-o|)ortions  of  each  vary 
according  to  ciicumstances,  and  it  is  not 
precisely  determined  wiietlier  the  colour 
is  more  owing  to  these  ])roportions  or  to 
the  degree  of  oxygenation  of  the  arsenic. 
'J'hey  are  given  in)wever  in  the  best  au- 
thors to  be,  in  the  red  sulpiiurct  1  of  sul- 
phur to  4  of  arsenic,  and  in  the  yellovi  1 
to  9  or  10.  Sulphur  renders  arsenic  much 
more  lixcd  in  the  fire,  so  tliat  tlie  red  sul- 
pluuet  may  be  melted  by  moder.ite  heat 
into  a  transparent  mass,  called  arscnh-al 


ruby.  In  the  Large  way  these  sulphuretV 
are  prepared  as  pigments,  and  the  exact 
process  is  not  generally  known,  but  it  is 
said  to  be  by  subliming  in  earthen  ves- 
sels iron  pyrites  mixed  with  misj^ickel  or 
some  of  the  otlier  native  ores  of  arsenic 
and  iron.  Tlie  iron  is  certainly  of  great 
service  is  diminislilng  the  volatility  both 
of  the  arsenic  and  the  sulphur,  for  a  full 
red  heat  is  requisite  to  drive  them  off; 
and  we  find  in  tlie  way  of  experiment,  that 
a  simple  mixture  of  while  arsenic  and 
flowers  of  sulphur  subhme  too  liastily  to 
contract  a  very  close  union,  and  seldom 
produce  an  orpiment  of  a  full  uniform 
body  of  colour.     See  Colour  Making. 

For  experiment,  the  operation  may  bo 
performed  in  a  glass  matrass,  slightly 
stopped  at  the  moutli,  and  heated  only 
at  the  bottom  gradually  to  redness.  Equal 
parts  of  white  arsenic  and  sulphur  well 
mixed,  yield  in  this  manner  a  red  subli- 
mate, whicli  attaches  itself  to  the  neck 
of  the  vessel.  If  two  parts  ofarseniatof 
potash  and  one  of  sulphur,  are  slowly 
heated,  barely  red,  for  an  liour  in  a  ma- 
trass, a  very  fine  realgar  of  red  sulphurct 
sublimes,  and  the  residue  at  bottom  con- 
sists  of  a  yellow  orpiment,  mixed  witii 
liver  of  arsenic,  or  arsenic  united  with 
potash.  The  arsenic  acid  gives  also  a  fine 
realgar.  Six  parts  of  liquid  arsenic  acid 
mixed  with  one  of  sulphur,  give  no  signs 
of  mutual  action  till  the  water  is  expelled, 
when,  on  encreasing  the  heat,  tlie  whole 
rises  rapidly,  and  forms  a  fine  red  subli- 
mate of  reaig-ar.  The  dry  arsenic  acid 
and  sulphur,  in  equal  parts,  heated  for 
an  hour,  give  the  same  jiroducts. 

Quick-lime  and  orpiment  boiled  to- 
gether produce  a  sidphuretof  lime,  liold- 
ing  some  arsenic  in  solution  This  has 
long  been  known  as  infallible  to  cause 
the  liair  to  fldl  off  where  it  is  rubbed,  and 
is  also  used  as  a  ivine-test  to  detect  the 
presence  of  lead,  which  it  does  by  mak- 
ing a  black  preci])ltate.     See  Tests. 

The  great  volatility  of  arsenic,  eitJier 
reguline  or  oxidated  when  h(;ated,  ren- 
ders it  diflicult  to  unite  it  by  fusion  with 
the  metals  that  cannot  themselves  be 
melted  with  less  than  a  red  heat.  Tiiere 
are  two  or  tiiree  ways  liowever  of  manag- 
ing this  combination.  One  is  by  first 
In-ingingthe  metal  into  fusion,  then  tiirow- 
ing  in  the  crucible  the  ar.senic,  hastily 
mixing  them,  and  cooling  the  alloy 
speedily,  before  nuicli  of  the  arsenic  lias 
had  time  to  evaporate.  Some  artists  in 
this  way  unite  arsenic  and  copper,  by 
melting  the  copper,  wi-apping  uj)  the  ar- 
senic in  paper,  and  U;vusting  it  witli  hot 
pincers  to  the  bottom  of  the  melted  me- 
tal, tlu-nugh  wJiich  it  immediately  risesi 


ARS 


ASB 


and  diffuses  itself  pretty  uniformi}'.  Ano- 
ther method  is  to  mis  the  white  osyd  of 
arsenic  wiih  cliarcoal,  and  put  it  at  the 
bottom  of  a  tall  crucible,  over  this  to 
spread  a  layer  of  clay,  and  above  the 
clay  to  strew  the  filings  of  the  metal, 
witJi  which  the  arsenic  is  to  be  alloyed. 
By  heating  the  crucible,  the  arsenical 
oxyd  becomes  reduced  by  the  charcoal, 
sublimes  in  the  metaUic  state  through  the 
clay,  and  unites  with  the  heated  metal 
above,  fusing  it  down,  in  proportion  as 
the  alloy  becomes  saturated  with  arsenic. 
A  third  method,  and  the  most  conveni- 
ent, is  to  employ  the  white  oxyd  of  arse- 
nic, and  to  mix  it  witli  an  alkali  (with  or 
without  a  carbonaceous  flux)  and  heat  it 
^vith  the  metal.  Soap  is  a  very  good  ad- 
dition in  this  case,  as  it  furnishes  the  ar- 
senical oxyd  with  both  carbon  from  its 
oil,  and  with  alkali.  The  latter  keeps 
down  the  aisenic  and  renders  it  much 
more  fixed  in  the  fire,  as  has  been  before 
mentioned  in  describing  the  combination 
of  these  two  substances.  When  no  car- 
bonaceous matter  is  present,  tlie  arseni- 
cal oxyd  becomes  reduced  at  the  expence 
of  part  of  the  other  metal,  which  there- 
lore  is  found  partly  oxidated,  and  sepa- 
rates h-om  the  alloy  uniting  wltli  the  al- 
kali into  a  scoria. 

Those  of  the  arsenical  alloys  which  are 
used  in  the  arts,  such  as  White  Copper, 
tlie  Lead  alloy  for  shot,  arsenicated  Pla- 
tina,  &c.  will  be  mentioned  under  these 
metals. 

Arsenic  is  one  of  the  least  valuable  of 
the  metallic  substances.  Its  violent  ef- 
fects on  the  anhnal  bodj'  when  taken  in- 
ternall)-,  and  the  easy  solubility  of  its 
oxyds  in  almost  every  fluid,  render  it  al- 
ways suspicious,  and  often  highly  dan- 
gemus,  when  employed  in  the  arts.  Tlie 
white  oxyd  or  arsenic  of  the  shops  is  how- 
ever largely  employed  as  a  cheap  ilux 
for  glasses  of  different  kinds,  and  it  acts 
in  this  way  in  a  very  pov/erful  manner; 
but  if  too  much  is  employed,  vessels  made 
of  it  are  not  absolutely  safe  for  domestic 
piu-poses,  and  are  apt  to  become  opaque. 
The  red  and  yellow  sulphurets  afford 
good  pigments  to  the  painter. 

The  most  decisive  experiments  for  the 
detection  of  arsenic,  when  suspected  to 
be  contained  in  any  substance,  are  the 
following.  Koiled  in  water,  even  the 
white  oxyd  (the  preparation  the  most 
likely  to  occur)  makes  a  solution  of  suf- 
ficient strength  to  give  very  clear  indi- 
cations of  its  nature.  1st.  Sulphuretted 
hydrogen  passed  tlirougli  the  solution,  or 
water  saturated  with  tlie  gas,  added  to 
jt  gives  a  golden  yellow  precipitate.  2d. 
-in  extremely  small  (juantity  of  carbonat 


of  potash  added  to  the  solution,  and  thien 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  sgiphal  of  cop- 
per, gives  a  yellowish  gieeii\  precipitate. 
3d.  The  dried  substance  to  be  examined, 
or  the  solution  evaporated  to  dryness, 
mixed  with  a  little  powdered  charcoal, 
and  put  into  a  glass  tube  closed  at  the 
bottom,  hghtly  stopped  at  the  top,  and 
heated  slowly  to  redness,  will  yield  a  me- 
tallic sublimate,  which  will  give  tlie  strong 
smell  peculiar  to  arsenic,  and  will  con- 
dense on  the  sides  of  the  tube,  lining  it 
with  a  brilliant  metaUic  coating.  4th.  The 
same  strong  smell,  and  a  dense  white 
fume  will  be  given,  mereh'  by  sprinlding 
the  powder  on  hot  charcoal.  5th.  A  lit- 
tle of  the  reduced  regulus,  or  of  the  sus- 
pected powder,  mixed  icith  a  little  char- 
coal, laid  between  two  pieces  of  coppei* 
(halfpence  for  example)  scoured  quite 
bright,  bound  round  with  wire,  and  heat- 
ed red-hot  for  a  few  minutes,  will  leave 
on  each  piece  of  copper  a  bright  while 
stain,  which  cannnt  be  rubbed  oJf,  except 
by  making  a  new  surface.  All  tliese 
marks  combined,  cannot  fail  to  indicate 
the  jiresence  of  arsenic.     See  Tests. 

ARTICHOKE.     See  Horticultusf. 

ASBEST,  is  of  a  texture  more  or  les-; 
filamentous,  and  by  trituration  is  reduc- 
ible to  a  soft  somewhat  fibrous  powder- 
It  is  commonly  divided  into  four  varietie?;, 
but  we  shall  onlv  notice  one,  the  Jmuwtli, 
the  others  being-  of  very  little  im].o;tanre. 

The  fibrous  texture  of  amianthus,  i:.=i 
incombustibility,  and  the  little  alteratiou 
that  it  undergoes  even  in  a  strong  heat, 
were  early  noticed,  especially  among  the 
Eastern  nations  ;  and  methods  were  found 
out  of  drawing  the  fibres  into  thread,  and 
afterwards  weaving  it  into  cloth  This, 
when  dirtied  with  grease,  or  oth.er  in- 
flammable matter,  was  cleaned  by  tiirow- 
ing  into  a  bi-ight  fire ;  the  stains  were 
burnt  out,  and  the  cloth  was  then  remov- 
ed, but  little  altered  in  its  properties,  and 
of  a  dazzling  ^^■hite;  hence  it  obtained 
from  the  Greeks  the  name  uy^iuv'lo<;  or 
undejiled.  In  the  rich  and  luxurious  times 
of  the  Roman  empire,  this  incombustible 
cloth  was  purciiased  at  an  enormous 
price,  for  the  purpose  of  wrapping  up  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  previously  to  their  be- 
ing laid  on  the  funeral  pile.  The  prac- 
tice of  burning  tlie  dead  fiuling  into  dis- 
use, occasioned  the  manufacture  of  aini- 
antliine  clotli  to  be  neglected,  and  at 
length  entirely  tbrgottcn  in  Europe;  but 
though  it  has  ceased  to  be  an  article  of 
necessity  or  luxury,  yet  the  method  of 
its  preparation  has  occa:iicnally  attracted, 
the  notice  of  travellers  and  occupied  the 
time  of  the  curious.  Ciampini,  of  Rome, 
in  1691,  published  the  folio \\ing  as  tlic 


ASH 


ASH 


best  way  of  preparing  the  incombustible 
clotli.  Having  previously  steeped  the  ami- 
anthus in  wairm  water,  divide  its  fibres 
by  gently  rubbing  them  with  the  fingers, 
so  as  to  loosen  and  separate  all  the  cx- 
ti'ancous  matter ;  then  pour  on  repeatedly 
very  hot  water,  as  long  as  it  continues  to 
be  in  the  least  discoloured.  Nothing  will 
be  now  left  but  tlie  lon^  fibres,  which  ai-e 
to  be  carefully  dried  in  tlie  sun.  The 
bundles  of  thi-ead  arc  to  be  carded  with 
very  fine  cards,  and  the  long  filaments 
thus  obtained  are  to  be  steeped  in  oil,  to 
render  them  more  flexible.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  cotton  or  wool  is  to  be  mixed,  and 
by  means  of  a  thin  spindle  the  whole  is 
to  be  drawn  out  into  thread,  taking  care 
tliat  in  every  part  tlie  amianthus  may  be 
the  principal  material.  The  cloth  being 
then  woven  in  the  usual  manner,  is  to  be 
placed  in  a  clear  charcoal  fire  to  burn  off 
the  cotton  and  oil,  wiicn  the  whole  re- 
maining tissue  wiM  be  pure  wlnte  amian- 
thus. The  shorter  fibres  that  are  inca- 
pable of  being  woven,  have  been  some- 
times made  into  paper,  the  process  for 
which  is  the  same  as  that  employed  for 
common  paper,  except  that  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  paste  or  size  is  required:  aftei 
having  been  matle  red  hot,  however,  this 
paper  becomes  bibulous  and  brittle.  Ami- 
anthus threads  are  also  sometimes  used 
as  perpetual  wicks  for  lamps  ;  they  re- 
quire, however,  to  be  cleaned  occasion- 
ally from  the  soot  that  collects  about 
them,  and  tlie  fibi-es  in  the  hottest  part  of 
the  flame  are  apt  to  run  together,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  due  su]iply  of  oil.  In  Cor- 
sica, amianthus  is  advantageously  em- 
ployed in  tlie  manufacture  of  pottery : 
being  reduced  to  fine  filaments,  it  is 
kneaded  up  with  the  clay,  and  the  ves- 
sels which  arc  made  of  this  mixture  are 
lighter,  less  brittle,  and  more  ca^mble  of 
bearing  sudden  alterations  of  heat  and 
cold  tlian  common  pottery. 

ASMES,  generally  speaking,  are  the 
remains  of  bodies  reduced  by  fire.  These 
are  vegetable,  animal,  and  mineral  ashes  ; 
but  the  first  only  arc  strictly  entitled  to 
that  appellation.  We  understand,  tliat 
the  French  have  recently  contrived  a  pro 
cess  of  converting  the  ashes,  or  residuum 
of  animal  substances,  decomposed  by 
burning  thcni,  into  glass,  similar  to  that 
which  is  ])roduced  in  the  manufactui-c  of 
this  article,  when  siliceous  earth  and 
wood-ashes  are  the  principal  ingredients. 
This  curious  conversion  of  luuium  l)odies 
into  a  transparent  and  most  beatitii'ul  me- 
tal, is  an  ingenious  imitation  of  t'.ie  ])rac- 
tice  frequently  adopted  among  the  an- 
i' nts,  with  a  view  to  preserve  the  sacred 
.  maiiis  of  their  revered  ancfestors,  or  of 


persons  of  great  worth  and  merit.  But, 
whether  such  expedients,  if  they  ever 
should  become  general,  be  compatible 
with  the  refined  feelings  of  relations  and 
friends  in  other  countries,  we  submit  to 
the  determination  of  our  sentimental  rea- 
ders. If  we  may  be  allowed  to  express 
our  opinion  on  so  delicate  a  subject,  the 
scheme  may  be  a  very  econumical  one,  for 
saving  theexpences  of  an  ostentatious  i'u- 
neral ;  and,  as  such  we  have  mentioned 
it  in  this  work  :  but  we  doubt  whether 
there  may  be  found  many  individuals  in 
this  country,  except  those  few  among  the 
emigres,  who  incline,  or  deseive,  to  re- 
ceive the  honours  of  conibustion. 

Mineral  bodies,  when  reduced  by  fire, 
are  properly  called  Calxes,  of  which  we 
■shall  treiit  under  that  distinct  head. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  tvood-ashes 
prepared  from  dilTerent  vegetables.  We 
have  already  described  the  properties  of 
Alkalies,  and  shall  at  present  observe, 
that  vegetable  ashes  contain  a  g-reat  quan- 
tity o\i  fixed  salt,  blended  with  earthy  par- 
ticles ;  and  that  from  these  ashes  are  ex- 
tracted the  fixed  alkaline  salts,  called 
Pot-ash,  Pearl-ash,  Barilla,  &c.  of  tlie 
preparation,  and  properties  of  which,  we 
propose  to  treat  under  their  respective 
heads.  Confining,  therefore,  our  account 
to  ashes,  in  their  unchanged  and  ci'ude 
state,  we  shall  give  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  the  different  useful  puiposes  to 
which  they  are  subservient,  in  domestic 
and  rural  economy. 

Ui'.  i'rantis  Home,  of  Edinburgh,  who 
may  be  considered  as  the  earliest  bene- 
factor of  tlie  Scottish  cotton  manufacto- 
ries, justly  observed,  in  an  ingenious  trea- 
tise, entitled  Experiments  in  Jileuching, 
that  the  proper  application  of  alkaline 
leys,  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
critical  articles  in  the  whole  process  of 
that  art.     See  Bleaching. 

In  rural  economy,  ashes  have,  since  the 
days  of  Virgil,  been  considered  as  one  of 
the  best,  and  easiest  means  of  fertilizing- 
land  ;  yet  many  objections  have  been  start- 
ed, by  modern  writers,  against  their  use  ; 
probably  because  they  were  indiscrimi- 
nately employed  for  all  kinds  of  soil,  whe- 
ther moist  or  dry,  cold  or  wai'm,  loose  or 
clayey.  Hence  we  need  not  be  surprised 
that  agriculturists  have  differed  in  opi- 
nion on  this  subject.  Without  detaining 
tiie  reader  with  s]iecvdations  concerning 
the  manner  in  which  ashes  act  on  tlic; 
soil,  in  promoting  its  fertility,  we  shall 
briefly  observe,  on  the  authority  of  the 
best  writers,  su])ported  by  experience  : 

1.  That  vegetable  ashes,  in  general, 
arc  most  effectual  for  manuring  moist, 
cold,  boggy,  marshy,  or  uncultivated  soi'j. 


ASH 


ASH 


2.  That  ashes  ai-e  no  less  fit  for  manure, 
after  the  salt  is  extracted  from  them,  than 
before  ;  and,  if  there  be  any  difference,  it 
is  in  favour  of  the  washed  ashes. 

An  anonymous  correspondent  in  the 
Gentl.  Mag  for  June,  1766,  appears  to 
liave  derived  the  first  hint  respecting  the 
advantages  of  peat -ashes  in  dressing  land, 
and  a  method  of  preparing  coal-ashes  for 
the  same  purpose,  from  the  Dictitmnaire 
£conomique,  or  the  Family  Dictionary, 
-^  translated  from  the  Frernrh  by  the  late 
Prof  Bradley,  of  Cambridge,  and  pub- 
lished ill  1725.  Ii>  tliis  curious  uork, 
wliicli  equally  abounds  with  excellent  and 
frivolous  remarks,  we  find  the  following 
passage  :  "  Turf  and  jjeat  ashes  are  very 
rich ;  producing,  when  spread  upon  land, 
an  effect  similar  to  that  of  burning  the 
soil."  Perhaps  it  is  in  consequence  of  this 
suggestion,  that  we  find  in  tJve  Magazine 
before  alluded  to,  an  account  of  too  in- 
teresting a  nature  to  withhold  it  from  oiu" 
readers. 

Peat-aslies,  properly  burnt,  afford  an 
excellent  manure  for  both  com  and  grass- 
land ;  but  the  most  valuable  are  those  ob- 
tained from  the  lowest  stratum  of  the 
peat,  where  the  fibres  and  roots  of  the 
earth  are  most  decayed.  This  will  yield 
a  large  quantity  of  very  strong  ashes,  of 
a  colour,  when  recently  burnt,  resem- 
bling Vermillion,  and  of  a  very  saline  and 
pungent  taste.  Great  care  and  caution 
should  be  used  in  burning  these  ashes, 
and  likewise  in  preserving  them  for  fu- 
ture use.  The  method  of  burning  them 
is  similar  to  that  of  making  chai-coal. 
After  tlie  peat  is  collected  into  a  large 
heap,  and  covered,  so  as  not  to  flrane 
out,  it  must  be  suffered  to  consume  slow- 
1}',  till  the  whole  substance  is  reduced 
to  ashes.  Thus  burnt,  they  are  found 
excellent  in  sweetening  sour  meadow- 
land,  destroying  rushes,  and  other  bad 
kinds  of  weeds,  and  producing  in  their 
place  great  quantities  of  excellent  grass. 
In  some  parts  of  Berkshire  and  Lanca- 
shire, they  ai'e  considered  one  of  the  best 
dressings  for  spring  crops. 

A  very  great  improvement  may  like- 
v.ise  be  made,  and  at  a  moderate  expense, 
>vitli  coal-ashes,  wliich,  wlien  properly 
preserved;  are  a  most  useful  article  for 
manure.  By  putting  one  bushel  of  Ume, 
in  its  hottest  state,  i\ito  every  cai-t-load  of 
tliese  ashes,  covering  it  up  in  tlie  middle 
of  the  heap  for  about  twelve  hours,  till 
the  lime  be  entirely  fallen ;  then  incorpo- 
rating them  well  togetlier,  and  by  turn- 
ing the  whole  over,  two  or  three  times, 
the  cinders  or  half  burnt  parts  of  the 
coals,  which  instead  of  being  useful,  are 
noxious  to  the  ground,  will  1^  reduced  to 


as  fine  a  powder  as  the  lime  itself  For 
tliis  piu-pose,  however,  the  coal-ashts 
should  be  carefidly  kept  di-y  :  and,  thus 
prepared,  they  are  tlie  quickest  breakers 
and  improvers  of  moorish  and  benty  land. 

Professor  Bradley,  in  his  dictionary  be- 
fore mentioned,  farther  observes,  that 
sonp-ashea  are  highly  commended  by  Mr. 
Pratt,  as  being,  after  the  soap-boiler  has 
exti-acted  them,  eminently  fructifying, 
and  that  tlie  ashes  of  any  kind  of  vege- 
tables are  profitable  for  enriching  barren, 
grounds,  as  they  promote  tlie  decompo- 
sition of  moss  and  rushes,  in  a  very  great 
degree.  The  best  season  for  laying  them, 
either  for  corn,  pasture,  or  meadow,  is 
said  to  be  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  ui 
order  that  they  may  the  more  easily  be 
dissolved  by  showers  of  rain 

Having  given  this  view  of  the  subject, 
from  the  collective  experience  of  British 
writers,  we  shall  also  communicate  a  few 
practical  facts,  derived  from  authentic 
German  authors. 

According  to  theli-  experience,  pot-ath 
is  most  useftdly  employed  for  correcting 
a  sandy  and  loamy  soil ;  the  ashes  obtain- 
ed from  the  hardest  woods,  being  the 
most  beneficial,  and  among  these,  the 
beech  and  oak  are  generally  preferred. 
A  small  addition  of  quicklime  to  the  pot- 
ash, tends  considerably  to  increase  its 
fertilizing  iwoperty. 

Tiie  refuse  of  soap-boilers  ashes,  is 
likewise  used  in  Germany,  with  the  best 
effect,  when  sprinkled,  soon  after  sow- 
ing, either  in  spring  or  in  autumn,  as 
closely  as  possible,  oyer  fields  of  wheat, 
rje,  spelt,  lentils,  pease,  beans,  barley, 
lint-seed,  hemp,  millet,  and  similar  grain. 
An  acre  of  wheat,  or  baiiey,  requires 
however  a  much  greater  proportion  of 
these  ashes,  than  one  sown  with  rye,  or 
corn  of  an  inferior  quality.  They  are 
farther  emplojed  with  great  advantage, 
by  scattering  them  on  meadows  in  the 
eai-ly  pai't  of  spring.  Leached  ashes  are 
much  used  in  some  parts  of  the  United 
States  as  a  manure.  Great  quantities  are 
annually  taken  from  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia to  Long  Island,  for  the  purpose. 
They  cost  here  40  cents  per  one  horse 
cart4oad,  and  commonly  bring  one  dollar 
50  cents,  when  delivered.  From  a  paper 
in  the  first  volume  of  the  JVew  Yori  ^gric. 
Soc.  Trans,  by  M.  E.  D'Hommedieu,  it 
apjiears,  that  ashes  are  found  to  succeed 
best  on  dry  loamy  lands,  or  loam  mixed 
with  sand.  It  is  considered  as  the  clieap- 
est  manure  that  can  be  procured.  Ten 
loads  of  this  manure,  on  poor  land,  will 
produce  ordinaril}-  twenty -five  bushels  of 
wlieat,  which  exceeds,  by  five  dollars, 
the  expence  of  the  manure,  and  the  fi\  s 


ASS 


ASS 


raising  tlic  crop.  The  land  is  Uien  left  in 
a  "State  i'ov  yielding'  a  crop  of  luiy  of  be- 
tween two  and  onc-lialf  tons  per  acre, 
wliicli  it  will  continue  to  do  for  a  },''rcat 
number  of  years.  No  manure  continues 
so  long  in  tiic  ground  as  ashes.  See 
Agriculture. 

ASSAY  or  Essay.  The  term  assay, 
in  cliemistry,  in  a  general  sense,  implies 
tlie  analysis  or  cx.imination  of  a  sample 
of  any  substance,  whose  chemical  com- 
position is  to  be  ascertained ;  but  this 
term  is  also  teclmically  restricted  to  the 
analysis  of  gold  and  silver  mixtures,  with 
the  express  and  sole  pvn-pose  of  determin- 
ing the  proj)orti()n  of  noble  metal  to  that 
with  which  it  is  alloyed,  in  any  individual 
mass.  It  is  only  in  tliis  sense  that  we  here 
understand  it,  and  on  accomit  of  the  vast 
♦{uantity  of  coin,  plate,  and  plate  orna- 
ments which  are  constantly  fabricated,  the 
business  of  the  assayerbcconiesof  extretne 
importance  ;  for  few  opcravions  in  chemis- 
try require  so  nice  and  minute  attention, 
and  such  practical  experience  as  one, 
which,  from  the  sample  of  a  few  grahis, 
is  to  decide  the  standard  of  very  large 
masses  of  the  most  valuable  metals. 

Gold  and  silver  assaying  is,  however,  in 
principle  extremely  simple,  the  whole  be- 
ing included  in  two  operations,  name!} , 
the  separation  of  the  alloy  from  the  noble 
metals,  and  the  parting  of  these  latter 
(gold  and  silver)  ii'om  each  other.  These 
processes  must  be  considered  separately. 

Of  all  the  metals  hitiicrto  known,  three 
r'ione,  gold,  silver, and  platina,  are  incapa- 
ble of  oxidation  by  simple  exposure  to 
ail',  either  w  hen  solid  or  in  a  state  of  fusion, 
and  honce  they  ac([uired  the  antient  name 
ui' perfffct  01- noli/e  mcXiih.  All  the  other 
•metallic  bodies  tarnish  and  oxidate,  when 
in  fusion  in  open  vessels,  with  more  or 
less  facility,  and  by  constantly  renioving 
the  oxidated  surface  irom  tiie  nicked 
metal,  the  whole  may  be  successively  con- 
verted to  an  ox}d.  ilcre,  therefore,  is  a 
method  of  separating  the  imperfect  from 
tiie  pv:rfect  metals,  when  the  tv.-o  species 
are  mixed  ;  namely,  to  melt  the  mixture 
and  keep  it  in  fusion  with  access  of  air, 
when  the  alii))i,  or  imi)eriect  metal  will 
scjiarate  at  the  suif.ice  in  oxidated  scales, 
and  the  noble  metal  nmiain  unaltered. 
This  separation,  however,  is  not  in  all 
cases  ecpially  exact,  iin-  when  gold  or 
silver  is  allc)ycd  with  a  metal  not  very 
fiisily  oxidable,  though  imiKTfect,  such 
as  copper,  and  when  the  j3rop(»riion  of 
the  alloy  to  the  noble  metal  is  but  small, 
the  ailinity  of  the  latter  to  t!ie  former 
encrcases  so  mtich  as  to  protect  it  from 
any  further  action  of  the  air,  however  long 
the  fusion  is  kept  up.    Thus  a  mass  of 


eleven  parts  of  silver  to  one  of  copper, 
oxidates  but  lightly  by  a  long  continued 
melting  heat,  nor  could  the  whole  of  the 
copper  be  extracted  fiom  the  mixture  by 
heat  alone.  Another  difficulty  in  the  way 
of  this  separation  is  the  very  diilicult  fusi- 
bility of  the  o.x}  d  of  copper  (for  all  metallic 
oxyds  by  heat  melt  into  a  species  of  colour- 
ed glass),  so  that  in  a  heat  much  above 
that  at  which  the  mixture  remains  in 
fusion,  the  crust  of  oxyd  clings  unmeltcd 
to  the  surface  of  the  fluid  metal,  and  un- 
less sedulously  removed,  it  there  remains 
and  prevents  the  fuither  action  of  the 
on  the  alloy,  by  which  alone  ali  the  imperi 
feet  nietalcan  be  thrown  off  from  the  mass. 

But  chemists  have  found  that  the  sepa- 
ration of  many  of  the  imperfect  metals  is 
nmch  promoted  by  adding  to  the  mix- 
ture a  quantity  of  a  metal,  itself  highly 
oxidable,  and  its  oxyd  easilj-  fusible,  which 
unites  with  the  original  alloy  of  the  mix- 
ture, enereases  its  oxidy.bility,  carries  it 
off  dissolved  in  the  vitrified  oxyd,  and 
thus  compleatly  extracts  from  the  mass 
all  the  impefrect  metal  or  alloy,  leavuig 
the  noble  metal  or  metals  puie. 

A  few  of  the  more  fusible  white  metals 
have  been  tried  for  this  purpose,  particu- 
larly lead  and  bismuth  ;  but  lead  is  found 
to  answer  the  end  better  than  any  other, 
and  is  the  only  substance  actually  used. 
Hence  litharge,  the  oxyd  of  lead,  was 
termed  by  the  antient  chemists,  not  un- 
aptly, the  bath,  of  the  noble  metals,  scour- 
ing or  cleansivg,  them,  as  it  were,  from  all 
their  alloys  of  base  metal,  and  leaving 
them  quite  bright  and  pure. 

'I'his  process  of  oxidiz-ing  the  alloy  by 
lead  is  employed  in  the  large  way  in  the 
irfinhig  of  gold  and  silver ;  in  small  sam- 
ples, with  the  ])eculiar  jjrecautions  to  be 
presently  mentioned,  it  forms  the  process 
vi'  cu/jellation,  which,  therefore  is  tiie  first 
and  most  important  part  of  the  assayers 
business. 

The  secoiul  process  is  the  sep.aration  of 
the  gold  from  the  silver,  where  both 
metals  are  present,  for  bebig-  ecjually  per- 
fect, or  unoxidable  by  mere  fusion,  they 
are  left  uniformly  mixed  by  melting-,  after 
the  alloy  has  been  separated  In  cupella- 
tion.  'i'he  nicthoil  of  sei)arating  gold  from 
silver  is  by  tlu;  nitric  acid,  which,  if  iiro- 
perly  managed,  may  he  made  to  dissolve 
all  tiie  silver  and  leavt-  all  the  gold.  This 
pi-ocess  is  called  y-'<;r///(^,  and  is  the  second 
great  oj)eration  of  the  assayer.  I'lalina 
may  in  general  be  put  out  of  the  question, 
and  it  seldom  is  contaiiK.-d  in  any  gold  or 
silver  alloy  actually  used,  but  when  pj-e- 
sent  it  occasions  some  peculiar  appear- 
ances, which  will  be  afterwards  noticed.  ^^ 
dollars  pays  for  the  expcnce  of  labour  ia 


ASS 


ASS 


Cupellation.  This  process  is  performed 
in  a  furnace  contrived  for  the  purpose,  and 
capable  of  giving  a  heat  at  least  sufficient 
for  the  easy  fusion  of  gold.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  this  furnace  is  placed  an  earthen 
pot  called  a  rmtffie,  of  an  oven  form,  vaul- 
ted at  top,  with  a  level  floor  at  bottom 
entirely  open  at  one  end,  and  closed  every 
wheie  else,  except  a  few  narrow  openings 
througli  the  sides.  The  open  end  comes 
in  contact  witli  a  door  at  the  side  of  tlie 
furnace,  and  is  generally  luted  thereto, 
so  as  entirely  to  separate  it  from  the  burn- 
ing fuel.  The  body  of  the  muffle  is  sur- 
rounded with  the  coals,  and  before  cupella- 
tion is  gradually  heated  to  a  glowing  red- 
ness Its  use  is  to  protect  the  small  cruci- 
bles or  cupels,  ranged  on  its  floor,  from 
any  accidental  impurity  which  tlie  fuel 
might  furnish,  and  at  "the  same  time  to 
afford  the  melted  metal  a  free  access  of 
heated  air  to  promote  the  oxidation.  The 
cupels  ai-e  sohd  pieces  of  eartli,  cubical 
or  circular,  with  a  shallow  depression  at 
the  top  to  contain  the  metal,  and  small  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  muffle,  so 
that  the  floor  of  this  latter  will  hold  se^  eral 
of  them  side  by  side.  They  are  made 
solid,  but  at  the  same  time  so  porous  as 
freely  to  absorb  the  lead,  in  proportion  as 
it  oxidates  and  vitrifies,  whilst  the  globule 
of  metal  that  remains  in  the  reguhne  state 
rests  on  the  surface-  Cupels  may  be  made 
of  any  infusible  eai'th  of  little  cohesion, 
such  as  the  ashes  left  after  the  lixiviation 
of  the  residue  of  burnt  wood,  which  ai'e 
much  employed  in  refining,  or  cupellation 
in  the  great  way,  but  for  assaying  they 
are  made  entirely  of  bone-ash  (phosphat 
of  lime)  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  mois- 
tened with  water,  so  as  to  take  the  im- 
pression of  a  mould,  and  afterwards 
thoroughly  dried  The  cores  of  ox-horns 
are  preferred  at  the  Tower  Assay-Office. 

The  fire  being  kindled,  the  muffle  and 
empty  cupels  are  first  heated  gradually, 
till  the  whole  are  of  a  glowing  red,  a  little 
powdered  chalk  or  sand  being  first  sprink- 
led on  the  floor  of  the  muffle,  to  prevent 
the  adhesion  of  the  cupels  by  the  litiiarge 
soaking  through  them.  They  are  thenj 
ready  to  receive  the  metal  to  be  cupelled  i 
It  should  be  observed  that  tlie  cupels  of: 
bone-ash  cannot  absorb  more  than  theb- ; 
own  weight  of  litharge  at  the  utmost,  and . 
hence  the  quantity  of  fine  metal  to  be ' 
assayed  shoidd  not  require  more  lead  than  i 
the  weight  of  the  cupel.  The  pro^iortion  1 
of  lead  to  the  fine  metal  is  determined  by  I 
the  estimated  purity  of  the  latter,  as  will ; 
presently  be  mentioned  \ 

Experience  has   shewn    the    extreme , 
difficulty   of   conducting    cupellation    at . 
times  with  perfect  accuracy,  eveti  to  per-  j 
VOB.    I. 


sons  habitually  employed  in  this  delicate 
operation,  and  many  valuable  series  of  ex- 
periments on  this  subject  have  been  un. 
deilaken  by  able  assayers,  among  which 
we  may  particularly  rnention  those  of  M. 
Tillet,  and  his  associates,  nominated  by 
the  French  government,  and  published  in 
the  memoirs  of  the  academy  in  the  vears 
1763—9—75—6—8—80—8. 

Assay  of  Silver. — For  the  assay  of  sil- 
ver, in  tliis  country,  a  clean  piece  of  the 
metal  is  first  taken,  not  more  than  36 
grains,  and  less  if  the  alloy  appears  to  be 
considerable,  is  laminated,  and  weighed 
with  extreme  accuracy  in  a  very  sensible 
balance.  It  is  then  wrapped  up  in  the 
requisite  quantity  of  lead,  i  evi\  ed  from 
litharge,  and  for  convenience  roiled  out 
into  a  sheet ;  or  else  the  silver  and  lead 
may  be  together  closed  in  paper.  The 
purity  of  the  lead  is  of  importance,  as  all 
lead  only  once  reduced  fi  om  its  ore  con- 
tains some  silver,  the  quantity  of  which 
might  make  some  notable  error  in  the  de- 
licate operations  of  the  assayer.  But 
when  revived  from  litharge  lead  retains 
no  more  than  about  haH"  a  grain  of  silver 
to  the  pound,  which  may  be  entirely  neg- 
lected. 

When  the  muffle  and  cupel  are  fully 
red  hot,  the  silver  and  lead  are  then  put 
in  the  cupel  with  a  pair  of  pmcers,  when 
they  immediately  melt ;  ancl  when  red  the 
following  appearances  take  place.  The 
melted  metal  begms  to  send  t)ff"  dense 
fumes,  and  a  minute  sti-eam  of  red  fused 
matter  is  seen  perpetually  flowing  from 
the  top  of  the  globule  down  its  sides  to 
the  surface  of  the  cupel,  through  which  it 
sinks  in  and  is  lost  to  view  This  fume 
and  the  stream  of  melted  matter  consist  of 
the  lead  oxidated  by  the  heat  and  air,  in 
one  case  volatilized  in  the  o'her  vitrified, 
and  in  sinking  through  the  cupel  it  carries 
down  with  it  the  copper  or  other  alloy  of 
the  silver,  hi  proportion  to  the  violence  of 
tlie  heat  is  the  density  of  the  fume,  the 
violence  with  which  it  is  given  oft,  the 
convexity  of  the  surface  of  the  globule  of 
melted  metal,  and  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  vitrified  oxyd  circulates  (as  it  is  term- 
ed) or  falls  downi  the  sides  of  the  metal. 
As  the  cupellation  advances,  the  meked 
button  becomes  roundel-,  its  surface  be- 
comes streaky  wiih  large  bright  poinis  of 
the  fused  oxyd,  which  move  with  increased 
rapidity,  tiU  at  last  the  globule  being  now 
freed  from  all  the  lead  and  other  idloy, 
suddenly  lightens ;  the  last  portions  of 
litharge  on  the  surface  disappear  with 
great  rapidity,  shewing  the  melted  metal 
bright  with  iridescent  colours,  which  di- 
rectly after  becomes  opake,  and  suddenly 
appears  brilliant,  clean,  and  white,  as  if  a 


ASS 


ASS 


curtain  had  been  witlulrawn  from  it.  The 
opeia.ion  being  now  fimslicd,  and  the  sil- 
ver left  pnrc,  the  cupel  is  allowed  to  cool 
giaduuily,  till  the  globule  ol"  silver  is  fixed, 
after  wliich  it  is  taken  out  of  the  cupel 
while  still  hot,  and  when  cold  weighed 
w.th  as  much  accuracy  as  at  first,  i'he 
difterence  between  the  globule  and  the 
silver  at  first  put  in,  shews  the  quantity 
of  allo\,  the  globule  beini'  now  perfectly 
pure  silvei-,  if  the  operation  has  been  well 
l>erf()nned.  The  reason  of  cooling  the 
globule  or  button  gradually  is,  that  pure 
silver,  when  congealing,  assumes  a  crys- 
talline texture,  and  if  the  outer  surface  is 
too  suddenly  fixed,  it  forcibly  contracts  on 
the  still  fluid  part  in  the  center,  causing 
it  to  spurt  out  in  arborescent  shoots,  by 
which  some  minute  portions  are  often 
thi'own  out  of  the  cupel  and  the  assa\ 
spoilt. 

In  the  delicate  assays  for  the  Mint,  in 
the  Tower  of  London,  two  assays  arc 
alvva}  s  made  of  the  same  mass  of  metal, 
and  no  sensible  difference  between  the 
weigiit  of  the  two  buttoris  is  allowed  to 
pass,  ascertained  in  scales  wliich  turn  with 
I'io'o  "^'^  gr-Ain  troy.  If  they  differ  tlie 
ass;iy  is  repeated. 

Tiie  process  is  considered  as  well  per- 
formed wlien  the  button  of  silver  adheres 
but  slightly  to  the  cupel ;  when  its  shape 
is  very  considerably  globular  above  and 
below,  not  flattened  at  the  margin  ;  when 
it  is  quite  clean  and  brilliant,  shewing  the 
beautiful  white  of  pure  s-lver,  and  not  in 
any  <legree  fouled  or  sjiotted  with  any 
remaining  litharge  ;  and  especially  when 
the  surface  of  the  metal  is  disposed  in 
sc.iles  or  laminx,  the  effect  of  a  strong 
bul  hasty  crystallization,  which  gives  it 
a  play  of  light  and  a  striated  lustre  very 
ditlerent  from  that  of  a  perfectly  even 
surface  of  a  white  metal,  however  pure- 
Examined  by  a  microscope,  this  sti-iated 
surface  is  still  more  striking;  the  scales 
appear  to  ad'ect  the  form  of  an  irregular 
pentagon,  slightly  depressed  at  the  cen- 
tre, and  the  surface  is  decidedly  uneven. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  any  alloy  is  left 
in  the  silver,  the  surface,  though  it  may 
be  (piile  brilliant,  appears  under  the 
microscope  as  smooth  as  if  varnished,  and 
scarcely  at  all  scaly  in  texture. 

In  common  assays  of  plate,  either  gold 
or  silver,  copper  is  the  alloy  usually  met 
with  ;  if  the  fine  metal  be  nearly  pure,  ihe 
cupel  round  the  bottom  is  only  stained  yel- 
low by  tlie  litharge  ;  if  copper  is  contain- 
ed, it  leaves  a  brown  grey  slain  ;  tlie  other 
metals,  except  bismuth,  scarcely  j)ene- 
trate  the  substance  of  the  cupel,  but 
r^Tiiain  on  the  edges  of  its  cavity  in 
the  form  of  coloured  scoriae,  of  which 


iron  is  black,  tin  grey,  and  zinc  a  dull  yel- 
low. 

The  management  of  the  fire  is  a  point 
of  great  consequence  in  cupellatiovi,  and 
several  important  cautions  are  given  by 
the  most  experienced  assayers  M  lien 
silver  is  kept  in  fusion  in  a  very  high  luat, 
a  portion  of  it  is  volaulized,  so  that  if  a 
cupel  is  inverted  over  another  coniahiing 
the  silver  thus  intensely  heated,  the  u])per 
one  will  after  a  while  be  found  studded 
over  with  minute  globules  of  silver,  very- 
visible  through  a  common  lens.  M.  Tillet 
found  that  a  button  of  pure  silver,  kept 
in  a  very  liigh  heat  for  two  hours  in  a 
cupel,  lost  no  less  than  -^^  of  its  m  eight, 
and  hence  tlie  en-or  which  this  may  jiro- 
duce  in  assaying  is  considerable,  and 
makes  a  return  of  a  metal  of  less  purity 
ihan  IS  really  the  case.  The  heat  is  known 
to  be  too  great  when  the  cupel  can  scarcely 
be  distinguished  from  the  muffle,  when  the 
fume  given  oft'  from  the  metal  can  hai'dly 
be  seen  for  the  dazzling  heat,  and  mounts 
up  to  the  dome  of  the  muffle  with  great 
rapidity  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
fire  IS  too  slack,  the  litharge  is  not  ab- 
sorbed by  the  cupel,  but  lies  on  the  sur- 
face as  a  red  scoria,  tlie  ciiculation  is 
sluggish,  the  button  flat,  and  the  fume 
very  small-  Towards  the  end  of  the 
operation,  the  heat  should  be  gi'adually 
increased,  for  m  proportion  as  the  lead  is 
abstracted  from  the  alloy,  it  becomes  less 
easy  of  fusion,  and  at  last  a  heat  fully 
equal  to  the  melting  of  pure  silver  is 
required. 

As  cupellation  requires  a  free  access  of 
air,  as  well  as  high  heat  to  oxidate  the 
metal,  the  stopper  of  the  furnace  imme- 
diately opposite  the  mouth  of  the  muffle 
is  altogetlier  removed  as  soon  as  the  metal 
is  put  into  the  hot  cupel,  to  allow  a  current 
of  external  air  to  draw  in  and  circulate 
thi-ough  the  muffle  :  but  to  prevent  this 
from  cooling  the  muffle  too  much,  a  small 
iron  jilatform  is  made  to  jiroject  from  this 
orifice,  on  which  several  long  cylinders  of 
charcoal  are  heaped  up,  wliich  kindling 
on  the  edge  of  the  red-hot  muffle,  burn 
with  sufficient  force  to  heat  the  external 
air  in  its  passage  to  the  cupels.  The 
rapidity  of  oxidation  is  in  a  great  measure 
regulated  by  the  degree  in  which  the 
mouth  of  tlie  muffle  is  blocked  up  by  these 
pieces  of  charcoal,  being  the  greatest 
when  the  charcoal  is  no  more  than  suf- 
ficient  to  keep  up  a  due  heat  within, 
and  allow  the  air  to  pass  over  it  fi-eely. 
The  fuel  of  the  furnace,  M'hich  heats  all 
the  rest  of  tlie  muffle,  is  totally  uncon- 
nected with  the  charcoal  at  the  orifice. 
The  surface  should  be  made  so  that  the 
heat  of  the  fuel  within  may  be  readily'en- 


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creased  or  diminished,  but  at  the  same 
time  should  be  able  to  be  kept  up  with 
steadiness  and  regularity. 

The  speediest  method  of  encreasing  or 
diminishing'  the  heat  of  the  assay,  when 
the  :»uffle  is  not  too  much  crouded  with 
cupels,  is  to  push  the  cupel  towards  the 
further  end  of  the  muffle,  to  where  the 
heat  is  the  most  intense,  being  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fire ;  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  lessen  the  heat,  to  draw  the  cupel 
nearer  the  opening  of  the  muffle,  and  re- 
move a  piece  or  two  of  the  charcoal  from 
the  mouth. 

The  time  taken  to  perform  one  silver 
assay  from  putting  the  metal  into  the  hot 
cupel  to  the  lightening  or  purity  of  the 
button,  is  in  general  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  minutes,  but  the  precise  time 
seems  to  be  of  little  consequence,  the 
button  being  equally  pure  after  a  rapid 
as  a  slow  cupellation.  The  danger  of 
error  from  too  great  heat  in  volatilizing 
part  of  the  silver,  has  been  already  men- 
tioned, but  at  all  timed  as  much  external 
air  may  be  admitted  uito  the  muffle  as 
possible,  consistent  with  keeping  up  a  due 
heat. 

The  proportioning  the  lead  to  the  esti- 
raated  quantity  of  alloy  in  the  silver  to  be 
essaj  ed,  is  a  subject  of  more  importance 
than  might  at  first  be  expected.  An  assay 
is  known  to  have  had  too  little  lead  when 
the  button  is  very  flat,  rough  at  the  edges, 
dull  in  colour,  with  blackish  spots,  strong- 
ly adherent  to  the  cupel,  and  foul  with 
scoriae  on  and  about  tlie  button  But  at 
first  view  it  would  seem  to  be  immaterial 
how  inuch  lead  is  added,  so  tliat  it  be 
sufficient  to  separate  all  the  alloy,  as  the 
whole  lead,  whether  more  or  less,  will 
equally  be  oxidated  by  the  cupellation 
sooner  or  later.  This  is  shewn  by  the 
cupellation  of  lead  ptr  se,  when  d(  ne  to 
ascertain  its  natural  quantity  of  silver,  the 
whole  readily  scorifjing  in  the  process, 
and  leaving  only  a  minute  globule  of  the 
noble  metal.  But  die  loss  in  assaying  by 
using  an  excess  of  lead,  is  more  than  the 
mere  waste  of  time  and  fuel,  and  for  the 
following  reason ;  M.  Tillet  found  by  ex- 
periment that  when  perfectly  pure  silver 
was  cupelled  with  lead,  whose  natural  re- 
tent  of  silver  was  known,  the  button  of 
silver  remaining  after  the  process  was 
never  precisely  of  the  same  weight  as 
before,  but  always  a  certain  proportion 
less,  even  when  the  heat  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  drive  off  any  of  the  silver.  This 
indicated  that  a  part  must  have  been  car- 
ried down  by  the  lead  into  the  cupel,  and 
it  was  proved  by  afterwards  reducing  the 
oxyd  of  lead  out  of  the  cupel,  and  cupel- 
ling this  lead  by  itself,  when  the  quantity 


of  silver  left  was  found  to  be  ten  flhies  as 
great  as  the  natural  proportion  of  this 
metal,  and  almost  exactly  to  correspond 
to  the  loss  of  silver  in  the  first  instance. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  assayers  report 
of  the  title  or  purity  of  any  sample  of  sil- 
ver (unless  corrected)  always  makes  the 
metal  a  little  less  pure  than  in  reality,  the 
loss  of  weight  in  the  button  being  entirely 
put  to  the  account  of  alloy.  When  no 
more  lead  is  used  than  necessary  for  the 
perfect  separation  of  the  alloy,  M.  Tillet 
reckons  that  it  canies  down  into  the  cupel 
as  much  silver  as,  when  the  whole  is 
again  reduced,  would  make  the  noble 
metal  -^^-^  of  the  mass,  when  the  natural 
admixture  ot  silver  is  only  about  y-fVa* 
But  if  an  excess  of  lead  is  employed  for 
cupellation,  this  loss  of  silver  is  some- 
what greater,  though  it  does  not  en- 
crease  in  tlie  ratio  of  the  excess  of  the 
lead,  for  ten  pai'ts  of  lead  to  a  given  alloy 
will  not  carry  down  twice  as  much  silver 
as  five  parts,  tliough  the  difference  of  loss 
will  be  very  sensible. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  as  the  Uthai-ge 
of  the  first  assay  has  been  able  to  cany 
down  a  certain  portion  of  silver  into  the 
cupel  in  the  first  instance ;  the  same  when 
again  reduced  to  reguline  lead  could  not 
be  made  to  restore  its  excess  of  silver  by 
mere  cupellation  per  se  This  however  is 
not  the  case,  for  the  second  cupellation  is 
found  to  leave  a  button  of  silver  fully 
equal  to  the  loss  of  this  metal  in  the  first 
assay,  the  lead  only  carrying  down 
its  natural  retent  of  silver,  that  is  about 
■^YT%  °^  ^^^  weight,  as  above  mentioned- 
6"  the  litharge  of  the  second  cupellation  is 
again  reduced  and  the  lead  cupelled  a 
third  time,  an  extremely  small  globule  of 
silver  is  left,  scarcely  visible  to  tlie  naked 
eye.  Again  reduced  and  cupelled,  a  mi- 
nute grain  of  silver,  only  visible  by  a  lens, 
is  left  on  the  cupel,  after  which  the  quan- 
tity becomes  so  small  as  to  elude  the  sen- 
ses. This  is  a  convincing  proof  against 
the  conversion  of  lead  into  silver  by  cupel- 
lation, as  formerly  supposed  by  some  che- 
mists of  considerable  name,  the  silver  be- 
ing obviously  only  extracted  from  the  lead 
in  these  processes,  and  not  generated  from 
it.  In  all  these  reductions  the  silver  ap- 
pears equally  distributed  throtigh  the 
lead,  for  M.  Tillet  found  that  separate  glo- 
bules of  lead  by  accident  spurted  out  upon 
an  empty  cupel  in  the  muffle,  each  left  a 
minuce  atom  of  silver  lying  uoon  the  spot 
where  the  globules  had  scorified. 

Bismuth  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as 
lead  in  cupellation,  but  besides  that  is  a 
dearer  metal  and  not  always  easily  procu- 
rable, it  is  found  to  carry  down  with  it  in- 


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to  the  cupel  somewhat  more  of  ilie  silver 
than  tliu  siimt  quantity  of  lead  does. 

As  the  lead  must  be  proportioned  be- 
fore cupellalion  to  the  estimated  quantity 
of  alloy  in  the  silver,  a  nietiiod  must  be 
found  of  forming  viiis  estimate  witli  suffi- 
cient exactness.  'Ihc  ancient  assayeis 
made  great  use  of  Touch-Needles,  or 
small  slips  or  bars  of  metal,  made  with 
pure  silver,  alloyed  witii  known  propor- 
tions of  copper,  in  a  regularly  increasing 
series  from  the  leas',  to  the  greatest  pro- 
portion ever  required.  Tiie  silver  to  be 
assayed  was  then  examined  in  comparison 
with  the  touch-needles,  in  colour,  tenaci- 
ty, and  other  external  characters,  and  its 
alloy  was  estimated  by  that  of  the  needle, 
to  which  it  shewed  the  closest  resem- 
blance. These  needles  are  now  however 
almost  totally  disused  in  silver  assaying, 
an  experienced  assayer  being  able  to 
judge  of  the  alloy  with  quite  sufficient  ex- 
actness, by  the  ease  or  difficulty  witii 
which  it  is  cut,  the  colour  and  grain  of  a 
fresli  cut  siuface,  the  malleability,  the 
change  of  surface  when  made  red  hot,  and 
the  general  appearance. 

Assay  of  Gold. — The  assaj'  of  gold  is 
somewhat  more  complicated  than  that  of 
silver.  Silver,  if  not  mixed  with  gold  or 
platina,  requires  only  the  single  operation 
of  the  cupel  to  separate  its  alloy  and  as 
certain  iis  purity  ;  if  mixed  witli  gold 
though  the  latter  be  in  a  small  proportion, 
it  is  called  a  gold  assay,  on  account  of  the 
superior  value  of  this  metal.  Copper,  or 
any  other  base  metal,  when  mixed  with 
gold  may  indeed  be  separated  from  it  by 
cupellation  with  lead  as  from  silver,  but 
it  is  found  by  experience  that  the  affinity 
of  copper  to  gold  is  so  strong  as  scarcely 
to  be  overcome  by  tiiis  method,  unless  tiie 
mixture  be  first  combined  with  a  certain 
quantity  of  silver  before  cupellation.  This 
therefore  necessarily  requires  a  subse 
tjuent  operation,  namely  that  of  separat 
ing  the  gold fiom  the  silvei-  when  mixed 
in  the  button  left  after  cupellation. 

Gold  is  also  frequently  alloyed  inten- 
tionally with  silver  in  some  foreign  coins, 
and  in  some  kinds  of  manufacture  The 
process  oi  part  ing,  or  separating  gold  from 
silver  is  perfoimcd  by  a  dilute  nitric  acid 
(or  aqua  fortis  as  it  is  constantly  termed  in 
jnanufacture)  the  acid  dissolving  the  sil- 
ver and  leaving  the  gold  untouched.  But 
here  another  singular  circumstance  oc- 
curs :  it,  is  foiuul  that  when  the  gold  is  in 
considerable  proportion  in  the  mixture,  it 
so  much  protects  the  silver  from  the  acid 
as  to  prevent  its  action  more  or  less  com- 
pletely, and  the  parting  is  imperfect. 
I'lierefbre,  when  these   metals  ai-e  thus 


mixed,  it  becomes  necessary  to  add  so 
much  silver  as  to  give  this  metal  a  great 
excess  over  the  gold.  About  three  of  sil- 
ver to  one  of  gold  are  generally  consider- 
ed to  be  requisite,  and  hence  the  process 
of  parting  has  also  been  called  quartatton, 
the  relative  proportion  of  the  gold  being 
reduced  to  no  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
mass.  Any  greater  proportion  of  silver 
than  thi  ee-fourths  may  be  parted  with 
equal  certainty,  but  for  a  particular  con- 
venience in  managing  the  process  and  to 
save  needless  trouble,  when  silver  is  to  be 
intentionally  added,  no  more  is  taken  than 
will  give  the  above  composition.  It  may 
be  observed  however  that  many  good  as- 
sayers  consider  three  parts  of  silver  to  one 
of  gold  as  more  than  necessary,  and  that 
about  two  will  suffice. 

It  would  stem  at  first  sight,  that  in  gold 
assaying,  as  both  silver  and  copper  (the 
usual  alloy  of  gold)  are  soluble  in  aqua 
fortis,  the  first  process  of  cupellation 
might  be  spared,  and  the  parting  alone  re- 
sorted to.  This  is  indeed  sometimes  done, 
the  gold  assay  piece  being  simply  melted 
with  the  requisite  quantity  of  silver  and 
Immediately  ]jarted  by  means  of  the  acid. 
But  as  the  entire  quantity  .of  materials  for 
the  assay  is  only  a  few  grains,  and  as  the 
intimate  mixture  with  the  silver  is  a  point 
of  great  consequence,  it  is  found  better  on 
tlie  whole  first  to  cupel  them  with  lead 
(even  when  no  copper  is  present  and  tl)e 
original  alloy  of  the  gold  is  only  silver) 
that  they  may  be  thoroughly  combin- 
ed and  be  collected  into  a  small  neat  glo- 
bule, without  risk  of  losing  or  dispersing 
any  minute  portions. 

The  cupellation  of  gold  therefore  is 
conducted  in  the  following  manner.  Its 
proportion  of  alloy  being  first  estimated 
by  the  touch,  as  will  presently  be  ex- 
plained, and  the  small  piece  designed  for 
the  assay  being  weighed  with  extreme  ac- 
curacy, as  much  silver  is  taken  as  is  esti- 
mated to  be  necessary  to  make  the  entire 
quantity  of  this  metal  about  thrice  the 
weight  of  the  pure  gold;  the  requisite  pro- 
portion of  lead  is  also  taken,  and  all  three 
are  put  on  the  hot  cupel,  where  they  melt 
and  combine  almost  immediately.  The 
proportion  of  lead  to  the  alloy  of  base  me- 
tal  is  nearly  the  same  as  for  silver  assay- 
ing, tiie  quantity  wdl  be  seen  by  the  sub- 
joined table.  The  process  of  cupellation 
is  conducted  nearly  the  same  as  for  silver, 
only  a  greater  heat  is  required  throughout 
in  gold  assaying,  and  this  may  be  used 
with  freedom,  as  none  of  the  gold,  or  ra- 
ther tlie  mixture  of  gold  and  silver,  is  lost 
by  volatilization,  as  pure  silver  is.  The 
lightning,  or  sudden  luminous  brightness 


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of  the  button,  when  all  the  lead  is  worked 
off,  takes  place  here  as  hi  silver  assaying, 
and  when  cooled  the  button  is  taken  out 
and  weighed  It  now  consists  only  of  gold, 
with  about  three  times  its  weight  of  sil- 
ver ;  the  copper,  the  original  alloy,  hav- 
ing been  worked  off  along  with  the  lith- 
arge. Strictly  speaking  however,  the  but- 
ton is  not  absolutely  pure,  as  gold  wlien 
cupelled  with  lead  always  retains  a  minute 
portion  of  this  latter  metal,  wliich  may  be 
got  rid  of  chiefly  by  being  kept  a  little 
time  in  fusion  on  a  clean  vessel  covered  by 
a  small  crucible.  The  lead  totally  disap- 
pears after  parting.  The  cold  button  is 
then  flattened  with  the  hammer,  again 
heated  red  hot,  and  slowly  cooled  to  an- 
neal it  and  encrease  its  malleability,  then 
passed  between  rollers  of  polished  steel, 
to  extend  it  into  a  small  plate  about  as 
thin  as  a  wafer,  again  heated  only  to  red- 
ness, and  lastly  rolled  up  into  a  small 
loose  coil.  The  use  of  the  annealing  is  to 
allow  the  plate  to  roll  up  without  crack- 
ing, and  at  the  same  time  to  open  the  tex- 
ture of  the  metal  somewhat  closed  by  the 
rolling,  to  allow  the  free  action  of  the 
aqua  fbrtis  in  the  subsequent  operation  of 
parting. 

Before  we  describe  this  process  we  shall 
mention  the  way  of  estimating  the  alloy  of 
gold  before  cupellation,  which  is  necessa- 
ry for  giving  it  the  due  portion  of  lead. 
The  fineness  of  silver,  as  we  before  ob- 
served, is  ascertained  partly  by  touch- 
needles  of  silver  and  copper,  but  princi- 
pally by  the  appearance,  hardness,  and 
other  extei'nal  characters  which  experi- 
enced assayers  can  estimate  to  very  great 
nicety.  Gold  is  partly  judged  of  by  the 
same  method,  but  it  is  more  complicated 
than  in  the  former  case,  as  three  me- 
tals are  here  concerned  in  the  usual  al- 
loys, namely,  gold,  silver  and  copper,  so 
that  the  assayer  has  to  judge  of  every  pro- 
portion of  admixture  of  gold  and  silver, 
gold  and  copper,  and  often  gold,  silver  and 
copper.  An  experienced  artist,  if  he 
knows  the  nature  of  the  alloy,  can  nearly 
tell  its  proportion  by  mere  inspection  and 
cutting  the  surface ;  but  if  touch-needles 
are  here  used,  there  must  be  several  sets 
of  them,  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  al- 
loy. Four  sets  of  these  are  commonly  di- 
rected ;  one  in  which  pure  silver  is  used 
for  the  alloy,  another  in  which  the  alloy  is 
a  mixture  of  two  pai-ts  silver  and  one  cop- 
per, a  third  with  two  parts  copper  and  one 
silver,  and  a  fourth  of  copper  only.  These 
are  severally  weighed  out  most  carefully, 
with  every  requisite  portion  of  the  finest 
gold,  encreasing  in  twenty-fourth  parts, 
and  melted  together ;  but  with  the  three 


last  very  little  use  can  be  made  of  mix- 
tures of  low  denomination,  for  where  the 
copper  is  in  large  quantity,  the  change 
which  it  gives  to  the  colour  of  gold  is  not 
easily  distinguished  from  the  hue  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  copper.  In  melting  these 
mixtures,  besides  the  usual  precautions 
against  accidental  loss,  borax  is  used  as  a 
flux  to  facilitate  the  union  of  the  metals, 
and  some  pitch  or  tallow  should  be  kept 
burning  on  the  surface,  to  prevent  the  loss 
by  oxidation  of  part  of  the  copper,  which 
would  alter  tlie  intended  proportions.  As 
soon  as  ever  they  are  melted  and  stirred 
togetiier  they  should  be  taken  out  of  the 
fire.  But  Mr.  Hatchett's  late  experiments 
on  the  alloys  of  gold  have  shewn  that  the 
diflficulties  of  producing  a  perfectly  uni- 
form alloy  of  these  metals  by  fusion,  are 
so  gi'eatas  very  much  to  lessen  the  confi- 
dence to  be  placed  in  touch-needles  for 
the  smaller  divisions. 

Another  ingenious  and  simple  method 
is  resorted  to  for  estimating  the  propor- 
tion of  gold  to  all  other  metals  (platina 
excepted)  in  any  alloy.  li  is  the  operation 
of  touching.  For  this  piu-pose  a  tolerably 
hard  dark-coloured,  smooth  grained,  even 
stone  is  selected,  such  as  the  black  basalt, 
(or  some  kinds  of  fine  black  pottery  will 
answer  very  well)  the  piece  of  metal  to  be 
tried  is  rubbed  on  it  backwards  arid  for- 
wards, so  as  to  make  a  broad  bright  me- 
tallic streak  on  the  touch-stone,  wliich 
shews  the  colour  of  the  alloy,  and  nuiy  be 
usefully  compared  with  another  streak 
made  beside  it  by  the  touch-needle,  to 
which  it  bears  the  nearest  resemblance. 
The  colour  is  heightened  by  being  wetted 
before  examination.  In  tiiis  simple  me- 
thod, and  by  the  assistance  of  good  touch- 
needles,  a  practised  eye  will  tell  to  great 
nicety  the  proportion  of  gold  when  the  na- 
ture of  alloy  is  knovi^-n.  The  Chinese  are 
said  to  distinguish  by  this  means  as  near- 
ly as  to  the  200th  part  of  gold  in  the  alloy 
of  gold  and  silver,  and  in  the  extensive 
commerce  of  the  precious  metals  through- 
out the  East  Indies  this  is  said  to  be  the 
only  method  of  trial  commonly  adopted. 

T'he  nitric  acid  is  also  of  singular  ser- 
vice  in  the  trial  of  touching,  and  is  used  to 
ascertain  absolutely  the  quantity  of  gold, 
whether  the  alloy  be  copper  or  silver,  or 
any  other  metal  except  platina.  Tliis  is  in 
fact  performing  in  the  rough  way  a  kind  of 
parting.  When  the  streak  on  the  stone 
has  been  examined  by  the  eye,  a  drop  of 
aqua-fortis  is  let  to  fall  and  gently  spread 
over  it.  In  eight  or  ten  seconds  it  is 
washed  off,  and  the  effect  observed.  If 
the  streak  preserves  its  golden  brilliance 
unaltei'ed,  the  metal  is  judged  to  be  of  a 


A^S 


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certain  degree  of  fineness ;  if  it  looks  red, 
dull  iind  coppery,  it  is  less  fine  ;  if  tlie 
strcak  is  almost  entirely  efiiictd,  the  na-- 
t:d  contains  very  little  g'old,  and  tiius  by 
that  experience,  whicli  no  description  can 
teach  and  nothing  but  actual  practice  can 
give,  a  good  assajer  will  form  a  very  tole- 
rable judgment  of  the  value  of  his  sam- 
ple. 

But  it  is  found  in  touching  that  pure  ni- 
trous acid,  of  whatever  strength,  will  not 
act  in  any  v>.  ry  decided  manner  upon  the 
alloy  of  copper  and  gold,  when  this  latter 
metal  is  as  much  as  two-tliirds  of  the  mass, 
and  lience  this  process  is  chiefly  of  use  in 
the  lower  mixtures.  But  if  a  small  portion 
of  miu'iatic  acid  is  added  to  the  nitrous, 
the  activity  of  the  menstruum  is  so  much 
cncreiised  that  any  mixture  below  three- 
fourths  will  be  acted  on,  and  consequent- 
ly the  power  of  tJiis  operation  is  much  ex- 
tended. Gold  therefore  protects  the  alloy 
from  the  acid  to  a  very  great  degree,  and 
this  is  similar  to  what  is  found  in  parting, 
as  tlie  gold  must  not  be  more  than  a 
fourth,  or  at  most  a  third  of  the  mass,  to 
allow  of  the  separation  of  its  alloy.  The 
best  acid  for  touching  is  recommended  by 
V'aviquelin  to  be  98  parts  of  nitric  acid  of 
13-4  specific  gravity,  -  parts  of  muiiatic 
acid  of  11-73  specific  q'ravity,  and  25  parts 
of  water.  This  nitro-muriatic  acid,  it  may 
be  observed,  does  not  act  sensibly  on  the 
gold  of  the  streak  on  the  touchstone,  the 
application  being  so  short,  without  heat, 
and  especially  the  muriatic  ingredient  be- 
ing in  such  small  proportion.  Touching 
is  particularly  of  use  in  judging  of  the  va- 
lue of  very  small  samples  of  gold,  wrought 
trinkets,  and  such  pieces  as  cannot  spare 
as  much  as  six  or  eight  grains  for  an  as- 
say. As  it  only  gives  the  fineness  of  the 
surface  v.hich  is  abraded,  caution  is  ne- 
cessary where  plated  metal  is  suspected, 
or  where  the  surface  is  artificially  made 
finer  than  thu  inner  part. 

Of  Flirting. — The  button  of  gold  and 
silvei:  left  after  cupellation,  having  been 
laminated  and  rolled  into  a  spiral  in  the 
way  above  mentioned,  is  called  a  cornet  ,- 
it  is  then  put  into  a  glass  mattrass,  of  a 
pear-form, called  -a parting-glass,  and  about 
twice  or  thrice  its  weight  of  pure  nitric 
acid  moderately  diluted  (M.  Vauquelin 
recommends  1.25  specific  gravity)  is  pour- 
ed on  it,  the  glass  is  set  on  a  sand  bath  or 
over  charcoal  to  boil,  the  mouth  being 
slightly  covered  to  keep  out  the  dust. 
When  warm,  the  acid  soon  begins  to  act 
on  the  silver,  and  dissolves  it  witli  the 
usual  evolution  of  nitrous  funics.  As  long 
as  the  acid  continues  to  act,  the  cornet  is 
studded  all  over  with  minute   bubbles  ; 


I  when  these  discontinue,  or  unite  into  a 
;fev,'  large  ones,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  acid 
has  ceased  to  act.  About  fifteeen  or  twen- 
ty minutes  from  the  time  the  acid  boils, 
is  required  for  this  process.  The  cornet 
is  now  corroded  throughout,  having  lost 
by  the  solution  all  the  silver,  which  was 
fiom  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  its  sub- 
stance :  the  gold  retains  the  same  coiled 
form,  but  is  very  slender  and  brittle.  It 
is  of  importance  that  it  should  not  be  bro- 
ken, as  it  tends  much  to  the  accuracy  of 
the  business  to  have  all  the  gold  in  one 
piece  and  not  in  fragments,  and  this  is  the 
chief  reason  why  no  more  silver  than  ab- 
solutely necessary  is  added  before  cupel- 
lation ;  for  it  is  obvious  that  the  less  the 
proportion  of  gold  in  the  cornet  the  more 
likely  it  will  be  to  fall  to  pieces  on  the 
slightest  agitation.  The  hot  acid  solution 
of  silver  is  then  poured  off  with  great  cai'e, 
and  fresh  acid,  rather  strongei-,  is  added, 
to  clear  away  all  remains  of  the  silver,  and 
boiled  as  before ;  but  only  for  five  or  six 
minutes.  It  is  then  decanted  and  added 
to  the  former  solution,  and  the  parting 
glass  is  filled  with  hot  distilled  water,  to 
wash  off  all  the  remains  of  the  solution. 
This  is  decanted  off,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  coinet,  now  brown,  spongy  and  unme- 
lallic  in  appearance,  is  got  out  by  the  fol- 
lowing little  manual  dexterity.  A  small 
crucible  is  inverted  over  the  top  of  the 
parting  glass  Vvhilst  full  of  water,  the  lat- 
ter is  then  rapidly  inverted  upon  the  cru. 
cible,  and  the  cornet  falls  softly  Uirough 
the  water  down  the  neck  of  the  glass  into 
the  crucible,  where  it  is  gently  deposited 
and  the  water  carefully  decanted  off. 
The  crucible  is  then  dried  and  heated  un- 
der a  muffle  to  redness,  by  which  the 
cornet  shrinks  extremely  in  every  direc- 
tion, becomes  firm,  regains  its  metallic  lus- 
-le,  and  when  fully  red  hot  and  cooled,  it 
appears  a  small  coinet  of  pure  gold,  with 
all  tile  beautiful  lustre,  softness  and  flexi- 
bility of  this  noble  metal.  This  is  then 
most  acciu-ately  weighed  and  the  process 
is  finished. 

The  final  weight  of  the  gold  cornet  in- 
dicates the  absolute  quantity  of  this  metal 
in  the  assayed  sample  :  the  difference  be- 
tween the  weight  of  the  button  after  cu- 
pellation (deducting  the  silver  added)  and 
the  first  sample  is  the  weight  of  the  cop- 
per or  other  base  metal  in  the  gold  ;  and 
the  difference  between  the  gold  cornet  to- 
gether with  the  silver  added,  and  the  but- 
ton after  cupellation  is  the  quantity  of  sil- 
ver alloyed  with  the  original  gold. 

The  solution  of  silver  left  after  parting 
is  usually  recovered  by  immersing  in  it, 
when  collected  in  quantity,  some  bright 


ASS 


ASS 


copper  plates,  which  dissolve  and  precipi- 
tate the  silver  in  its  metallic  form  It  inay 
also  be  recovered  by  a  solution  of 
co'Timon  salt,  which  converts  the  silver 
into  luna  cornea,  of  which  wlien  washed 
and  fully  drietl  at  a  heat  below  redness, 
100  parts  indicate  75  of  silver.  The  ac- 
curacy of  the  assay  may  be  partly  verified 
by  this  method. 

Assay  fVeights. — A  peculiar  set  of 
weirf-hts  have  been  used  by  the  difi'erent 
nations  in  the  assaying-  of  gold  and  silver, 
which  require  to  l>e  explained.  The  real 
quantity  taken  for  an  assay  is  always  ve- 
ry small,  in  this  coimtry  generally  from  18 
to  36  troy  grains  for  silver,  and  fi'oin  6  to 
l2  grains  for  gold.  This  is  the  integer, 
and  whatever  be  its  real  weight  it 
is  denominated  the  assay  pound.  This 
imaginary  pound  is  then  subdivided  into 
aliquot  parts,  but  difi'ei-ing  according  to 
the  metal.  The  sil^ixr  assay  pound  is  sub- 
divided as  the  real  troy  pound  mto  12 
ounces,  each  ounce  into  twenty  penny- 
weights, and,  for  assaying,  these  again  in- 
to halves.  So  that  there  are  480  dittcrent 
reports  for  silver  (this  being  the  number 
of  half  pennyweights  in  the  pound)  and 
therefore  each  nominal  half  dwt.  weighs 
one-twentieth  of  a  troy  grain,  when  the 
entire  assay  pound  is  24  grains. 

The  report  is  made  according  to  the 
proportion  of  fine  metal,  thus  standard 
silver  of  England  is  reported  by  the 
assayers  to  be  11  oz.  2  Awi-Jine,  meaning 
thereby  that  the  remainder  of  the  pound 
is  composed  of  18  dwt.  of  alloy  or  copper, 
or  in  other  terms  that  there  are  37  parts 
of  silver  to  3  of  copper-  The  gold  assay 
pound  is  subdivided  into  24  carats,  and 
each  carat  into  4  assay  grains,  and  each 
grain  into  quarters-  So  tliat  there  ai-e  only 
384  separate  reports  for  gold.  The  stand- 
ard for  gold  coin  is  22  c;u-ats^ne,  and  of 
course  2  carats  alloy.  Wiien  the  gold  as- 
say pound  or  integer  is  only  6  ti'oy  grains, 
the  quai-ter  assay  grain  only  weighs 
l-64th  of  a  troy  grain.  This  will  give  an 
idea  how  acciu-ate  must  be  the  scales  used 
for  such  delicate  operations. 

Assayers  also  make  their  report  upon 
gold  and  silver  as  being  better  or  ii-orse 
than  the  established  standard.  Thus  gold 
of  20  carats  would  be  reported  as  ivorse  2 
carats,  beuig  that  proportion  less  than  the 
standard  of  22  carats. 

When  a  mixture  of  gold  and  silver  is  the 
subject  of  enquiry,  if  the  quantity  of  gold 
exceed  that  of  silver,  it  is  called  gold 
parting :  if  the  contrary,  silvtr  parting, 
and  the  return  is  made  accordingly,  but 
with  this  distinction  :  in  silver  parting  the 
report  is  first  made  on  all  the  fine  metal 


collectively,  as  if  for  silver  alone,  so  if 
10  oz    of  fine   metal  be   fbuiKl,  the  as- 
sayer  reports  worse  1  oz.  2  dwt.  that  is 
1  oz.  2  dwt.  lower  tlian  the  standard  of 
silver. 

When  tlie  assay  pound  is  subdivided, 
as  for  silver,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
troy  pound,  it  is  obvious  that  alltlie  lower 
denominations  bear  the  same  relation  to 
each  other;  which  is  some  httle  advan- 
tage in  transfei-ring  the  assay  reports  to 
1  eal  mixtures  for  use.  On  the  contrary, 
the  cai-at  subdivision  for  gold,  is  confined 
to  assaying,  but  its  fractions  being  aliquot 
parts  of  the  troy  pound,  the  calculation 
for  real  use  is  very  easy:  as  the  troy 
pound  contains  5760  grs.  the  carat  cor- 
responds with  '240  grs.  or  10  dwt.  the 
ass.ay  grain  or  4th  of  a  carat  with  60  troy 
grains,  and  the  assay  quaiter  gi-ain  with 
li  troy  grains.  To  which  report,  when 
the  assayer  has  sepai-aled  the  gold  (4oz. 
for  example)  lie  adds  4  oz.  gold  in  ii  lli. 
troy.  Whereas  in  gold  parting  he  takes 
two  equal  assay  pieces,  treats  one  as  a 
silver  assay,  juid  the  other  as  a  gold 
assp.y,  to  find  tiie  absolute  quantity  of 
each  metal,  after  which  tlie  report  is 
first  made  on  the  gold  singly,  to  which 
is  added  tlie  report  of  the  silver  sepa- 
rately. Thus  if  he  finds  4  oz.  of  gold 
and  3  oz  of  silver,  he  reports  luorse  14 
carats,  (2  carats  being  equivalent  to  an 
assay  ounce,  and  consequently  the  4  oz. 
of  gold  equal  to  8  caiats,  which  sub- 
tracted from  22  carats,  the  gold  stand- 
ard, leaves  14)  to  which  report  he  adds 
Jine  siher  3  oz.  But  when  the  mixed 
metal  contains  more  than  half  alloy,  it 
is  called  metal  Jar  gold  and  silver,  and 
the  absolute  quantity  of  each  reported 
separately 

The  assay  pound,  or  integer,  is  di- 
vided in  a  different  manner  in  several 
parts  of  Europe.  In  France  before  the 
late  altei'ation  of  weights  the  gold  assa\ 
was  divided  into  24  carats,  and  the  carat 
subdivided  into  32  parts,  making  an  ul- 
timate division  of  768  parts.  The  sil- 
ver assay  pound  was  divided  into  12 
deniers,  and  the  denier  into  24  grains, 
making  288  grains  in  the  pound. 

The  Cologne  assay  weights,  used  in 
most  parts  of  Germany,  are  the  follow- 
ing. For  gold  the  integer,  here  called 
a  mark,  is  divided  into  24  carats,  and 
each  carat  into  12  grains,  making  288 
ultimate  divisions.  For  silver,  the  mark 
is  divided  into  16  loths,  and  the  loth 
into  18  grains,  also  making  288  subdi- 
visions. 

The  Chinese  use  the  decimal  division 
for  gold  as  well  as  silver.     The  integer 


ASS 


ASS 


contains  100  touches,  and  the  simple  use 
of  tlie  touchstone  will  enable  the  expert- 
est  dealers  to  ascertain  with  much  accu- 
racy, to  the  i  touch  or  200lh  of  the  in- 
teger. 

The  French  have  of  late  years  adopt- 
ed tlve  dccimaf  method,  consistently  with 
their  general  system  of  decimal  nume- 
ration. The  integer  for  assaying  (both  | 
gold  and  silver)  is  the  gramme,  equiva-  ^ 
lent  to  about  15A  troy  gi-ains,  and  the 
assay  subdivisions  are  the  same  as  those  [ 
establisned  for  the  gramme,  being  tenths, , 
hundredths,  and  thousandths. 

It  remains  to  give  the  proportions  of' 
lead  to  the  estimated  alloy  of  fine  metal 
necessary  to  be  added  for  cupeliation.  I 
The  most  authentic  documents  for  this  J 
purpose  are  probably  the  very  cai-eful ; 
experiments  of  Messrs.  Tillet,  Hellot,  | 
and  Macquer,  which  -svere  the  basis  of  j 
a  regulation  subsequently  adopted  by  i 
an  edict  of  the  late  French  government,      j 

Copper,  the  usual  alloy  of  the  fine  me- ; 
^als,    when  taken  singly  is  found  to  re- 
quire   from    ten    to  fourteen    times    its 
weight  of  lead  for   complete   scorifica-i 


tion  on  tlie  cupel.  Now  all  admixtures 
of  fine  metal  tend  to  protect  the  copper 
from  the  action  of  the  litharge,  and  the 
more  obstinately,  the  greater  the  pro- 
portion of  fine  metal.  So  that  copper 
with  three  times  its  weight  of  silver 
(or  9  oz.  fine)  requires  40  times  as  much 
lead  as  copper,  with  11  parts  of  silver 
requires  72  of  lead,  and  the  like  in  an 
increasing  ratio.  The  following  is  the 
table  of  the  proportions  of  lead  required 
to  different  alloys  of  copper,  of  which  a 
few  points  are  founded  on  the  above- 
mentioned  experiments,  and  the  rest  filled 
up  according  to  the  estimated  ratio  of  in- 
crease (being  multiples  of  the  assay  inte- 
ger 24,  in  arithmetical  progression).  In 
the  three  first  columns  is  shown  the  abso- 
lute increase  of  the  quantity  of  lead  in  al- 
loys of  decreasing  fineness :  in  the  three 
last  columns  will  be  seen  the  gradual  di- 
minution of  the  protecting  powt  r  of  fine 
metal  against  scorification,  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  of  alloy  shown  by  the  de- 
creasing quantity  of  lead  required  for  the 
same  weight  of  copper,  under  different 
mixtures. 


TABLE. 


Copper 


Lead. 


Ratio 
of  increase. 


1  requires  96  (zi  4x24)  and  hence 

-M4  (=  6X24) 

-192  (—  8X24) 

-240  (Zi:10x24)  

288  (—12x24) 


Copper.    Silver. 


-336  (:=14X24) 
384  (:z:i 6X24) 

-432(ZZ18X'4) 

480  (:=20X24) 

528  (n22  ^-24) 

-576(11:24X24 

-624(Z126X24 


with  23 
11 


2  — 
l   — 

5 
T 


Lead, 
requires  96 

-  72 

-  48 
-40 

-  36 


-  33 

-  32 
SOX 

-  30 
-29X 
-28x 
-28X 


It  should  be  remarked  however,  that  ma- 
ny assavers  of  good  authority  use  propor- 
tions of*  lead  to  alloy,  considerably  differ- 
ent from  the  above  table,  and  the  whole  of 
the  numbers  here  given  may  be  consider- 
ed as  rather  high  in  regard  to  the  quanti- 
ty of  lead. 

The  German  assayers  observe  the  fol- 
lowing rules. 


Copper.  Silver.  Lead, 

with      30     requires     128 


15 
7 
4 
3 
1 

i 
1 

TT 


96 
64 
56 
40 
30 
20 
17 


ASS 


ASS 


The  proportions  of  lead  required  for 
gold  assaying  are  nearly  the  same  as  for 
5>ilver» 

^issays  t^f  alloys  ofPLitina — On  account 
of  the  great  specific  gi'avity  of  plutina,  it 
has  sometimes  been  fraudulently  employ- 
ed iis  an  alloy  for  gold,  and  being  equally 
unoxidable  b}-  lead  as  gold  and  silver,  it 
remains  in  the  assay  button  after  cupella- 
tion.  It  is  not  difficult  however  to  detect 
this  metal  even  in  very  small  admixtiu'es, 
and  by  the  following  marks.  Gold  alloyed 
with  so  little  as  1  per  cent,  of  piatina,  and 
cupelled  in  the  usual  way  wich  3  pai'ts  of 
silver,  differs  from  gold  and  silver  alone. 

1.  In  requiring  a  much  greater  heat  for 
compleat  fusion  of  the  button,  especially 
at  the  last  when  all  the  lead  is  worked  off, 
otherwise  the  button  remains  flat,  like  a 
piece  of  money,  and  its  surface  knotty. 

2.  Even  when  the  button  is  well  fused, 
its  edges  are  much  thicker  and  more 
rounded  tlian  hi  common  gold  assays,  its 
colour  more  dull  and  tending  to  yellow , 
aiwl  especially  it  appears  remarkably  and 
entirely  crystallized  on  its  surface.  This 
power  of  piatina  in  giving  a  decided  crys- 
talhne  form  to  the  gold  or  silver  alloys  m 
vliich  it  enters,  is  very  characteiistic. 

3  In  the  cupellation,  as  soon  as  the  last 
portions  oflead  are  worked  off,  the  button 
appears  somewhat  pasty,  is  scaixely  iri- 
descent, and  especially  it  does  not  lighten 
or  assume  suddenly  a  brilUant  metallic 
look,  but  remains  dull  and  tarnished. 

These  appearances  encrease  with  the 
quantity  of  piatina  in  the  alloj-,  but  when 
it  amounts  to  about  10  per  cent,  the  colour 
of  the  alloy  is  so  debased  and  whitened  as 
readily  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of 
pure  or  standard  gold,  by  simple  inspec- 
tion. 

Silver  is  seldom  alloyed  with  piatina,  in- 
cntionally,  the  price  of  the  two  metals 
Oeing  so  nearly  the  same  as  not  to  make  it 
v.orUi  while  as  a  fi-aud.  When  the  piati- 
na is  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  al- 
loy, it  works  easily  on  the  cupel,  but  the 
lightning  is  less  obsei'vable  than  in  a  but- 
ton of  pure  silver.  But  the  remarkable 
jiroperty  of  cr^stalhzing  is  still  more  con- 
spicuous here  than  in  the  compound  alloy 
of  gold  silver  and  piatina,  and  the  button 
is  besides  of  a  duller  white,  with  some- 
what of  yellow.  'When  the  piatina  amounts 
to  a  quarter  of  the  alloy,  the  button  on  the 
cupel  flattens  and  becomes  pasty,  even  be- 
fore all  the  lead  is  run  off;  its  surface  be- 
comes full  of  knobs,  which  by  help  of  a 
glass  appear  clusters  of  crj-stalhne  points, 
and  its  colour  is  grey  and  tarnished. 

The  action  of  nitrous  acid  on  the  alloys 
of  piatina  is  veiy  remarkable.  By  itself 
VOL.  I. 


piatina  is  insoluble  in  this  acid  as  gold  is, 
and  an  alloy  of  these  two  metals  equally 
resists  its  action  But  when  silver  enters 
into  the  mixture  in  the  same  proportion  as 
for  parting  (tliat  is  about  2  1-2  or  3  times 
the  weight  of  the  gold  and  piatina)  and 
when  the  piatina  is  not  more  than  about  a 
tenth  of  tlie  gold,  the  piatina  is  totally  so- 
luble in  nitix)us  acid,  togethe.-  with  the  sil- 
ver, and  the  gold  alone  remains  untouch- 
ed. 

On  the  other  hand  when  an  alloy  of  sil- 
ver and  piatina  alone  is  treated  with  ni- 
trous  acid,  the  silver  dissolves  as  usual, 
but  the  hquor  soon  becomes  muddy,  xsith 
a  very  fine  bulky  black  precipitate,  which 
continues  encreasing  till  all  the  silver  is 
chssolved,  and  when  collected  is  found  to 
be  entirely  piatina,  comminuted  by  the 
acid,  but  scarcely  changed  in  any  other 
respect.  A  ])art  of  the  piai'ma  however  re- 
mains in  perfect  soludon,  for  on  adding  to 
tiie  liquor,  separated  fi-om  the  black  pre- 
cipitate, some  muriatic  acid,  white  luna 
cornea  falls  down, after  which  cai'bonatof 
potash  will  tlii'ow  down  a  gi'een  coagulum, 
which  is  oxyd  of  piatina.  The  abo^e  ef- 
fect of  nitrous  acid  will  therefore  detect  an 
.'dloy  of  silver  and  piatina- 

Gold  alloyed  with  piatina  may  be  en- 
tirely purified  (as  we  have  just  mentioned) 
by  the  process  of  parting  with  aqua-fortis, 
the  alloy  being  as  usual  previously  mixed 
witJi  two  or  tlu-ee  times  its  weight  of  sil- 
ver. Some  peculiar  circumstances  are  re- 
quired in  the  operation.  The  mixed  me- 
tal being  laminated  very  thin  and  rolled 
into  a  spiral  cornet,  a  weak  acid  is  first 
added  and  boiled  for  some  time.  If  the 
piatina  is  above  2  per  cent,  of  the  gold,  the 
acid  assumes  a  straw  colour,  which  deep- 
ens in  proportion  to  the  piatina,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  comets  take  a  brownish 
green.  A  stronger  acid  is  tlien  added  and 
boiled  three  times  successively,  to  detach 
the  last  portions  of  piatina,  which  are 
with  diflSculty  separated,  and  by  a  mag- 
nifying glass  May  be  seen  adhering  in  mi- 
nute grains  to  the  surface  of  the  gold  cor- 
net. Thus  by  laminating  very  fine,  suid  by 
using  tl.e  acid  liberally,  and  long  boiling, 
all  the  piatina  may  be  separated  at  one 
operation,  when  it  does  not  exceed  a  tenth 
of  the  gold,  and  above  that  pi'oportion  the 
colour  of  the  gold  is  so  much  debased, 
andtlie  appearances  on  cupellation  ai-e  so 
striking,  that  the  fraud  can  hardly  escape 
an  experienced  eje.  Even  if  more  than  a 
tenth  of  tlie  gold  alloy,  the  piatina  may- 
still  be  separated  veiy  completely  by 
parting,  but  in  tliatcase  more  silver  must 
be  added,  which  will  reduce  the  propor- 
tion of  gold  so  much,  that  after  the  artion 
o 


BAG 

of  the  acid  the  cornet  can  hardly  be  an- 
nealed without  breaking  down  and  losing 
its  form. 

ASTRINGENT  {Vegetable).  Till  the 
later  experiments  on  vegetable  substances 
had  shown  the  important  distinctions  be- 
tween tlie  tanning  principle,  and  tlie  acid, 
which  from  its  being  first  extracted  from 
galls  lias  been  termed  tlie  Gallic,  that 
part  of  vegetables  which  has  the  power 


BAG 

of  tanning  leather,  and  that  which  strikes 
a  dee])  inky  black  with  the  salts  of  ii'ou, 
were  both  confounded  under  the  general 
term  astringent  principle,  taken  from  the 
sensible  quality  of  astrbigency  to  tlie 
tongue.  They  are  now  found  to  be  total- 
ly distinct,  and  will  be  described  respec- 
tively under  the  aiticles  Tanning  and 
Gallic  Acid. 
ATTRACTION.     Sec  Affinity. 


B. 


UACON,  the  flesh  of  swine,  salted, 
dried,  and,  generalh',  smoked  in  a  chim- 
ne}'.  As  the  history  and  customs  relative 
to  this  savoury  dish,  would  furnish  but 
little  instruction,  we  shall  proceed  to  state 
the  most  approved  methods  of  preparing 
it. 

When  a  hog  is  killed  for  bacon,  the 
sides  are  laid  in  large  wooden  troughs, 
and  sprinkled  all  over  with  salt,  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  nitre  :  thus  they 
are  left  for  twenty-tour  hours,  to  drain 
away  the  blood  ancl  the  superfluous  juices- 
After  this  first  preparation,  they  should 
be  taken  out,  wiped  very  dr}-,  and  the 
drainings  thrown  away.  Next,  some 
fresh  salt,  mixed  with  sugar  or  molasses, 
is  to  be  rubbed  over  the  meat,  until  it  has 
absorbed  a  sufficient  quantity,  and  tliis 
friction  repeated  six  or  eight  successive 
days,  while  the  meat  is  turned  e\ery 
other  day.  If  large  hogs  are  killed,  the 
flitches  should  be  kept  in  brine  for  three 
weeks,  and,  during  that  period,  turned 
few  times,  then  taken  out,  and  thorouglily 
dried  in  the  usual  manner;  for,  unless 
they  be  tluis  managed,  it  is  impossible  to 
preserve  tliem  in  a  sweet  state,  nor  will 
their  flavour  be  equal  to  those  properly 
cured. 

As  the  preservation  of  the  salt  used  in 
this  process,  when  carried  on  to  a  gjx-at 
extent,  may  be  an  oljject  of  economy,  we 
shall  state  the  following-  method  of  reco- 
vering  the  saline  matter  contained  in 
these  drainings,  or  in  any  other  brine, 
whether  from  herrings,  beef,  or  pork  :  it 
was  communicated  to  us  by  a  friend,  wiio 
had  seen  it  jn-actiscd.  He  first  added 
such  a  quantity  of  boiling  water  to  the 
brine,  or  drainings,  as  was  sufficient  to 
dissolve  all  the  particles  of  tiie  salt.  'I'his 
solution  he  then  placed  in  either  an  iron 
or  eai-lhen  vessel,  over  a  fire,  which,  bv 
boiling,  forced  .all  the  feculent  and  animal 
particles  to  the  top,  so  that  they  were  care- 


fully removed  by  a  perfor.ated  ladle.  Af- 
ter the  liquid  hatl  jjecome  clear,  it  was 
set  aside  for  twenty-four  hours,  in  a  cool 
place,  that  the  colouring  matter  might 
subside.  But,  as  the  combination  it  had 
formed  with  the  boiled  liquor  was  very 
tenacious,  he  contrived  two  different  ways 
of  separating  it:  1.  A  solution  of  alum  in 
water,  one  pint  to  an  ounce  of  that  sub- 
stance, was  gradually  dropt  into  tlie  cold 
liquor,  in  the  proportion  of  a  table-spoon- 
ful of  the  former  to  every  gallon  of  the  lat- 
ter; and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  for 
several  hours ;  or,  2.  If  time  and  circum- 
stances would  permit,  he  filtered  the  li- 
quor by  means  of  long  flannel  slips,  cut 
longitudinally  by  the  web,  but  previously 
soaked  in  another  strong  and  perfectly 
clear  solution  of  salt:  these  slips  were  so 
immersed  into  the  coloured  fluid,  that  the 
projecting  external  end  reached  another 
vessel,  which  had  been  placed  much  low- 
er than  that  containing  the  brine,  or 
drainings.  When  these  particulars  were 
properly  attended  to,  the  absorbed  li- 
quor became  almost  colovu'less,  and  pel- 
lucid. Having  thus  procured  a  clear  li- 
quid solution,  nothing  more  was  required 
than  to  evaporate  it  to  dryness,  in  order 
to  re-produce  the  salt  in  its  original  gi-a- 
nulated  form.  We  have  faithfully  re- 
ported the  process,  which  may  be  imi- 
tated without  difficulty,  and  at  little  or  no 
expense.  In  our  opinion,  the  second  me- 
thod of  discharging  the  colour  is  jjrefer- 
able,  as,  by  this,  no  alum  will  be  re- 
(luired,  which  only  contiiminates  the 
salt. 

Smoied  Bacon. — The  manner  of  pre- 
paring them  is  nearly  as  follows :  after  the 
iianis  hiive  been  properly  s.ilted,  rubbed, 
antl  wiped  with  dry  cloths,  in  order  to  ab- 
sorl)  all  the  impure  juices,  the  cavities  of 
ihe  joints,  as  well  as  the  bones  themselves, 
are  carefully  covered  with  a  mixture  con- 
sisting of  two  pai"ts  of  the  best  salt,  per- 


BAK 


BAK 


tccUy  dried,  and  one  pai-t  of  black  ])epper, 
coarsely  pow  dered.  As  soon  as  this  ope- 
nilion  is  performed,  the  hams  ai-e,  on  the 
same  day,  suspended  in  a  chimney  or 
smoke  house,  where  no  otlier  but  wood 
lire  is  burnt,  and  which  is  usually  in- 
creased during'  the  first  three  days-  The 
lime  of  fumigation  is  regadatedby  the  size 
of  Uie  meat,  and  generally  extends  ficm 
three  to  six  months. 

BAKING  is  the  art  of  converting  flour, 
or  other  fia-inaceous  substances,  into 
bread.  As  we  propose  to  treat  more  fully 
on  tliis  subject,  under  the  article  Bread, 
we  shall  here  only  explain  what  re- 
lates to  a  proper  method  of  preparing-  it. 

In  private  families,  the  baking  of  bread  is 
frequently  mismanaged;  which  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  following-  circumstances. 
Some  women  do  not  use  a  just  proportion 
and  temperature  of  water,  so  that  the 
bread  turns  out  either  pasty,  or  too  firm 
and  lieavy ;  others  do  not  use  a  proper 
quantit\  or  quality  of  leaven,  or  yeast, 
w  hence  the  bread  acquires  either  an  un- 
pleasant bitterish  taste,  or  the  dough  can- 
not rise,  and  consequently  becomes  tough 
and  viscid ;  again,  others  do  not  imder- 
stand  the  diie  degree  of  heat  required  in 
the  oven,  so  that  it  will  be  eitlier  under,  or 
over-baked.  All  these  particulars  deserve 
to  be  attended  to,  otherwise  a  bad  and  un- 
wholesome  bread  will  be  produced  To 
survey,  therefore,  tlie  whole  process, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  comphcated  in 
chenustry,  we  shall  Jiere  communicate  a 
few  general  directions. 

1.  The  flour,  whether  made  of  wheat, 
or  lye,  (which  two  are  doubtless  the  best 
and  most  wholesome  species  of  grain,) 
ouglit  not  to  be  used  immediately  on  com- 
ing from  the  mill,  as  in  a  fresh  state  it  is 
too  moist  for  making  good  and  palatable 
bread;  but  it  should  be  kept  in  a  dry 
place,  for  several  weeks,  stirred  every 
day  in  summer,  and  at  least  every  other 
day  in  colder  seasons,  till  it  lias  ac- 
quired such  a  consistence,  as  renders 
it  loose  and  yielding  between  the  lin- 
gers. 

2.  As  the  dough  will  not  rise,  witliout 
gi^-ing  it  a  proper  leaven  or  yeast,  this 
ought  to  be  a  principal  object  in  families, 
as  well  as  to  bakers.  If  lea^•en  be  em- 
ployed, it  should,  on  the  j^receding  even- 
ing, be  deprived  of  its  hard  crust,  and 
dissolved  with  a  little,  scarcely  milk- 
Warm,  water ;  then  carefully  mixed  with 
about  a  third  part  of  the  flour  to  be  used 
for  baking,  and  kneaded  into  a  soft  dough, 
by  adding  more  tepid  water.  A  small 
quantity  of  flour  is  j^ut  on  the  top  ;  and, 
tiiiis  prepared,  it  will  be  necessary  to  co- 


ver the  trough  with  blanket.«!,  and  suffer  it 
to  stand  in  a  moderately  warm  place  till 
the  following  morning,  that  it  may  rise 
and  duly  ferment.  The  remaining'  two- 
thii'ds  of  the  flour  must  then  be  added, 
with  a  proportionate  qtiantity  of  luke- 
warm water,  and  tlie  whole  kneaded  into 
such  an  elastic  dough  as  will  draw  into 
strings  without  breaking,  and  iiot  adhere 
to  tlie  fingers.  In  this  state  it  is  again 
covered,  and  allowed  to  stand,  (while 
preparations  are  making  in  the  oven,)  and 
not  distiu'bed  till  it  begins  gently  to 
rise,  when  it  should  be  formed  into 
loaves. 

3.  A  proper  degree  of  heat  is  an  essen- 
tial requisite  to  the  baking  process. 
WJien  the  inner  arch  of  the  oven  appears 
entirely  white,  it  is  generally  considei'ed  as 
sufficiently  heated.  But  tliis  being  a  fal- 
lacious criterion,  we  woidd  recommaid 
the  following:  Place  a  handful  of  flour 
before  the  aperture  of  the  oven,  and  if  it 
turn  of  a  brown  colour,  the  heat  is  then 
nearly  of  the  degree  requu'ed ;  but  if  it 
become  black,  or  remain  white,  in  the  for- 
mer case  the  fii-e  must  be  considerably  re- 
duced ;  and  in  tlie  latter,  more  iuel  must 
be  added.  Lasth ,  all  pai-ts  of  the  oven 
should  be  uniformly  heated;  and  though 
we  cannot  enter  into  farther  particulars, 
yet  tlie  attentive  house-wife  will  easil}-, 
from  her  own  observations,  regulate  the 
degree  of  heat,  with  the  same  effect  as  it 
might  be  done  by  IMr.  Wcdgcwood's 
Pyrometer  for  the  baking  of  earthen- 
ware. 

Reinmk. — ^lusty  flour,  when  baked 
into  bread,  is  not  only  extremely  detri- 
mental to  health,  but  it  also  imparts  a 
bitter  and  nauseous  taste.  Wlien  such 
flour  is  not  too  strongly  tainted,  it  may  be 
corrected  bv  first  kneading  it  with  leaven 
or  sweet  yeast,  then  making  large  holes 
witli  a  wooden  cylinder  in  the  dough, 
filhng  up  the  cavities  with  flour  that  is 
perfectly  sweet,  suffering  it  to  lemain  in 
this  preparatory  state  till  tlie  next  morn- 
ing, then  removuig  tlie  dry  flour  carefully 
with  long  spoons  or  similar  implements, 
and  afterwards  converting  the  dough  into 
bread,  witli  the  addition  of  such  flour  as 
is  not  musty  By  this  simple  process, 
the  flour  first  mixed  up  will  be  sweet- 
ened, but  that  which  has  been  left  over 
night  in  the  dough,  is  said  to  become 
so  corrupted,  as  to  be  unfit  for  use. 

It  has  frequently  been  attempted,  and 
not  without  success,  to  bake  good,  whole- 
some bread,  with  little  or  no  barm.  In 
consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the 
brewers  and  bakers  of  Dublin,  concern- 
ing the  price  of  yeast,  hi  the  year  1770, 


BAK 


BAN 


tlie  latter  carried  tlie  point,  by  making 
their  bread  without  it.  As  this  process, 
however,  could  not  be  readily  imitated  in 
private  families,  we  shall  here  state  a  me- 
thod  ofraisiug  a  bushel  ofjluur  with  a  tea- 
sponiiful  of  yeastf  first  practised  by  James 
Stone.  It  IS  as  follows :  Put  a  bushel  of 
flour  into  the  kneading-trough  or  tren- 
dle  ;  take  about  tliree  quarters  of  a  pint 
of  warm  water,  and  thoroughly  mix  with 
it  a  spoonful  of  thick,  sweet  barm;  then 
make  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  flour, 
large  enough  to  contain  two  gallons  of 
water;  jiour  in  youa-  small  quantity,  and 
stir  it  with  a  stick,  so  that  it  may,  with 
some  of  Jhc  flour  combining  with  it,  ac- 

3uire  the  consistence  of  batter  for  pud- 
ing;  then  strev/  a  little  dry  flour  over  it, 
and  let  it  stand  for  about  one  hour,  when 
you  will  find  the  small  portion  so  raised, 
that  it  will  break  through  the  dry  flour 
scattered  over  it.  After  this,  pour  in  ano- 
ther quart  of  w^arm  water,  while  you  are 
stirring  in  more  flour,  till  it  becomes  as 
thick  as  before ;  then  again  shake  dry  flour 
over  it,  and  leave  it  for  two  hours  longer. 
Repeat  the  same  method  about  twice  more, 
always  suffering  it  to  be  somewhat  longer 
at  rest,  and  the  bread  w-ill  become  as 
light  as  if  a  phit  of  barm  had  been  used. 
Nor  does  this  method  i-equire  above  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  more  time  than  the 
usual  way  of  baking;  and  the  author  of 
it  asserts,  that  his  bread  has  never  been 
heavy  nor  bitter. 

With  respect  to  the  difference  of  sea- 
sons, J.  Siune  directs  that,  in  summer,  the 
water  sliouid  be  used  blood  warm  ;  in  win- 
ter, or  cold  frosty  weather,  as  liot  as  the 
hand  can  beai-  it  without  pain;  while  in 
the  former  season  the  dough  should  be 
covered  up  very  warm,  and  strew^ed  over 
wilh  dry  flour  eveiy  time  tepid  water  is 
added,  to  keep  in  tlie  heat:  after  using 
six  or  eight  quarts  of  such  water  to  every 
bushel  of  flour,  in  the  guadual  manner  be- 
fore described,  it  wiil  be  found  that  tlie 
whol'i  body  of  flour  which  is  mixed  w  ilh 
the  warm  water,  by  means  of  a  single  tea- 
spoonful  of  barm,  is  brought  into  consi- 
derable agitation,  so  that  it  waxes  or 
ferments  williout  diflRculty.  See  also 
Yeas  r 

BVNK-FENCE,  in  rural  economy,  sig- 
nifies the  inclosiu'e  of  ground  with  an 
artificial  bank.  In  places  where  flat 
stones  cannot  be  procured,  the  most  du- 
rable and  advantageous  metiiod  of  fen- 
cing in  arable  ov  pastuie  lands,  is  with 
turf  or  green  sods,  about  five  ov  six 
inches  thick;  the  foundation  five  feet 
wide ;  the  middle  filled  up  with  earth  ; 
the  top  about  three  feet  broad,  and  plant- 
ed with  proper  shrubs  or  dw;u"f-wood. 


As  every  agriculturist  is  ac(iuanuc'(i  wn'u 
the  manner  of  constructing  such  fences, 
we  shall  only  remark,  that  tUey  are  in 
many  respects  preferable  to  the  common 
hedges  ;  because  the  latter,  with  their 
ditches,  cover  an  almost  incredible  quan- 
tity of  soil,  while  they  neither  afford  suf- 
ficient shelter  for  cattJe,  nor  can  the  herb- 
age growing  contiguous  to  them,  be  com- 
pared to  that  generally  produced  on  the 
sloping  sides  of  banks,  where  nettles  and 
other  aquatic  weeds  w^ould  not  obstruct 
the  vegetation  of  the  more  useful  plants. 
It  is,  however  to  be  regretted,  that  manual 
labour  in  this  country  is  at  present  so 
vei-y  expensive,  that  few  farmers,  except- 
ing'those  who  hoard  up  their  gi-ain,  and 
wait  for  the  maxivunn,  or  highest  price, 
are  either  inclined  or  able,  to  defray  the 
first  and  unavoidable  expence  connected 
with  the  system  of  bank-fencing. 

A  subject  of  such  extensive  import- 
ance, we  conceive,  is  entitled  to  every  at- 
tention from  a  w'lse  and  economical  legis- 
lature, or  at  least  deserves  to  be  conduct- 
ed on  similar  principles,  and  with  the 
same  patriotic  spirit,  as  has  lately  been 
displayed  in  the  different  schemes  of  in- 
land navigation. 

BANKS  of  Rivers,  are  those  natural 
boundaries  within  which  every  stream  is 
confined,  according  to  the  magnitude  and 
velocity  of  its  current.  But  as  the  course-  -»■ 
of  rivers  is  frequently  rapid  and  irregular, 
taking  different  directions,  and  often  tiu*n- 
ing  at  acute  angles,  extensive  iiumdations, 
especiallj'  in  high  spring  tides,  necessa- 
rily happen  from  the  overflowing  of  their 
banks.  Hence  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance  to  every  inhabitant  in  the  vicini- 
ty of  rivers,  to  possess  some  knowledge  ot 
the  proper  method  of  forming  embank- 
ments for  the  prevention  of  floods. 

Although  we  cannot,  consistently  with 
our  limits,  attempt  a  full  mathematical 
analysis,  yet  we  shall  lay  down  a  few 
general  hints,  and  maxims,  by  which  the 
reader  may  be  guided  in  the  practical 
view  of  tliis  subject 

4.  The  principal  point  to  be  ascertain- 
ed, is  the  elevation,  or  the  heights  neces- 
sary to  be  given  to  such  banks.  This 
must  be  regulated  by  the  additional  quan- 
tity of  water,  which,  according  to  former 
experience,  the  river  brings  down  during 
its  freshes;  and  likewise  by  the  distance, 
at  which  the  artificial  bank  is  to  be  con- 
structed, from  the  natural  boundary  of 
the  stream.  On  this  important  point,  mis- 
taken economy  frequently  defeats  its  own 
Diu-pose.  If,  tiierefore,  the  embankment 
IS  to  lie  raised  at  some  distance  from  the 
natural  banks  of  the  river,  both  a  compa- 
ratively smaller  lieight  and  base  will  be 


BAN 


BAN 


i-equired  ;  the  saving  will  be  ia  the  dupli- 
cate proportion  of  the  former,  and  the 
works  will  be  likewise  tlie  more  durable, 
nearl}'  in  tlie  same  ratio  ;  becatise,  by  en- 
larging the  additional  bed  given  to  the 
swollen  river,  its  velocity  and  power 
of  ruining  tlie  works  are,  according- 
ly dimimshed.  Unless,  therefore,  tlie 
freshes  of  the  stream  be  loaded  with  fine 
sand^  which  might  decompose  tlie  tui-f, 
the  embankment  should  always  be  under- 
taken at  a  considerable  distance  from  tlie 
edge  of  a  river.  By  placing  the  artificial 
bank  at  half  the  breadth  of  the  stream, 
from  its  natural  banks,  its  'channel  will 
thus  be  nearly  doubled,  and  tiie  detached 
space,  in  general,  afford  excellent  pastu- 
rage. 

2.  The  next  circumstance  to  be  attend- 
ed to,  is,  that  the  river  will  rise  higher, 
when  embairked,  than  it  did  at  the  time 
when  it  was  suffered  to  overflow ;  and 
hence  the  difficulty  of  ascertaining  to 
what  height  it  may  rise,  from  tlie  greatest 

I  swell  which  has  been  observed  in  its 
fbmier  floods.  For  tliis  reason,  the  ut- 
most rise  in  some  gorge,  where  the  river 
could  not  extend  farther,  shoidd  be  accu- 
rately marked,  as  far  as  can  be  remem- 
bered by  the  oldest  inhabitants.  Now 
the  increased  section  in  this  place  should 
be  measured  ;  and,  as  the  water  rises  in  a 
much  greater  proportion  than  the  section, 
the  latter  must  be  increased  nearly  in  the 
same  proportion  as  the  gorge  already 
mentioned.  Those  who  neglect  this 
method  of  regulating  the  proper  height  of 
the  embankment,  by  the  greatest  swell 
that  has  in  former  floods  been  observed 
in  the  plain,  are  in  danger  of  constrict- 
ing their  banks  too  low,  and  consequently 
rendering  them  totally  useless. 

3.  The  whole  embankment  should,  as 
much  as  possible,  be  conducted,  in  an 
unifonn  line,  and  bj*  the  cojicurrence  of 
the  proprietors  of  hoth  banks;  because 
the  general  efiect  tabc  aimed  at,  consists 
in  rendering  the  course  of  tlie  stream 
straighter  than  it  was  before.  All  bends 
should  be  made  less  abrupt,  by  keeping 
the  embankment  farther  from  the  river  in 
all  convex  lines  of  the  natural  bank,  and 
approaching  to  it  nearer,  where  the  latter 
is  concave.  Thus  the  action  of  tlie  wa- 
ters on  the  embankment  will  be  conside- 
rably diminished,  and  the  dui-ation  of  the 
work  insm-ed.  On  the  same  principles, 
we  ought  to  pi'oceed  in  fencing  rivulets, 
or  brooks,  which  empty  themselves  into  a 
larger  river;  and  whatever  bends  ai-e 
given  at  its  mouth  to  the  two  lines  of  em- 
bankment, they  should  always  be  made 
less  acute  than  those  of  tlie  natural  brook  ; 
Tit  the  same  time  an  opportunity  should  be 


taken  of  reducing  the  angle  of  this  trans- 
verse brook,  or,  m  other  words,  of  con- 
ducting it  witli  a  more  gentle  flexion  into 
the  main  river. 

4.  Particidar  care  should  be  taken,  to 
cover  the  outside  of  the  dyke  with  com- 
pact pieces  of  turf,  or  green  sods,  closely 
united.  For,  if  it  admits  the  water,  there 
is  gi"eat  danger  of  drenching  the  interior 
and  more  porous  part  of  the  waU,  while 
the  statical  pressui-e  of  this  fluid  body 
tends  to  burst  the  bank  on  the  land  side ; 
and  thus  the  labour  of  months  or  years 
may  be  suddenly  destroyed.  Hence,  too 
great  attention  cannot  be  bestowed  on 
making  and  keeping  it  perfectly  tight ;  so 
that  the  whole  be  one  continued  fine  turf, 
and  every  bare  spot  must  without  delay 
be  cai-efully  covered  with  firm  and  fresh 
sods  :  nor  should  the  rat  and  mice-holes 
be  neglected. 

Lasth,  it  deserves  to  be  remarked, 
that  a  dry  earthen  bank,  not  firmly  con- 
joined by  grass-roots,  will  scarcely  main- 
tain itself  against  the  pressure  of  the 
water  with  a  slope  of  forty -live  degrees, 
while  a  canal  conveying  a  modei*ate 
stream  cannot  be  supported,  even  with 
such  a  declivity.  Those  banks,  however, 
the  base  of  which  is  as  four  to  three  of 
their  height,  will  stand  without  danger 
in  a  moist  soil :  and  this  is  not  only  the 
slope  usually  given  them,  but  also  ob- 
served in  the  spontaneous  operations  of 
Nature,  in  the  channels  which  she  forms 
in  conducting  lills  and  rivulets  through 
the  higher  and  steeper  grounds.  This 
natural  form  possesses  both  mechanical 
and  mathematical  properties,  which  justly 
claim  the  admirutiotrof  those  wJio  adopt 
her  beneficent  hints  and  maxims. 

The  only  metliod  of  keeping  these  im- 
pervious to  water,  is  to  puddle  them.  That 
is,  when  about  two  feet  of  the  bank  is 
built  up  on  each  side,  let  tlie  intermediate 
space,  amounting  to  three  fourths  of  the 
whole  width  be  made  thus  :  Put  in  the 
common  dirt  or  earth  in  the  vicinity  of  it, 
to  which  add  w  ater  enough  to  make  it  a 
fluid  paste.  Let  this  be  well  raked  back- 
wafd  and  forward  by  iron  rakes  with  the 
teeth  not  much  apart,  constantly  add  to, 
and  rake  the  whole  of  the  middle  pai-t  of 
the  bank,  till  it  is  comp.leted.  On  well 
and  laborious  raking  of  common  earth,  in 
a  fluid  state,  depends  the  goodness  of  a 
bank.  The  sides  may  be  sodded.  "When 
well  raked,  moles  find  it  difficult  to  get 
tlirough,  but  where  moles  are  in  a  bank, 
tliev  must  be  exterminated. 

BARILL.\,  or  BAlilLHA,  is  properiy, 
the  Spanish  name  of  a  plant  cultivated 
tor  its  ashes,  frfmi  which  the  jiurest  mi- 
neral alkali  is  obtained ;  but  likewise  sig- 


BAR 


BAR 


r.ifies  tliat  particular  sort  of  alkali  which 
is  principally  imported  from  Spain 

There  are  four  plants  cultivated  by  the 
Spaniards  for  this  useful  purpose,  name- 
ly, the  Barilla,  G.izul,  Goza,  and  SaCi- 
cor.  But,  as  this  account  appears  to  be 
defective,  we  shall  first  present  the  reader 
with  a  list  of  those  vegetables  from  which 
good  barilla  has  been  extracted  in  Bri- 
tain ;  and  next  give  a  description  of  tlie 
most  expcditiovis  and  profitable  method 
of  preparing-  this  valuable  nialerial,  for 
the  various  processes  of  washing,  bleach- 
ing-, Stc 

Among  the  British  plants,  from  which 
l)arilla  or  mineral  alkali  may  be  obtained, 
we  shall  at  present  enumerate  the  follow- 
ing, and  then  describe  them  in  their  al- 
phabetical places : 

l,-T\vo  species  of  the  Salsola,  of  Lin- 
ujeus,  or  Salt-Wort- 

2.  Two  species  of  the  Salicorniu,  L.  or 
Glass  worn,  and  SA?fPHtRE. 

3.  The  Zostera  Marina,  L.  or  Glass- 
wreck. 

4.  Two  species  of  the  Triglochin,  L.  or 
Arrow-Grass 

5.  The  Cher.opndium  album,  and  mari- 
titnum,  L.  or  Wliite  and  Sea  Goose- 
FooT. 

6.  The  .rlrrrplcx  porfulacoides,  and  lit- 
toralis^Vi.  or  Sea-Purslane,  and  Grass- 
Orach. 

7  The  Pluntago  maritima,  L.  or  Sea 
Plantain. 

8.  The  Tatnarix  galUca,  L.  or  French 
Tamarisk 

9.  The  Eryngiuni  maritimuni,  L.  or 
Sea  Holly. 

10.  The  Sedtnn  Telcfibitnn,  L.  or  Or- 
pine SroNECROP,  or  Livelong- 

11.  The  Dipsacus  Ju'lonum,  L.  or  Ma- 
nured Teasel;  and, 

12.  All  the  species  of  the  Cynara  and 
Cardiius,  L.  or  the  Artichoke  and 
Thistle,  when  cultivated  either  on  the 
sea-shore,  or  in  any  soil  irrigated  with 
sea-water. 

Jiarilla,  as  an  article  of  trade,  ought 
to  possess  the  fiillowing  properties ;  it 
should  be  firm,  hard,  and  heavy,  though 
porous ;  dry,  and  soimding  on  percus- 
sion;  of  a  blucish  colour,  and  impart,  on 
treakingit,  a  flavour  slightly  resembling 
that  of  the  violet.  By  these  criteria,  it 
may  be  easily  distinguished  from  pot- 
ash,  though  it  would  be  difliciilt  to  pro- 
cure a  bai'illa  consisting  purely  of  mineral 
alkali;  as  the  very  best  sort  of  the  former 
generally  contains  a  small  proportion  of 
common  salt.  According  to  the  experi- 
ments made  by  Mr.  Kirwan,  and  publish- 
ed in  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  in  17^9,  the 


barilla  exported  from  Spain,  contains  car- 
bonic acid,  carbon,  hme,  clay,  and  sile- 
;  cious  earth ;  but  such  as  is  very  pure, 
also  contains  both  common  and  Glauber's 
salt,  and  water.  From  the  small  quan- 
tity of  carbonic  acid  discoverable  in  Spa- 
nisii  baiilla,  he  concludes  that  its  mi'ie- 
ral  alkali  is  for  the  most  part  cf)mbined 
with  it  in  a  pui-e  or  caustic  state ;  and 
that  its  blueish  colour  must  be  ascribed 
to  the  matter  of  carbon :  in  a  similar  way, 
he  attributes  the  green  or  blue  colour  ot 
pot-ash  to  its  combination  with  manga- 
nese.. 

This  important  article  of  commerce,  is. 
In  proportion  to  its  degree  of  purity  and 
strength,  classed  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing places,  from  which  it  is  imported  : 
1.  The  barilla  made  at  Alexandria  ;  2. 
That  from  Alicant ;  3.  Carthagena ;  and 
4,  Bourde,  or  Smyrna. 

Various  methods  and  schemes  have 
excited  the  ingenuity  of  speculative  men, 
in  the  production  of  this  valuable  sub- 
stance. Those  of  our  readers,  wiio  ap- 
ply their  attention  to  experiments  of  this 
useful  nature,  will,  perha]5S,  be  gi-atified 
by  the  following  specification  of  Mr  .lames 
King's  patent  for  his  new-invented  Jiritisli 
barilla,  granted  in  1780.  As  his  exclu- 
sive privilege  is  now  expired,  we  shall 
communicate  the  process  nearly  in  the 
patentee's  own  woi-ds.  He  first  takes  a 
quantity  of  ashes  obtained  from  burning 
the  loppings  or  branches  of  ash-wood, 
oak,  beech,  elm,  alder,  and  any  other 
kind  of  green  wood  and  bramble,  in  the 
proportion  of  one-foiu'th  ;  and  a  similar 
quantity  of  ashes  obtained  by  burning  the 
green  vegetables,  known  by  the  name  of 
fern,  brecon,  bean  and  pea-straw,  and 
whin-ashes  ;  also  common  field  and  high- 
way thistles ;  the  stalks  of  rape  and  mus- 
tard seed  ;  and  the  bent,  or  rushes,  that 
grow  by  the  seashore.  One  half  of  the 
ingredients  being  thus  procured,  they  are 
then  passed  through  a  fine  sieve,  placed 
on  a  boarded  floor,  and  carefully  mixed 
with  a  similar  quantity  (making  the  other 
half)  of  soapboilers' waste  ashes,  which 
must  be  ultimately  blended  together  with 
a  shovel.  Next,  lie  adds  one  hundred 
weight  of  quick -lime  to  twelve  times  that 
quantity  of  the  other  materials,  and  like'- 
wise  intermixes  them  thoroughly.  After 
this  preparation,  tlie  whole  is  put  into 
large  square  iron  pans,  and  a  suflficient 
quantity  of  sea-water  is  pom*ed  on  it  to 
dissolve  the  lime,  ashes,  &.c.  while  the 
mass  is  stirred  with  an  iron  rake,  to  ef- 
fect a  more  minute  intermixture.  A  coal 
fire  Is  now  lighted  under  the  pans,  and 
kept  I)rlskly  burning  foi'ty-eight  hours, 
without  intermission  j  'at  the  same  time, 


BAR 


BAR 


tlie  pans  are  continually  supplied  with  sea- 
water,  in  oi'der  to  impregnate  these  ma- 
terials with  a  greater  degree  of  the  saline 
4fe  quality,  till  tliey  acquire  a  proper  cou- 
sistence  for  calcination  in  a  melting  fur- 
nace, knowni  by  the  name  of  ca:'car.  This 
apparatus  is  constructed  in  the  usual 
minner,  except  that  there  is  a  wall  above 
the  grate -room,  to  separate  the  fire  from 
the  materials  laid  upon  the  bottom.  An 
intense  degree  of  heat  is  used  in"  this  cal- 
car,  by  means  of  which  the  saline  mass 
boiled  in  the  pan  is  completely  dissolved, 
and  afterwai'ds  kept  in  a  state  of  fusion 
for  one  hour,  diu-ing  which  time,  the  vo- 
latile part  is  expelled,  and  a  fixed  alka- 
hne  salt  remains :  this,  being  cooled  in 
U'on  pans,  produces  British  barilla,  re- 
sembling that  imported  from  Spain.  Mr. 
King  also  declares,  in  the  preamble  to  his 
patent,  that  tliis  new  chemical  compound 
is  calcuhited  to  serve  as  a  substitute  lor 
manufacturing  crown  and  broad  window- 
glass,  and  also  bottles,  as  well  as  fur  mak- 
ing soap  and  alum  to  much  greater  ad- 
vantage, than  any  other  material  hitherto 
used  in  the  production  of  tliose  commo- 
dities. 

Barilla  is  produced,  by  the  incineration 
ef  different  sea  plants,  chiefly  in  Spain 
and  Ital}-,  where  whole  fields  are  sowed 
with  them  by  the  farmers,  to  good  advan- 
tage. From  this  impure  and  mixed  mass 
©f  cinders,  is  obtained  the  marine  alkali. 

In  Spain,  Italy  and  France,  it  is  also 
obtained  from  the  fucus  vesiculosus  and 
from  the  salsola  soda.  The  Saracens  in 
Spain,  called  the  plant  which  they  used 
for  the  preparation  of  their  Barilla,  kali ; 
which  with  tlie  addition  of  the  Arabian 
article,  has  given  rise  to  the  name  alkali. 

The  discovery  of  the  use  of  these 
plants,  seems  to  be  a  {iresent  of  the  Sara- 
cens to  the  Europeans,  for  no  mention  is 
made  of  it,  before  the  ^lahometan  rera. 
Tlie  Ancients  seem  to  be  silent  on  that 
head. 

The  manner  of  preparing  tliese  ashes, 
usually  is  thus :  when  the  plant  has  at- 
tained its  full  height,  they  cut  it  down 
and  let  it  dry ;  afterwards  they  burn  and 
calcine  it  in  certain  pits,  like  lime  kilns, 
dug  in  the  ground  for  that  purpose,  which 
are  covered  up  with  eartli,  so  tliat  no  an- 
may  come  at  tlie  fire.  The  matter  by 
this  means  is  not  only  reduced  into  ashes, 
but  by  means  of  the  salt  juices  united  into 
a  hard  substance,  which  they  break  out 
of  the  pits  with  hammers. 

The  Spanish  barilla  is  reckoned  the 
best;  and  among  the  Sicily  barilla,  the 
preference  is  given  to  the  produce  of 
Utica,  then  comes  that  of  Trapani,  then 
Catanea,  iSIarsula,  &c. 


In  Sicily,  the  first  crop  of  these  herb.s 
is  cut  in  September  and  October;  and 
they  make  a  second  crop  about  the  end 
of  J^ovember;  but  this  second  crop  pro- 
duces an  inferior  kind  of  barilla. 

In  shipping  barilla,  particular  attention 
should  be  paid,  to  have  as  little  small  or 
dust  as  possible  ;  as  in  the  latter  state  it 
is  most  exposed  to  the  access  of  air,  which 
destroys  its  virtue.  The  marine  alkali 
however,  is  less  subject  to  attract  humi- 
dity, than  the  vegetable  alkali,  like  pot 
and  pearl  ashes,  which  can  only  be  pre- 
served when  closely  packed  in  casks.  Tiie 
usual  assortment,  in  which  barilla  is  sold 
in  Sicily,  consists  of  two  thirds  large 
lumps,  one  sixth  small  lumps,  and  one 
sixth  dust.  It  answers  best,  not  to  ship 
any  dust,  but  to  resell  it  at  half  price. 

Prime  quality  in  barilla  is  to  be  distin- 
guished, by  its  strong  smell,  when  wet- 
ted wiili  the  spittle,  and  by  its  wliitish 
color.  If  the  lumps  ai'e  hard,  it  shews 
they  are  fiesh. 

Biirilla  is  used  by  glassmakers,  soap- 
boilers, bleachers,  and  other  manufac- 
turers. 

BARING   OF  TREES.     See  Horti- 

CULTURE. 

BARK,  in  the  dissection  of  plants,  is 
the  exterior  coat  of  trees,  corresponding 
to  the  skin  of  animals.  As  tlicse  are  fur- 
nished witii  a  cellular  membrane  covering 
all  the  fleshy  parts,  and  usually  replete 
with  white  granulated  fat,  which  can  be 
liquified  only  by  heat ;  so  are  plants  sur- 
rounded with  a  bark  abounding  with  oily 
juices,  by  means  of  wliich,  natiu'e  ha.s 
rendered  them  inaccessible  to  cold;  be- 
cause the  spicula:  of  the  ice  are  prevented 
from  fixing  and  freezing  the  fluids,  which 
circulate  through  the  vessels.  Hence  it 
is  tliat  evergreens  continue  their  verdure 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  because  their 
bark  contains  an  unusual  proportion  of 
oil,  more  than  is  dissipated  by  tlae  heat 
of  the  Sim. 

The  quantity  of  bark  on  a  ti-ee  may  be 
increased  by  pinching  ofi" the  flower-buds, 
as  soon  as  they  appear ;  but,  if  the  former 
be  woimded,  by  any  accident,  the  edges 
of  the  dead  rind  ought  to  be  carefully  cut 
oflj  without  injuring  the  living  bia-k;  and 
a  mixture  of  wiiite  lead  and  boiled  oil  be 
applied,  to  preserve  tlie  woimded  part 
from  air,  moisture,  and  insects — The  fol- 
lowing method  of  cui-e,  which  is  stated  to 
have  been  successfidly  practised  where 
the  bark  of  a  tree  had  recently  been  torn 
ofl",  we  give  on  the  authoritj'  of  Dr.  Dar- 
win. It  consists  simply  in  again  f  istenfaig 
the  same  piece  of  bark,  or  in  tying  down 
another  piece  from  a  u-ee,  belonging  to 
the  same  species ;  the  edges  of  the  wound 


BAR 


BAS 


antl  bark  being  carefully  adjusted ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  the  whole  will  com 
bine  hi  the  same  manner  as  the  vessels  of 
a  seven  unite  with  those  of  the  bark  be- 
longing to  the  engrafted  stock. 

'the  bark  of  plants  is  hable  to  peculiar 
tliseases,  as  well  as  to  be  preyed  upon  by 
insects,  which  frequently  prove  destruc- 
tive to  the  tree.  <Jne  of  its  most  common 
enemies  is  the  bark  luorm,  wliich  infests 
and  perforates  its  subslance  :  and  unless 
the  parts  aflected  be  cautiously  removed 
by  the  knife,  and  the  superficial  wounds 
plastered  over  with  a  mixture  of  wax  and 
turpentine,  (or  Forsyth's  Composition) 
the  stem  will  in  process  of  time  become 
cankered,  stunied  in  its  growth,  and  ul- 
limately  fidl  a  sacrilice  to  the  disease. 

M.  BufFon  has  ascertained,  by  repeat- 
ed  experiments,  that  trees  stripped  of 
their  bark  tlie  whole  length  of  the  stems, 
tlo  not  live  "longer  than  tlu'ee  or  tour 
years.  It  deserves,  however,  to  be  re- 
marked, that,  v/hen  thus  deprived  of  the 
whole  bark,  and  suffered  to  die  gi-adi*- 
ally,  they  afford  a  more  compact,  heavy, 
and  more  durable  timber,  than  if  they 
had  been  felled  in  their  healthy  state. 
The  reason  of  this  improvement  is  obvi- 
ous, as  those  oily  and  astringent  fluids, 
which  are  secreted  for  the  uniform  nour- 
ishment of  the  bark,  are  absorbed,  and 
deposited  on  the  fibres  of  Uic  wood,  which, 
during  tlie  progressive'}  dissolution  of  ve 
getable  life,  acquire  what  nature  had  pro 
vided  for  tlie  supply  of  the  external  in 
teguments.  Yet  there  is  one  disadvan- 
tage arising  from  the  privation  of  the 
bark,  perhaps  tantamount  to  the  addi- 
tional value  of  the  timber,  namely,  that 
the  farther  increase,  or  growth  of  the 
tree,  is  for  three  or  four  years  effectually 
checked. 

The  barking  of  trees  ought,  in  our  cli- 
mate, to  be  performed  in  spring  from 
about  the  middle  of  April  to  that  of 
May  ;  because  at  that  time  the  circulat- 
ing sap  facilitates  this  oi)eration,  which, 
in  dry  seasons,  is  not  only  attended  with 
additional  labour,  but  the  bark  also  will 
be  of  inferior  value. 

With  respect  to  the  extent  of  stripping 
the  oak-bark  from  trees,  a  wide  diflei-- 
ehce  of  opinion  appears  to  prevail.  Some 
owners  of  large  tracts  of  wood,  and  great 
admirers  of  timber,  cautiously  prohibit 
the  removal  of  the  bark  nearer  than  six 
inches  to  the  ground ;  about  which  sjiot 
they  suppose  the  tree  to  be  felled  :  wliile 
others  enjoin  it  to  be  done  as  near  the 
ground  as  possible,  provided  tiiat  in  this 
operation  there  be  no  part  of  the  root  laid 
bare.  Mr.  S.  IJaycs,  the  author  of  an 
excellent  "  Practical  Treatine  on  JPlaiit-] 


iiig"  published  in  England  in  1796,  inclines 
to  the  latter  opinion  :  and  adds,  tliat  the  . 
advocates  for  the  former  method  would, 
on    more    accul-ate    investigation,     save  jJp 
themselves  much  unnecessary  trouble,  to   t 
little  purpose,  if  not  to  theu*  material  in- 
jury. 

'i'he  inner  and  more  delicate  patl  ot 
the  bark,  especially  tliat  of  the  ash  and 
lime  trees,  was  used  by  the  ^ncients,  for 
writing  and  communicating  tlieir  sublime 
ideas  to  posterity,  prior  to  the  invention 
of  paper.  V 

In  economy,  as  well  as  in  many  of  the', 
practical  arts,  the  utility  of  different 
barks  is  very  great  and  extensive  ;  for  in- 
stance, that  of  the  oak  for  tanning  lea- 
ther, and  manuring  the  soil ;  the  Peru- 
vian cinnamon,  quassia,  willow-bark.  Sic 
in  medicine  and  for  culinia-y  uses  ;  that  of 
the  alder  and  walnut  trees  in  dyeing ;  and 
others  again  for  a  variety  of  purposes, 
such  as  the  bark  of  the  cork  tree,  &c. 
&c. —Without  detailing  the  particular 
and  curious  processes  adopted  by  foreign 
nations,  for  rendering  the  baiks  of  vari- 
ous trees  essentially  useful,  we  shall 
briefly  state,  that  the  Japanese  make 
their  beautiful  paper  of  the  bark  obtained 
from  a  species  of  the  mulberry  tree,  cal- 
led tnorus ;  the  natives  of  Otaheite  manu- 
facture their  cloth  of  the  same  tree,  as 
well  as  the  bread-fruit  and  tlie  cocoa 
trees;  the  Russians  and  Poles  produce 
their  shoes  worn  by  the  peasantry,  twist 
ropes,  and  form  a  variety  of  other  useful 
articles,  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  lime 
tree ;  the  Germans  have,  for  tlie  last 
twenty  years,  converted  the  bark  of  the 
common  black  and  white  mulberry  trees 
into  excellent  paper — An  analytical  ac- 
count of  the  last  mentioned  articjp,  in- 
terspersed with  many  new  and  curious 
facts,  we  propose  to  give  in  the  sequel. 

BARLEY.  Sec  Agriculture,  see 
also  Brewing. 

BASALT,  or  BASALTES,  in  natural 
history,  a  hard  stone  of  a  black,  grey,  or 
sometimes  g'reenish  coloiu* ;  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  constituent  ])arts,, and  resem- 
blance to  lava,  generally  classed  among 
the  volcanic  productions.  It  is  remarka- 
ble, that  this  fossil  is  disposed  either  in  so- 
lid or  jointed  columns;  the  former  con: 
sisting  of  five  or  six  pillai's,  either  of  an 
imiform  size,  or  conical,  and  generally 
standing  close  to  eacli  other  perpendicu- 
larly, of  different,  and  sometimes  equal 
length,  as  if  they  had  been  an-anged  by  rf 
skilful  artist.  The  Ilebridic  island  of 
Staffii  is  entirely  composed  of  lofty  and 
capacious  basaltic  columns,  the  most  cu- 
rious arrangement  of  which,  perhaps,  on 
the  \\hole  globe,  is  the  celebrated  Fin- 


BAY 


BEE 


g'^l's  eave.  Iii  Germany,  also,  tlici'e  are 
several  basaltic  mountains  ;  for  instance, 
those  on  the  Khine,  and  near  Fre}  berg,  in 
Saxony,  where  basaltes  is  frequently 
ibuiulofan  oval  or  spherical  figure.  Spain, 
Russia,  Poland,  and  Silesia,  also  produce 
various  basaltic  rocks.  Great  quantities 
of  this  fossil  ai-e  deposited  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Mount  Etna»  in  Sicily ;  of 
Hecla  in  Iceland,  8tc.  But  the  lai'gest 
mass  yet  discovered,  are,  what  is  called 
the  Giant's  Causeway,  in  Ireland. 

As  naturalists  differ  in  their  opinion 
concerning  the  origin  of  this  curious  sub- 
stance, whether  it  be  Uie  production  of 
volcanos  arisin^j  from  subterraneous  fires, 
or  derive  its  origin  from  crystallization  by 
water,  we  shall  state  only  the  residt  of  M. 
Bergman's  inquu-y  into  this  subject,  as  his 
explanation  appears  to  be  conclusive.  He 
asserts,  that  both  fire  and  water  contri- 
bute to  form  basaltes,  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  there  has  been  some  con- 
nection between  the  basaltic  pillars  and 
subterraneous  fire,  as  they  are  found  mix- 
ed with  lava,  and  other  substances,  pro- 
duced by  tliat  element. 

Hies — Basaltes  is  an  excellent  material 
for  building  houses,  and  paving  streets  : 
it  is  also  employed  by  lapidaries  and  statu- 
aries for  various  productions  of  art ;  as 
well  as  by  artists  working  in  gold  and  sil- 
ver, for  touch  or  test-stones. — Gold-beat- 
ers and  book-binders,  on  the  continent, 
make  their  anvils  of  this  firm  and  massy 
stone  ;  which  is  also  used  as  an  ingredient 
in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  especially  for 
producing  the  common  window-glass,  and 
green  bottles. 

From  its  being  tougher  and  more  dura- 
ble than  marble,  it  was  a  favourite  material 
with  the  ancient  Eg}ptian  sculptors,  many 
of  whose  works  executed  in  basalt  are  at 
the  present  day  in  as  perfect  a  state  as 
when  they  were  first  finished.  The  cellu- 
lar variety  is  used  with  some  success  as  a 
material  for  millstones.  It  is  also  employ- 
ed as  a  flux  for  certain  iron  ores.  Basalt 
also  when  torrefied  and  pulverized,  com- 
municates to  common  mortar  the  proper- 
ty of  hardening  under  water. 

BASKET-SALT  is  made  from  the  water 
of  salt  springs.  It  differs  from  the  common 
brine-salt,  in  tlie  fineness  of  the  grain,  as 
well  as  on  account  of  its  whiteness  and  pu- 
rity. In  preparing  the  former  kind,  some 
persons  use  resin  and  other  ingredients, 
for  separating  the  crystals,  and  reducing 
them  to  a  smaller  grain ;  others  effect  tliis 
by  keeping  up  a  brisk  fire  under  the  pans, 
and  constantly  stirring  the  salt ;  but  the 
most  approved  method  of  manufticturing 
basket-salt  is,  to  take  out  for  this  purpose, 
YOL.   J. 


the  tJiird  draught  of  every  pan  whlcfi  is 
working  for  the  common  brine-salt ;  and 
to  do  tills  before  the  granules  oi  crystals 
are  perfectly  formed. — Thus  the  salt  will 
become  very  fine;  and  it  is  then  hard 
pressed  into  small  wicker-baskets,  dried 
at  the  stove  and  kept  for  sale. 

As  there  prevails,  in  many  families,  a 
prejudice  against  this  species  of  salt,  from 
an  idea  tliat  some  pernicious  articles  are 
used  in  the  chemical  process  of  preparing 
it,  we  advise  those  who  are  under  the  in- 
fluence  of  such  apprehension,  to  reduce 
common  salt  to  powder,  in  a  marble  oe 
iron  mortar:  but  it  requires  to  be  previ- 
ously cleaned  or  purified,  by  dissolving, 
and  again  evaporating  it  to  dryness;  ill 
which  state  it  may  easily  be  pounded. 

BAY-SALT,  a  kind  of  brownish  impure 
salt,  manufactured  in  France,  Italy,  and 
other  countries,  by  evaporating  sea-wateP 
in  clay-pits  ;  which  is  effected  at  a  small 
expence,  and  with  little  trouble. 

Tliis  salt  is  more  or  less  adapted  to  all 
domestic  uses,  and  forms  a  profitable  arti- 
cle of  commerce,  as  it  is  exported  in  larger 
quantities.     See  Salt. 

BEE,  or  ^fiis,  in  natural  history,  a  ge* 
nus  of  bisects,  of  which  the  7nellijica,  or 
domestic  honey-bee,  is  particularly  wor» 
thy  of  attention. 

1.  Econo7ny,  Instinct,  &c. 
A  liive  of  bees  may  be  considered  as  a 
populous  city,  containing  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  thousand  uihabitants.  This  city 
is  in  itself  a  republic,  where  well  ordered 
industi-y  and  perfect  equality  reigns. 
The  combs  are  composed  of  pure  wax,, 
serving  as  a  magazine  for  their  stores^ 
and  a  place  to  nourish  their  young.  Be- 
tween the  combs  there  is  a  space  sufli-. 
cient  for  two  bees  to  march  abreast ;  and 
there  are  also  transverse  defiles,  by  which 
the  bees  can  more  easily  pass  from  one 
comb  to  another. 

Drones  are  larger  than  tlie  working- 
bees  ;  and  when  on  the  wing,  make  a 
greater  noise.  They  sicken,  die  aqd  are 
dragged  from  the  hive,  by  the  working- 
bees  about  the  latter  end  of  July. 

Several  kinds  of  ivorking-bees  were  dis- 
tinguished by  tlie  ancients.  Columella 
coincides  with  Virgil,  in  prefeiring  those 
which  are  small,  oblong,  smooth,  bright  or 
shining,  and  of  a  gentle  disposition  :  the 
superior  utility  of  this  species  has  been 
established  by  experience.  Working-bee* 
compose  the  most  numerous  body  of  the 
state.  They  have  the  care  of  the  hive  ; 
collect  the  wax  and  honey ;  fabricate  the 
wax  into  combs  ;  feed  the  young ;  keep 
the  hive  clean  ;  expel  all  strangers ;  and 
employ  theanselves  in  promoting  general 

r 


BEE 


BEE 


pi'osperUy.  The  wovking-bce  has  two 
stomachs  ;  one  to  contain  the  honey,  and 
unother  for  the  crude  wax. 

II  Of  the  managtment  of  bees,  and  the 
most  approved  methods  of  preserving 
tlicm,  on  removing  their  honey  ,  and 
wax.  .  . 

Accordinf;  to  CoUimelhi,  an  Apuiry 
should  face  the  south,  in  a  situation 
neitlier  too  hot  nor  too  cold.  It  should 
stand  in  a  valley,  tiiat  the  bees  may  with 
tfreater  ease  descend,  on  their  return  to 
iiive  ;  and  near  the  mansion-house,  and 
silviated  at  a  distance  from  noise  and  of- 
fensive smells  ;  and  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
brook  oi"  river.  Where  tlie  bees  cannot 
have  the  benefit  of  running  water,  the)' 
ought  to  be  supplied  with  it  in  a  trough 
provided  wiUi  small  stones,  on  which 
they  may  stand  wliile  they  driuk.  They 
cannot  produce  either  combs,  honey,  or 
Ibod  for  their  maggots,  without  water  ; 
but  tlie  neighboiivliood  of  rivers  or  ca- 
nals vvith  higli  banks,  ought  to  be  avoid- 
ed, lest  the 'bees  sliould  be  precipitated 
into  the  water  by  high  winds,  and  con- 
sequently perisii.  'I'he  garden  in  which 
the  a]ii:iry  stands,  shoud  be  supplied  with 
melliferous  plants  and  branchy  shrubs, 
that  the  swarms  which  settle  on  them 
may  be  the  more  easily  hived. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  circumstance,  that  the  bees  be  hived 
in  a  neighboiu'hood  productive  of  such 
plants  as  supply  them  with  food;  such 
as  thyme,  the  oak,  the  pine,  fruit-trees, 
furze,  broom,  mustard,  clover,  heath,  &.c 
Pliny  recommends  broon),as  a  plant  par- 
ticularly grateful  and  profitable  to  bees. 
BEE-HIV'ES  made  of  straw,  have  been 
generally  preferred,  as  they  are  not  liable 
to  be  over-heated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
keep  mit  the  cold  better  than  wood,  and 
are  cheaper  than  those  of  any  otl>er  mate- 
rial. 

M.  Chabouille,  in  France,  has  lately 
suggested  improvements  upon  bee-hives, 
which  appear  to  us  deserving  of  notice. 
His  principal  object  is  to  procure  the 
greatest  degree  of  cleanliness  for  these 
delicate  and  industrious  insects,  by  co- 
vering the  bottom  of  the  hive  with  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  and  constructing  the  cylin- 
drical inclosure  of  rye-straw,  and  cross 
ligaments,  or  bands,  made  of  the  inner 
rind  of  die  lime-tree  When  the  basket- 
work  is  completed,  he  coals  it  over  with 
a  cement  made  of  two-thirds  of  cow-dung, 
and  one-thu-d  of  ashes.  In  tlie  interior 
purt  of  the  hive,  he  places  two  thin  pieces 
of  oak,  crossing  each  olher  at  right  an- 
gles, which  greatly  facilitate  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  honey-combs.  Tiie  cover  of 
the  luve  consists  of  -a  firm  board,  seven- 


teen inches  hi  diameter,  and  the  entrance 
is  so  constructed,  that  it  may  be  closed 
by  a  small  door,  to  exclude  injurious 
animals  during  winter.  The  lower  part 
of  this  door  has  small  semi-lunar  incisions, 
each  of  which  admits  two  bees  abreast : 
above  these,  are  made  two  rows  of  holes, 
just  large  enough  for  one  bee  to  pass. 
I'iie  floor  should  be  so  constructed,  that 
it  may  encompass  and  secure  the  founda- 
tion of  the  hive,  to  prevent  any  disiur- 
bance  from  that  quarter.  Such  a  smooth 
aiid  white  floor  of  gypsum,  gi-eatly  ccm- 
tributes  to  cleanliness,  and  the  bees  be- 
come so  much  attached  to  it,  that  they 
will  not  easily  relinquish  their  habitation. 
The  straw  wall  ouRhtto  be  one-inch,  and 
the  cement  before  described,  half  an  inch 
in  thickness ;  the  latter  is  Ihe  best  coat- 
ing jet  contrived,  for  excluding  noxiou,s' 
insects  which  would  perforate  the  straw, 
and  ibr  sheltering  the  bees  fi'om  rain  and 
wind,  while  it  exhales  an  odour  very 
gi-ateful  to  them.  M.  Chabouille  has  al- 
so observed,  that  bees  kept  in  a  hive  of 
this  description,  are  sufficiently  protected 
against  the  effect  of  cold  during  winter ;. 
and  that  they  swarm  much  earlier  than 
those  reared  m  any  other. 

However  ingenious  this  contrivance 
may  appear,  we  regret  that  the  inventor 
has  not  stated  the  particular  dimensions 
of  the  bee-hive,  nor  attended  to  many 
other  circumstances  relative  to  the  cul- 
ture of  the  insect  itself.  Hence  we  are 
induced  to  communicate  a  later,  more  ac- 
curate and  circumstantial  description  of 
a  bee-hive,  hiventcd  in  Italy  by  Professor 
Gaetano  Harasti,  which  has  proved  of 
practical  uiility.  This  account  is  trans- 
lated from  the  Transactions  of  the  Patri- 
otic Society  cf  JMilan,  and  as  it  contains 
much  useful  information  on  the  subject, 
we  have  endeavoured  to  render  it  of  prac- 
tical service,  by  accom])anyinglt  with  the 
appro}5riate  cuts  of  the  different  figures 
described. 

It  is  well  known  tliat  bees,  when  pro- 
perly cultivated,  produce  considerable 
profit,  and  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest 
possible  advantage,  it  is  necessary  to  sup- 
ply them  widi  every  convenience  for  the 
suppoT-t  of  themselves  and  their  young. 
We  should  also  contrive  means  to  take 
the  wax  and  honey  with  the  smallest  pos- 
sible loss.  In  short,  when  the  apiary  is 
placed  in  a  good  situation,  (either  south 
or  sou  I  h  west,)  that  is,  in  a  country 
abounding  vvith  flowers,  at  a  distance 
from  brew-houses,  smelting  works,  &c. 
tlie  nexl  and  most  imijortant  pohil  is  the 
choice  of  well  constructed  hives. 

Ill  Lombardy,  the  common  hive,  com- 
posed of  straw,  or  twigs,  is  generally 


BEE 


BEE 


used,  though  ill-contrived ;  as  it  is  diffi- 
rult  to  take  away  the  wax  and  honey  with- 
out destroying  the  bees. 

Reflecting  on  these  circumstances, 
M.  Harasti,  during  his  cultivation  of  bees. 
Conceived  that  it  would  be  possible  to 
form  a  hive  which  should  liave  all  the 
advantages  of  the  best  kind,  while  the 
simplicity  and  cheapness  of  its  construc- 
tion, might  bring  it  into  use  among-  hus- 
bandmen. 

A  good  bee-hive  ought  to  possess  the 
following  properties  :  First,  it  should  be 
capable  of  enlargtment  or  contraction, 
according  to  the  number  of  the  swarm. 
Secondly,  it  should  admit  of  being  opened 
without  disturbing  the  bees,  either  for  the 
purpose  of  cleaning  it ;  of  freeing  it  from 
insects ;  of  increasing  or  dividing  the 
swarm  ;  or  for  the  admission  of  a  stock  of 
provisions  for  the  -(vinter.  Tliii'dly,  it 
fihould  be  so  constructed,  that  the  pro- 
duce may  be  removed  withou'  injury  to 
the  bees.  Fourthly,  it  should  be  inter- 
nally clean,  smooth,  and  free  fr<nn  flaws. 
All  these  properties  unite  in  the  hive  here 
described. 

It  is  formed  of  four  open  square  boxes, 
A,  B  C,  D,  as  represented  by  the  folio w- 
Jng-  cut ; 


These  boxes  are  fastened  to  each  other 
by  several  wooden  buttons,  b,  b,  &c. 
wnich  turn  upon  a  nail  or  screw.  The 
whole  is  covered  with  a  moveable'roof, 
which  projects  over  the  boxes  slanting 
from  the  centre  a,  that  tlie  rain-water  may 
run  off'.  It  is  necessary  to  place  a  stone  on 
the  top  of  the  roof,  to  keep  it  on  firm. 

Instead  of  buttons,  the  boxes  may  be 
combined  by  a  rabbet  fastened  with 
wooden  pegs  :  but  in  either  case,  the  con- 
joined parts  should  be  closed  with  cement. 
If  the  swarm  it  not  very  numerous,  three, 
or  even  two,  boxes  will  be  sufficient. 
Each  of  them  should  be  about  three 
Miches,  or  three  incbes  ajid  a  liajf  io^height, 


and  about  six  inches  in  the  clear  within. 
They  should  be  made  of  wood,  at  least 
tliree  quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  that  the 
bees,  wax.  Sic  may  be  less  affected  by 
changes  in  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

Within  the  boxes,  at  the  upper  part, 
there  should  be  fixed  two  bars  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  with  the  extremities  ex- 
tending to  the  angles  of  the  box,  as  is  re- 
presented in  the  following  figure  : 


To  these  bars  the  bees  attach  their 
combs.  At  the  lower  part  of  each  box, 
in  fiont,  there  must  be  an  aperture  or 
dooi',  as  at  c,  c,  c,  d,  as  high  as  is  neces- 
sary for  the  bees  to  pass  convenientlj ,  and 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  wide  ;  of  these 
apertures,  oi\ly  the  lowest  (marked  rf)  is 
to  be  left  open  for  the  passage  of  the 
bees ;  the  others  are  to  be  closed  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  wood,  properly  fitted 
to  them. 

It  must  be  evident,  that  this  bee -hive 
has  all  the  advantages  before  mentioned. 
To  lessen  or  enlarge  it  only  requires  a 
dimini^tion  oruicreaseof  the  number  of  the 
boxes ;  and  a  communication  with  the 
internal  part  can  easily  be  eft'ected  by  the 
removal  of  the  cover. 

The  cheapness  and  facility  of  the  con- 
struction ot  this  hive  is  evident,  as  no- 
thing  is  requisite  but  to  join  four  boards 
with  nails,  or  in  any  other  manner,  so 
simple  that  it  may  be  done  by  a  day- 
labourer. 

When  the  hives  are  made,  they  should 
be  placed  in  a  good  situation  :  the  best  is 
south-west:  but  they  must  not  be  too 
much  exposed  to  the  heat  of  noon,  which 
may  be  mitigated,  by  placing  the  branches 
of  trees  to  shade  the  hives,  as  violent 
heat  is  injurious,  not  only  to  the  bees, 
but  to  the  wax  and  honey.  The  country 
around  the  apiary  should  be  of  a  sandy 
soil,  abovmding  with  plants  and  shrubs. 
As  bees  love  cleanliness  and  quiet,  the 
circumjacent  space  should  be  kept  clean, 
and  free  from  offensive  smells  and  noise  : 
smoke  is  particularly  disagreeable  to 
them.  The  boaids  or  table  on  which  the 
hives  are  placed,  should  be  di-y,  clean, 
and  sound ;  and  the  hives  ought  to  be 
suflici§ntly  raised  to  prevent  tiieir  ex- 


BEE 


BEE 


posui'e  to  dampness  and  insects ;  they 
sliould  also  be  kept  at  a  distance  from  a 
wall,  to  avoid  the  reflected  heat  of  the 
sun.  In  the  table  on  which  the  hives  are 
to  stand,  there  should  be  an  upertui-e, 
under  each,  abovit  two  inches  square,  as 
it  is  represented  at  e,  in  the  following 
cat  : 


This  aperture  should  be  covered  with 
|X  piece  of  tin,  drilled  full  of  small  holes, 
so  as  to  afford  a  free  passage  to  the  air, 
and  at  the  same  time  prevent  the  ingress 
of  insects.  That  this  may  not  occasion 
any  incoTivenience  to  the  bees  in  cold  and 
damp  weather,  there  must  be  a  sliding 
piece  of  wood, y,  under  the  tin,  by  which 
the  hole  may  be  completely  covered. 

When  it  is  intended  to  introduce  a 
swarm  of  bees  into  a  new  hive,  it  must 
be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the  inside 
nibbed  with  virgin  wax.  It  is  advanta- 
geous to  place  a  piece  of  clean  honey- 
comb, about  nine  inches  long,  in  the 
hive,  and  care  should  also  be  taken  to 
choose  that  which  is  made  of  very  white 
wax.  This  piece  being  supported  by  a 
stick  passed  through  it,  offers  to  the  bees 
a  kind  of  nest,  and  excites  them  to  con- 
tinue their  work. 

The  new  hive  being  thus  prepared,  the 
manner  of  introducing  the  bees  into  it, 
from  an  old  hive,  is  as  follows  :  the  latter 
must  be  placed  upon  one  of  the  boxes  of 
the  new  one  ;  but  as  it  will  seldom  hap- 
pen that  they  are  of  the  same  size,  and 
exactly  fit  each  other,  a  board,  at  least 
as  wide  as  the  largest  of  the  two  hives, 
and  which  has  a  hole  equal  in  size  to  the 
smallest,  must  be  placed  between  them, 
and  completely  joined  with  cement,  or 
by  any  other  means  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  be,  quite  close,  and  to  leave  the  bees 
no  passage  except  into  the  new  hive  As 
these  insects  generally  work  downwards, 
they  will  soon  get  into  the  new  hive  ;  and, 
when  it  is  occupied  by  about  one-h;ilf  of 
the  swarm,  some  holes  must  be  made  in 
the  top  of  the  old  hive,  and  kept  cover- 
ed, till  the  proper  time  for  making  use  of 
them. 

Eveiy  thing  being  disposed  as  above 
directed,  we  must  take  the  opportunity 
of  a  fine  morning,  but  not  a  veiy  het  one, 


about  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  at  which 
time  most  of  tlie  bees  are  generally  out 
of  the  hive,  gathering  their  liarvest.  Tlie 
comb  is  to  be  cut  through,  by  means  of  a 
piece  of  iion  wire,  and  the  old  hive,  with 
the  board  on  which  it  stands,  is  to  be  se- 
parated from  the  new  one.  An  assistant 
must  immediately  place  tlie  cover  (al- 
ready well  fitted)  upon  the  top  of  the 
new  hive.  The  old  hive  is  then  to  be 
taken  away,  to  the  distance  of  thii-ty  or 
foi'ty  paces,'  and  to  be  there  placed  upon 
two  chairs,  or  other  supports,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  quite  firm  ;  but  leaving 
a  fi'ee  space,  both  above  and  below,  for 
the  following  purpose. 

Upon  this  old  hive  (the  holes  at  the 
top  of  it  being  first  opened)  is  to  be  plac- 
ed one  of  the  boxes  of  the  new  hive,  hav- 
ing the  cover  loosely  fastened  on  it,  so 
that  it  can  easily  be  removed ;  this  box 
must  be  fixed  upon  the  old  hive,  in  such 
a  manner  (by  closing  the  intervals  be- 
tween them  with  linen  cloths,  &c  )  that 
tlie  bees,  upon  going  out  by  the  holes  in 
the  top  of  the  old  liive,  can  only  go  into 
the  new  one.  In  order  to  di'ive  them  into 
it,  some  live  coals  must  be  placed  under 
the  old  hive,  upon  which  a  few  linen  rags 
may  be  thrown,  to  produce  a  great  vo? 
lume  of  smoke.  As  tlie  smoke  rises,  the 
bees,  being  incommoded  by  it,  will  as- 
cend to  the  top  of  the  old  hive,  and  at 
length  will  go  through  the  holes  into  the 
new  one.  When  all  the  bees,  or  nearly 
all,  are  gone  into  it  (which  may  be  known 
by  looking  in  at  the  little  door,  or  by 
their  noise)  it  is  to  be  removed  gently 
from  the  old  hive,  and  placed  under  the 
box  already  alluded  to,  the  top  or  cover 
being  previously  taken  off.  The  next 
morning,  if  it  should  appear  that  the  two 
boxes,  of  which  the  new  hive  is  now 
composed,  do  not  afford  sufficient  space 
for  the  bees,  a  third  box  may  be  added, 
under  tiie  others ;  and  after  that  a  fourth, 
if  necessary,  as  their  work  goes  on,  chang- 
ing them  from  time  to  time,  so  long  as 
the  season  perp'its  tlie  bees  to  gather  wax 
and  honey. 

In  performing  the  operations  here  de- 
scribed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  defend 
the  hands  and  face  from  the  stings  of  the 
bees.  The  best  way  of  doing  this,  is  to 
cover  the  whole  of  the  head,  neck,  &c. 
(over  a  hat)  with  coarse  cloth,  or  can- 
vass, which  may  be  brought  as  low  as  the 
waistcoat,  and  fastened  to  it :  through 
this  cloth  we  may  see  the  operations  of 
the  bees,  without  feai-ing  their  stings. 
The  hands  may  be  protected  by  means  of 
gloves,  of  which  the  best  are  those  made 
of  wool. 

When  we  mean  to  bring  a  new  swarm 


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mto  a  hive,  the  one  prepared  as  above,  and 
formed  of  uvo,  three,  or  four  boxes,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  swarm,  must 
be  brought  near  the  place  where  the 
swarm  is.  The  upper  box,  with  the  co- 
ver fastened  on  (but  so  tliat  it  may  easily 
be  removed)  must  be  tuken  from  the 
others..  The  cross  bars,  before  describ- 
ed, should  be  smeared  w  ith  honey,  dilut- 
ed with  a  hltle  water;  tlie  small  door 
must  be  shut,  and  the  box  must  be  turn- 
ed upside  down,  and  brought  under  the 
swarm,  which  is  tiien  to  be  introduced, 
in  the  same  way,  and  with  similar  pre- 
caution as  mto  a  common  hive.  When 
the  whole  swarm  is  in  the  box,  it  is  to  be 
carried  to  the  other  boxes  (previously 
placed  in  tlieir  destined  situation)  and, 
turning  it  very  carefully,  is  to  be  put 
upon  them.  The  buttons  are  then  to  be 
turned,  the  interstices  closed  with  the 
cement  already  described,  and  all  the  lit- 
tle doors  closed,  except  the  lowest, 
through  which  the  bees  arc  to  pass.  No- 
thing is  more  disagreeable  to  a  fresli 
swarm  than  a  hot  sun,  for  which  reason, 
that  the  bees  may  not  wish  to  leave  their 
new  habitation,  it  will  be  right  to  shade 
tlie  hive  for  some  days. 

But  it  is  more  advantageous  to  form  ar- 
tificial swai'ms,  than  to  collect  those 
which  abandon  their  native  hives,  and  the 
liivc  here  described  is  very  convenient  fur 
that  purpose.  The  tiiUowing  metiiod,  M. 
Ilarasti  conceives  to  be  more  simple,  and 
more  secure  than  any  other  hitherto  pro- 
posed 

Take  a  well-stocked  hive,  of  four  boxes, 
in  some  of  these,  particularly  in.  the  two 
lowermost,  if  they  ai-e  well  filled,  there 
is  certainly  a  young  brood ;  for  in  tliese 
lower  boxes  the  young  bees  are  accus- 
tomed to  change  from  the  chrysalis  to  the 
perfect  state,  about  the  end  of  April,  or 
beginning  of  May,  if  the  hive  be  very 
full ;  but  if  otherwise,  this  change  does 
not  take  place  till  towards  the  end  of 
May,  or  even  tlie  middle  of  June.  At 
that  time,  a  fine  serene  day,  but  not  ex- 
cessively hot,  must  be  chosen,  and  about 
eight  or  nine  o'clock,  tlie  hive  must  be 
diviilcd  into  two,  in  tlie  following  man- 
ixer ;  Between  tiie  two  upper  boxes  and 
the  two  lower  ones,  forcjt  in  a  few  sUps 
jof  wood,  so  as  to  separate  the  boxes  suf- 
ficiently for  the  comb  to  be  cut  tlirough 
*';th  a  piece  of  iron  or  brass  wire.  I'o 
prevent  the  bees  from  coming  out  through 
this  opening,  and  thereby  annoying  tlie 
person  en^])loyed  in  the  operation,  the 
smoke  of  j.obacco  may  be  blown  (by  in- 
ti'oducing  ).he  small  end  of  a  pipe)  into 
he  opening;  this  will  cause  the  bees  to 
-  sort  to  tiie  inner  part  of  the  hive,  and 


will  keep  them  quiet.     But,  if  the  hands 
j  and  face  are  well  covered,  tliis  precau- 
_  tion  is  umiecessar>-.     An  emptj  box  must 
I  be  in  readiness,  in  the  place 'where  the 
I  hive  is  to  stand :  a  cover  must  also  be 
•  procured;  and,  as  soon  as  the  hive  is  di- 
:  vided  in  two  parts,  the  two  upper  boxes 
!  nuist  be  taken  from  the  lower  ones,  and 
the  cover  must  be  immediately  put  upon 
the  latter,  closing  all  the  interstices  whU 
tlie  usual  cement      The  upper  boxes  are 
to  be  placed  upon  the  empty  one  just 
mentioned,  so  that  a  hive  will  then  be 
formed  of  three  boxes     The  lower  boxes, 
on  which  tlic  fresh  cover  was  put,  must 
be  left  at  rest  till  the  evening,  at  which 
time  a  third  may  be  placed  under  them  ; 
and  when  it  appears  that  a  proper  quan- 
tity of  work  has  been  done  in  the  lower 
box  (of  either  hive)  a  fourtli  box  may  be 
added,  under  the  others. 

In  tJie  above  manner,  artificial  swarms 
may  be  formed;  and,  by  this  method, 
we  not  only  avoid  the  inc(»nveniences 
whicii  attend  the  procuring  of  swarms  ia 
the  common  way,  but  we  obtain  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  the  hives  always  well 
stocked.  This  ought  to  be  the  first  ob- 
ject of  every  one  who  cultivates  bees  ;  for 
it  is  allowed  to  be  of  more  advantage  to 
keep  the  hives  well  stocked,  than  to  in- 
crease  their  number  ;  and,  in  fact,  it  has 
been  observed,  that  if  a  hive  of  4uU0  bees 
gives  six  pounds  of  honey,  one  of  8000 
w  ill  give  twenty-four  pounds. 

Ujion  tills  principle,  it  is  proper  to  unite 
two  or  more  hives,  when  they  happen  to 
be  tliinly  stocked.  This  may  easily  be 
done,  by  taking  a  handful  of  balm,  and 
scattering  it  in  those  hives  which  are  in- 
tended to  be  united.  By  this  means,  the 
bees  will  all  acquire  the  same  smell ;  and, 
it  has  been  observed,  that  by  the  seubc 
of  smelhng,  bees  distinguish  those  which 
belong  to  die  same  hive.  After  tlie  above 
preparations,  the  hives  are  to  be  jomed, 
by  phicing  tliem  one  upon  the  otlier,  in 
the  evening,  when  they  are  at  rest,  taking 
away  those  boxes  which  contain  few  or 
no  bees  Care  must  be  taken  to  shut  all 
tlie  little  doors,  except  the  lowest. 

It  may  even  be  proper  sometimes  to 
shut  the  lower  tioor  also,  when,  for  in- 
stance, any  tumult  within  the  hive,  causes 
tlie  bees  to  endeavour  to  quit  it.  In  such 
case,  that  vhe  bees  may  not  be  deprived 
of  air,  a  piece  of  tin,  pertiuated  with  nu- 
merous holes,  may  be  used  to  close  the 
opening,  instead  of  the  usual  door,  and 
may  be  taken  away  when  the  bees  become 
quiet. 

The  following  is  the  method  of  taking 
the  wax  and  honey,  with  little  or  no  in- 
juiy  to  the  bees  ;  but  it  should  be  previ- 


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eusly  remarked,  that  the  honey  is  chiefly  !  of  the  same  form  and  size.  But  in  every 
at  the  top  of  the  hive,  tlie  young  brood  box,  on  that  side  which  is  opposite  the 
in  the  middle,  and  the  greatest  stock  ofiHttle  door,  there  must  be  fixed  a  pane  of 


wax  is  at  the  bottom.  For  this  reason, 
when  three  of  the  four  boxes  are  filled 
with  comb,  &c.  the  upper  one  A  is  to  be 
first  taken  off,  in  the  manner  here  de- 
scribed. The  buttons  b,  b,  &c.  wl\ich 
serve  to  unite  the  boxes,  are  to  be  turn 


glass,  with  a  sliding  shutter  over  it,  so 
that  by  drawing  back  these  sliders,  the 
inside  of  the  hive  will  be  exposed  to  view. 
To  see  the  bees  at  work,  however,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  comb  should  be  dis- 
posed in  a  regular  manner,  and  pei-pen* 


ed,  or  the  wooden  peg-s  (if  such  are  used)  dicular  to  the  pane  of  glass.  This  may 
taken  out;  the  cement  employed  for  clos- 1  be  obtained,  by  placing  in  the  boxes,  in- 
ing  the  intervals  is  to  be  scraped  off ;[  stead  of  the  two  cross-sticks  already  de- 


and  then  a  piece  of  iron  wire  is  to  be 
drawn  through  the  comb  so  as  to  divitle 
it.  When  the  box  A,  is  separated,  its 
cover  is  to  be  taken  ofi'  and  ]iut  upon  the 
box  B,  now  become  the  highest.  After 
taking  out  the  contents  of  the  box  A,  it 
is  to  be  cleaned,  and  again  placed  upon 
the  stand  or  table,  under  the  box  D,  tak- 
ing care  to  open  its  little  door,  and  to 
shut  that  of  the  box  D.  To  prevent  any 
bees  remaining  in  the  upper  box,  when 
taken  away,  a  little  smoke  may  be  intro- 
duced by  means  of  a  bellows. 

The  more  empty  space  the  bees  find  in 
the  hive,  the  more  eagerly  they  go  to 
work  The  brood  of  the  box  B,  which 
remained  at  top,  do  not  long  delay  to 
swarm,  or  at  least  they  pass  from  the 
state  of  chi-ysalis  into  that  of  the  perfect 
and  laborious  animal ;  therefore,  when  it 
is  perceived  that  the  lower  part  of  the 
hive  is  occupied,  the  box  B  may  be  ta- 
ken off,  in  the  manner  already  described, 
and  after  being  emptied,  may  be  placed 
under  A. 

In  the  same  way  the  thb'd  box  C,  in 
which  there  is  generally  a  good  stock  of 
WMX,  may  after waixls  be  taken  off;  but 
this  is  a  matter  of  greater  delicacy,  be- 
cause in  general  the  eggs  are  deposited 
in  it.  We  must  also  take  care  not  to  de- 
prive the  bees  entirely  of  the  stock  of  wax 
and  honey  which  they  have  collected  for 
the  winter. 

A  hive  made  in  the  manner  here  point- 
ed out,  appears  to  me  to  be  such  as  would 
be  most  useful  to  husbandmen  in  general, 
who  wish  to  cultivate  bees  ;  but  a  hive 
may  be  made  upon  tlie  same  principles, 
which  will  shew  tile  work  of  the  bees, 
through  its  whole  progi^ss,  and  thereby 
enable  any  one  to  study  the  nat\.u"d  his- 
tory of  these  wonderful  Insects. 

A  hive  of  this  kind  is  composed  of 
three  or  four  boxes,  with  a  cover,  like  the 
hive  already  described ;  It  may  also  be 


scribed,  five   parallel  sticks  or  bars,  as 
represented  in  the  following  figure : 


The  bees  will  attach  their  combs  to 
these  bars,  and  the  intermediate  space 
will  afford  suflicient  fight  for  seeing  them 
work.  If  more  light  is  desired,  it  may 
be  obtained  by  opening  the  little  doors  op- 
posite  tlie  glass;  which  doors  may  be 
made  considerably  higher  than  is  above 
directed,  and  may  have  a  slider  over  them, 
by  whicli  tlieir  aperture  may  be  diminish- 
ed at  pleasure. 

The  sliders  which  cover  the  panes  of 
glass,  ought  never  to  be  opened,  except 
for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  bees  ; 
becav^se  a  strong  light  lessens  their  dis- 
position to  work  If  it  sliould  be  perceiv- 
ed that  the  coldness  of  the  glass  is  pre- 
judicial to  the  bees  in  winter,  it  may  then 
be  covered  with  a  cotton  cloth  ;  or  it  may 
be  entirely  taken  away,  and  a  piece  of 
])aste-board  put  in  its  place ;  for  at  that 
time,  the  operations  of  the  bees  are  sus- 
pended. 

Instead  of  making  a  little  door  to  each 
box,  to  be  left  open  when  the  box  is  low- 
ermost, for  the  passage  of  the  bees,  per- 
haps it  might  be  better  (because  more 
simple)  to  cut  a  groove  in  the  board  or 
table  on  which  the  hive  is  placed.  This 
groove  should  be  about  two  inches  wide, 
and  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  high 
at  the  outer  edge,  and  should  be  gradu- 
ally diminished,  both  in  width  and  height, 
towards  the  part  where  it  meets  the  hive, 


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as  IS  represented  at  b,  in  the  foUotving 
figure  : 


Two  advantag'es  are  derived  from  tliis 
construc'doii.  First,  the  little  door  in  t!.e 
box,  and  the  contrivance  tor  opening  and 
shutting  it,  will  be  unnecessaiy.  Second- 
ly, it  is  somedmes  proper  to  diminish  or 
enlarge  the  opening  for  tlie  passage  of  the 
bees,  according  to  circumstances,  with- 
out shutting  it  entirely  ;  and  this  may  be 
done  with  the  greatest  ease,  by  moving 
the  hive  nearer  to,  or  furtlier  from,  tlie 
edge  of  the  table ;  or  this  passage  may  be 
entirely  closed,  by  moving  the  front  of  the 
hive  beyond  the  groove :  but  in  that  case 
some  small  holes  must  be  made  in  the 
hive  to  let  in  air,  which  may  be  stopped 
up  when  that  formed  by  the  groove  is 
open. 

A  farther  advantage  attending  this  con- 
struction is,  that  as  the  groove  will  have 
a  slanting  direction,  the  bees  will  thereby 
be  enabled,  v.ith  very  little  trouble,  to 
remove  fl-om  the  hive  any  dead  bees,  ex- 
crement, &c.  which  may  be  obnoxious  to 
their  nature. 

Another  ven'  curious  and  useful  bee- 
hive, is  that  originally  contrived  b\-  Air. 
Thorley,  of  London ;  which,  from  nearly 
sixty  yeai-s  experience,  has  proved  of  su- 
perior utility  to  any  other.  It  is  construct- 
ed as  follows :  the  lower  pait  is  an  octan- 
gulai'  box,  made  of  deal  boards,  about  a;i 
inch  in  thickness,  the  cover  of  wliich  is 
externally  seventeen  inches  in  diameter, 
but  internally  only  15^,  and  its  hcigiu  ten 
inches,  lu  the  middle  of  this  coNcr  is  a 
hole,  which  may  be  opened  or  shut  at 
pleasure,  by  mc;msof  a  slider.  In  one  of 
the  pannels  is  a  pane  of  glass  covered  witli 
a  wooden  do  jr.  Tiie  bet-hole  at  the  bot- 
tom of  "he  box  is  about  3^  niches  broad, 
and  half  an  inch  high.  Two  silly's  of  deal, 
about  half  an  inch  square,  cross  each 


other  in  the  centre  of  the  box,  and  are 
fastened  to  "the  p.uinels  by  means  of 
small  screws.  To  tliese  slips  the  bees 
fasten  thek  combs.  In  this  octangular 
box  the  bees,  after  swarming  in  the  usual 
manner,  are  hived,  and  suflercd  to  conti- 
nue  there,  till  they  have  built  their  combs, 
and  filled  them  with  honey ;  which  may 
be  known  bv  opening  the  door,  and  view- 
ing their  works  through  the  glass  pane,  or 
by  the  weight  of  the  hive.  When  they 
have  filled  tlieu*  habitation,  a  common 
bee-hive  of  straw,  made  either  flat  at  the 
top,  or  in  tlie  common  form,  must  be 
placed  on  the  octangular  box,  and  the 
slider  dra^\^l  out;  thus  a  communication 
will  be  opened  between  the  box  and  the 
straw -hive,  so  that  these  industrious  in- 
sects will  fill  this  hive  also  with  the  pro- 
duct of  their  laboius.  AVhen  the  straw- 
hive  is  sufficiently  filled,  the  slider  may  be 
pushed  in,  and  after  plachig  another  in 
its  room,  again  speedilj-  removed. 

The  Egiptian  bee-hives  are  made  of 
coal-dust  and  clay,  wliich  being  weU 
blended  together,  the  mixture  is  formed 
into  a  hollow  cylinder,  about  a  span 
in  diameter,  and  from  six  to  twelve  feet 
liigh :  this  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  be- 
comes so  hard  that  it  may  be  handled  at 
pleasure- 

Another,  of  a  very  simple  and  ingenious 
construction,  has  been  invented  bv  M. 
Degelieu.  It  ma\-  be  made  either  of  straw 
or  wood:  but,  as  its  internal  dimensions 
must  be  the  same  throughout  its  whole 
length,  it  is  necessary  that  its  form  should 
be  either  cylindrical  or  pjL«matic.  Its 
principal  advantage  is,  thai  its  bases  ai'e 
moveable,  and  may  be  fixed  by  pins  at 
any  distance  from  each  other ;  by  which 
means  its  size  may  be  increased  or  dimi- 
nished  according  to  ci-cumstances.  It 
must  he  on  its  side,  and,  in  tlie  foremost 
base,  there  must  be  a  passage  left  for  the 
bees.  Hence,  by  drawing  out  the  poste- 
rior base,  the  honey  may  be  taken  from 
the  back  part  of  the  hive,  witliout  huiting 
the  bees ;  and  when  this  is  done,  the  base 
should  be  pushed  hi  close  to  the  remain- 
ing comb,  that  an  intermediate  space  may 
remain.  By  turning  tlic  liive,  and  mak- 
ing the  entrance  in  that  part  which  had 
before  been  the  posterior  base,  the  bees 
will  build  new  cells,  in  the  room  of  Uiose 
taken  away;  consequently  the  honey  will 
be  w  hiter,  and  mo!-e  pure. 

"\Mioever  intends  to  erect  an  apiaiy, 
should  purchase  hives  towards  the  close 
of  the  year,  v/hen  tiiey  are  cheapest;  and 
such  only  as  are  full  of  combs,  and  stock- 
ed with  a  sufficient  number  of  bees.  In 
order  to  ascertain  the  age  of  the  liiyes,  it 


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should  be  remarked,  tliat  th(?  combs  of 
the  last  year  are  white,  while'those  of  the 
former  year  acquire  a  darkish  yellow. 
Where  the  combs  are  biack,  the  hive 
should  be  rejected  as  too  old,  and  liable 
to  the  inroads  of  veimiii. 

Bees  never  swarm  till  the  hive  is  too 
much  crowded  by  the  youns^  brood 
They  sometimes  begin  to  swarm  in  May, 
or  earlier,  according  to  the  warmth  of  the 
season.  As  soon  as  a  swarm  is  settled, 
tlie  bees  should  be  immediately  hivt^d,  to 
prevent  their  taking  wing  again.  Jf  they 
settle  on  a  low  branch  of  a  tree,  it  may  be 
cut  olT  and  laid  on  a  cloth,  the  hive  being 
ready  for  their  reception ;  but  if  it  be  diffi- 
cult "to  reach  them,  it  will  be  advisable  to 
Jet  them  remain  where  they  have  settled 
till  the  evening,  when  there  will  be  less 
danger  of  their  escaping. 

When  the  swarm  is  hived,  they  should 
fae  immediately  removed  to  the  apiary, 
but  the  hive  should  be  kept  near  the 
place  at  which  the  bees  settled,  till  the 
evening,  lest  some  stragglers  might  be 
lost. 

The  usual  method  of  uniting  swarms,  is 
by  spreading  a  cloth  at  night  ujjon  the 
ground  close  to  the  hive  in  which  the  two 
swarms  are  to  be  placed.  Lay  a  stick 
across  the  cloth,  on  which  place  the  hive 
with  the  new  swarm:  on  giving  a  smart 
stroke  on  the  top  of  the  hive,  all  the  bees 
will  drop  in  a  cluster  upon  the  clolli. 
Then  take  another  hive  from  the  stool, 
and  place  it  over  the  bees,  when  they  will 
ascend  into  it,  and  mix  with  those  already 
there.  Another  method  is,  to  invert 
the  hive  in  which  the  united  sv/arms 
are  to  live,  and  strike  the  bees  of  the 
other  hives  into  it,  in  the  manner  before 
described. 

A  large  swarm  weighs  eight  pounds, 
and  others  gi-adually  less,  to  one  pound. 
Hence  a  good  swarm  should  weigh  five  or 
six  pounds.  Such  as  are  less  than  four 
pounds  weight,  should  be  strengthened 
Ly  a  small  additional  swarm.  The  shx: 
of  tl.ie  hive  ought  to  be  proportionate  to 
the  number  of  the  bees,  and  it  should  he 
rather  loo  small  than  too  large,  as  tlicse 
insects  require  to  be  kept  warmer  than 
a  large  iiive  will  admit. 

Great  improvements  may  be  made  in 
providing  plenty  of  pasture  for  bees; 
and  as  a  lich  corn  country  is.  unfa- 
vourable to  tlicir  industiy,  the  prac- 
tice cf  other  nations,  in  shifting  tlie 
abode  of  their  bees,  is  deserving  of  imi- 
tation. 

M.  Maillct,  in  his  description  of  Egyp^, 
informs  us,  that  the  nativc:s  of  tliat  fci-tile 
country  annually  send  their  bees  into  dis- 
tiut  regions    to  procure  sustenance  for 


I  them,  when  they  cannot  find  any  at  home- 

)  About  tiie  end  of  October,  the  inhabitants 

!  of  Lower  Egjpt  embark  their  bees  on  the 

!  Nile,  and  convey  them  to  Upjier  Eg^'pt, 

!  when  the   inundation  is  withdrawn,    the 

lands  are  sown,  and  the  flowers  are  be- 

j  ginning  to  bud.     These  insects  are  thus 

conducted  through  the  whole  extent  of 

j  Egypt,  and,  after  having  gathered  all  the 

rich  produce  of  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 

I  are  reconducted  home  about  the  begin- 

i  ning  of  February. 

I  In  France,  floating  bee-hives  are  very 
'common-  One  barge  contains  from  sixty 
to  a  hundred  hives,  which  are  well  de- 
<  fended  from  the  inclemency  of  the  wea- 
ther. Thus  the  owners  float  them  gen- 
tly down  the  stream,  while  they  ga- 
ther their  honey  from  the  flowers  along 
its  banks;  a  single  bee-house  yields  the 
proprietor  a  considerable  income. 

Their  method  of  transporting  bees  by 
land,  is  also  vv'orthy  of  our  attention. 
The  hives  are  fastened  to  each  other  by 
laths,  placed  on  thin  pack-cloth,  which  is 
drawn  up  on  each  side,  and  then  tied  by 
a  piece  of  pack-thread  several  times  round 
their  tops,  hi  this  state  they  are  laid 
in  a  cart,  which  generally  contains  from 
thirty  to  fifty  hives,  and  conveyed  to 
places  where  the  bees  can  collect  honey 
and  wax. 

During  the  winter,  bees  are  in  so  lethar- 
gic a  state,  that  a  little  food  is  sufficient 
for  their  sustenance  :  but  as  every  sunny 
day  revives,  and  prompts  them  to  exer- 
cise, food  is  necessary  on  these  occasions. 
Some  hives  of  Ijees,  which  are  supposed 
to  have  died  of  cold,  have  in  reality  pe- 
rished by  famine,  especially  whes  a  rainy 
summer  prevented  them  from  collecting 
a  sufficient  store  of  provision.  IJence  the 
hives  sliould  be  carefully  examined  in  au- 
tumn, and  ought  then  to  weigh  at  least 
eighteen  pounds  each. 

With  respect  to  the  feeding  of  bees,  the 
common  practice  is,  to  leave  them  as 
much  honey  in  autumn  as  will  make  the 
hive  weigh  twenty  pounds.  The  honey 
should  be  diluted  with  water,  and  put 
into  an  empty  comb,  split  reeds,  or  upon 
clean  wool,  which  the  bees  will  suck  per- 
fectly dry.  By  the  dilution  with  water, 
however,  the  honey  is  apt  to  become  can- 
died, in  wiiich  state  it  is  prejudicial  to  the 
bees.  A  better  method  is,  to  replenislk 
the  weak  hives  in  Sejitember,  with  such  a 
portion  of  combs  filled  with  honey  taken 
ii-om  other  hives,  as  may  he  deemed  a 
sulMcicnt  supply.  Tliis  is  done  by  turn- 
ing" up  the  weak  hive,  cutting  out  the 
empty  combs,  and  placing  full  ones  in 
tlieir  stead,  secured  by  pieces  of  wood, 
that  they   may  not  falj  down  when  tlie 


BEE 


BEE 


hive  is  replaced.  If  this  method  be  con- 
sidered too  troublesome,  a  plate  of  honey, 
unmixed  with  water,  may  be  placed  un- 
der the  hive,  and  straws  laid  across  the 
plate,  covered  with  paper  perforated 
with  several  small  holes,  through  which 
the  bees  will  suck  the  honey  without  dif- 
ficultj'. 

The  degree  of  cold  which  bees  can 
endure,  has  not  been  ascertained.  In 
the  cold  parts  of  Russia,  tliey  are  often 
fbun4  in  hollow  trees.  Their  hives  are 
fi-equentlv  made  of  bark,  which  does 
not  afford  them  much  protection  Hence, 
Ml*.  White  observes,  tliat  bees  which 
stand  on  the  north  side  of  a  building-, 
will  not  consume  more  than  or.e-half  of 
the  honey  necessary  to  supply  others 
which  stand  in  the  sun.  In  winter,  how- 
ever, they  should  be  examined;  and  if, 
instead  of  being  clustered  between  the 
combs,  they  ai'e  found  in  numbers  at  the 
bottom  of  the  hive,  they  should  be  car- 
ried to  a  warmer  place,  where  they  ^^iU 
soon  recover.  In  wiiitei's  extremely  se- 
vere, lay  on  the  bottom  of  an  old  cask 
the  depth  of  half  a  foot  of  very  dry- 
earth,  powdered,  and  pressed  down  hard. 
On  this,  place  the  stool  with  tiie  hive; 
and,  to  preserve  a  communication  with 
the  air,  cut  a  hole  in  the  cask,  oppo- 
site to  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  in 
which  fix  a  piece  of  reed,  or  hollow 
alder,  and  then  cover  the  whole  with  dry- 
earth. 

In  England  it  is  usual,  in  taking  the 
honey,  to  deprive  the  bees  of  their  lives 
The  common  method  is,  to  suffocate 
them  with  the  smoke  of  brimstone ;  but 
Mr.  Manley  has  adopted  a  more  humane 
and  judicious  plan :  he  says,  "  I  never 
destroy  the  old  stock  of  bees ;  but  after 
lifting  them,  to  examine  v.hat  honey 
there  is,  if  I  think  the  hive  is  full,  I  put 
another  under  it  with  a  fiat  top,  having 
a  square  hole  in  the  centre.  When  the 
bees  are  in  the  under  hive,  I  place  a 
shutter,  which  is  of  wood,  in  the  hole 
at  the  top  ;  and  that  prevents  them  from 
going  into  the  upper  liive.  I  then  invert 
it  in  a  bucket,  and  strike  it  with  a  rod  till 
I  think  they  are  all  out,  after  which  they 
go  into  the  under  hive." 

Mr.  WUdman  gives  the  following  in- 
stiTictions  for  taking  tlie  honey  and  wax. 
Remove  tiie  hive  into  a  darkened  room, 
that  it  may  appear  to  the  bees  as  if  it 
was  late  in  the  evening ;  then  gently  in- 
vert tlie  hive,  and  place  it  between  the 
frames  of  a  chair,  or  any  other  steadv 
support,  and  cover  it  with  an  empty  liive 
raised  a  little  towards  the  window,  to 
give  the  bees  sufficient  light  to  guide 
theii-  ascent.  Hold  the  empty  hive,  stea 
VOL.    I. 


dily  supported,  on  the  edge  of  the  full 
hive,  between  the  left  side  and  arm,  and 
continue  striking  with  the  right  hand 
round  the  full  liive,  from  the  bottom  up- 
wards, and  the  bees,  being  frightened 
by  the  noise,  will  ascend  into  the  other. 
Repeat  the  strokes,  rather  quick  tlian 
sti-ong,  round  the  hive,  till  all  the  bees 
are  gone  out  of  it,  which  will  be  in  about 
five  minutes.  As  soon  as  a  number  of 
the  bees  have  got  into  the  empty  hive, 
it  should  be  raised  a  little  from  tlie  full 
one,  that  they  may  not  return,  but  con- 
tinue to  ascend.  When  they  are  all  out 
of  the  full  hi^e,  that  in  which  they  are 
must  be  placed  on  the  stand,  to  receive 
the  absent  bees  as  tliey  return  from  the 
fields. 

The  combs  should  be  cut  from  the 
sides  and  top  as  clean  as  possible,  to 
save  the  future  labour  of  the  bees.  Dur- 
ing this  operation,  tlie  hive  sliould  be 
placed,  reclining  to  the  side  from  which, 
the  combs  are  taken,  and  afterwards  put 
for  some  time  upright,  that  the  remaining 
honey  may  run  out. 

Ha\-ing'  finished  the  taking  of  the 
wax  and  honey,  tlie  next  business  is 
to  return  the  bees  to  their  old  hive,  foi* 
which  pui-pose  we  must  refer  the  reader 
to  the  directions  already  given,  when 
we  stated  the  usual  method  of  uniting 
swanns. 

By  inverting  the  hive  which  contains 
the  bees,  and  placing  their  own  over  it, 
they  will  immediately  ascend,  especially 
if  the  lower  hive  be  struck  on  the  sides  to 
alarm  them. 

With  regard  to  the  increase  of  bees, 
Mr.  Hubbard,  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Eng- 
land, advises  the  owner  to  wait  with  pa- 
tience, until  he  has  acquired  twenty  stocks, 
and  in  the  month  of  April  to  separate  ten 
of  the  strongest  hives  for  swarming ;  the 
other  ten  must  be  raised  on  large  empty 
hives,  the  tops  of  which  should  be  previ- 
ously taken  off,  and  the  joinings  of  the 
two  hives  secured  with  a  little  clay, 
whicTi  plan  prevents  the  bees  from  swarm- 
ing. He  also  recommends  the  prime 
swarms  from  the  other  stocks,  to  be  put 
into  three -peck  at  least :  for,  when  they 
appear  very  early,  they  will  probably 
swai-m  again  in  a  few  weeks,  which  should 
always  be  prevented,  and  all  the  after- 
swarms  be  united,  two  or  three  into  one  ; 
for  the  great  advantage  arises  from  a 
large  quantity  of  bees  being  kept  toge- 
ther ;  and,  by  that  mode,  ten  slocks  will 
generally  yield  fifteen  good  ones. 

The  following  observations  were  pub- 
Ushed  by  George  Morgan,  Esq.  formerly 
of  Princeton,  New  Jersey. 

"  Several  writers  on  the  management  ©f 


BEE 


BEE 


bees,  have  given  very  ingenious  direc- 
tions for  taking  their  new  made  honey, 
witliout  destroying  those  useful  creatures. 
Aly  Imnianity,  hurt  at  tlic  idea  of  setting 
fire  to  the  fatal  match,  induced  me  to  imi- 
tate tlicir  methods  ;  particuhtrly  tliose  of 
Mr.  \Vildmai>,  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wliite, 
whose  directions  I  observed  very  atten- 
tively, with  some  success ;  but  my  expec- 
tations were  not  gratified,  as  1  found  young 
broods  in  every  hive  I  took,  and  conse- 
quently the  honey  obtained  was  impure. 
However,  after  a  variety  of  experiments,  I 
discovered  an  agrteablc,  safe,  and  easy 
vay  to  take  the  huney,  without  the  least 
injur)'  or  distuibaiice  of  the  bees. 

As  I  liave  experienced  great  pleasure, 
and  some  benefit  from  my  discovery,  1 
take  this  opportunity  to  lay  it  before  the 
Agiicullurai  Societ}'. 

Mv  boxes  are  made  af;er  the  manner  of 
Mr.  Wliite's,  of  anv  well-seasoned  wood, 
ten  inches  jsquare  in  the  clear  ;  in  pairs, 
with  communications  at  tiie  sides,  for  the 
bees  to  pass  freely  from  one  box  to  ano- 
ther:  a  pane  of  glass  (7  b\  9)  with  a  glid- 
ing shulier,  may  be  put  into  the  back  part 
of  each  box,  through  wliich  you  may  see 
the  bees  at  work.  Any  pei  son  who  can 
handle  a  saw  and  hammer,  nuvy  make  the 
boxes  at  a  small  ex  pence. 

The  commuincations  between  the  boxes 
are  at  top  and  bottom  ;  those  at  top  siiould 
be  tlnee  inches  long,  and  half  an  inch  wide, 
to  serve  as  sti'eets  or  allej  s  betwixt  the 
hives. 

The  communications  at  bottom  should 
be  five  or  six  inches  long  and  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  deep,  so  as  to  affbi-d  a  free  pas- 
sage from  one  hive  to  the  other. 

Tiie  mouth  of  the  hive  may  be  from 
three  to  ten  inches  long,  and  half  an  incli 
deep.  In  the  busy  season,  this  wide  en- 
trance facilitates  the  bees  going  out  and 
coming  in,  and  may  be  contracted  at  plea- 
sure in  autunm. 

Early  tlie  next  morning  after  hiving  a 
swarm  of  bees  in  one  of  these  boxes,  1  add 
another  to  it,  the  door  of  which  1  close  un- 
til the  bees  begin  to  work  in  it ;  when  1 
open  it  to  facilitate  their  industry. 

Each  box,  of  tlie  above  dimensions,  will 
contain  thirty  pounds  of  honey.  An  early 
swarm,  in  a  favourable  situation  and  sea- 
son, will  fill  two  bo.xes,  and  cast  out  seve- 
ral swarms ;  each  of  wliich  will  fill  two 
boxes  with  honey. 

As  winter  approaches,  all  tlic  bees  col- 
lect themselves  into  one  box,  anil  will 
leave  the  other,  with  its  conleiils,  to  the 
use  of  the  owner,  wliose  profit,  in  good 
seasons,  will  be  90lb.  of  honey,  and  seve- 
ral additional  svarms,  for  every  slock  kej)! 
ovei  the  preceding  winter — 15  or  201b.  of 


honey  are  sufficient  to  keep  a  stock  over 
our  longest  winters,  but  Heave  tliem  30lb. 

Thus  I  acquire  the  purest  honey,  with- 
out the  use  of  the  match,  or  any  trouble  in 
dividing  or  disturbing  tiie  bees ;  for  on 
turning  up  the  hives  (wliich  have  no  glas- 
ses) I  disrover,  immediately,  that  in  which 
the  bees  are  collected,  and  I  cai'ry  ofi'the 
other,  witliout  a  single  bee  in  it. 

The  losses  and  disappointments  I  have 
met  with  in  a  great  variety  of  experiments, 
induce  me  to  recommend  this  manage- 
ment to  every  lover  of  bees,  as  I  have 
foimd  it  easy,  pleasant,  and  profitable." 

It  ought  to  be  oliserved,  that  all  honey 
is  not  wholesome.  Bees  indiscriminately 
sip  the  flowers  of  all  plants  abounding 
with  sweets  ;  and  as  s.ome  of  these  plants 
are  of  a  poisonous  nature,  it  follows  that 
the  honey  must  partake  of  their  injurious 
qualities.  Dr.  Barton  has  written  a  very 
excellent  paper  on  this  subject.  Amer. 
Phil.  Trans,  vol.  5tli.  The  plants  afi()rd- 
ing  this  poisonous  honey  are,  kahnia  m- 
giistifolia,  or  dwarf  laurel ;  kalniia  latij'o- 
lia,  or  great  laurel ;  kul.  hirsuta,  a  pretty 
little  shrub  of  the  southern  states;  andro- 
rneda  inariana,  or  broad-leaved  moorwort. 
As  these  are  very  plentiful  in  many  of  the 
American  forests,  their  blossoms  aflbrd 
much  honev  for  the  wild  bees. 

Ur.  B.  thinks  that  it  will  be  found  that 
other  plants  yield  unwholesome  honey  ; 
such  are,  1.  Ithododendron  iKdxinium,  or 
Pennsylvania  moun^iin  laurel ;  azalia  nu- 
difiora,  or  wild  honey  suckle ;  and  datura 
stramnnium,  or  James-town  weed  The 
four  first  mentioned  plants  ought  to  be  ex- 
tirpated in  the  neighbourhood  of  bee- 
hives ;  and  the  honey  procured  from  the 
three  enumerated  in  the  second  place  as 
suspicious,  should  be  carefully  examined 
to  determine  the  fact  with  regard  to  them. 

The  manner  of  ti'eating  bees  in  Portu- 
gal, is  as  follows  :  A  spot  of  ground  is 
chosen  for  the  hives,  exposed  towards  the 
south  or  south-east,  well  sheltered  from 
the  northern  blasts,  and  surrounded  with 
shrubs  and  flowers  ;  of  the  latter,  rose- 
mary is  preferi'ed.  The  richer  the  neigh- 
bouring grounds  are,  the  better ;  for  bees 
are  said  to  range  fin*  food  to  the  distance 
of  a  league  from  tlieii-  home.  Lanes  are 
cut  througii  tlie  slirubby  thickets,  of  five 
or  six  feet  w  ide.  The  fences  between  the 
lanes  are  about  tlie  same  dimensions,  and 
formed  at  intervals  into  small  recesses, 
like  bowers  or  niches,  to  receive  the  hives. 
With  respect  to  the  Diseases  of  Bees,  we 
shall  mention  a  few  hints,  extracted  from 
the  above-mentioned  work. 

Bees  are  sometimes  afflicted  witli  a 
diarrhoea,  in  consequence  of  feeding  gree- 
dily on  tJie  blossoms  of  the  milk-tliistle. 


BEE 


BEE 


awd  elm.  The  best  cure  is,  pounded  po- 
megranate seed  and  honey,  moistened 
with  rich,  sweet  wine ;  or  raisins  mixed 
with  similar  wine  or  mead,  in  which  rose- 
mary has  been  boiled.  When  they  are  in- 
fested with  vermin,  the  hive  must  be 
cleansed,  and  perfumed  with  a  branch  of 
pomegranate,* or  the  wild  fig-tree,  which 
will  inevitably  destroy  the  vermin. 

Butterflies  are  said  to  conceal  them- 
selves in  the  Mves,  and  annoy  tlie  bees  : 
these  intruders  may  easily  be  exterminat- 
if  ed,  by  placing  lighted  candles  in  deep  tin 
pots  between  the  hives  ;  as  the  flame  will 
attract  them,  and  conduce  to  their  de- 
struction 

In  order  to  extirpate  hornets  preying 
upon  the  honey,  it  is  only  necessary  to  ex- 
pose shallow  vessels  near  the  hive,  with  a 
little  water  ;  to  which  these  predatorj  in- 
sects will  eagerly  repair,  to  quench  their 
thirst,  and  thus  easily  drown  themselves 

To  prevent  bees  of  one  society  from  at- 
tacking or  destroying  those  of  another, 
Dr  Darwin  recommends  a  board,  about  an 
inch  thick,  to  be  laid  on  the  bee-bench, 
and  the  hive  to  be  set  on  this  board,  with 
its  mouth  exactly  on  the  edge  ;  the  mouih 
of  the  hive  should  also  be  contracted  to 
about  an  inch  in  length,  and  a  semi-circu- 
lar hollow  made  in  the  board,  immediate- 
ly under  the  mouth  of  the  hive.  By  tliis 
simple  method,  the  assailing  bees  will  be 
constrained  to  act  with  greatdisadvantage. 

If,  however,  this  should  not  succeed, 
Dr.  Darwin  advises  a  removal  of  the  bee- 
hive to  a  distant  part  of  the  gai  den,  and  to 
a  more  easterly  aspect;  as  he  has  from  ex- 
perience observed  the  goodeftects  of  such 
a  change.  This  acute  philosopher  fartlier 
observes,  in  his  adniirable  Pliytologia, 
^yllen  treating  of  the  glands  and  secretions 
■of vegelables,  tliat  the  depredations  ofin- 
sects  committed  on  that  luitritious  fluid, 
honey,  is  probably  injurious  to  the  pro- 
ducts o( vegetation;  and  that  some, plants 
are  more  exposed  and  accessible  to  bees 
than  others,  whicli  are  either  better  de- 
fended, or  secrete  a  greater  portion  of  ho- 
ney than  is  necessary  for  their  own  eco- 
nomy. Of  the  latter  desci-iption  are,  the 
catch-fly,  sun-dew,  hellebore  and  aconite: 
of  the  former,  the  Doctor  mentions  the 
Polygonum  vielanipyrum,  or  Buck-wiieat, 
and  the  Cacalia  siia%'eolens,  or  Alpine 
Colts-foot ;  in  both  of  which  there  also  ap- 
pears to  be  a  superabundant  quantity  of 
'honey  secreted.  The  flowers  of  the  two 
last-mentioned  plants  are  perpetually  load- 
ed with  bees  and  butterflies;  insomuch, 
that  at  Kempton-land,  in  Germany,  Mr. 
Worlidge  says,  in  his  Mysteries  of  Husban- 
dry^ chap.  ix.  3,  lie  saw  forty  great  bee- 
hives filled  with  honey,  to  the  amount  of 


seventy  pounds  each,  in  one  fortnight,  by 
tlieir  being  placed  near  a  large  field  of 
buck-wheat  in  flower  :  and  Dr.  Darwin 
adds,  that  he  well  remembers  having  seen 
an  astonishing  number  of  bees  on  a  field 
of  buck-wheat  in  Shropshire,  as  well  as  on 
a  plant  of  the  ,\lpine  Colts-foot  in  his  gar- 
den ;  from  which  the  scent  of  honey  could 
be  perceived  at  seveial  feet  distance  from 
the  flower. 

To  conclude  this  interesting  subject,  we 
cannot  omit  the  judicious  lemai'ks  of  a 
veteran  writer,  Dr  J  Anderson,  whose  nu- 
merous and  useful  works,  in  every  branch 
of  rural  and  domestic  economy,  are  of  in- 
estimable value  to  the  farmer.  In  one  of 
his  practical  papers  On  the  JManagenient  oj 
the  Dairy,  communicated  to  the  Bu.h  and 
West  of  England  Society,  he  observes  in 
a  note,  tliat  bees,  in  tliis  variable  clunate, 
are  a  very  precarious  stock,  though  ex- 
tremely profitable  where  they  thrive.  Du- 
ring the  frequent  mild  days  of  winter,  and 
the  warm  mornings  of  spi-ing,  which  are 
suddenly  succeeded  by  a  nipping  frost,  or 
sleety  rain,  these  creatures  are  roused 
from theii- torpid  state;  and,  being  unable 
to  obtain  food  abi-oad,  they  are  obliged  to 
consume  and  exhaust  their  stores,  and 
perish  from  want.  And  as  the  warmth  of 
tlie  weather  in  spring  invites  tiiem  to 
search  in  vain  for  flovveis  affording  them 
nourishment,  they  are  ofien  chilled  by 
cold,  before  they  are  able  to  return  to  the 
liive.  To  prevent  such  fatal  accidents.  Dr. 
Anderson  is  of  opinion,  that  no  method 
would  be  so  eflTeclual  as  that  of  placing  the 
hives  in  an  ice-house,  at  the  approach  of 
winter.  Here  they  may  be  kept  till  the 
spring  has  so  far  advanced,  that  no  dan- 
ger is  to  be  apprehended  from  bad  wea- 
ther. During  the  whole  winter,  they  will 
remain  in  a  state  of  torpor,  and  requii-e  no 
food.  As  soon  as  the  mild  weather  incites 
them  to  appear,  they  will  commence  their 
labours  with  vigom*.  The  intense  degree 
of  cold  which  the  bees  sustain,  without  the 
least  injury,  in  Poland  and  Russia,  where 
even  quick-silver  is  sometimes  frozen,  re- 
moves every  doubt,  or  anxiety,  concerning 
the  safety  of  bees  in  an  ice-house. 

BEES-WAX.     See  Wax. 

BEECH-MAST  OIL,  is  expressed  from 
the  mast,  or  nut  of  the  Beech  tree,  after 
it  has  been  shelled  and  pounded.  It  is 
used  in  many  parts  of  France  and  Silesia 
instead  of  butter ;  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, it  is  little  inferior  to  oil  of  olives. 
After  the  oily  part  has  been  extracted,  the 
remainder  of  the  mast,  when  dried,  is 
said  to  be  sweeter  and  more  palatable 
than  before,  and  may  be  easily  converted 
into  flour,  of  a  similar  taste  and  colour  to 
that  of  wheat. 


BEE 


BEE 


111  order  to  obtain  pure  oil,  the  following 
cli'cumstances  nuisl  be  attended  to :  1. 
The  tVuit  mast  be  carefully  selected,  and 
all  musty,  rotten,  or  tainted  nuts,  particu- 
larly those  of  the  lorraer  year,  should 
be  rejected- 

2.  The  shell  of  the  nut  should  be  taken 
off,  which  is  necessary  not  only  for  in- 
creasinj?  the  quantity,  but  also  for  ini- 
provinjj  the  quality  of  the  oil,  because  the 
husk  communicates  a  pai'ticular  fla- 
vour. 

3.  The  film  which  surrounds  the  ker- 
nel should  then  be  removed,  an  opera- 
tion which  is  essential  to  the  perfection  of 
the  oil  and  the  flour ;  for  the  film,  thougli 
small  in  quantity,  has  an  astring'ent  tUs- 
agreeable  taste,  which  is  plainly  percepti- 
ble in  botli  the  i>il  and  the  flour,  where  its 
removal  has  been  neglected.  It  may  be 
sepai-ated  by  putting  the  kernels  into  hot 
water,  as  is  practised  In  blanching  al- 
monds. 

4.  After  the  nuts  are  gathered,  they 
should  be  preserved  for  two  or  three 
months  in  a  di-y  place,  so  thinly  spread 
out  as  not  to  allow  them  to  heat,  and  of- 
ten turned,  to  keep  them  sweet ;  then 
bruised  like  apples  in  a  cyder  mill.  In 
tliis  state  the  mass  should  be  put  into 
bags  of  strong  thin  canvas,  and  pressed 
cold.  The  oil  must  be  extracted  by 
three  degrees  of  pressure  :  the  first  mode- 
rate, which  gives  the  purest  and  finest 
oil ;  the  second  harder,  which  yields  it 
of  an  inferior  quality;  and  tiie  third  as 
forcibly  as  the  materials  will  bear,  fi-om 
which  an  oil  of  an  indifferent  quality  is  ob- 
tained. After  each  separate  pressure,  the 
bag  should  be  turned,  and  the  mast,  after 
being  well  shaken,  may  be  preserved  for 
use. 

It  has  been  asserted,  tliat  the  mast, 
though  three  times  pressed,  is  more  nu- 
tritive than  in  its  natural  state.  It  may, 
therefore,  not  only  be  given  as  a  whole- 
some food  to  poultry,  swine,  and  oxen, 
but  also  be  manufactured  into  hair-pow- 
der. Se  an  interesting  extract  frpm  a  pa- 
per in  the  JMenioirs  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  Paris,  on  beech-mast  oil,  in 
Dr.  Anderson's  recreations,  vol.  2d. 

BKEF,  the  flesh  of  cattle,  prepa- 
red fur  food.  This  process  is  managed 
in  various  ways,  accordingly  as  the  meat 
is  intended  f  jr  keeping  a  longer  or  short- 
er time.  The  usual  method  of  salting 
beef,  being  generally  known,  we  shall  re- 
fer to  the  article  "Bacon,"  and  briefly 
observe,  that  much  depends,  1.  On  the 
purity  and  quaniily  of  the  salt  used  for 
this  purpose  ;  2  On  the  size  of  tiie  pieces, 
and  the  nature  of  the  vessels  in  which 
they  are  kept;  and  3.  On  tiie  ingredients 


which  may  be  employed  witli  a  view  to 
assist  the  operation  of  the  salt. 

It  is  an  estabhshedfact,  that  salt  provei 
antiseptic  only  when  used  in  a  consider- 
able quantity ;  and  that  a  ive  J:  lirinc 
strongly  tends  to  hasten  the  putrefaction 
of  animal  substances  :  hence  the  necessity 
of  making  a  liberal  use  of  this  article.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  common  sea-salt  con- 
tains a  very  considerable  proportion  of 
magnesia,  one  of  the  most  absorbent 
eanns  for  promoting  putrefaction,  it  is 
attended  with  great  inconvenience  to 
those  who  are  obliged  to  make  tise  of 
large  quantities  of  such  salt ;  because  it  is 
difficult  to  separate  that  ingredient  from 
this  concrete 

Hence  rock-salt,  though  apparently 
more  impure,  is  doubtless  more  advanta- 
geous, and  proper  for  the  curingof  beef ; 
because  its  crystallization  has  been  ac- 
complished by  Nature,  probably  after  the 
more  earthy  base,  or  magnesia,  had  in  a 
great  measure,  spontaneously  subsided. 
We  ofter  this  as  a  mere  conjecture  ;  as  it 
is  of  little  importance  to  the  economist, 
how  this  combination  of  salt  and  putre- 
factive earth  has  originally  taken  place, 
if  we  can  suggest  a  method  of  purify  ing 
the  former,  so  as  to  render  it  fit  for  the 
purpose  intended:  See  Salt.  At  pre- 
sent, however,  we  shall  treat  first  of  the 
manner  which,  by  experience,  has  been 
found  the  most  eflectual  for  salting,  pre- 
serving, and  imparting  a  fine  flavour  to 
beef,  mutton,  and  ix)rk.  Tor  this  useful 
information  we  are  indebted  to  M.  Sche- 
del,  who  has  inserted  the  following  recipe 
in  the  "  Economical  Journal"  for  Sep- 
temJjer,  1795,  printed  at  Leipzig :  Take 
four  pounds  of  common  salt,  one  pound 
and  a  half  of  refined  sugar,  two  ounces  of 
salt-petre,  and  two  gallons  of  pure  spring 
water.  Boil  the  wliole  o^er  a  gentle  fire, 
and  carefully  scum  off  the  impurities.  Af- 
ter this  brine  has  become  cold,  jiour  it 
over  the  meat,  so  that  every  part  of  it 
may  be  completely  (Covered.  In  this  pre- 
paration, the  meat  not  only  keeps  for 
many  months,  but  the  pickle  also  has  the 
efleci  of  softening  the  hardest  and  tough- 
est beef,  and  rendering  it  as  mellow  as  the 
flesh  of  chicken  But,  in  warm  weather, 
it  will  b^  necessary  to  express  the  blood 
from  the  meat,  aid  to  rub  it  well  witii 
fine  salt,  before  it  is  inmiersed  in  the  li- 
quor. Young  pork  should  not  be  left 
longer  than  three  or  four  days  in  tiiis 
Ijiine,  during  which  time  it  will  bt-  suflici- 
ently  sofiened  ;  but  hams  intended  to  be 
dried,  may  lie  in  it  a  fortnight,  before 
tiny  are  suspended.  At  that  peiiod,  tiiey 
ougiil  to  be  rubbed  with  pollard,  and 
covci-f d  witli  paper  bags,  in  order  to  pre* 


BEE 


BEE 


vent  them  from  becoming  fly-blo^vn.  It 
farther  deserves  to  be  remarked  that, 
though  this  liquor  is  more  expensive  at 
first  than  the  common  brine,  yet  as  it  may 
again  be  used  after  boiling  it,  and  addi'ig 
more  water  with  a  proportionate  quantity 
of  the  other  ingredients,  its  relative  utility 
is  obvious. 

Tlie  superiority  of  the  receipt  comnion- 
ly  known  by  the  name  of  Adml.  Pocock's, 
is  so  well  known  to  those,  who  have  had 
an  opportunity  of  comparing  it  with  others, 
A  that  it  ought  to  be  generally  adopted.    It 
is  thus  made.     Water  four  gallons.  Mus- 
covado sugar  or  molasses  a  pound  and  a 
half  salt  (the   bay    or    large    sort)    six 
pounds.     Boil  all  together  in  an  iron  pot, 
or  kettle,  and  skim  it  repeatedly,  as  long  j 
as  any  scum  rises  ;  then  take  off  the  pot  i 
to  stand  till  the  liquor  is  cold.     The  meat  I 
being  placed  in  the  vessel  meant  to  hold  | 
it,  pour  the  cold  pickle  on  the  meat,  till 
it  is  covered  ;  and,  in  that  state,  keep  it ; 
for  family  use-     If  the  meat  is  to  be  pre- ' 
served  a  considerable   time,  the  pickle  i 
must   be    boiled   once   in   two   months ;  , 
skimming  off  all  that  rises,  and  throwing  ] 
in,  during  the  boiling,  two  ounces  of  su- 
gar, and  about  half  a  pound  of  common 
salt.     Mr.  Bordley,   says,  the  above  pic- '; 
kle    "  is  incomparable,  also,   for  curing  ! 
hams,   tongues,    and   hung-beef.     Wlien 
tongues  and  hung-beef  are  taken  out  of. 
the  pickle,  clean  and  dry  the  pieces  ;  then 
put  them  in  paper  bags,  and  hang  them  . 
up,  in  a  dry  warm  place.     In  very  hot 
weatlier,  it  is  necessary,  before  the  meat 
is  put  to  the  nickle,  to  rub  it  well  over 
with  salt,  and  let  it  lie  for  one,  two,  or 
three  hours,  till  the  bloody  juices  run 
off.     If  the  meat  in  this  case  be  in  the 
least  tainted,  before  it  is  put  to  thepickle, 
it  will  be  entirely  spoiled  in  a  day's  time 
in  hot  weather. 

Mr.  Bordley  recommends,  to  keep 
beeves  intended  to  be  killed,  two  da}  s 
from  food  and  drink  ;  and,  in  a  dark  and 
close  place.  He  thinks,  the  animal  bleeds 
better,  handles  lighter  and  cleaner ;  and, 
that  the  meat  looks  better  by  observing 
these  directions.  The  barrels  are  to  be 
ready,  sweet  and  well  trimmed,  and  the 
salt  previously  washed  or  refined,  and 
ground  small,  before  the  beeves  are  to  be 
slaughtered.  Delay  in  salting  is  injuriou  s. 
The  pieces  are,  therefore,  to  be  packed 
into  the  tiglit  barrels,  piece  by  piece,  as 
they  are  salted  ;  instead  of  b-dlking  them 
on  a  frame,  or  dresser  to  drain,  as  is  the 
practice.  Coarse  salt  washed  but  not 
ground,  having  also  been  previously  rea- 
dy, is  to  be  dissolved  in  fair  cold  water, 
un.il  no  more  can  be  dissolved  on  stir- 
Tinjy.    L^t  it  settle  a  day,  or  two,  skim  off 


the  top,  pour  off  all  but  the  dregs.  When 
perfectly  cool  and  clean,  it  is  ready  to  be 
poured  on  the  repacked  beef.  After  the 
meat  has  remanied  in  the  barrels  six  or 
eight  days,  headed  up  tight,  it  is  to  be 
taken  out,  resalted,  and  closely  repacked 
in  the  same  barrels  ;  the  drainings  are  to 
be  preserved  and  boiled  :  the  barrels  are 
then  to  be  lieaded  up.  In  a  tew  days, 
bore  a  hole  in  one  of  the  heads,  or  h'lge 
of  each  barrel,  and  fill  the  barrels  with 
the  prepared  and  boiled  juices  of  the 
meat,  saved  from  the  fir.st  salting-  and  bar- 
relling. Every  time  of  filling,  the  barrels 
being-  rolled,  leaves  room  for  more  liquor. 
Wiien  there  is  no  more  of  the  prepared 
liquor,  the  barrels  are  next  to  be  repeat- 
edly filled  with  the  plain  strong  brine 
made  as  above,  from  the  washed  coarse 
salt,  till  they  can  take  no  more,  after 
standing  a  short  time.  Here,  as  in  pre- 
serving fish  in  barrels,  the  operations  are 
distinctly  to  salt  and  to  cure,  and  the 
boiled  juices  from  the  salted  meat,  must 
serve  to  beef  what  the  pickle  offish  cured 
is  to  herrings.  On  boiling  the  blood 
and  juices  with  the  pickle,  tlie  firmer 
parts  settle  in  a  mass  on  standing,  and  the 
liquor  pours  off  clean. 

The  barrels  ought  not  to  be  exposed 
either  to  the  sim,  or  to  damp.  A  cool 
dry  place  is  best. 

Attention  to  the  kind  of  salt  used  in 
'  salting  meats,  is  of  more  consequence 
than  is  generally  imagined.  The  Hol- 
landers who  furnish  the  world  with  the 
finest  flavoured  herrings,  (caught  on  the 
coast  of  Scotland,)  and  derive  an  im- 
mense revenue  from  the  trade,  prevent 
by  law  the  use  of  all  kinds  of  salt  in  the 
herring  business,  except  that  from  Por- 
tugal or  Spain.  It  would  be  well  to  at- 
:  tend  to  this  circumstance  in  this  coun- 
i  try. 

As  to  the  properties  of  beef,  in  general, 
■  we  shall  orily  say,  that  it  affords  a  good, 
strong,  and"  invigorating  mitrlment,  be- 
cause no    animal   food   is  equal   to   the 
flesh  of  a  healthy,  middle-aged  bullock. 
'  Plethoric  persons,   however,   as  well   as 
'  youth,  in  whom  there  is  naturally  a  dispo- 
sition to  generate   heat,  should  eat  beef 
i  in  great  moderation. 

BEKR  is  a  fermented,  spirituous  liquor, 
prepared  fi-om  any  farinaceous  grain,  but 
generally  from  barley ;  ar.d  strictly  speak- 
ing, is  a  vinous  production,  serving  as  a 
substitute  for  wine. 

As  we  propose  to  give  a  short  analysis 
of  the  art  of  Brewing,  under  that  head, 
we  shall  here  only  observe,  that  all  kinds 
,  of  beer  are  produced  by  extracting  a  pro- 
i  portionate  quantity  of  malt,  whether  made 
1  f)f  wheat,  barlev  or  oats,  in  boiling  wa- 


BEE 


BEE 


ter ;  then  sufiering  it  to  remain  at  rest,  in 
a  degree  of  warmth  requisite  to  induce  a 
vinous  fermentation,  and  afterw  ards  ma- 
naging it  in  the  manner  as  will  be  describ- 
ed under  the  article  just  mentioned. 

Although  malt  alone  might  doubtless 
produce  a  liquor  possessing  the  spiritu- 
ous pi'opcrties  of  beer,  }'et  such  a  prepa- 
ration would  speedily  turn  sour  and  in 
sipid,  unless  impregnated  with  hops,  or 
another  aromatic  and  bitter  principle,  de- 
rived from  vegetable  substances,  which 
not  only  render  it  less  liable  to  undergo 
the  putrefactive  stage  of  fermentation, 
but  also  impart  to  it  an  agreeable  bitter- 
ness. Of  tbis  nature  is  the  hop  in  a  very 
eminent  degi'ee,  the  price  of  which,  how- 
ever, has  of  late  years  been  so  exorbi- 
tant, that  speculative  brewers  have  sub- 
stituted a  variety  of  other  vegetable  ingre- 
dients, and  especially  the  wood,  bark, 
and  root  oi  quassia.  Independently  of  the 
inferior  price  of  this  drug,  when  compar- 
ed to  the  indigenous  hop,  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  objection  to  its  use;  as  it  is 
one  of  the  few  astringent  substances  pos- 
sessing a  considerable  share  of  the  bitter 
principle,  without  partaking  of  the  nar- 
cotic, beating,  and  intoxicating  properties 
of  other  plants. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  lay  down  an  ac- 
ciu'ate  criterion  of  the  best  and  most 
wiiolcsome  beer ;  as  its  relative  strength 
and  flavour,  or  the  immediale  effect  it 
produces  on  the  palate,  aie  generally  con- 
sii^cred  the  mcjst  essential  requisites.  But 
a  well-l)rewed  and  wholesome  beer,  whe- 
ther ale  or  potter,  ought  to  be  of  abrigl.t 
colour,  and  perfectly  transparent,  that  is, 
neither  too  high  nor  pale  ;  it  should  ha\"e 
a  pleasant  and  mellow  taste,  sliarp  and 
agreeably  bitter,  wi\hout  being'  acrid  or 
tart;  it  should  leave  no  particular  sensa- 
tion on  the  tongue;  and,  if  drunk  in  any 
considerable  cjiianiity,  it  must  neiiher 
produce  .speedy  intoxication,  villi  its  con- 
c(jniitant  effects  of  sleep,  nausea,  vomit- 
ing, head-acb,  langotir,  want  of  appetite, 
8ic.  nor  shoiild  it  be  rciained  too  long  in 
the  urinary  passages,  or  be  too  quickly 
discliurged. 

Dr.  James  Stonehousc,  of  Northamp- 
ton,  inserted  the  f()ltowing  recipe  for 
making  liie^  of  Treacle,  in  the  (Jtnrl. 
Mig  of  January,  ir-'!:5:  "To  eight  quarts 
of  boiling  watei-,  put  one  pound  of  trea- 
cle, a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  ginger,  and 
two  bay-leaves.  Let  the  whole  boil  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  (hen  cool  and  work  it 
with  yeast,  the  same  as  other  beer:"  or, 
"  Take  onebiislul  of  malt,  wiih  as  much 
water  and  hops  as  if  two  bushels  of  malt 
were  allowed;  put  seven  poin.ds  of  the 
roarscst  brown  sugar  into  the  wort,  while 


boiling.  This  makes  a  very  pleasant  li- 
quor;  is  as  strong,  and  will  keep  as  long 
without  becoming  sour  or  flat,  as  if  iwo 
bushels  of  malt  had  been  employed." — 
Dr.  Stonehouse  adds,  that  the  latter  is 
the  preparation  used  hi  the  Shrewsbury 
Infirmary,  and  he  does  not  hesitate  to  at- 
test its  wholesome  and  nutritive  properties. 

jMxtemporaneous  small  beer.  To  two 
quarts  of  common  porter,  add  of  molas- 
ses half  a  pint,  of  ginger  two  drachms,  wa- 
ter just  warm,  four  quarts  ;  let  the  whole 
ferment  in  a  warm  place,  then  i-ack  off.       A 

Another.  Lemon  Feal,  one  ounce, 
Cream  of  Tai-tar  four  ounces,  hops  one 
ounce,  molasses  one  quart,  pnger  one 
drachm  (sixty  grains)  bruised  cloves  four 
in  number,  boiling  water  four  gallons ; 
ferment  with  yeast. 

Jlnot/ier . — To  ten  bottles  of  hot  water, 
add  one  bottle  of  porter,  and  one  pint  of 
molasses,  stir  them  well  together  and  bot- 
tle them  for  use. — It  will  be  fit  to  drink  in 
a  few  days. 

JJeer,  f  Spruce.  J  To  a  four  ounce  gal- 
lypot  of  essence  of  spruce,  add  three 
quarts  of  molasses,  tw  o  gallons  of  warm 
rain  v*  ater,  and  half  a  pint  of  good  yeast. 
Stir  them  well  together  until  the  liquor 
bears  a  froth,  then  put  it  into  the  cask  and 
fill  it  with  nine  gallons  of  water,  shaking 
it  well.  Set  it  aside  for  two  or  three  days 
to  ferment  with  the  bung  close,  and  place 
the  cask  in  a  cool  cellar,  and  in  twenty- 
four  hours  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  If  intend- 
ed for  bottling  let  the  cask  stand  inidis- 
turbed  three  days  before  it  be  drawn  off. 
For  the  second  brewing,  the  sediment  re- 
maining in  the  cask  may  be  used  instead 
of  yeast.  IK  well-water  be  used  it  should 
be  warmed  a  little. 

It  ought  to  be  mentioned  that  very 
great  deceptions  are  practised,  with  re- 
spect to  the  essence  of  spruce  brought 
here  fbi-  sale  from  Nova  Scotia. 

In  the  sixth  volume  of  the  JMvscum 
Rnsticimi  et  Commerciale,  a  work  of  con- 
siderable merit,  we  meet  with  a  similar 
account  of  making  a  kind  of  Table  lieer, 
which  from  its  cheapness,  and  agTeeable- 
ness,  is  greatly  jjrtferable  to  th..t  obtain- 
ed fi-om  malt;  and  which  has  ihisfariher 
advantage,  that  it  may  be  made  ready  for 
drinking  in  three  or  fbiu'  days  : — "  Take 
fifteen  gallons  of  water,  and  boil  one  half 
of  it,  or  as  much  as  can  conveniently  be 
mar.aged  ;  put  the  part  of  the  water  thus 
boiled,  wliila  it  is  yet  of  its  full  heat,  to 
the  cold  part,  contained-  in  a  b;ii-rel  or 
cask  ;  and  tlien  add  one  gallon  of  molas. 
ses,  commonly  called  treacle,  stirring 
them  well  together;  add  a  little  yeasl,  if 
the  vessel  be  new;  but,  if  it  has  been 
used  for  the  same  purpose,  the  yeast  is 


BEE 


BEE 


unnecessary.  Keep  the  bung-hole  open 
till  the  fermentation  appear  to  be  abated, 
and  then  close  it  up.  The  beer  will,  in  a 
day  or  two  afterwards,  be  fit  to  drink. 

"  It  is  usual  to  put  tops  of  the  spruce 
fir  into  the  water  which  is  boiled  for  mak- 
ing this  beer ;  and  it  is  then  called  spruce 
beer.  But  though  this  is  done  at  sea,  when 
such  tops  can  be  obtained,  on  account  of 
tlie  scurvy ;  yet  it  is  not  necessary,  artd 
may  veiy  well  be  omitted,  where  they 
are  not  to  be  easily  procured.  Scurvy- 
W  grass,  or  other  herbs  or  drugs,  used  in 
making  purl,  gill-ale,  or  any  other  fla- 
voured malt  liquor,  may  be  added  at  dis- 
cretion. But  a  little  of  the  outer  rind  of 
an  orange-peel,  infused  in  the  beer  itseif, 
and  taken  out  as  soon  as  it  has  imparted 
a  sufficien't  degree  of  bitterness,  will  both 
be  found  grateful,  and  assist  in  keeping 
the  beer  from  turning  sour.  A  very  little 
gentian-root,  boiled  in  the  water,  eitiier 
with  a  Utile  orange-peel,  or  without,  gives 
also  a  very  cheap,  wholesome,  and  plea- 
sant bitter  to  this  beer," 

The  philanUiropic  editor  of  the  "  Re- 
ports of  the  Society  for  bettering  the  Omdi- 
tion,  (i:id  increasing  the  Comforts  of'  the 
JPoor"  T  BernaTl,  Esq.  very  ju'jtly  ob- 
serves, (in  a  note,  vol.  i.  p  149  )  '*  that 
it  would  be  a  very  desb'able  thing,  tliat 
the  poor  shouid  be  able  to  supply  them- 
selves with  beer  of  their  own  brewing, 
without  being  obHged  always  to  recur  to 
the  ale-house.  I  am  aware  of  the  disad- 
vantage of  brewing  in  small  quantities; 
but  that  might  be  compensated  for  by 
great  advantages,  and  by  the  superior 
flavour  of  beer  hrewed  and  drank  at  home. 
— The  following  recipe  is  according  to 
tlie  proportions  used  in  the  House  of  In 
dustry,  at  Shrewsbury  :  To  half  a  bushel 
of  maU,  add  four  pounds  of  treacle,  and 
three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  hojjs  ;  this 
will  make  twenty-five  gallons  of  beer ;  the 
cost  of  which  (supposing  the  value  of  tlie 
grain  to  be  only  equal  to  the  expence  of 
fuel,)  would  be  two-pence  a  gallon,  where 
the  materials  were  purchased  to  the  best 
advantage ;  and,  when  bought  at  the  re- 
tail shop,  about  three-pence  I  have  tried 
the  receipt,  and  found  the  beer  very 
good :  it  was  fit  for  use  in  a  fortnight ; 
but  it  is  not  caxulated  for  keeping,  par- 
ticularly in  warm  weather." 

We  have  been  induced  to  communicate 
these  different  methods  of  preparing  a  pure 
and  wholesome  bev'-vage,  in  order  to  con- 
tribute oiu'  mite,  however  small,  towards 
alleviating  the  burt.iens  of  doniesiic  life. 
And  though  we  should  not  succeed  in 
persuading  niany  persons,  in  the  middle 
ranks  of  society,  to  adopt  our  sugges- 
tions, we  still  may  flatter  oiu'selves  with 


the  chearing  hope,  that  they  will  hu- 
manely exert  tlieir  influence  on  such  fa- 
milies as  may  be  benefited  by  brewing 
their  own  liquors  at  home  :  instead  of  cai-- 
rying,  perhaps,  one-half  of  theh-  weekly 
earnings  to  the  next  ale-house,  and  de- 
barring theii'  helpless  children  from  that 
necessary  assistance,  for  want  of  which, 
they  are  often  doomed  to  become  addi- 
tional bui-thens  on  the  parish. 

Having  pointed  out  the  peculiar  quali- 
ties of  good  beer,  as  well  as  the  most 
easy  and  advantageous  methods  of  using 
a  substitute  for  malt,  we  shall  next  con- 
sider the  most  effectual  way  of  clarifying 
this  gi-ateful  beverage;  and  of  preventing 
it  from  turning  sour,  or  restoring  it  to  its 
former  briskness,  when  it  has,  by  mis- 
management, acquired  a  tart  or  insipid 
taste. 

Various  schemes  have  been  proposed, 
and  many  also  adopted  in  breweries,  for 
fining  or  clarifying  different  beers.  But, 
as  the  superior  brilliancy  and  transparen- 
cy of  that  liquor,  depend  in  a  great  mea- 
sure on  the  quality  of  the  malt  and  water 
— which  properly  belongs  to  the  article 
"  Brcrwing" — we  shall  here  speak  of  that 
process  only  so  far  as  it  relates  to  tlie 
management  of  beer,  after  it  is  fermented. 

In  Britain,  mult  uquors  are  generally 
fined  with  gromid-iv},  the  Glecomu  hede- 
rac^a,  L;  whicli  plant  however,  will  not 
produce  the  desu'ed  effect,  ii"  tiie  beer 
has  been  brewed  of  bad  malt,  or  other- 
wise mismanaged  during  the  different 
processes  of  boning  and  fermenting  the 
wort.  In  such  cases,  and  especially  if  it 
has  been  too  long  boiled,  the  liquor  may 
indeed  become  clear,  by  throwing-  into  it 
an  additional  quantity  of  ground-ivy  ;  but 
it  will  letaln an  opacity,  or  turbid  appear- 
ance, because  this  useful  plant,  being  at 
first  lighter  than  the  liquid,  and  swim- 
ming on  the  top,  gradually  becomes  hea- 
vier ;  and  tliough  it  combines  with  the 
impurities  of  the  liquor,  and  at  length 
sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  yet  it  is 
Incapable  of  correcting  and  decomposing 
those  nuicllaginous  and  enipyreumatic 
particles,  which  pai  tly  arise  from  interior 
malt,  and  are  partly  extricated  by  the 
action  of  too  great  and  long-continued 
heat.  Hence  we  shall  pi-opose  the  follow- 
ing simple  remedy,  which  was  communi- 
cated to  us  by  a  continental  friend  :  After 
the  beer  is  properly  fermented,  and  a 
few  days  old,  take  one  gallon  out  of  every 
barrel,  and  add  two  ounces  of  hartshorn- 
shavings  (or  filings,  which  are  still  bet- 
ter) to  every  gallon.  Place  the  liquor 
over  a  moderate  fire,  till  it  boils,  and 
rises  to  the  top  ;  let  the  decoction  stand 
for  an  hour  or  two;  and,  v/hen  milk- 


BEE 


BEE 


\vi4'm,  pour  the  clear  part  of  it  into  the 
barrels,  according  to  the  proportion  be- 
fore specified.  In  tliis  stale,  the  casks 
mnst  be  left  undisturbed  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  then  the  beer  should  either 
be  bottled,  or  drawn  otl"  into  other  ves- 
sels. Tliis  easy  and  cheap  process,  not 
onlv  has  the  effect  of  completely  clarify- 
ingthe  beer,  but  likewise  preventing  it 
from  turning  sour,  especially  if  it  be  laid 
up  in  bottles  properly  corked,  and  secur- 
ed witli  a  cement  consisting  of  nearly 
equal  parts  of  melted  bees-wax,  resin, 
and  unpenline. 

Beer,  should  never  be  forced  more 
than  a  week  before  it  is  tapped,  else  it 
becomes  stale.  Dissf>lve  A  an  oz.  of  isin- 
glass (fish  glue)  in  as  mucb  small  beer 
as  will  make  it  of  the  consistence  of  thm 
size,  put  1^  pints  of  this  in  a  barrel,  and 
stir  it  about. 

To  give  new  beer  the  hard  flavour  of 
old  beer,  add  a  small  quantity  of  oil  of 
vitriol. 

To  ropy  beer,  add  a  little  salt,  and  roll 
tlie  cask  well. 

There  is  considerable  damage  to  be 
apprehended  from  the  effects  of  a  thun- 
der-storm, by  wiiich  ale  or  beer  is  apt  to 
become  turbid  and  fiat,  not  only  at  the 
time  when  under;^;iiiig  the  critical  pro- 
cess of  fermentation  in  the  tub,  but  like- 
wise after  it  has  been  barrelled. 

In  the  former  case,  we  are  not  ac- 
quainted with  a  better  method  than  that 
of  ]>lacing  (on  the  ajiproaeh  of  a  tem- 
pest) several  vessels  filled  with  lime- 
water,  or  where  this  cannot  be  immedi- 
ately procured,  only  simple  water  con- 
tiguous to  the  fermenting  vat ;  and,  if  it 
be  convenient,  both  fluids  in  their  seve- 
ral ves.sels  should  be  on  a  level,  or  the 
beer  might  be  somewhat  lower  than  the 
y-ater;  wiiich  attracts  and  absorbs  the 
then  prevaiUng  acidity  of  the  atmosphei-e. 

In  the  hitter  case,  the  injurious  infiu- 
rncc  of  thunder  may  be  enectually  pre- 
vented, by  laymg  a  solid  piece  of  iron  on 
each  cask  :  this  easy  expedient  we  find 
recorded  in  t!»e  Gentleman's  J\Tagazinc, 
for  January  17''3;  and  tlie  anonymous 
writer  adds,  that  the  fact  is  accounted  fur 
in  one  of  the  volumes  of  the  "  Athinhtn 
Ordc/ts" 

In  summer,  especially  in  what  is  called 
the  bea.n-seas()n,  v  hen  all  malt  liquors 
are  liable  to  become  flat,  t'le  following 
remedy  is  often  successfully  employed  as 
a  jn-cventive :  Take  a  new  laid  egg-,  per- 
forate it  with  small  holes,  put  it  in  a  clean 
linen  bag,  together  witb  some  laurel-ber- 
ries, and  a  little  barley ;  then  suspend  it 
in  tlie  vessel  containing  the  beer : — in- 
stead  of  tiie  berries  and  barlev,  a  few 


leaves  of  the  walnut-tree  may  be  substi- 
tuted. Others  put  salt,  made  of  the  asiies 
of  barley-straw,  into  tne  vessel,  and  stir 
it  till  it  be  incorporated  ;  or,  if  the  beer 
is  not  very  sour,  a  small  quantity  of  such 
ashes,  or  calcined  chalk,  oyster-shells, 
egg-shells,  Sec.  may  be  suspended  in  a 
similar  manner,  in  order  10  absorb  the 
acidity  of  the  liquor,  and  recover  its  for- 
mer sweetness. 

Sour  Beer,  however,  cannot  be  easilv 
restored  in  the  manner  above  stated, 
without  undergoing  a  new  process  offer-  ||i 
mentation,  or  impregnating  it,  for  that 
purpose,  with  fixed  auv  But  as  the  lat- 
ter is  an  expensive  and  troublesome  me- 
thod, we  shall  communicate  another  of 
more  easy  application.  Clauber  recom- 
mended his  sal  onirabile  (common  Glau- 
ber's salt)  and  saltpetre,  to  be  put  into  a 
linen  bag,  and  suspended  from  the  top  of 
the  cask,  so  as  to  I'each  the  surface  of 
the  liquor :  thus  the  beer  will  not  only  be 
preserved  and  strengthened,  but  it  may 
also,  when  flat,  or  sour,  be  restored  to 
its  former  briskness.  The  experiment 
may  be  easily  made  ;  but  we  cannot  vouch 
ibrits  result. 

Another,  and  a  better  remedy,  for  re- 
covering tart,  or  insipid  beer,  is  the  fol- 
lowing: add  to  every  pint  of  such  beer, 
from  twenty  to  tliirty  drops  of  what  is 
commonly  called  oil  of  tartar  (salt  of  tar- 
tar, or  pure  pot-ash,  reduced  to  a  liquid 
state,  by  exposing  it  to  the  influence  of 
the  air  in  a  cellai-,  or  other  damp  situa- 
tion) then  mix  it  in  the  vessel,  and  the 
acidity  will  be  quickly  neutralized — Those 
who  live  at  a  clistance  from  apothecaries' 
shops  or  wish  to  pi-epare  this  liquid  tar- 
tar, for  occasional  use  on  journies  espe- 
cially in  summer,  may  easily  make  it,  by 
dissolving':  two  ounces  of  fine  pearl-ashes 
in  eight  ounces,  or  half  a  pint,  of  pure 
water,  frequentl}'  shaking  the  bottle,  then 
suMering  it  to  stand  for  twenty -four  houi-s, 
and  afterwards  filtering  the  solution 
through  a  fine  clolh.  In  this  state  it  may 
be  preserved  for  one  year ;  but  beer  thus 
restored  ought  to  be  drunk  soon  after  it 
has  recovered  its  briskness,  or  at  least  on 
the  same  day  :  and  this  small  addition  of 
vegetable  alkali  is,  in  warm  seasons,  ra- 
ther conducive,  than  detrimental  to 
health. 

When  beer  has  acquired  a  peculiar 
taste  of  the  cask,  either  fi-om  an  unclean 
stale  of  the  vessel,  or,  by  long  keeping, 
from  the  astringency  of  the  oak,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  suspend  in  it  a  handful  of  wheat 
tied  up  in  a  bag;  which  generelly  re- 
moves the  disagreeable  taste. 

With  respect  to  the  i)hysical  p  operties 
of  mult-liquors,   we   shall  observe,  that 


BER 


BER 


they  are  possessed  of  various  degrees  of 
■salubrity,  according  to  tlie  proportion  and 
nature  of  theii-  ingredients,  namely,  water, 
malt,  and  hops,  of  which  tliey  are  com- 
posed; and  Ukewise,  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  they  have  been  brewed. 
If,  ibv  instance,  a  large  proportion  of  wa- 
ter has  been  used,  tlie  beer  will  be  more 
proper  for  quenching  thirst,  than  if  it 
were  sti'ongly  impregnated  with  the  mealy 
and  spirituous  particles  of  the  malt. 
Hence,  strong  and  sweet  beer  is  the  most 
nourishing  and  beneficial  to  thin  and  ema- 
ciated persons ;  stale  and  bitter  ale,  the 
most  intoxicating;  and  weak,  half  fer- 
mented porter,  the  most  flatulent,  and 
least  serviceable  to  nervous,  debilitated, 
hysteric,  or  asthmatic  constitutions.  But, 
as  there  is  no  peculiar  test,  by  which  we 
can  ascertain  with  critical  accuracy,  when 
the  vinous  fermentation  is  cumpleted,  and 
the  acetous  has  comtnenced,  every  kind  of 
beer  must  be  barrelled,  or  bottled,  be- 
fore it  is  perfectly  fermented,  so  that  the 
completion  of  tliis  natural  process  is  ef- 
fected in  the  stomach  and  bowels.  Strange 
as  tliis  propo-sition  may  appear  to  some 
persons,  it  is  so  true  that  the  infinite  di- 
versity of  flavour  and  briskness  obtained 
from  the  same  mixtui-e,  when  drawn  oft' 
into  different  vessels,  or  bottles,  cannot 
fail  to  strike  the  most  superficial  ob- 
server. 

BEET.  See  Sugar,  see  also  Horti- 
culture. 

BERNE-MACHIXE,  an  engine  for  root- 
ing up  trees,  invented  by  P.  Sommer,  a 
native  of  Berne,  in  Switzerland. 

This  machine  consists  of  tlyee  princi- 
pal pai-ts  :  the  beam,  the  ram,  and  the  le- 
ver. The  beam  is  composed  of  two  planks 
of  oak,  three  inches  thick,  and  separated 
by  two  transverse  pieces  of  the  same 
wood,  of  an  equal  thickness.  These  planks 
are  perforated  with  holes  to  receive  iron 
pins,  upon  which  the  lever  acts  between 
the  two  sides  of  the  beam,  and  is  shifted 
higher  as  tlie  tree  is  raised  out  of  its 
place.  The  sides  are  secured  at  the  top 
and  bottom  by  strong  iron  hoops.  The 
pins  should  be  an  uich  and  a  quarter,  and 
tlie  holes  through  which  they  pass,  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  When  the 
machine  is  in  action,  the  bottom  of  tlie 
beam  is  secured  by  stakes  driven  into  the 
earth.  The  ram,  which  is  made  of  oak, 
elm,  or  some  other  strong  wood,  is  cap- 
ped with  three  strong  iron  spikes,  which 
take  fast  hold  of  the  tree.  This  ram  is 
six  or  eight  inches  square;  and  an  incision 
is  made  longitudinally  through  its  mid- 
dle, from  the  lower  end  to  the  first  ferule, 
in  order  to  allow  room  for  the  chain  to 
play  round  the  puUy,  which  should  be 
VOL.    I, 


four  inches  thick,  and  nine  in  diameter. 
The  ram  is  raised  by  means  of  the  chain, 
which  should  be  about  ten  feet  long,  with 
links  four  inches  and  three  quarters  in 
length,  and  one  inch  thick.  One  end  of 
this  chain  is  fastened  to  the  top  of  the 
beam,  while  the  other,  after  having  passed 
through  the  lower  part  of  the  ram,  and 
over  the  pully,  terminates  in  a  ring  or 
link,  the  two  ears  of  which  serve  to  keep 
it  in  a  true  position  between  the  two  planks 
of  the  beam.  The  hook,  which  should  be 
m.acle  of  very  tough  u'on,  is  inserted  in  this 
ring ;  and  tlie  handle  ought  to  be  two  in- 
ches thick  where  it  joins  to  the  hook,  and 
gradually  lessen  in  thickness  up  to  the 
arch,  which  should  be  about  half  an  inch 
in  diameter.  On  each  side  of  the  upper 
pin  is  a  semi-circular  notch,  which  rests 
alternately  on  the  pins,  when  the  machine 
is  worked.  The  hole  and  arch  serve  to 
fix  a  long  lever  of  wood,  by  means  of  two 
iron  pins,  and  thus  it  is  raised  or  lowered 
at  pleasure,  in  order  to  render  tlie  work- 
ing of  the  rnacliine  easy,  in  whatever  part 
of  the  beam  it  may  be  placed  ;  for,  with- 
out this  contrivance,  the  extremity  of  the 
lever  would,  when  tiie  handle  is  near  the 
top  of  the  beam,  be  higher  than  men 
standing  upon  the  gi'ound  could  reach. 

This  machine  is  worked  in  tlie  follow- 
ing manner :  it  is  placed  against  a  tree, 
and  the  end  of  the  beam  supported  by 
stakes.  The  iron  handle  is  placed  in  the 
opening  between  the  two  planks  cf  the 
beam,  and  the  wooden  lever  fixed  to  it,  by 
means  of  the  iron  pins.  The  hook  takes 
hold  of  the  chain,  and  one  of  the  u-on  pins 
is  thrust  into  the  outer  row  of  holes,  by 
which  means  the  exterior  notch  v.ill  rest 
on  the  pin,  which  will  be  the  centre  cf  mo- 
tion ;  and  the  end  of  the  lever  being  pres- 
sed downwards,  the  other  notch  will  be 
raised,  at  the  same  time  tlie  chain,  and 
consequently  the  ram.  Afterwards,  the 
other  iron  pin  is  to  be  put  into  the  hole  in 
the  inner  row,  above  that  which  was  be- 
fore the  centre  of  motion,  and  the  end  of 
the  lever  elevated  or  pushed  upwaids,  the 
latter  pin  on  which  the  notch  rests  tlien 
becoming  the  centre  of  motion.  By  this 
alternate  motion  of  the  lever,  and  shilling 
the  pins,  the  chain  is  drawn  upwards  over 
the  pulley,  and  consequently  the  whole 
force  of  the  engine  exerted  against  the 
tree.  There  is  a  small  wheel  joined  to 
the  end  of  the  ram  opposite  the  pulley,  in 
order  to  lessen  the  friction  of  that  part  of 
the  machine. 

From  this  account,  the  reader  ^^'ill  per- 
ceive that  the  machine  is  a  single  pulley, 
compounded  with  a  lever  of  the  first  and 
second  order.  As  the  push  of  the  engme 
is  given  in  an  oblique  direcion,  it  will  ex- 
B 


BIS 


BIR 


crt  a  greater  or  less  force  rujaiiist  Uie  liori- 
7.ontal  roots  of  tl>c  tree,  in  pioportion  lo 
the  angle  formed  by  the  miiclune  wilii  the 
plane  of  theliorizon;  and  llie  angle  of  45^ 
is  the  maximum,  or  tli:it  when  the  machine 
will  exert  its  greatest  force  against  the 
horizontal  roots  of  the  tree. 

BISCUIT.     See  Bread. 

BISMUTH,  or  Tiii-£rlass,  one  of  tli-  se- 
mi-metals, of  a  reddish  or  light  yellow  co- 
lour, and  a  lamellated  texture  :  it  is  mode- 
rately hard  and  brittle,  so  that  it  breaks 
under  the  hammer,  aiid  may  even  be  re- 
duced to  powder. 

It  is  very  fusible,  and  soluble  in  the  vi- 
triolic, muriatic,  and  nitric  acids,  particu- 
larly in  tlie  last,  and  when  dissolved  in  it, 
is  prccipitable  by  a  mere  dilution  with 
pure  water ;  the  precipitate  is  wliite  ;  and 
is  commonly  called  Magistery  of  Bis- 
muth ;  it  forms  \httjlakc-i\:hite,  which  when 
mixed  with  suet  or  f;ft,  is  used  to  blacken 
the  hair.  Bismuth,  dissolved  in  the  acids, 
forms  pellucid  sympathetic  inks,  which 
become  black  by  exposure  to  the  vapour 
of  alkaline  sulphurets. 

Most  metallic  substances,  by  an  union 
with  bismuth,  become  more  fusible ;  hence 
it  is  used  in  the  making  of  solder,  printer's 
types,  pewter,  &c. 

Bismuth  reduced  to  powder,  mixed 
with  the  wliite  of  eggs,  and  applied  to 
wood,  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  sil- 
\ered — when  it  is  gradually  dried,  and 
rubbed  with  a  polisher. 

This  semi-metal  is  commonly  deposited 
in  cobalt-ores  ;  which,  wiien  of  a  high  red 
colour,  are  called  bismuth  bloom  or fioivcrs 
of  bismuth.  To  this  mixture  may  be  as- 
cribed the  property  which  bismutli-ore  has 
«f  making  sympathetic  ink,  similar  totliat 
formed  by  a  solution  of  the  regulus  of  co- 
balt.    See  Ink. 

The  very  great  utility  of  bismuth  in  the 
art  of  dyeing,  ar.d  particularly  in  the  ina- 
mifactory  of  types,  which  is  yearly  increa- 
sing in  the  United  St  ates,  will  cause  a  consi- 
derable consumption  of  tliis  metal,  and  ren- 
tier it  an  important  article  in  commerce. 

BlUD-Ll.ME  is  a  viscid  matter  used  for 
catching  birds.  Tiicre  are  diHi;rent  ways 
of  preparing  this  substance,  but  it  is  gene- 
rally made  of  holly  bark,  which  is  boiled 
ten  or  twelve  hours  ;  anil  wiien  its  green 
rind  is  separated,  it  is  covered  up  in  a 
moist  place,  to  stand  for  a  fortnigjit.  It  is 
afterwards  reduced  to  a  tougli  ])aste,  and 
washed  in  a  running  stream,  till  no  impu- 
lities  a])pear.  Next,  it  is  suffered  to  fer- 
Jnent  for  four  or  five  d.iys  during  which  it 
must  be  frequently  skimmed-  Aficrwards 
it  is  mixed  over  the  fire,  with  a  third  part 
of  nut-oil,  or  thin  grease,  and  thus  ren- 
dered fit  for  use. 


The  German  method  of  preparing  bird, 
lime,  is,  by  putting  about  two  pounds  of 
lihtseed  oil  into  a  jiot,  to  simmer  »ipon  the 
fire  for  some  time,  after  whicli  it  is  taken 
ofl",  and  ligiited  witli  a  match.  In  this 
state  of  inflamnialion,lt  continues  about  2 
hours,  when  half  the  ([uantity  will  be  con- 
sumed. By  dipping  from  time  lo  time,  a 
stick  into  the  oil,  and  trying  the  matter 
between  the  fingers,  its  proper  glutinous 
consistence  may  be  easily  ascertained;  on 
which  the  pot  is  covered,  and  the  flame 
extinguished.  . 

IViitcr  bird-lime  may  be  prepared  as 
follows  :  Take  a  poimd  of  strong  and  good 
ordinary  bird-lime,  v/ash  it  thoroughly  in 
spring-water,  till  it  become  perfectly  soft ; 
next  beat  it  well,  that  the  water  may  be 
entirely  separated ;  then  dry  it,  put  it  into 
an  earthen  pipkin,  and  add  to  it  as  much 
capon's  or  goose-gi'ease  as  will  render  it 
fluid.  In  this  state  of  the  preparation,  add 
two  spoonsful  of  sti'ong  vinegar,  one 
spoonful  of  oil,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
A'enice  turpentine.  Let  the  whole  boil  for 
a  few  minutes  over  a  moderate  fire,  stir- 
ring it  during  that  process.  Then  take  it 
off;  but  previous  to  its  use,  warm  it,  and 
cover  the  twigs  with  it  in  every  direc- 
tion. This  is  tlie  best  bird-lime  for 
snipes,  or  such  birds  as  frequent  marshy 
places. 

Tile  proper  method  of  using  bird-lime 
is,  lo  cut  down  the  principal  branch  of  a 
tree,  the  twigs  of  which  are  straight,  long 
and  smooth.  The  willow  and  birch  are 
tlie  best  for  this  purpose.  After  the  su- 
perfluous shoots  have  been  lopped,  and 
the  twigs  cleaned,  they  must  be  uniform- 
ly covered  with  the  bird-lime,  to  within 
four  inches  of  the  bottom;  but  the  main 
stem  should  not  be  touched  by  this  mat- 
ter. Great  care  is  required  in  laying  it  on 
properly ;  for,  if  two  thick,  it  will  alarm 
tlie  birds,  and  prevent  their  approach  ; 
and,  if  too  small  a  quantity  be  applied,  it 
will  not  hold  them  when  they  settle  vqion 
it.  The  branch  thus  prepared,  must  be 
erected  in  a  hedge  or  among  some  grow- 
ing bushes,  if  employed  in  summer,  it 
should  be  placed  in  a  (luickset  hedge,  in 
groves,  bushes,  or  white-thorn  trees,  near 
corn-fields,  &,c.  but  in  winter,  the  best 
sjiots  are  near  stacks  of  corn,  sheds,  or 
barns.  The  sportsman  ought  to  stand  as 
near  the  limed  bush  as  possible,  and  imi- 
tate  tlie  notes  of  birds  with  a  call.  When 
a  bird  is  attracted  to  the  bush,  andentan- 
gk  (1  by  the  lime,  the  sportsman  should 
suflijr  it  to  remain  ;  as  by  the  fluttering  it 
makes  to  disengage  itself,  others  will  be 
attra<;'ted  to  the  bush,  and  thus  several 
may  be  taken  togelhei".    Tiie  hours  pror 


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f'CV  for  this  sport,  are  from  siin-i'ise  till  ten 
o'clock ;  and  fi-om  one,  to  sun-set.  Ano- 
tlier  metliod  of  attracting  birds  is,  by  a 
stale ;  a  bat  makes  a  very  g-ood  stale,  but 
it  must  be  fixed  so  as  to  be  perceptible  at 
a  distance.  An  owl  is  still  more  eligible 
for  this  purpose,  being  followed  by  the 
small  biids,  whenever  it  appears.  If  a  live 
owl,  or  bat,  cannot  be  obtained,  the  skin 
of  one  stuffed  will  likewise  answer;  nay, 
even  the  image  of  an  owl  carved  in  wood, 
and  painted  of  the  natural  colour,  will  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect. 

When  the  German  composition  is  used, 
care  should  be  t:iken  to  seize  tlie  bird, 
when  entangled,  to  prevent  it  from  at- 
tempting to  free  itself  by  its  beak  ;  other- 
wise it  will  be  destroyed  by  the  deleteri- 
ous effects  of  the  oil. 

The  following  process  appears  to  be  the 
most  easy  and  efiectual  method  for  pre 
serving  birds : 

After  opening  the  bird,  by  a  longitudi- 
nal incision  from  the  breast  to  the  vent, 
dissecting  the  fleshy  parts  from  the  bones, 
and  removing  the  entrails,  eyes,  brains, 
and  tongue,  the  cavities,  and  inside  of  the 
skin  are  to  be  sprinkled  with  the  following 
powders  :  Take  of  corrosive  subUniate  :^b. 
pulverized  nitre  ^.Ib.  burnt  alum  ^Ib.  flow- 
ers of  sulphur  |lb.  camphor  ^Ib.  black 
pepper,  and  coarsely  ground  tobacco, 
one  pound  each  ;  mix  the  ingredients  well 
together,  and  keep  them  in  a  glass  vessel 
closely  stopped.  First  insert  the  eyes,  and 
stuff  the  head  with  cotton  or  tow;  then 
pass  a  wire  down  the  throat,  through  one 
of  the  nostrils,  and  fix  it  into  the  breast- 
bone :  wires  arc  likewise  to  be  introduced 
thi'ough  tlie  tcet,  up  the  legs  and  thigiis, 
and  fastened  into  the  same  bone  ;  the  bo- 
dy is  aftei'wards  stuffed  with  cotton  to  its 
natural  size,  and  the  skin  sewed  over  it. 
In  whatever  position  the  bird  is  placed  to 
dry,  the  same  will  afterwards  be  retained. 

Small  birds  may  be  preserved  in  bran- 
dy, rum,  arrack,  or  first  runnings ;  but,  by 
these  means,  the  colour  of  the  plumage  is 
liable  to  be  extracted  by  the  spirit.  Large 
sea-fowl  have  thick  strong  skins,  and  such 
maybe  skinned ;  the  tail,  claws,  head  and 
feet,  are  to  be  carefully  preserved,  and  the 
plumage  stained  as  little  as  possible  with 
blood.  1'Iie  inside  of  tlie  skin  may  he 
stufled  as  rcconunended  above. 

TliefoUowiug  simple  composition  may 
also  be  employed  with  success,  for  the 
same  purpose  :  Common  salt  one  pound, 
pov.dered  alum, four  ounces,  ground  pep- 
per, two  oufices.  The  bird  intended  for 
p'.-eservation,  should  be  opened  fi-om  the 
lower  part  of  the  breast-bone  to  the  tail, 
with  a  pair  of  sharp-pointed  scissars,  and 
the  whole  of  the  iiiiestineii  taken  out.  Tlte 


cavitv  is  then  to  be  filled  with  the  mixttrrpj 
and  the  lacerated  part  should  be  properly 
sti'iched.  The  thorax,  from  the  beak  to 
the  stomach,  must  be  filled  with  the  same 
composition,  reduced  to  a  fine  powder. 
The  head  is  to  be  opened  near  the  root  of 
tlie  tongucj  with  the  point  of  the  scissai's^ 
and  the  structure  of  the  brain  destroyed, 
by  moving  them  in  a  circulai*  direction, 
and  as  soon  as  they  are  withdrawn,  the 
cavity  is  likewise  to  be  filled  with  the 
niixture.  After  having  been  suspended 
by  the  legs,  for  a  few  days,  the  bird  may 
be  fixed  in  a  frame,  in  its  natural  attitude. 

RITUIXFEN.  I'he  bitumens  form  a 
class  of  mineral  inflammables  distinguish- 
ed by  the  following  properties.  They 
burn  with  a  bright  flame  and  much 
smoke,  leaving  behind  scarce  any  earthy 
residue. 

The  most  convenient  arrangement  of 
the  bitmnens  appears  to  be  into  the  li- 
quid, solid  and  clastic. 

Sp.  I.  Liquid  bitumen,  or  mineral 
oil. 

Vai".  1.  Naphtha  is  either  colourless 
or  of  a  dilute  3  ellowish  while  colour :  it 
is  perfectly  fluid  and  transparent ;  has 
an  oily  lustre  and  is  unctuous  to  the 
touch.  It  lias  a  penetrating  but  not  dis- 
agreeable odour,  and  communicates  part 
of  its  aroma  to  water  and  alcohol,  but 
appears  to  be  insoluble  in  these  fluids, 
though  it  combines  with  ether,  the  essen- 
tial oils  and  resins.  Pure  ammonia  and 
the  caustic  fixed  alkalies  also  unite  with 
it  into  a  savonule  analogous  to  Starkey's 
soap. 

The  purest  Europeaj)  naphtha  comes 
from  Monte  Ciaro,  near  Piacenza,  in 
Italy.  ,  This  hill  consists  of  horizontal 
beds  of  argillite,  in  which  pits  are  sunk 
till  tlie  water  comes  in,  after  which  the 
naphtha  ouzes  out  of  the  sides  and 
floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
whence  it  is  skimmed  off  every  week. 
An  inferior  kind,  often  passing  into 
petroleum,  is  procured  at  Monte  Festino, 
not  far  from  Modena,  in  the  vicinity 
of  which  subterranean  fii-es  often  break 
out- 

But  the  most  copious  springs  of  naph- 
tha with  which  we  are  acquainted  are 
at  Baku,  near  Derbend,  on  the  north- 
west shore  of  the  Caspian  sea.  The  soil 
is  a  clayey  marl,  strongly  effervescing 
with  acids,  and  so  thoroughly  impreg- 
nated with  naphtha  that  when  turned 
up  to  the  depth  of  a  few  inciies  it  will 
take  fire  on  the  application  of  a  lighted 
candle,  and  continue  burning  till  it  is 
purposely  extinguished;  the  flame  is  of  a 
jialc  bluish  yellow,  and  in  calm  weatliei- 
rises    to    the   be%hlh    of   several    feet 


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BIT 


The  naphtha  is  procured  by  sinking' 
pits,  into  which  it  percolates,  and  which 
are  emptied  from  time  to  time. 

Naphtha  is  employed  as  an  external 
application  for  sprains  and  rheumatism ; 
the  Persians  and  Russians  are  said  also 
to  use  it  internally  as  a  cordial.  It  en- 
ters also  into  the  composition  of  some 
varnishes. 

Var.  2  Petroleum,  mineral  tar,  fossi^ 
tar,  Barbadoes  tar. 

The  colour  of  petroleum  is  reddish  or 
browntsh-black ;  it  is  more  or  less  trans- 
lucid;  its  consistence  varies  according 
to  its  temperature;  when  warm  it  is  as 
fluid  as  common  tar,  but  at  32°  of  Fah- 
renheit, it  becomes  very  viscid :  it  is  unc- 
tuous and  clammy  to  the  touch :  it  has  a 
strong  disagreeable  odour  and  a  pungeut 
acid  taste. 

Petroleum  is  considerably  inflamma- 
ble, though  by  no  means  so  I'eadily 
as  ua])htha.  Alcohol  takes  up  some 
of  its  aroma  and  colouring  matter.  When 
distilled  with  water  it  comes  over  more 
fluid  and  clearer,  approaching  to  naph- 
tha. 

Petroleum  combines  with  the  fat  and 
essential  oils,  with  the  resins  and  cam- 
phor, and  by  long  digestion  dissolves  sul- 
phur. 

Petroleum  appears  to  be  found  for  the 
most  part  in  coal  strata,  or  in  secondary 
limestone.  There  is  a  spring  of  this  sub- 
stance at  Coalbrookdale,  in  Shropshire, 
originating  from  a  stratum  of  coal :  at 
Pitchford,"  in  the  same  county,  is  a  coarse- 
grained sandstone  highly  impregnated 
with  it.  It  is  also  found  in  various  parts 
of  France,  Italy,  Swisserland,  Hungary 
and  Sweden.  A  few  miles  from  the 
naphtha  wells  at  Baku,  on  the  Caspian 
sea,  are  some  very  copious  springs  of 
petroleum,  issuing  from  hillocks  of  the 
same  substance  hardened  by  exposure  to 
the  air ;  these  springs  sometimes  take  fire, 
;iiid  roll  a  flaming  torrent  into  the  sea, 
which  floating  ou  its  surface  often  covers 
the  water  with  a  sheet  of  fire  to  a  consi- 
derable distance. 

No  country  however  produces  so  large 
a  quantity  of  petroleum  as  the  Birman 
empire  in  Asia:  tlie  town  of  Rainanghong- 
is  the  centre  of  a  small  district  in  wliich 
there  are  520  wells  of  petroleum  in  full 
activity.  The  country  in  wliich  these 
are  situated  consists  of  a  sandy  loam 
resting  upon  alternate  strata  of  sand- 
stone and  indurated  clay  ;  under  these  is 
a  layer  of  pale  blue  argillaceous  schistus 
impregnated  with  peti'oleum,  of  consi- 
derable thickness  jesting  upon  coal. 
The  petroleum  begins  to  flow  into  the 
ueU  when   it  ja   sunk  a   few  leet  Uito 


the  argillaceous  schistus,  and  when  it 
begins  to  fail  the  well  is  deepened.  It 
is  remarkable  that  no  water  ever  pene- 
ti-ates  into  these  wells.  The  ann»ial  quan- 
tity of  petroleum  produced  by  the  wnole 
district  amounts  to  more  than  400,000 
hogsheads. 

The  uses  of  petroleum  where  it  abounds 
ai*e  very  important.  It  serves  the  lower 
classes  instead  of  oil  for  lamps,  and  when 
mixed  with  earth  or  ashes  it  answers 
the  purpose  of  fuel.  A  composition  of 
petroleum  and  resin  is  found  to  be  an 
excellent  material  for  covering  wood- 
work and  paying  the  bottoms  of  ships 
and  boats,  as  it  protects  the  timber  from 
the  attacks  of  insects  or  marine  worms. 
Finally,  when  rectified  by  distillation,  it 
is  applicable  to  the  same  purposes  as 
naphtha- 

Sp.  II.  Solid  Bitumen,  or  Mineral 
Pitch. 

Var.  1.  Maltha.  Cohesive  mineral  pitch. 

The  colour  of  maltha  is  brownish  black ; 
it  is  opaque,  and  has  little  or  no  lus- 
tre ;  it  is  tough  and  soft  so  as  to  be 
impressed  by  the  nail;  its  fracture  is 
uneven :  it  has  a  strong  disagreeable 
odour,  acquires  a  polish  when  rubbed  or 
cut  with  a  knife,  and  does  not  stain  tlie 
fingers. 

Var.  2.  Asphalt,  Jew's  pitch. 

The  consistence  and  general  appear- 
ance of  the  asphalt  is  that  of  pit  coal, 
only  the  colour  is  rather  grayer:  it  is  very 
brittle  and  breaks  into  small  cellular 
glossy  fragments.  When  put  into  the 
fire  it  boils  up  for  a  long  time  witliout 
suffering-  nuich  diminution,  and  after  a 
continued  heat  the  sui-face  burns  and 
forms  a  scoria,  underneath  which  the 
rest  remains  in  a  semifluid  state.  A 
gentle  heat  renders  it  ductile,  and  when 
mixed  with  grease  or  common  pitch  it  is 
used  for  paying  the  bottoms  of  ships,  and 
is  supposed  to  protect  tlieni  from  that 
pest  of  the  West  Indian  seas,  the  teredo 
or  borer. 

The  uses  of  asphalt,  besides  that  al- 
ready mentioned,  are  as  a  varnish,  and  an 
essential  part  of  the  best  wax  or  varnish 
for  the  use  of  engi-avers.  Asphalt  is  of- 
ten sophisticated  by  mixture  with  com- 
mon pitch  :  it  may  however  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished f)-om  this  latter,  by  having  lit- 
tle or  no  smell,  by  its  not  adliering  to  the 
fingers.  In'  its  superior  lustre  and  minute 
conchoidal  fracture,  by  its  burning  with- 
out becoming  fluid,  and  by  its  insolubility 
in  alcohol. 

Sp  HI.  Elastic  Bitumen,  or  Mineral  Ca- 
oulcliouc. 

Var.  1.  Compact  mineral  Caoutchouc. 

'1  lie  colour  .of  this  substance  is  yellow- 


BLA 


BLE 


ifih  or  reddish-brown,  hyacinth-red,  olive 
brown  and  blackish  brown.  It  occurs 
massive,  or  mamilliuy,  or  stalactitic,  or  in 
globular  distinct  concretions. 

It  burns  readily  with  a  large  flame 
and  much  smoke:  v/hen  exposed  to  a 
gentle  heat  it  melts,  and  is  converted 
into  petroleum  or  maltha,  or  asphalt, 
according  to  its  previous  consistence. 

Mineral  caoutchouc  has  hitlierto  been 
found  only  in  the  Odin  mine  near  Cas- 
tleton  in  Derbysliire,  in  secondaiy  lime- 
stone accompanied  by  calcareous  spar, 
fluor,  blende,  galena,  pyrites,  and  as- 
phalt. 

Var.2.  Suberiform  Mineral  Caoutchouc. 

Its  colour  is  that  of  cream  or  pale  ochre, 
but  by  exposure  to  the  air  it  becomes  of 
a  pale  reddish  brown  colour,  and  its 
texture  is  veiy  minutely  cellular  like  cork. 

The  elastic  bitumen  appears  to  be  only 
a  peculiar  modification  of  petroleum  in  its 
passage  to  asphalt,  and  in  all  probability 
owes  its  elasticity  to  the  moisture  with 
which  it  is  combined  and  to  its  cellular 
texture. 

All  the  bitumens  appear  to  be  of  vege- 
table origin,  but  for  further  remarks  on 
this  subject  see  Coal. 

BLACKIXG,  in  general,  signifies  a 
factitious  black;  as  lamp-black,  shoe- 
black, &c.  The  common  oil-blacking, 
consists  of  ivory-black  mixed  with  lint- 
seed  oil.  The  shining  blacking  is  made 
in  various  ways,  and  affords  employ- 
ment to  several  persons  in  London,  who 
prepare  it  for  tlie  supply  of  the  shops. 
I'he  preparation  which  has  experienced 
the  most  extensive  sale,  is  probably  that 
of  Mr.  Bayley.  His  patent  being  expired, 
we  shall  communicate  the  particulars  of 
the  process.  Take  one  part  of  the  gum- 
my juice  that  issues,  in  the  months  of  June, 
July  and  August,  from  the  shrub  called 
the  goat's  thorn,  four  parts  of  river  water  ; 
two  parts  of  neat's  foot,  or  some  other 
softning,  lubricating  oil ;  two  parts  of  su- 
perfine ivory-black ;  two  parts  of  deep 
blue,  prepared  from  iron  and  copper ; 
and  four  parts  of  brown  sugar-candy. 
Let  the  water  be  evaporated,  and,  when 
the  composition  is  of  a  proper  consistence, 
let  it  be  formed  into  cakes,  of  such  si'z.e 
that  each  cake  may  make  a  pint  of  liquid 
blacking. 

FrankfurtMacking  is  made  by  a  process 
much  more  simple.  A  quantity  of  the 
ieesof  wine  is  burnt  in  a  well  closed  ves- 
sel, and  the  residuum  i-educed  to  powdei", 
which,  when  mixed  with  water,  is  fit  for 
immediate  use ;  or,  if  made  into  cakes, 
may  be  preserved  for  any  length  of  time. 

Another  preparation  for  blacking  which 
.perhaps  is  belter  thaiv  either  of  the  fore- 


going, is  thus  pi-epared.  Take  IAoe, 
gum  arable,  ^z.  copperass,  2oz.  muriat- 
ic Acid  (spirit  of  salt)  and  4oz.  ivory- 
black,  moistened  with  ^  an  oz.  of  oil  of 
vitriol  diluted  with  two  or  three  times  its 
weight  of  water  ;  mix  them  well  together, 
and  tlien  add  4oz.  sugar-candy,  l^oz- 
sweet  oil.and  three  pints  of  vinegar  ;  which 
being  shaken,  then  spread  lightly  over 
the  boots  and  nibbed  with  a  stiff  brush 
till  dry,  will  give  a  brilliant  jet  black. 

A  mixture  of  yellow  wax,  linseed  oil, 
and  ivory  black,  has  been  recommended 
in  order  to  render  leather  impervious  to 
water ;  but  we  think  the  following  pre- 
ferable for  that  pui"pose.  Dissolve  loz. 
of  glue  in  two  pints  of  water  ;  add  4oz. 
ivory  black,  and  2  or  3oz.  sugar  :  mix  this 
with  a  solution  of  gum  elastic  and  rosin, 
prepared  with  spirit  turpentine  and  lin- 
seed oil.  Ha^^ng  first  wet  the  leather 
with  a  strong  decoction  of  oak  bark,  ap- 
ply this  composition,  which  will  render 
the  leather  water  proof,  when  dry.  In  the 
above  preparations  lampblack  will  an- 
swer, when  ivory  black  cannot  be 
had. 

The  following  composition  is  also  re- 
commended, lallow  half  a  pound,  hogs 
lard  4oi.  turpentine,  bees  wax,  olive 
oil,  2oz.  each  ;  to  be  melted  by  a  gentle 
heat,  and  rubbed  on  the  leather  when  free- 
frrm|dampness,  the  night  before  the  boots 
and  shoes  are  wanted. 

BLANCHING,  the  art  of  rendering  any 
thing  white.  The  blanching  of  woollen 
stuffs  is  performed  with  soap,  chalk,  sul- 
phur, &c.  Silk  is  blanched  with  soap  and 
sulphur,  and  wax  is  rendered  white,  by 
exposing  it  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and 
dew.     See  tlie  following  article. 

BLEACHING  is  the  art  of  whitemng- 
linen  cloth,  thread,  cotton,  &c.  To  attain 
tliis  end,  oils,  metallic  oxides,  earthy  im- 
pregnations, resins,,  and  other  animal,  ve- 
getable, or  mineral-  particles,  containing 
any  colouring  matter,  must  be  discharged 
from  the  texture  of  the  substances  manu- 
factured. 

The  process  of  bleaching  is  divided  in- 
to five  parts,  viz..  1.  Steeping  and  mUling; 
2.  Bucking  and  boiling;  3.  Alternate  wa- 
tering and  drying;  4.  Souring;  and,  5. 
Rubbing  with  soap  and  warm  water, 
starching  and  blueing.  By  the  first  of 
these  methods,  the  cloth  is  in  a  great  de- 
gree freed  from  its  superficial  foulness, 
and  is  rendered  more  pliant  and  soft.  The 
second  process  is  the  most  important  of 
the  whole.  Its  object  is  to  loosen  and  cai'- 
ry  off,  by  means  of  alkaline  leys,  tliat  par- 
ticulai-  substance  in  cloth,  which  is  tlie 
cause  of  its  brown  colour.  The  operation 
of  alternate  watering  anddi-yingis  as  fel- 


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lows  :  After  the  cloth  has  been  buclad,  it 
is  carried  out  to  the  field,  and  frequently 
■watered,  during  the  first  six  hours.  For, 
if  in  the  course  of  that  time  it  be  allowed 
to  dry,  while  strongly  impregnated  with 
salts,  the  latter,  by  ajjproaching  closer  to- 
g-ether, and  being  assisted  by  a  degree  of 
heat  whicli  increases  in  proportion  to  the 
dryness  of  the  cloth,  act  with  greater 
force,  and  destroy  its  texture.  After  this 
time,  dry  spots  are  suficred  to  appear  be- 
fore it  receives  any  water. 

By  the  continual  evaporation  which 
takes  place  on  the  surface  of  the  clotli,  it 
is  evident  that  this  ojieration  is  intended 
to  carry  off  some  impurities  that  remain 
after  the  former  process  of  bucking.  This 
is  clearly  proved  from  the  fact,  that  tlie 
upper  side  of  the  cloth,  M'hei-e  the  evapo- 
ration is  strongest,  attains  to  a  greater  de- 
gree of  whiteness  than  the  reverse  side  ; 
and  the  whole  likewise  turns  much  lighter 
"ijn  being  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the 
sun,  air,  and  winds. 

Souring — Every  person,  who  possesses 
the  smallest  knowledge  of  chemistry,  is 
aware  that  alkaline  salts  may,  by  various 
methods,  be  converted  into  absorbent 
earths.  One  ofthese  is,  frequent  solution 
ill  water,  and  again  evaporating'  it.  A 
transmutation,  therefore,  of  these  salts 
must  be  conlinuall^v  going  forwards  in  tlie 
cloth,  during  the  alternate  waterings  and 
th'yings  of  the  former  process.  The  sour- 
ing pi'ocess  is  sooner  completed  in  cold 
than  in  warm  weather ;  and  it  is  now  ex- 
perimentally ascertained,  that  vitriol  is 
preferable  to  milk  sours  in  bleaching. 

The  next  is  ha7id  rubbing  icith  soap  and 
'.aarni  water,  rubbing-boanL;  starching,  and 
blueing — After  the  cloth  has  been  sufli- 
ciently  soured,  it  is  washed  in  the  mill,  to 
deprive  it  of  the  acrid  particles  whicli  ad. 
here  to  its  surface.  From  the  mill,  it  is  ta- 
ken to  be  washed  by  the  iiand,  with  soup 
and  warm  water,  to  free  it  from  the  olU 
particles  which  could  not  be  disengaged  by 
the  milling.  Soft  soap  is  jn-eferred  to  bard, 
for  this  purpose,  as  the  latter  contains  a 
considerable  quantity  of  sea-salt,  which  is 
prejudicial  to  tiie  cloth. 

The  management  of  coarse  cloth  in  tills 
operation  is  very  diiferent  irom  that  uf 
fine :  for  the  former,  instead  of  being 
worked  by  the  hands  (a  method  whieli 
would  be  too  expensive)  is  laid  upon  a  ta- 
ble, rubbed  over  with  soap,  and  tlien  ])ia- 
ced  between  what  are  called  rubbing- 
boards,  which  have  ridges  and  grooves 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  in  the  foiui  of 
teeth. 

The  starching  and  blueing,  which  Is  the 
last  operation,  differs  so  little  l"rom  the 
process    cmploj'cd     by  laimdry-women. 


that  it  scarcely  requires  description.  Hiit 
it  often  ballpens,  that  the  cloth,  when  ex^ 
posed  to  dry  in  the  o])en  air,  after  l)eing 
starched,  is  wetted  b\  rain,  which  frus- 
trates the  efiects  intended  by  the  opera- 
lion  :  to  remedy  this  inconvenience,  many 
bleachers  employ  a  dr}- -house,  where  the 
linen  may  be  dried  in  all  weathers. 

As  bleaching  is  a  process  still  suscepti- 
ble of  improvement,  scarcely  a  year  elap- 
ses, which  does  not  produce  some  new- 
discovery  in  this  useful  branch  of  manu- 
facture. We  shall,  Uiercftre,  content  our- 
selves with  comnumicating  a  few  of  such 
hints  as  may  prove  advantageous  to  the 
practical  bleaclier;  and  with  which,  we 
presume,  there  are  many  persons  still  un- 
acquainted. 

The  new  method  of  bleaching  with  the 
dephloglsticated  or  oxygenated  muriatic 
•Held,  is  founded  upon  the  remarkable 
])rojJerty  which  that  acid  possesses  of  de- 
stroying vegetable  colours  ;  and  though 
various  attempts  have  been  made  to  intro- 
duce it  Into  this  countr}',  tiie  difficulties  or 
disadvantages  attending  it  have  prevented 
its  general  adoption.  Tins  acid  was  first 
applied  to  the  purpose  of  bleaching  by  M. 
BerthoUet;  and  the  particulars  of  the  pro- 
cess are  described  at  length  in  a  treatise 
on  bleaching,  published  a  few  years  since, 
at  Edinburgh. 

It  is  to  be  regretted,  that  no  parti- 
cular statement  of  the  difference  of  ex- 
igence between  the  old  and  new  methods 
of  bleaching,  has  yet  been  laid  before  the 
public;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  acid 
drawn  from  one  pound  of  salt,  will  whiten 
four  of  linen  clotli,  without  any  addition. 
Tiie  expence  in  this  case  may  appear  tri- 
fling, but  when  we  compute  the  vitriolic 
acid  which  Is  employed,  and  that  the  resi- 
duum Is  almost  useless,  it  will  soon  be 
found  to  be  very  considerable ;  and  upon 
the  whole,  the  advantage  may  be  only  Ii\ 
the  saving  of  time  :  but  M.  IJertholet  as- 
serts, that  by  this  method  the  texture  of 
the  cloth  Is  less  injured  than  by  that  hi- 
therto practised. 

The  oxy-muriatic  acid  Is  also  very  ge- 
nerally used  for  bleaching  paper.  Accord- 
ing to  M.  Chaptal,  blotting-paper,  when 
put  into  it.  Is  bleaclied  wuliout  suflering 
any  iiijin-y :  and  old  books,  and  prints, 
when  soiled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
scarcely  distinguishable,  have  been  com- 
))letely  restored  to  their  original  stale. 
I'he  simi)le  immersion  of  a  print  in  this 
acid,  is  sufficient  to  ])roduce  that  desira- 
ble cfrect ;  but  with  books  some  farther 
precaution  is  necessary  :  they  should  be 
unsewed,  and  the  adhering  leaves  careful- 
ly separated,  that  the  ^\  hole  may  be  equal- 
ly Impregnated. 


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■Mr.Higgins,  chemist  to  the  Irish  Linen 
Board,  has  discovered  that  tlie  oxy-mu- 
riute  of  lime  is,  in  bleaching',  not  only 
cheaper,  but  in  other  respects  preferable 
to  that  of  pot-ash.  The  chemical  attrac- 
tion of  the  former  is  somewhat  sti-ongei 
tlian  that  of  the  latter;  and,  on  account  of 
this  qiiahty,  it  does  less  injury'  to  the 
cloth.  Aliernate  boilings  in  solutions  of 
pot-ash,  steepings  in  oxy-muriate  of  lime, 
exposure  to  the  action  of  light,  and  eva- 
porating' water  on  the  green, are  found^ to 
complete  within  six  weeks,  at  little  more 
than  half  the  expence,  what  otherwise 
cannot  be  performed  in  less  than  double 
the  time. 

Notwithstanding  this  great  improve- 
ment, Mr.  Higgins  was  anxious  to  dimin- 
ish still  farther  the  expence  attending  the 
process  of  bleaching.  Convinced  that  the 
niixtures  of  sulphur  with  soda,  are  deter- 
gents, or  cleansers  of  the  most  powerful 
kind,  he  was  naturally  led  to  conjecture, 
that  lime,  which,  in  other  respects,  pos- 
sesses properties  nearly  similar  to  those  of 
the  fixed  alkali,  might  also  resemble  them 
in  the  detergent  effect  of  their  combination 
with  sulphur.  He  made  trial :  a  sulphuret 
of  lime,  composed  of  four  pounds  of  sul- 
pliui'  added  to  twenty  pounds  of  lime,  and 
diluted  in  sixteen  gallons  of  water,  formed 
a  solution  which  answered  cold,  just  as 
well  for  the  bleachii^  of  linen,  as  the  boil- 
ing solution  of  pot-ash.  In  consequence 
of  this  experiment,  he  recommends,  that 
linen,  after  being  perfectly  cleansed  from 
the  weaver's  dressing,  be  immersed  alter- 
natdy  in  solutions  of  sulphuret  of  lime,  and 
of  oxy-muriate  of  lime,  namely,  six  times 
in  each.  By  this  method,  linen  may  be 
completely  bleached,  toid  with  a  consider- 


able saving  of  expence.  In  Ireland,  it  is  ait 
present  almost  generally  adopted. 

Sleaching  Linen — In  bleaching  linen  the 
objects  are  as  follow :  to  get  rid  of  the 
sowen  or  paste  used  by  weavers  :  to  destroy 
the  colouring  matter  of  the  cloth ;  to  give 
additional  whiteness  when  this  is  desti'oy- 
ed ;  to  give  apparent  fineness  to  the  clotli. 

*Into  a  tub  sunk  in  the  ground,  put  anv 
number  of  pieces  from  50  to  100  immers- 
ed hi  water.  Let  them  stay  tlierein  for  two 
or  three  days,  until  there  is  an  appeai-ance 
of  fermentation.  Take  them  out  and  dash 
them  well  in  the  dash-wheel,  and  lay  them 
down  on  the  grass  till  di-y.  Into  a  cuir  or 
round  tub  about  four  feet  six  inches  deep, 
capable  of  holding  220  pieces  of  common 
Irish  linen,  put  in  that  quantity.  The  up- 
per pieces  shoidd  be  covered  by  pieces 
twisted  and  placed  leiy  close,  so  t^|^  the 
steam  may  be  somewhat  confined ;  near 
the  bottom  of  this  cuir  is  a  hole,  stopped 
occasionally  with  a  plug  through  which 
the  liquor  is  let  out  into  an  iron  pan  just 
below.  Under  this  pan  is  a  fire,  with  its 
proper  flue.  Put  into  this  u-on  pan  701b, 
of  good  pot-ash.  Fill  the  paji  with  water 
and  make  a  fire  under  it.  The  pan  should 
hold  just  enough  to  let  the  liquor  cover  the 
cloth  when  the  cuir  is  full  and  the  plug  in. 

By  the  side  of  the  pan  stands  a  man 
with  a  tin  vessel,  holding  about  a  gallon, 
fixed  at  the  end  of  a  wooden  handle  ;  w^ith 
which  he  continually  lades  out  the  liquor 
in  the  pan  to  the  cloth,  distributing  it  even- 
ly, beginning  with  it  cold,  and  continuing 
as  it  boils  from  morning  to  night,  occa- 
sionally filling  up  the  pan  to  prevent  the 
alkaline  solution  being  too  strong.  This 
operation,  which  should  continue  nine 
hours,  is   called  banking  \    The  cloth  is 


•  See  Plate,  title  Bleaching. 

■\  A  very  ingenious  and  simple  method  of  effecting  this  has  been  suggested  by 
]M.  Chaptal,  and  the  experiments  which  have  been  made  appear  to  confirm  the  va- 
lue of  the  proposed  alteration.  M.  Chaptal's  method  of  bucking,  consists  in  expos- 
ing the  cloth  when  impregnated  with  caustic  alkali  to  the  action  of  steam  raised 
to  a  somewhat  higher  temperature  than  that  of  boiling  water.  For  tliis  purpose  a 
square  or  rectangular  shallow"  boiler  is  firmly  fixed  in  masonry,  and  a  vault  of  stone- 
work hned  with  lead  is  raised  over  it ;  at  one  end  is  a  door  sufficient  to  admit  a 
man,  made  to  fit  very  closely,  and  capable  by  the  action  of  screws  of  being  render- 
ed steam-tight.  Witliin  the  vault  are  fixed  reels,  by  means  of  w'hich  either  cloth 
or  yarn  can  be  wound  off  one  on  to  tlie  other,  by  a  somewhat  circuitous  route,  dur- 
ing which  it  is  made  to  pass  through  the  liquor  in  the  boiler  and  is  also  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  steam.  The  cloth  or  yarn  being  previously  steeped  for  a  few  hours 
in  an  alkaline  ley  is  wound  upon  one  of  the  reels,  and  a  quantity  of  ley  is  also  pour, 
edinto  the  boiler;  the  door  of  the  vault  is  then  secured  and  the  "fire  under  the  boiler 
is  lighted.  This  being  done,  the  cloth  is  slowly  transferred  from  one  reel  to  the 
otlier,  and  afterwards  returned  to  the  former  one,  by  means  of  a  winch  worked  by 
hand  or  macliinery  on  the  outside  of  the  vault.  This  being  performed  in  a  dense 
atmosphere  of  very  hot  steam,  and  the  cloth  in  one  part  of  its  progress  passing 
through  tlie  liquor  in  the  boiler,  the  colouring  matter  of  the  cloth  is  much  more 
speedily  extracted  than  by  the  common  process  of  bucking-.  Her.ce  not  only 
time  is  saved  but  the  beating  to  which  the  goods  are  subjected  in  the  wash-wheel, 
and  by  which  their  strength  is  in  some  degree  injtvred,  may  be  considerably  lesr 
sened. 


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thus  left  all  night,  taken  out  in  the  morn- 
ing, well  dashed  und  laid  down  on  the 
fras3  for  about  a  week,  being  turned  every 
ay  or  two.  It  must  undergo  tliis  opera- 
tion of  bouking  a  second  time  with  from  50 
to  601b  of  pot-ash,  and  being  well  dashed, 
is  laid  do\\-n  as  before.  It  is  now  soured 
in  vitriolic  acid  and  water  in  tubs  sunk  in 
the  ground :  the  mixture  sjiould  be  the 
strength  of  if?&n^' vinegar  or  a  little  more. 
In  tliis  souiir.g  they  should  continue  two 
days  and  nights  at  least :  then  dashed 
well ;  layed  down  for  a  week  and  turned 
as  before.  The  pieces  should  then  be 
honied  with  301b.  of  pearl  ash,  and  ten 
pounds  of  soap  to  a  culr ;  dashed,  laid 
down  for  three  or  four  days  :  then  soured, 
dashed,  laid  down  for  three  or  four  dajs, 
turned,  &c.  as  before. 

Boi^  again  with  25lb.  of  good  pearl 
ash  to  a  cuir.  Dash,  lay  down  for  two  or 
three  days,  and  then  sour  if  you  please  in 
the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  made  in 
the  manner  directed  in  the  ai-ticle,  Mu- 
RiATic  Acid.  If  you  do  not  use  the  oxy- 
geneted  acid,  sour  again  in  common  vi- 
triolic acid  for  six  or  eight  hours,  and 
■wash  it  extremely  well.  Indeed,  perfect 
dashing  continued  to  a  certainty  till  all 
the  acid  is  vMshed  out,  is  indispensible: 
otherwise  the  pieces  would  rot  on  the 
ground  when  dry. 

Less  than  a  month  is  not  sufficient  to 
get  a  piece  of  linen  cloth  perfectly  while, 
though  half  that  time  will  do  for  callicoes 
inKngland — But  in  America  the  superior 
heat  of  the  sun  will  save  at  least  one 
fourth  of  the  time  in  laying  down  the 
pieces.  After  this  process,  the  cloth 
is  put  under  the  operation  of  the  rub- 
bing boards,  wluch  certainly  injure 
the  texture,  as  appears  by  the  knap  in  the 
teeth,  although  the  more  soap  is  used  the 
less  injury  is  done.  But  it  is  a  part  of  the 
manufacture  which  may  be  omitted  where 
the  cloth  is  required  to  gain  credit  by  the 
strength  of  its  texture. 

After  the  rubbing  boards  the  cloth  is 
gradually  wound  round  cyhnders  of  wood 
and  beetled — The  beetles  are  stampers 
lifted  up  by  a  cog-wheel,  and  let  fall  on 
the  cloth,  as  it  is  slowly  taken  up  round  a 
turning  cylinder.  This  is  also  a  part  of 
the  operation  by  which  the  thread  is  flat- 
tened, and  the  cloth  made  to  look  finer  at 
the  expence  of  the  texture. 

It  is  then  run  through  a  very  thin  solu- 
tion of  fine  starch,  and  blued  with  smalt. 
Then  run  through  two  cylinders  to  give  it 
evenness  and  gloss,  and  made  up  for 
market. 

The  manner  of  bleaching  fine  linen  cloths, 
viith  the  method  of  preparing  them  as  prac- 
tised in  Ficardy,  (/Vtf»ee.)— After  the  lin- 


ens are  ttiken  from  the  loom,  they  are  put 
to  soak  in  clear  water  for  a  whole  day.: 
when  they  have  been  well  washed  and 
cleansed,  they  are  taken  out  and  thrown 
into  a  bucking  tub  filled  with  cold  lye 
made  of  wood  ashes  and  water,  which  has 
been  used  in  former  processes.  When 
they  are  taken  out  of  that  lye,  they  are 
washed  again  in  clear  water  and  spread  in 
a  meadow,  where  they  ai-e  occasionally 
watered  with  clear  water  out  of  small  ca- 
nals made  for  that  purpose  in  the  ground. 
They  water  them  with  scoops  or  hollow 
and  narrow  wooden  peels,  with  a  long^ 
handle.  After  lying  acei-tain  time  on  the 
ground  they  pass  them  through  a  fresh 
lye  poured  on  hot :  this  lye  is  of  different 
strength  according  to  the  qualitj-  of  the 
linen.  Being  taken  out  of  this  second  lye, 
they  are  worked  in  clear  water,  and  laid 
again  in  the  meadow ;  all  which  several 
operations  are  repeated  until  the  Uncn  has 
acquired  the  desired  degree  of  whiteness. 
They  are  afterwards  put  into  a  weak  lye, 
to  restore  the  softness  which  the  preced- 
ing sti'ong  lyes  had  deprived -them  of^ 
and  after  this  they  wash  them  in  clear 
water. 

They  next  rub  them  with  black  soap, 
which  finishes  whitening  the  seh  ♦^^gesi, 
wiiich  would  never  become  perfectly  white 
without  the  help  of  soap. 

Then  they  wash  them  well,  to  take  off 
all  the  soap,  and  put  them  to  soak  in  sour 
cows'  milk,  the  cream  being  first  taken 
off.  This  perfects  their  bleaching,  gives 
them  all  their  sottness,  and  makes  tiiem 
cast  a  little  nap.  Being  taken  out  of  the 
milk,  they  ai-e  washed  agiun  in  clear 
water  for  the  last  time.  When  they  have 
undergone  all  these  operations,  they  give 
them  the  first  blue ;  tiiat  is  to  say,  they 
dip  them  into  water  in  which  a  little  starch 
has  been  dissolved,  together  with  smalt, 
or  Dutch  lapis,  of  which  the  fattest  and 
palest  is  the  best,  for  the  linens  must  not 
have  too  blue  a  cast. 

The  linens  being  thus  bleached,  after 
the  manner  we  have  related,  the  bleachers 
or  whiteners  deliver  tlicm  into  the  hands 
of  the  merchants  to  whom  they  belong, 
who  cause  them  to  be  properly  made  up. 

These  prepiirations  diller  according  to 
the  qualities  of  the  linens  :  for  there  are 
some  which  ouglit  to  preserve  all  their 
strength ;  and  others  the  strength  of  which 
must  be  diminished,  in  order  to  render 
them  clearer. 

Lawns  or  cambrics  are  prepared  with 
starch  and  pale  blue,  or  smalt  diluted 
with  clear  water.  They  add  some  other 
drugs,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  which 
depend  on  the  workmen's  knowledge  and 
capacitjfc 


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Being  thus  prepared,  they  are  fasten- 
ed M"ith  ropes  to  poles  fixed  in  tlie  ground 
at  some  distance  from  eacli  other.  When 
they  ai"e  three  quarters  or  half  drj,  they 
take  tliem  f.om  the  poles,  and  beat  them 
on  maible  blocks,  with  verj-  smooUi 
wooden  mallets,  wliich  is  done  to  beat 
down  the  grain,  and  give  them  a  more 
beauiifal  appearance. 

After  this,  they  fold  them  "mto  small 
squares,  and  press  them.  When  they 
come  out  of  the  press,  the  dealers  in 
France  put  their  numbers  upon  them, 
wliich  are  written  or  stamped  upon  small 
pieces  of  parchment,  and  tied  to  the  sel- 
vage of  the  piece  %nth  silk  of  different  co- 
lours, according  to  the  merchant's  fancy, 
who  calls  that  silk  his  hvery  ;  each  mer- 
chant having  his  particular  coloui',  which 
he  never  changes. 

After  this,  they  %vrap  up  the  pieces 
very  neatly  in  brown  paper  of  Rouen,  well 
beaten,  tied  with  small  packthread,  which 
they  commonly  get  from  Holland.  The 
linens  are  then  in  a  proper  condition  to  be 
sold,  packed  up,  and  sent  to  the  places 
where  they  are  disposed  of. 

All  the  clear  linens  of  Picardy,  such  as 
plain,  striped,  or  spotted  lawns,  are  pre- 
pared after  tlie  same  manner  as  those  be- 
fore mentioned ;  except  that  these  are 
beaten,  but  those  of  Picardy  are  not- 

It  must  be  observed  that  tlie  fau-er  the 
weather  is,  the  easier  are  the  linens 
bleached.  In  fur  weiiher  they  may  be 
bleached  in  a  month's  time  ;  but,  in  foul 
weather,  six  weeks,  or  more,  are  hardly 
sufficient  to  complete  the  operation. 

It  must  also  be  observed,  that  all  the 
linens,  of  whatever  kind  they  are,  which 
are  bleached  m  Holland,  Flanders,  and 
Picardy,  are  dipped  in  cows'  milk  after 
the  cream  is  taken  off;  it  being  certain, 
that  it  is  this  liquor  which  gives  them  tliat 
delicate  whiteness  so  much  admired  in 
the  linens  which  come  from  those  differ- 
ent countries. 

It  is  customary  with  the  merchants 
who  send  their  hnens  to  the  bleaching- 
grounds  of  Flanders  and  Picardy,  to  mark 
them  at  each  end  with  one  or  more  letters 
of  their  names  (which  marks  are  made 
with  thread  of  Epinay,  worked  with  the 
needle)  and  to  fasten  at  the  places  where 
these  marks  are  put,  some  small  twists, 
made  also  of  the  same  thread  of  Epinay ; 
which  twists  have  a  certain  number  of 
knots,  at  some  distance  from  each  other ; 
each  knot  having  its  pai-ticular  value,  ac- 
cording as  every  merchant  thinks  pi-oper. 
The  marks  are  put,  in  order  to  know  to 
whom  each  piece  belongs ;  and  the  twists, 
to  remember  the  prices. 

The  method  of  bleaching  common  linent, 

VOL.  I. 


as  it  is  practised  in  ^injou. — Immedlateljr 
after  the  pieces  are  taken  fi'om  the  loom, 
they  iu"e  carried  to  the  whitner,  or 
bleacher,  who  puts  tliem  directly  ijito 
wooden  trouglis,  fidl  of  cold  clear  water ; 
where,  with  wooden  mallets,  which  are 
moved  by  a  water-mill,  they  rje  so  well 
agiutted  and  beaten,  that  thcv  are  inren- 
sibly  cleared  from  all  t^leir  impurities. 

Being  taken  out  of  the  mill,  the}'  are 
spread  on  a  meadow,  where  the  dew 
which  they  receive  during  a  week  begins 
to  bleach  them. 

Then  they  are  put  into  a  kind  of  wooden 
tubs,  when  they  tlirow  over  them  a  com- 
mon lye,  quite  hot. 

The  linens  ha^•ing  thus  gone  through 
the  lye,  they  take  them  out  of  the  tub, 
to  clean  them  again  in  the  mill ;  then 
they  spread  them  a  second  time  in  the 
meadow,  where  they  leave  them  a  week, 
after  which  tliey  give  them  a  second  lye : 
all  these  several  operations  are  repeated 
until  the  linens  have  acquired  a  perfect 
degree  of  whiteness.  Then  they  fold  them 
up,  after  a  maimer  proper  to  each  sort^ 
and  to  the  places  for  which  tliey  are  de- 
signed. 

Bleaching  of  CaUon. — ^The  process  is 
exactly  the  same  as  for  linen,  only  re- 
quuing  less  time  and  labour,  viz. — 

1.  Steep  the  grey  cloth  for  two  or  three 
days,  then  wash. 

2.  Bouk  with  701b.  of  pot  ash  to  2o0 
pieces  of  caUico  of  28:|^  yards  each,  or 
mtislinets,  velverets,  &c.  in  proportion, 
that  is  to  a  cuir,  full,  which  will  hold  230 
caliicoes  in  the  grey.  .\  cuir  that  wiU 
hold  230  caliicoes  will  not  hold  quite  so 
many  of  Irish  Unen  of  equal  length. 

3."  Lay  tlie  goods  down  on  the  grass 
three  davs,  turning  them  each  day. 

4.  Boiik  with  50ib.  of  good  pearl  ash, 
and  about  5lb.  of  soap.  Dash,  Liy  do\ni 
for  three  days  as  before- 

5.  Sour  in  vitriolic  acid  and  water,  the 
strength  of  strong  %-inegai"  for  two  days. 

6.  Dash  well,  lay  down  for  three  days 
as  before. 

7.  Bouk  with  301b.  of  pearl  ash,  dash 
and  lay  down  for  three  days. 

8.  Bleach  with  oxygenated  muriatic 
acid.  Dash  well,  lay  down  for  a  day; 
dash  again  and  make  up  the  calicoes." 

A  new  metliod  of  bleaching  cotton 
thread  and  hosiery  has  been  adopted  in 
Swabia.  The  operation  is  performed  in 
two  days,  and  does  not  require  extensive 
premises.  An  alkaline  caustic  ley  is 
prepared,  by^  taking  two  measures  of 
quick  lime,  and  covering  them  with  ten 
measures  of  good  ashes ;  the  heap  Is  then 
to  be  sprinkled  with  water,  and  when  the 
lime  is  slacked,  and  the  mass  cooled,  it 
S 


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is  fit  for  making  the  ley  by  tlie  addilion 
of  cold  soft  Avater.  The  skeins  of  cotton 
being  untwisted  and  tied  in  parcels,  are 
to  be  immersed  in  the  ley,  in  which  they 
are  to  be  left  six  hours,  and  to  be  occa- 
sionally turned  ;  they  are  tlien  to  be  wash- 
ed in  a  river,  and  afterwards  Ijoilcdtw  clve 
ho'vs  in  a  bath  of  the  same  kind  of  ley, 
in  wliich  for  every  sixty-six  pounds  of  cot- 
ton thread,  six  pounds  of  soap  have  been 
dissolved ;  they  ;u'e  then  to  be  boiled  the 
same  length  of  time  in  a  solution  of  soap 
and  water  only,  according  to  tlie  former 
proportion;  after  which,  they  are  again 
to  be  washed  in  the  river,  and  hung  up 
in  the  air,  or  laid  on  the  grass,  to  dry  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  process  for  the 
hosiery  is  similar.  The  boiler  must  be 
made  of  copper,  and  always  well  cleaned 
after  it  has  been  used. 

The  successful  experiments  made  by 
Berthollet  in  bleaching  vegetable  goods, 
by  means  of  the  oxyviuriatic  acid,  seem 
to  have  brouglit  this  art  nearly  to  a  state 
of  perfection.  But  this  method  is  not  in 
every  instance,  equally  economical.  It 
requires  to  be  performed  by  very  skilful 
operators,  in  order  that  the  goods  may 
not  be  affected  by  a  ley  too  corrosive,  or 
applied  at  an  improper  time ;  indepen- 
dent of  which  consideration,  it  is  desir- 
able that  every  process  should  be  com- 
pletely disclosed,  in  order  that  the  artist 
may  choose  such  means  as  may  best  suit 
his  pursuit.  Tiiis  consideration  lias  in- 
duced tlie  publication  of  ihe  following  ac- 
count of  Chaptal's  simjile  and  economical 
mode  of  bleaching  cotton  thread. 

At  the  height  of  about  17  inches  above 
the  grate  of  a  common  furnace,  a  copper 
boiler  is  placed,  of  a  round  form,  19  in 
depth,  and  52.49  inches  in  diameter.  The 
projecting  rim  of  the  boiler,  which  is 
about  7  inches,  rests  upon  the  brick  work 
of  the  furnace.  The  remainder  of  the 
kiln  is  made  of  free  stone,  and  forms  an 
ova!  boiler  or  digester,  about  78  inches 
in  height,  and  its  width,  when  mea- 
sured at  the  centre,  52  inches — The  up- 
per  part  of  this  vessel  has  a  round  ori- 
fice, about  19  inches  in  diameter,  which 
is  closed  when  necessary,  by  a  large 
moveable  stone,  or  by  a  cojijier  lid  adapt. 
ed  for  the  i)urpose.  On  the  flank  of  tlic 
copper  vessel,  which  forms  the  iiottom  of 
this  digestei",  a  grating  is  laid,  wliich 
consists  of  bai's  of  wood  placed  near 
enough  to  prevent  the  cotton  that  is  put 
on  them  from  faUing  through,  and  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  sui)port  the  weight  of 
1780  pounds.  Wlien  this  structure  is  com- 
pleted, the  cotton  thi-ead,  having  been 
previously  divided  into  parcels  or  lianks, 
u  slightly  impregnated  witli  u  solution  of 


soda,  rendered  caustic  by  lime.  This 
operation  is  performed  in  a  trough  ol" 
wood  or  stone,  and  as  soon  as  the  cotton 
is  sufliciently  impregnated  witli  the  alka- 
line liquor,  it  is  conveyed  to  the  digester, 
and  piled  »ipon  the  wooden-g^ate.  In  this 
silu-ition,  the  exuding  liquor  runs  through 
the  bars  into  the  copper  boiler,  where  it 
forms  a  stratum  of  fluid,  and  allows  the 
whole  mass  to  be  heated,  without  danger 
of  burning  either  the  cotton  or  the  metal. 
The  alkaline  ley  is  composed  of  the  best 
potash,  one  tenth  part  of  the  weight  of 
the  cott(m  in  quantity. 

After  the  cotton  is  properly  disposed  in 
the  boiler,  the  cover  is  put  on,  and  very 
little  issue  left  for  the  disengaged  vapours, 
in  order  that  they  may  acquire  a  greater 
degree  of  heat,  and  act  more  powerfully 
on  the  cotton.  When  the  digester  is 
charged,  the  fire  is  lighted  in  the  furnace, 
and  the  ley  submitted  to  a  gentle  ebulli- 
tion from  20  to  36  hours.  It  is  then  suf- 
fered to  cool,  the  cover  taken  off",  the  cot- 
ton cai'efully  washed  and  exposed  on  the 
bleaching  ground  for  2  or  3  days,  by 
spreading  it  on  frames  during  the  day, 
and  on  the  grass  at  night.  Thus  the  cot- 
ton acquires  a  beautiful  degree  of  white- 
ness; and  if  some  portions  should  acci- 
dentally remain  unbleached,  which  may 
ha])pen  from  its  not  having  been  equally 
and  completely  impregnated  with  the  ley, 
those  portions  must  be  replaced  and  sub- 
jected to  a  second  operation,  or  left  in  the 
bleach-field  for  some  days  longer. 

The  oxygenated  muriatic  acid  was  dis- 
covered by  Scheele ;  its  application  to 
bleaching  was  hrst  suggested  by  Berthol- 
let and  Chaptal  in  France,  and  used  at 
Glasgow,  by  Mr.  Watt,  and  in  Manches- 
ter in  the  year  1791  in  a  large  way,  first 
by  Baker  and  Co  whose  process  has  never 
vet  been  made  public,  and  is  that  now 
about  to  be  detailed. 

The  method  of  making  this  acid  for 
bleaching,  yet  used  in  Manchester  and 
elsewhere,  is  by  adding  to  3  parts,  by 
weight,  of  manganese,  8  parts  of  common 
salt  and  6  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  12 
of  water — Tliese  are  distilled  together, 
and  tlie  products  received  in  bariels  of 
water,  arranged  in  the  maimer  of  Wolfe's 
apparatus,  by  tubes  communicating  from 
the  retort  to  tlie  first  barrel,  and  from 
tlie  first  to  a  second.  Sometimes  the 
water  is  only  impregnated  with  the  acid, 
sometimes  it  is  made  to  saturate  lime  or 
jiearl  ash.  This  process  cannot  be  used 
with  economy:  the  trouble  and  expence 
of  retorts,  and  the  attendance  on  the  fire 
render  it  com]ilicated  so  as  ultimately  to 
bring  it  into  disuse.  It  has  not  )  et,  and 
never  will  answer  for  goods  in  general. 


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Mliere  particular  patterns  are  suddenly 
wanted  for  the  market  it  may  pay. 

The  \*Tiler  of  this  article  attended  for 
three  years  continually  to  tlie  bleaching 
of  cotton  g"oods  of  various  kinds,  to  the 
amount  of  800  pieces  of  callico  per  week, 
on  tlie  average  of  the  year,  by  the  follow- 
ing process.  The  goods  undei-went  tiiree 
bouking^,  as  described  befoj-e  in  this  ar- 
tide,  and  two  acid  batiis.  'I'he  thiixl  was 
the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  made  as 
follows.  In  a  building  of  one  ixwrn  on  a 
bank  and  another  over  it,  were  placed  on 
substantial  fi-amcs  or  tressels,  five  wooden 
cyundricul  machines  four  feet  diameter  by 
five  fc-et  long,  the  staves  two  and  an  half 
inches  thick  and  well  dove-Uiiled.  Iiuo 
each  of  these,  twice  a  day,  through  a  fun- 
nel inserted  in  a  two  inch  augur  hole  and 
let  through  the  floor  of  the  upper  room, 
was  poured  T5\h.  of  salt  and  25ib.of  red 
lead.  To  tliis  was  added  401b.  of  oil  of 
vitriol,  weighing  29Aoz..  to  the  wine  pint. 

The  maclilne  was  tlien  filled  with  w  ater, 
the  augur  hole  stopt  with  a  plug  and  rag, 
and  then  turned  round  20  or  30  times, 
and  in  15  minutes  tlie  acid  was  made  — 
The  vitriolic  acid  acts  on  the  salt,  and  the 
marine  acid  tiius  produced  on  tlie  red 
lead,  which  in  a  few  minutes  is  deprived  of 
its  ox)gen.  The  handle  of  each  macliiiie 
was  fixed  on  the  centre  of  one  of  tlie  ends 
with  two  ci"oss-bars  [X] — The  acid  when 
made  was  let  off  on  the  pieces  plucetl  in 
wooden  vessels  in  a  room  adjoining  and 
below.  It  frequently  occasioned  a  spit- 
ting of  blood  among  the  workmen  wiio 
took  out  the  pieces,  but  was  never  attend- 
ed with  any  further  deleterious  effects: 
laudanum  relieved  the  short  phthisicky 
cough.  One  of  these  vessels  full  was  al- 
lowed to  60  muslinets.  No  lead  remained 
in    the   Uquor. 

This  process  may  be  imitated  in  a  small 
wa\-,  by  poming  into  a  strong  vial,  with  a 
glass  stopper,  about  an  ounce  of  spirii.s 
of  salt  on  a  tea-spoonful  of  red-lead ;  stop 
the  vial;  heat  is  generated,  the  Jijad  turns 
white  and  a  very  sti-ong  oxygenated  acid 
is  produced  in  a  uunute's  time.  But  this 
acid  will  contain  a  little  le:«d,  while  the 
acid  mude  with  vitriol  and  salt  does  not. 
This  acid  has  lately  been  recommended 
by  Gujton  Mor^eau,  as  aneflectual  de- 
stroyer of  putrid  exhalation. 

We  shall  abstract  the  patent  lately 
granted  to  Mr.  Turnbull,  for  an  improve- 
ment in  the  common  process  of  bleaching 
cotton,  or  linen  pieces  :  Take  any  kind  of 
earth  which  is  easily  mixable  with  water, 
such  as  clay,  marl,  or  Fuller's  earth,  or 
if  tliat  cannot  be  had,  any  kind  of  soft 
mud  01-  the  like,  which  is  put  into  a  boil- 


er to  evaporate  the  moisture;  dried,  ag*irt 
mixed  with  water,  and  passed  through 
fine  sieves.  This  powder  is  then  mixed 
with  quick-lime,  which  is  slacked  in  the 
eartliy  mass,  and  forms  the  materials  for 
tlie  several  boukings  which  the  cloth  is  to 
undergo.  The  pieces  are  to  be  worked 
in  the  bouking  tubs  for  a  number  of 
times,  alternating  tliis  operation  with  rins- 
ing and  souring,  as  is  usual  in  the  long 
estabhshed  method,  and  afterwards  ex- 
posing tlicm  to  the  air,  on  tlie  bleaching 
ground.  The  only  difJerence  in  the  pro- 
cess here  employed,  is  the  admixture  of 
eai-iliy  mud,  or  clay,  to  tlie  lime,  so  that 
tlie  corrosive  power  of  the  latter  is  dimi- 
nislied,  and  may  consequently  be  used 
more  freely.  In  the  last  botikings,  j)ot- 
ash  is  also  added  to  tlie  earthy  mixture. 
Hence  the  patentee's  method  imites  that 
of  fulling  with  soap,  or  washing  witli  al« 
kaline  lye ;  and  it  is  very  probable,  that 
by  such  a  combination  not  only  time,  but 
also  expcnce  may  be  saved,  as  alkah  is 
tlie  most  valuable  article  used  m  the 
process. 

In  January,  1798,  a  patent  was  granted 
to  ]Mr.  C.  Tennant,  for  his  method  of 
using  c-.dciu-eous  eaiths,  especially  tliose 
known  under  the  names  of  barytes  and 
sti-ontites  as  substitutes  for  alkalies,  in 
neutralizing  tlie  muriatic  acid  gas  em- 
ployed in  bleaching,  &c.  and  the  paten- 
tee diiects  such  calcareous  earths  to  be 
calcined,  pulverised,  and  sifted ;  afler 
wiiich  a  certain  portion  of  qoick-Ume,  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  strength  requir- 
ed, must  be  tlirown  into  the  vessel  usu- 
ally em])lo\ed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
bleaching  liquor,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
taining the  oxygenated  muriatic  gas.  When 
the  ingredients  generally  employed,  name- 
ly, manganese  and  spirit  of  salt,  have 
been  introduced  into  the  retort,  and  tlie 
gas  begins  to  rise,  llie  Uquor  contained 
in  the  receiver  ouglit  to  Ije  constantly 
agitated,  so  tliat  tlie  fine  particles  of  the 
lime  may  be  difhised  throughout  the 
wiiole  of  such  fluid ;  for  the  success  of 
the  process  depends  chiefly  on  this  cir- 
cumstance. As  soon  as  Uie  manganese, 
or  odier  material,  ceases  to  yield  the  oxy- 
genated muriatic  acid  gas,  the  whole 
should  be  suffered  to  remain  at  rest,  for 
two  or  three  hours ;  after  which  the  clear 
liquor  muse  be  decanted  for  use ;  Mr.  T. 
farther  observes,  that  if  these  calcareou.s 
earths  be  mechanically  suspended  in  v.-a- 
ter,  or  other  aqueous  fluid,  they  will  unite 
with  such  gas,  and  form  a  compound 
that  may  be  advantageously  employed  in 
bleaching. 
The  liquor,  thus  prepai'ed,  is  not  only 


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a  considerable  saving  in  the  article  of 
ashes,  bwt  also  the  time  usually  required 
for  bleaching  is  remarkably  hhoiiened. 

It  will  be  observed,  that  the  proportions 
of  the  ingredients  are  varied,  and  must  in 
some  measure  depend  on  the  goodness  of 
the  articles,  Mr.  Rupp  of  Manchester 
recommends  manganese  3  parts  more  cr 
less  according  to  ils  qnalLly,  common  salt 
8,  oil  of  viUiol  0,  water 'l 2.  Mr.  Ten- 
nant  of  Glasg'>w,  equJ  weights  of  manga- 
nese, saltj  und  sulphuric  acid,  with  a 
quantity  of  water  equal  to  the  acid  in 
measure.  Tn  Ireland,  the  common  pro- 
portions are  said  to  be  manganese  6  parts, 
common  salt  C,  sulphuric  acid  5,  water  5. 
In  France  and  Germany  we  understand 
they  vai-y  little  Irom  tlio  following  :  man- 
ganese 20  part?,  common  salt  64,  sulphu- 
ric acid  4"?,  w<"ter  54.  It  must  be  obser- 
ved, iKAvevcr,  that,  as  the  efficacy  of  the 
acid  rlt'pends  upon  the  oxigen  imparted 
to  it  by  the  manganese,  a  deficiency  of 
this  article  must  render  it  less  efficacious. 
The  process  of  distillation  may  be  per- 
formed in  a  large  leaden  alembic,  sup- 
ported by  an  iron  tre\tt,in  an  iron  boiler. 

But  instead  of  this  apparatus,  which  is 
pecuhariy  adapted  for  making  a  solution 
of  h_\pei'<)xigenated  nuiriat  of  lime,  some, 
as  heib/e  noticed,  employ  a  series  of  large 
barrch  disposed  in  the  manner  of  a 
Wpulfc'd  apparatus,  disengaging  the  oxi- 
genatcd  niurlatic  acid  gas  in  one  or  more 
tubulated  i  ctorts,  either  of  lead  or  stone, 
proj^crly  an  i.nged  for  the  purpose  ;  or 
rec<'i\e  the  gas  thus  disengaged  into  the 
ViJi:.;eU  in  which  the  goods  are  to  be 
bleached.  But  whatever  mode  be  ado])t- 
ed,  '/very  possihlo  precaution  should  be 
employed,  to  prevent  tlie  escape  of  the 
fjai  into  theair,  to  the  injury  of  the  work- 
men, 

If  the  bleaching  liquor  be  not  made  in 
the  vessel  in  which  it  is  to  be  used,  it  is 
proper  to  draw  off  the  liquor  from  the  cask 
as  so<  n  as  it  is  prepared,  because  it  acts 
upon  the  wood,  and  not  only  becomes  by 
this  m-eaus  weaker,  but  likewise  hastens 
the  destruction  of  the  cask  :  but  when  it 
is  conveyed  into  a  vessel  in  which  clotlis 
are  properly  placed,  these  speedily  weak- 
en it  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  does  not 
perceptibly  act  upon  tiie  wood. 

The  ck,'tl;3  are  to  be  piepared  by  leav- 
ing them  twenty-tour  hours  iu  water,  or 
still  belter  in  the  old  lixivium,  to  extract 
the  dr(.s-;ing ;  after  which  they  must  be 
once  or  twice  well  washed  in  alkaline 
llxiviums,  because  all  that  part  wliich  can 
be  extractccLby  thclixiviunis  woidd  have 
neutralized  a  portion  of  the  licpior,  which 
requires  to  becarefidly  used.  After  this 
the  cloth  must  be  carefully  washed,  and 


disposed  upon  sticks,  in  such  a  manner, 
that  it  may  be  impregnated  with  the  li- 
quor poured  on  it,  without  anv  part  being 
compiessed.  The  frammgot'  the  sticks, 
as  well  as  the  cask  and  vesse  intended 
to  contain  the  cloths,  ought  to  be  con- 
s.ructcd  without  iron  ;  because  this  me- 
tal becomes  calcined  by  the  oxigenated 
muriatic  acid,  and  would  produce  iron- 
moulds,  not  to  be  taken  out  but  by  means 
of  oxalic,  or  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

The  first  immersion  must  be  longer 
than  the  following  ones  ;  it  may  last  three 
hours  :  after  which,  the  cloth  is  to  be  ta- 
ken out,  lixi\  iated  anew,  and  then  put  into 
a  shallow  vessel,  in  order  that  new  liquor 
may  be  poured  on  it.  It  is  sufficient,  that 
this  immersion,  and  the  following,  shouUl 
contiimc  for  the  space  of  half  an  hour. 
The  clotli  is  taken  out,  and  cleared  of  the 
liquor  by  pressure ;  then  lixiviated,  and 
subjected  to  new  immersions.  The  same 
liquor  may  be  used  until  it  is  exhausted  : 
and  when  it  is  fbimd  to  be  much  weaken- 
ed, a  proportion  of  the  liquor  which  has 
not  been  used  may  be  added. 

When  the  clotli  appears  white,  except- 
ing at  the  selvages,  and  a  few  threads 
darker  than  the  rest,  it  must  be  impregna- 
ted with  black  soap,  and  strongly  rubbed ; 
after  which  it  is  to  be  lixiviated  for  the 
last  time,  and  immersed  once  more  in  tlie 
liquor. 

The  number  of  lixiviations  and  immer- 
sions which  are  necessary  cannot  be  de- 
termined, because  it  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  cloth  :  the  limits  of  this 
number,  liowever,  are  between  fovir  and 
eight,  for  linen  and  hempen  cloths.  M. 
Berthollet  expresses  his  inability  to  point 
out  the  best  method  of  making  the  alka- 
line lixiviums;  this  useful  art  being  still 
a  matter  of  mere  practice,  and  variously 
performed  in  diflercnt  places.  It  appear- 
ed advantageous  to  him,  to  render  the  al- 
kali caustic  by  mixing  one  third  of  lime  ; 
but  in  this  c.ise  care  must  be  taken  that 
tlie  lixivium  l)e  strained  through  a  cloth, 
hi  ordt-r  that  the  calcareous  earth  may 
not  mix  itself  with  tlu  linen,  as  its  par- 
ticks  might  corrode  or  wear  it  by  their 
hardness.  By  this  management  the  lixi- 
vium being  rendered  more  active,  it  does 
not  requu'e  so  large  a  quantity  of  alkali  ; 
and  nevertheless,  if  the  quantity  of  alkali 
be  not  too  considerable,  it  produces  no 
damage  to  the  clotli,  notwithstanding  the 
contrary  prejudice,  which  is  very  general, 
lie  haa  likewise  remarked,  that  it  was  of 
no  advantage,  and  even  prejudicial,  that 
the  lixiviations  should  be  of  long  duration  ; 
but  it  is  necessary  that  the  fluid  be  very- 
hot,  aiid  of  considerable  sti-ength,  other- 
wisu  the  cloths  bleached  by  the  oxigenated 


BLE 


BLE 


muriatic  acid  would  become  coloured  and 
ruddy  when  submitted  to  new  lixiviations. 
Cottons  are  much  more  easily  and  speed- 
ily bleached  than  linens  :  two  lixiviums, 
or  at  most  three,  with  the  same  number 
of  immersi xis  in  the  liquid,  are  sufficient  ; 
and  as  they  are  so  much  the  more  readily 
bleached,  it  is  advantageous,  when  linen, 
hemp,  and  cotton  are  to  be  bleached,  to 
reserve  the  liquors  for  the  latter,  wliich 
have  been  already  weakened  by  exerting 
their  action  on  the  former.  Such  liquors 
as  are  so  exhausted  as  scarcely  to  act  upon 
hemp  or  linen  will  do  very  well  for  cot 
ton . 

After  the  last  immersion  in  the  liquor, 
the  cloth  must  be  plung-ed  into  sour  milk, 
or  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid. 
The  true  proportion  is  not  well  ascertain- 
ed ;  but  Beri  hoUet  thinks,  from  his  expe- 
riments, that  one  part  of  the  acid  by 
weight,  with  fifty  parts  of  water,  may  be 
employed  successfully  and  without  dan- 
ger. The  cloths  are  to  be  kept  about 
half  an  hour  in  this  fluid,  warmed  ;  after 
which,  they  must  be  strongly  pressed,  or 
wrung,  and  immediately  plunged  into 
common  water  :  for,  if  they  were  siiffei'ed 
to  dry  by  evaporation,  the  sulphuric  acid, 
becoming  concentrated,  would  attack 
them.  When  the  cloths  are  well  washed, 
they  must  be  passed  through  a  weak  alka- 
line lixivium,  and  rinsed  a  second  time  ; 
after  which  nothing  moi'e  is  necessary 
than  to  dry  and  prepare  them  in  the  usual 
manner. 

It  is  an  obvious  precaution,  that  this 
acid  water  be  not  too  strong,  as  it  would 
of  course  injure  the  texture  of  the  stufl's  : 
and  soap  must  not  be  used  after  it,  as  a 
lixivium,  for  this  would  render  them  }  el- 
low. 

To  avoid  the  inconveniences  arising 
from  the  escape  of  the  gas,  whicli  wc 
liave  mentioned  above,  potash  was  added 
.  to  the  water  in  the  i"cceivci-s.  But  this 
was  found  to  add  considerably  to  the  ex- 
pense, and  diminish  the  strength  of  the 
liquor.  Mr.  Tennant  of  Glasgow  em- 
ployed a  cheaper  material,  quicklime,  ad- 
ded to  the  water  in  the  receiver,  and 
kept  in  continual  agitati(jn.  xVs  lime  is 
very  little  soluble  in  water,  what  is  not  sa- 
turated with  the  acid  will  subside  to  the 
bottom,  if  the  Uquor  be  left  to  stand  after 
all  the  gas  is  come  over.  If  thirty  pounds 
each  of  manganese,  salt,  and  sulphuric 
acid,  be  used,  Mr.  Tennant  puts  sixty 
pounds  of  finely  powdered  quicklime  into 
his  receiver,  which  is  capable  of  contain- 
ing a  hundred  and  forty  wine  gallons  of 
water.  He  likewise  previou.'-iy  dissolves 
thirty  pounds  of  common  salt  in  the  wa- 
ter, but  this  does  not  appear  to  us  to  be 


necessary.  Indeed,  by  increasing  the  spe* 
cific  gravity  of  the  water  the  lime  does 
not  subside  in  it  so  quickly,  and  probably 
a  small  portion  of  hyperoximuriat  of  pot- 
ash is  formed. 

In  bleaching  with  the  oxigenated  mu- 
riatic acid,  it  is  of  consequence  to  ascer- 
tain its  relative  strength,  in  order  that  the 
experiments  may  be  at  all  times  equally 
successful.  Mr.  de  Croisille  made  use  of 
a  solution  of  indigo  in  the  sulphuric  acid; 
for  which  purpose  he  took  one  part  of 
finely  pulverized  mdigo,  with  eight  parts 
of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  This 
mixtuie  is  kept  in  a  matrass  for  several 
hours  on  the  water  bath  ;  and,  when  the 
solution  is  complete,  it  is  diluted  witli  a 
thousand  parts  of  water.  In  order  to  as- 
certain the  force  of  the  oxigenated  muriat- 
ic acid,  one  measure  of  this  solution  is 
put  into  a  graduated  tube  of  glass,  and 
the  liquor  or  impregnated  water  is  added, 
until  the  colour  of  the  indigo  is  completely 
destroyed.  In  this  way  it  is  ascertained, 
by  means  of  the  graduations,  how  many 
meastu'es  of  any  liquor,  the  goodness  of 
which  has  been  fouijd  by  direct  experi- 
ments upon  linen  or  cotton,  are  necessary 
to  destroy  the  colour  of  one  measure  of 
the  solution  of  indigo :  and  this  number 
will  serve  to  ascertain  the  respective 
force  of  all  the  liquors,  which  are  required 
to  be  comp.ared  together.  Mr.  Watt 
makes  use  of  a  decoction  of  cochineal  tor 
the  same  purpose. 

All  the  colours  of  calicoes  or  printed 
goods  may  be  discharged  by  the  oxige- 
nated muriatic  acid,  or  hyperoxigenised 
nuu-iat  of  potash.  The  blues,  yellows, 
and  blacks  indeed  require  a  previous  bath 
of  water  acidulated  with  suljDhuric  acid; 
and  according  to  their  shade  two  or  three 
immersions  in  the  oxigenated  muriatic 
.icid,  alternately  with  this  bath,  may  be 
recess  iry.  I'he  Adrianople  reds  will  al- 
\va}'s  retain  a  ruddy  tinge,  on  account  of 
tlic  oily  matter  that  enters  into  their  pre- 
paration, let  them  be  immersed  ever  so  of- 
ten. All  other  colours  require  only  a 
single  immersion,  without  any  previous 
lixiviiition. 

Silk  too,  and  woollen  dyed  of  certain 
colours,  may  thus  be  rendered  white;  but 
they  must  be  exposed  to  the  action  of 
sulpiuirous  acid  gas,  to  remove  the  yel- 
low colour  left  by  the  oxigenated  muriatic 
acid. 

'I'he  rags  or  other  materials  for  making 
paper  may  be  bleached  in  a  similar  man- 
ner :  but  it  is  best  to  reduce  them  first  to 
the  state  of  pulp,  as  then  the  acid  acts 
more  uniformly  upon  tlie  whole  sub- 
stance. 

For  bleaching  old  printed  paper,  to  be 


BLE 


BLE 


worked  up  again,  Pajot  Descharmes  ^Ives 
tlie  following  directions  :  Boil  your  printed 
paper  for  an  instant  in  a  solution  of  caus- 
tic soda.  That  from  kelp  may  be  used. 
Steep  it  in  soapsuds,  and  then  wash  it; 
after  which  it  may  be  reduced  to  pulp. 
The  soap  may  be  omitted  without  much 
inconvenience.  For  old  written  papers 
to  be  worked  up  again :  steep  it  in  waier 
acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
wash  it  well  before  it  is  taken  to  the  mill. 
If  the  water  be  heated  it  will  be  more  ef- 
fectual. To  bleach  printed  paper,  witli- 
out  destroying  its  texture.  Steep  tlie 
leaves  in  a  caustic  solution  of  soda,  either 
hot  or  cold,  and  then  in  a  solution  of  soap- 
Arrange  them  alternately  between  cloths, 
as  papermakers  do  thin  sheets  of  paper 
when  delivered  from  the  form,  and  sub- 
ject them  to  the  press.  If  one  operation 
do  not  i-ender  them  sufficiently  white,  it 
may  be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary. 
To  bleach  old  written  paper,  without  de- 
stroying its  texture:  steep  the  paper  in 
water  acidulated  with  sidphuric  acid,  ei- 
ther hot  or  cold ;  and  then  in  a  solution  of 
oxigenated  muriatic  acid ;  after  which  im- 
merge  it  in  water,  that  none  of  the  acid 
may  remain  behind.  Tliis  paper,  when 
pressed  and  dried,  will  be  fit  for  use  as 
before. 

With  a  view  to  bleach  wax,  it  is  cut  in 
small  pieces,  melted  and  poured  into  cold 
water,  where  it  granulates.  In  this  state 
it  i..  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  melted 
and  granulated  repeatedly,  then  submit- 
ted to  the  influence  of  tlie  sun,  air,  aid 
dew  in  the  interval  between  each  liquifica- 
lion.  When  the  wax  is  perfectly  blanch- 
ed, it  is  dissolved  for  the  last  time  and 
cast  into  flat  moulds,  in  which  it  is  always 
exposed  to  the  air,  for  one  or  two  days, 
in  order  to  render  it  more  transpa- 
rent. 

The  <i7i:ma/ fibres  that  are  subjected  to 
the  bleaching  process  are  silk  and  wool. 
These  cannot  be  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  vegetable  substances:  a  strong  al- 
kaline ley  will  dissolve  them,  and  oxymu- 
riatic  acid  will  both  weaken  them  and  turn 
them  yellow. 

The  method  of  bleaching  Silk. — The  silk, 
being  still  raw,  is  put  into  a  bag  of 
thin  linen,  and  thrown  into  a  vessel  of 
boiling  river  Wiiler,  in  which  has  l)ccn 
dissolved  good  Genoa  or  Toulon  so;ip. 

After  the  silk  lias  boiled  two  or  three 
hours  in  that  water,  the  !)ag  being  fre- 
quently turned,  it  is  taken  out  to  be  beat- 
en, and  is  then  washed  in  cold  water. 
When  it  has  been  thus  tlioroughly  waslied 
and  beaten,  they  wring  it  sligluly,  and  jjiit 
it  for  tiie  second  time  into  the  boiling  ves- 
sel, filled  with  cold  water,  mixed  with 


soa]i  and  a  little  indigo ;  wluch  gives  it 
that  blueish  cast  commonly  observed  in 
white  silk. 

When  the  silk  is  taken  out  of  this  se- 
cond water,  they  wring  it  hard  with  ;i 
wooden  peg,  to  press  out  all  the  water 
and  soap ;  after  which  they  shake  it  to 
untwist  it,  and  separate  the  threads. 
Then  they  suspend  it  in  a  kind  of  stove, 
constructed  for  that  pui"posc,  Mherc  tliey 
burn  sulphur;  the  vapour  of  which  gives 
the  last  degree  of  whiteness  to  the 
silk. 

The  method  of  bleaching  Woollen  Stuffs. — 
There  are  three  ways  of  doing  this.  The 
first  is  witii  water  and  soap ;  the  second 
with  the  vapour  of  sulphur ;  and  the  third 
with  clialk,  indigo,  and  the  vapour  of  sul- 
phur.   . 

Bleaching  luith  Soap  and  Water. — After 
the  stuffs  are  taken  out  of  the  fuller's 
mill,  they  are  put  into  soap  and  water,  a 
little  warm,  in  wJiich  they  are  again  work- 
ed by  the  strength  of  the  arms  over  a 
wooden  bench :  this  finishes  giving  them 
the  whitening,  which  the  fuller's  mill  had 
only  beg'un.  When  they  have  been  suffi- 
ciently worked  with  the  hands,  they 
are  washed  in  clear  water  and  put  to 
dry. 

Tliis  method  of  bleaching  woollen  stuffs 
is  c:dled  the  Natural  Method. 

Bleaching  luith  Sulphur. — They  begin 
with  washing  and  cleaning  the  stuffs  tho- 
roughly in  river  water ;  then  they  put 
them  to  dry  upon  poles  or  perches.  When 
they  are  half  dry,  they  stretch  them  out 
in  a  very  close  stove,  in  which  they 
burn  sulplnir;  the  vapour  of  which  dif- 
fusing itself,  adheres  by  degrees  to 
tlie  whole  stuff,  and  gives  it  a  fine  white- 
ning. 

Bleaching  ivith  Chalk,  Indigo,  and  Sul- 
phur.— When  the  stufi's  have  been  well 
washed  in  clear  water,  they  throw  them 
into  a  bucket  of  cold  water,  containing 
chalk  and  a  little  indigo,  wherein  the  stuffs 
are  well  stirred  and  agitated :  then  they 
take  thcin  out,  and  wash  them  again  in 
clear  water ;  after  which  they  hang  them 
on  poles  :  wjien  they  arc  half  diT>  they  put 
them  into  a  stove  to  receive  the  vapour  of 
sul))hur,  which  finishes  their  perfect 
whitening. 

Tliis  bleaching  is  not  the  best,  though 
very  agreeable  to  the  eye. 

It  must  be  observed  that,  when  wool- 
len stufi's  have  once  imbibed  the  va- 
])our  of  sulphur,  it  is  a  difficult  mat- 
ter to  make  them  lake  a  good  co- 
loiir  ill  dyeing,  unless  it  be  a  black  or 
blue. 

The  colour  of  manufactured  wool  re- 
,  sides  partly  in  its  own  oil,  and  partly  in 


BOI 


BOI 


the  greasy  and  mucilaginous  applications 
^vhich  it  receives  in  being  prepared  for 
the  loom  Botli  the  one  and  the  other 
are  also  easily  got  rid  of  by  the  action  of 
fidler's  earth  and  soap  in  the  process  of 
fulling.  Fuller's  earth  is  a  very  fine 
grained  absorbent  earth,  which  by  itself 
is  capable  of  mixing  rather  than  com 
bining  with  vegetable  or  animal  oils,  and 
rendering  them  miscible  with  water;  its 
action  is  found  however  to  be  uicreased 
by  the  addition  of  soap ;  and  woollen 
cloth  being  beat  in  a  fulling  mill  with  hot 
V.  ater,  and  a  proper  mixture  of  earth  and 
soap,  or  of  soap  alone,  and  afterwai-ds 
well  washed  and  dried  in  the  aii',  receives 
all  the  bleaching  which  it  requires  or  is 
indeed  capable  of  It  is  then  of  a  white 
coloiu-,  somewliut  verging  towards  yel- 
low; this  last  tinge  may  be  made  to  dis- 
appear by  the  addition  of  a  verj-  small 
quantity  of  stone  blue  in  the  water  in 
which  the  cloth  is  last  washed,  or  by 
exposing  it  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sul- 
phur ;  by  this  latter  method  however  it 
acquires  a  certain  hai'shness  of  feel  and  is 
apt  to  turn  very  yellow  when  washed  with 
soap. 

BOILERS.  Many  ingenious  vessels 
and  utensils  have,  at  djfTerent  periods, 
been  invented,  with  a  view  to  facilitate  the 
process  of  boiling,  and  save  the  consump- 
tion of  fuel.  In  the  latter  respect,  count 
Rumford  stands  at  the  head  of  those  ex- 
perimental inquirers,  w  ho  have  directed 
their  labours  to  the  benefit  of  society ;  yet 
we  must  confess  that  there  is  still  gTeat 
room  for  improvement.  One  of  the  latest 
inventions  in  tliis  department  of  domestic 
economy  is  tliat  of  Mr.  Thomas  Kowntree, 
engine -maker,  of  Great  Sui-ry-street, 
Blackfriars-road,  London,  and  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  literal  abstract  of  tlie  inven- 
tor's description.  "For  heating  of  coppers, 
boilers,  fuinaces,  ovens,  and  stoves,  my 
fire-place  is  much  smaller  than  heretofore 
made  use  of  for  the  same  sized  copper, 
boiler,  furnace,  oven,  or  stove.  Instead 
of  placing  my  fire-place,  according  to  the 
common  practice,  immediately  under  the 
boiler,  or  other  vessel,  I  place  it  at  the 
front,  side  or  end,  as  I  see  most  conveni- 
ent, in  such  a  manner  as  to  oblige  the 
flame  to  rise  in  the  front,  side  or  end,  and 
pass  all  round  the  vessel,  &c.  while  at  the 
same  time  it  strikes  the  bottom  of  the  ves- 
sel, &c.  without  suffering  the  flame  to  pass 
oft'  in  a  flue,  or  flues,  as  it  usually  does  in 
the  common  way,  and  by  tliat  means 
sending  the  heat  into  the  flues,  instead  of 
its  being  used  where  it  ought  to  be,  name- 
ly, on  t!ie  vessels.  Sec  this,  my  method 
effectually  pre\  ents  ;  for,  by  means  of  a 
small  perpendicular,  or  other  opening,  in- 


to a  box  or  trap,  which  I  call  a  reservoir, 
and  which  I  place  horizontally,  or  diagon- 
al!},  as  the  situation  may  require,  and  is 
made  of  iron,  brick,  stone,  or  any  other 
material  capable  of  bearing  heat,  where  a 
valve  is  placed  riding  on  centres  or  other- 
wise, and  standing  in  a  diagonal  or  other 
direction,  asis  found  most  convenient ;  the 
flame  is  returned  or  impeded  in  its  pro- 
gress to  the  chimney,  aud  made  to  de- 
scend below  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and 
pass  out  at  the  bottom,  top,  or  side  of 
said  bo.\,  trap,  or  reservoir,  into  the  com- 
mon chimney.  This  reservoh-  is  placed 
between  the  vessel,  &c.  and  the  chimney. 
To  the  opening,  which  admits  the  flame 
into  the  reservoir,  ai-e  affixed,  when  ne- 
cessary, sliders,  registers,  or  stops,  which 
serve  to  increase  or  diminish  the  heat. 
The  valve  in  tlie  reservoii-  is  for  the 
^ame  purpose  in  another  degi-ee,  which 
more  immediately  appertains  to  increas- 
ing or  diminisliing  tlie  draught,  which  it 
does  by  moving  the  said  valve  into  differ- 
ent positions,  as  the  speed  of  the  opera- 
tion may  requii-c." 

It  would  be  needless  to  state  the  par- 
ticulars of  the  evidence  relative  to  the  ef- 
fect produced  by  the  new  invented  furna- 
ces, in  heating  boilers,  &c.  as  well  as  the 
gi-eat  saving  of  fuel,  which  was  proved  to 
be  more  than  one-third,  and  in  some  cases 
nearly  one-half,  of  what  is  usually  consu- 
med  in  furnaces  constructed  on  tlie  old 
plan.  Hence  we  shall  communicate  otily 
the  hubstance  of  Mr.  Hindmarsh's  evi- 
dence, which  gi-eatly  tends  to  illustrate 
the  principles  of  the  invention.  This,  he 
conceives,  principally  consists  in  the  three 
following  circumstances : 

1.  In  the  peculiar  mode  of  constructing 
tlie  fuiTiace,  or  setting  the  boiler,  and  of 
placing  the  fire,  not  immediately  under, 
but  a  little  in  front,  or  at  one  side  of  it, 
whereby  the  flame  and  hot  air  can  get  ac- 
cess to  every  part  of  the  vessel,  and  not 
only  strike  with  force  against  its  bottom, 
but  also  with  equal  effect  reverberate 
against,  and  violently  embrace  its  sides, 
and  whole  external  surface  ;  unlike  every 
former  contri^■ance,  the  most  perfect  of 
which  could  only  cause  the  flame  and  hot 
air  to  act  partially  upon  tlie  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  vessel. 

2.  In  tlie  elevated  situation,  andsmall- 
ness  of  the  aperture  leading- from  the  fur- 
nace towards  the  chimney  ;  thereby  the 
flame  and  hot  air  are  impeded  in  their 
progress  to  the  atmosphere,  and  compel- 
led to  tarry  in  the  ca%it}'  of  the  furnace, 
and  occupy  every  part  thereof  much  lon- 
ger than  tliey  otherwise  would  do.  This 
effect  in  stopphig,  checking,  and  as  it 
were  arresting-  the  flame  and  hot  air,  in 


BOI 


BOR 


their  attempt  to  escape  into  tlic  atmos- 
phere, Mr.  Hindmai'sh  considered  us  not 
only  new,  but  sing'ularly  beneficial ;  for, 
by  this  means,  the  flame  and  hot  air  are 
detained  in  tlie  very  place  wliere  their 
presence  is  most  wanted,  and  constrained 
to  give  f'oi'th  their  energies  with  an  im- 
petus against  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the 
vessel  to  be  heated  :  wliereas,  in  none  of 
the  furnaces  heretofore  erected,  was  any 
effectual  stop  interposed  between  the  fire 
and  the  chimney,  to  cause  the  flume  and 
hot  air  to  dwell  under  and  round  tlie  sides 
of  the  vessel ;  but  they  passed  rapidly  oft' 
into  the  atmosphere,  eitlier  by  a  direct 
communication  through  the  chunney,  or 
indu-ectly,  but  almost  as  speedilj-,  by  flues ; 
or  else  by  a  drain  (as  it  is  called,)  the 
aperture  of  which  is  equal  in  dimensions 
to  that  of  the  chinmey  itself 

3.  In  an  open  space  between  the  fur- 
nace and  chimney,  called  by  the  Patentee 
a  box,  trap,  or  reservoir,  and  intended  us 
a  receptacle  of  the  flame,  hot  air,  and 
smoke,  after  they  have  quitted  the  fur- 
nace, and  passed  through  the  small  aper- 
ture as  above  described.  Tliis  space,  or 
reservoir,  for  the  flame,  liot  air,  and 
smoke,  being  closed  at  the  top  and  exter- 
nal sides,  and  open  only  at  tlie  boctom  out- 
vards,  for  the  j)urpose  of  permitting  the 
smoke,  &.c.  to  pass  off  into  the  chimney, 
still  farther  checks  and  detains  the  flame 
and  hot  air  in  the  furnace  ;  and  behig  it- 
self constantly  full  of  warm  air,  smoke, 
&c,  causes  the  heat  to  be  reverberated 
against  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  vessel 
or  boiler,  and  eftectually  prevents  the  ad- 
mission of  the  cold  atmosiiheric  air  from 
the  chimney,  which,  on  the  old  plans  of 
construction,  is  found  by  experience  to 
rob  the  furnace  and  vessel  of  more  than 
half  the  supply  of  heat  which  any  given 
quantity  of  fuel  is  capable  of  yielding. 
The  valves,  sliders,  and  dani])ers,  are 
not  essential  parts  of  the  invention,  but 
merely  as  regulators,  which,  in  many  ca- 
ses, may  be  altogether  omitted,  without 
detriment  to  tlie  operation  of  the  Are. 

Count  Rumford  lias  successfully  ex- 
tended his  researclies  to  discover  the 
most  economical  plan  in  the  manage- 
ment of  fire,  and  tlic  generation  of  IkuI 
for  culinary  and  oUier  purposes,  and 
thinks  that  the  fii-e  cannot  be  made  to  im- 
pinge against  the  sides  of  a  vessel  with 
the  same  force  and  efl'ect  as  against  the 
bottom  :  whicli  is  a  plain  proof,  that  at 
the  time  of  writing  that  essay,  he  was  to- 
tally unacquainted  ^\ilil  Mr.  Itowntne's 
method  of  applying  and  iiKaiaging  (he 
fire  ;  in  whicli  the  very  efl'ect  which  ilie 
count  considers  as  a  'Icsidtratttm  in  science, 
and  which  appears  to  have  been  one  graiitl 


ol/jort  of  his  philosoi)hical  pursuits,  is 
now  in  a  great  measure  completed.  See 
Kitchen. 

liOlLlNG,  in  the  ctilinaryart,  is  a  me- 
thod of  dresshig  animal  food,  v(  getables, 
&c.  by  decoction  in  hot  water,  for  ilie  pur- 
pose of  removing  their  natural  crudities, 
and  rendering  them  more  easy  of  digestion. 
By  too  much  boiling,  however,  flesh  is  de- 
prived of  a  considerable  part  of  its  nour- 
ishing juice,  as  the  gelatinous  substimce 
of  the  meat  is  extracted,  and  incorporated 
with  the  water,  wliile  the  spiritous  and 
balsamic  particles  are  dissipated  by  evapo- 
ration. Tlic  culinary  process  of  sttiving  is 
more  proHiable,  especially  if  conducted  in 
close  vessels,  as  it  is  better  cidciduted  to 
])reserve  and  concentrate  the  most  sub- 
stantial and  nutritious  parts  of  animal 
food 

BOUAX,  or  Sub-Borat  of  Jorfa— Borax 
is  a  saline  substance  found  in  Tibet  and 
China  ;  hi  the  former  place  it  is  procured 
from  a  lake  situated  among  the  momitains, 
hfteen  days  journey  from  Tisoolumbo  the 
capital,  and  entirely  su])plied  by  sjirings, 
no  streams  eithei-  falling  into  or  flowing 
from  it.  The  water  has  a  salt  taste  and 
contains  both  borax  and  common  salt,  and 
on  ;iccount  of  its  elevated  situation  is  fro- 
zen for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  The  edges 
and  siiallows  of  the  lake  are  covered  w  ith 
a  stratum  of  borax,  which  is  dug  up  in  con- 
siderable masses,  and  the  holes  thus  made 
are  gradually  filled  by  a  fresh  deposition  : 
from  the  deeper  parts  of  the  lake  common 
salt  is  procured.  The  borax  in  its  rough 
state  is  called  tincal,  and  is  brought  to 
Europe  in  the  form  of  a  brownish-grey 
impure  amorphous  salt,  or  in  detached 
crystals  about  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  pale 
greenish  hue,  and  in  the  foi'm  of  compi'es- 
sed  he.vahedral  jirisms. 

The  purification  of  borax  is  an  art 
w  hich  was  first  discovered  by  the  Vene- 
tians, afterwards  passed  to  the  Dutch,  and 
is  now  practised  in  great  perfection  by 
some  English  and  French  chemists.  The 
])rocess  is  as  yet  kept  a  secret,  but  in  all 
jjiobability  consists  of  calcination,  solution 
ai;d  cr)stallization.  Chaptal,  however,  in- 
forms us,  fioni  his  o\\  n  extensive  experi- 
ence, tliat  tlie  destruction  of  the  oily  jiart 
of  borax  by  calcination  is  attended  with 
considerable  loss,  lie  finds,  after  trying- 
all  the  ])rocesses  in  the  large  way,  that  tlie 
.sini])iest  method  consists  in  boiling  the 
borax  slrnn<;|y,  und  foi  a  long  time,  with 
water.  This  solution,  being  filtered,  af- 
foiiis  liy  e\ a|)oratioii  crystals,  which  are 
soniewiiat  foul,  but  may  be  purified  by  re- 
peating  tlie  operation.  TJic  crude  borax 
is  often  covered  with  an  oily  or  grea.sy 
matter  to  prevent   it  from  efflorescing 


BOR 


BRA 


and  on  this  account  is  not  easil}'  acted  on 
by  hot  water.  It  appears  however  that  bv 
exposing  the  tincal  to  a  calcining"  heat 
lower  than  its  point  of  fusion,  tlie  g-rease 
may  be  burnt  off  and  the  other  inflamma- 
ble  impnrities  got  rid  of;  the  residue  be- 
ing then  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and  di- 
gested in  boiling  water,  tlie  saline  paits 
will  be  dissolved,  leaving  most  of  the  im- 
purities behind. 

Borax  when  quite  pure  is  in  colourless 
crystaUine  masses,  very  shghtly  efflores- 
cent on  exposure  to  the  air ;  but  when  ex- 
posed to  a  dni-  heat  speedily  dissolves  in 
its  water  of  crystallization,  it  then,  as  the 
moisture  evaporates,  becomes  of  an  opake 
^vh^te  colour,  and  a  voluminous  spungj' 
texture  like  burnt  alum.  If  the  heat  is  en- 
creased  to  a  moderate  redness  it  liquefies, 
and  when  cool  appears  as  a  colourless 
transparent  glass.  If  poured  out  of  the 
crucible  in  order  to  cool,  it  should  be 
transferred  as  soon  as  it  becomes  solid  to 
a  covered  bason  or  other  proper  vessel,  for 
it  always  cracks  and  flies  to  pieces  before 
it  grows  cold.  Borax  when  thus  fused  is 
called  glass  of  boi-as.  By  exposure  to  the 
air  it  acquires  the  appearance  of  chalce- 
dony on  account  of  the  partial  efflores- 
cence that  it  undergoes  If  made  in  a  sU- 
rer  crucible,  or  if  hastily  melted  in  an 
earthen  one,  it  is  pei-fectly  resoluble  in 
vrater,  but  when  kept  fluid  for  a  longtime 
in  a  common  crucible  it  dissolves  a  por- 
tion of  the  earth  of  the  vessel  and  becomes 
little  if  at  all  soluble  in  water. 

Borax  is  decomposable  by  all  the  mine- 
ral and  vegetable  acids.  Silex  and  alu- 
mine  combine  in  the  dry  way  with  borax, 
the  former  into  a  transparent,  the  latter 
into  an  opake  glass.  If  the  ingredients  are 
in  nearly  equal  proportions  the  glass  is  in- 
soluble in  the  mineral  acids,  but  if  a  con- 
siderable excess  of  borax  is  employed,  the 
result  is  a  soluble  glass.  Of  this  circum- 
stance Mr.  Chenevix  has  ingeniously  ta- 
ken advantage,  by  substituting  borax  for 
caustic  potash  in  the  analysis  of  the  more 
refractory  stony  compounds,  the  use  of  the 
former  salt  being  on  many  accounts  much 
more  convenient  than  tliat  of  the  latter. 
Borax  will  also  dissolve  most  of  the  me- 
tallic oxyds,  receiving  fi-om  each  of  them 
peculiar  tinges  of  colour. 

The  uses  of  borax  are  considerable  :  it 
Ts  employed  in  the  laboratory  as  a  verv 
active  flux,  and  as  producing  a  more  per- 
fetly  limpid  fusion  than  any  other  sub- 
stance. For  the  same  reason  it  is  an  in- 
gredient in  some  of  the  finer  kinds  of 
^lass ;  though  its  dearness  prevents  it 
irom  being  employed  so  often  as  itxjther- 
wise  might  be  to  great  advantage.  Borax 
is  also  highly  useful  to  the  jewellei-s  and 

VOL.    I. 


goldsmiths  as  a  flux  for  the  solder  by 
which  pieces  of  gold  and  silver  are  ce- 
mented  together  ;  in  the  East  Lidies  it  is 
emplojed  in  the  moist  way  as  a  solvent  for 
gum  Lac;  and  dyers  frequently  employ 
it  for  giving  a  gloss  to  silks. 

Borax  is  not  only  found  in  the  East  Indies 
butlikewisein  South  Anierlca.Mr.Anthony 
Carera,  a  physician  established  at  Fotosi, 
informs  us,  tliat  this  salt  is  abundantly  ob- 
tained at  the  mines  of  Riquintipa  and  those 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Escapa,  where  it 
is  used  by  the  natives  in  the  fusion  of  cop- 
per ores. 

BR.\NDY.  Tliis  valuable  spirit  is  pro- 
duced by  the  distillation  of  wines  of  all 
kinds,  and  properly  speaking,  by  no  other 
fermented  liquor  whatever.  Under  tlie 
article  Alcohol  we  mentioned  that  the 
purely  spirituous  part  of  all  fermented 
liquors  appears  to  be  identically  the 
same.  Brandy,  rum,  corn  spirits,  &'c.  be- 
ing the  products  of  the  first  distillation 
fiom  fermented  liquors,  and  alcohol  the 
purer  part  of  each,  beuig  separated  bv  a 
quent  process. 

Brandy  is  prepared  in  many  of  the  wine 
countries  of  Europe,  and  with  p:u'ticular 
excellence  in  many  parts  of  the  centre 
and  south  of  France.  The  necessary 
process  is  extremely  simple,  being  no- 
thing more  than  a  well  regulated  distil- 
lation  of  wine  without  addition,  fi-om 
suitable  vessels  ;  but  to  alter  or  improve 
the  colour  and  flavour,  various  substances 
are  added  to  the  spirit  after  distillation. 
The  manufactory  is  technically  called  in 
France  Brulerie,  and  the  makers,  Bndeurs 
d'Eau  de  Vie. 

Though  every  wine  will  give  a  certain 
portion  of  brandy  by  distillation,  some  are 
much  preferable  to  others.  In  general 
the  strong  heavy  wines  yield  tlie  most 
spirit,  giving  nearly  a  fburtli  of  good 
proof  spirit,  whilst'  some  of  the  light 
thin  wines  furnisJi  no  more  than  about  a 
fifteenth.  If  the  quantity  is  less  than  a 
sixth  it  will  hardly  repay  the  expense  of 
distillation. 

Fi-ench  brandy  acquires  by  age  a  great 
degree  of  softness,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  yellowish  brown  colour,  which  our  dis- 
tillers have  imitated  in  theu*  artificial  pre- 
parations. But  this  colour  being  found 
only  in  such  brandies  as  have  become 
mellow  by  long  keeping,  it  follows  th.at 
the  ingredient,  from  which  it  is  extracted, 
is  the  wood  of  the  cask,  and  tliat  the 
brandy  in  leality  has  received  a  tincture 
from  the  oak.  The  peculiar  flavour 
which  French  brandies  pos.?ess,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  an  essential  oil 
of  vvine,  mixed  widi  the  spirit ;  but, 
more  probably,  it  originates  from  the 
T 


BRA 


BRA 


very  nature  of  the  gi'ape,  or  the  wine 
lees. 

It  deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  our 
distillers  frequently  make  use  of  the  spi- 
rit of  nitrous  ether,  commonly  called,  dul- 
cified spirit  of  nitre  :  a  very  small  propor- 
tion of  which,  added  to  pure  whiskey,  or 
a  liquor  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
mult,  imparts  to  it  a  flavoui-,  not  unlike 
that  of  French  bi-andy. 

A  vinous  spirit  has  been  extracted  from 
carrots  by  Mr.  Thomas  Hornby,  of  York, 
(England,)  who  found,  that  an  acre  of 
carrots  (20  tons,)  produced  240  gallons 
of  spirit;  which  is  considerably  more 
than  can  be  obtained  from  five  quar- 
ters of  barley,  the -average  produce  of  an 
acre. 

Brandy,  even  of  the  most  genuine  kind, 
is  less  wholesome  than  rum;  but  the 
counterfeit  and  adulterated  sorts  are  ex- 
ceedingly detrimental  to  those  who  are 
habitually  addicted  to  the  use  of  this  per- 
nicious liquor.  It  should,  therefore,  be 
drank  very  moderately,  rather  from  neces- 
sity than  for  gratification. 

Excellent  brandy  is  made  from  apples 
in  the  United  States,  notwithstanding 
what  Chaptal  has  said  on  the  subject.  If 
carefully  distilled  from  sound  apples,  and 
kept  a  few  years  in  a  warm  situation,  it  is 
very  agreeable  when  diluted  with  wa- 
ter. Peaches  also  yield  a  liquor,  which, 
when  properly  distilled,  is  by  many 
preferred  to  the  finest  French  bran- 
dy. 

The  following  recipe  for  making  apple 
brandv,  was  communicated  by  Mr.  Joseph 
CoopeV,  of  New  Jersey.  The  liquor  made 
agreeably  to  this  process,  is  mild,  mellow, 
and  pleasant,  and  greatly  superior  to  ap- 
ple spirits  procured  by  the  common 
mode. 

"Put  the  cider,  previously  to  distilling, 
into  vessels  free  from  must  or  ill  smell, 
and  keep  it  till  in  the  state  whicli  is  com- 
monl"  called  good  soimd  cider,  but  not 
till  sour,  as  that  lessens  the  quantity  and 
injures  the  cjuality  of  the  spirit.  In  the 
distillation,  let  it  run  perfectly  cool  from 
the  worm,  and  in  the  first  time  of  distil- 
ling, not  longer  than  it  will  flash  when 
cast  on  the  still  head  and  a  lighted  can- 
dle applied  )nulcr  it.  In  the  second  dis- 
tillation, shift  the  vessel  as  soon  as  the 
spirit  runs  below  proof,  or  has  a  disagree- 
able smell  or  taste,  and  put  what  runs  af- 
ter with  the  low  wines.  Uy  this  method 
the  spirit,  if  distilled  from  g-ood  cider,  will 
take  nearly  or  quite  one  third  its  ([uantity 
to  bring  it  to  proof;  for  wliich  purpose 
take  the  last  running  from  a  cheese  of 
good  water  cider,  direct  from  the  press, 
unfermei^ed,  and  ui  forty -eiglit  hours  the 


spirit  will  be  milder  and  better  flavoured 
than  in  several  years  standing  if  manufac- 
tured in  the  common  way.  When  the 
spirit  is  drawn  off,  which  may  be  done  in 
five  or  six  days,  there  will  be  a  thin  jelly 
at  bottom,  which  may  be  distilled  again, 
or  put  into  the  best  cider,  or  used  for 
making  royal  cider :  it  being  better  for 
these  purposes  than  the  clear  spirit,  as  it 
will  greatly  facilitate  in  refining  the  li- 
quor." 

One  wine  glass  full  added  to  a  half  gal- 
lon bowl  of  punch,  highly  improves  the 
flavour  of  that  drink.  In  Virginia,  peach 
brandy  has  long  been  distilled,  and  might 
be  made  a  very  profitable  article  of  inter- 
nal commerce,  as  the  peach  tree  appears 
to  thrive  better  m  that  state,  than  in  al- 
most any  other  in  the  Union.  See  Dis- 
tilling. 

BRASS,  in  metallurgy,  is  a  factitious 
metal,  made  of  copper  and  zinc,  or  lapis 
calaminaris. 

By  long  calcination  alone,  and  without 
the  mixture  of  any  otlier  substance  with 
it,  brass  affords  a  beautiful  green  or  blue 
colour  for  glass  :  but  if  it  be  calcined  witli 
powdered  sulphur,  it  will  give  a  red,  yel- 
low, or  chalcedony  colour,  according  to 
the  quantitv,  and  other  variations  in  using 
It. 

Jiraxx  cnlour,  is  tliat  prepared  by  colour- 
men  and  braziers  to  imitate  brass;  of 
wliich  there  are  two  sorts :  namely,  the 
red  brass,  or  bronze,  which  is  mixed  with 
red  ochre,  finely  pidverized;  and  the  yel- 
low, or  gilt  brass,  which  is  made  of  cop- 
per filings  only.  Both  sorts  are  used  with 
varnish. 

Corinthian  brass,  is  a  mixture  of  gold, 
silver,  and  copper  ;  so  called  from  the 
melting  and  running  together  of  immense 
quantities  of  those  metals,  when  the  city 
of  Corinth  was  sacked  and  burnt,  146  years 
before  Christ. 

In  1781,  a  patent  was  granted  to  Mr. 
James  Emerson,  for  his  invention' of  mak- 
ing brass  of  copper  and  zinc.  The  Paten- 
tee directs  the  spelter  to  be  melted  in  an 
iron  boiler,  then  passed  througli  a  perfo- 
rated ladle  and  placed  over  a  vessel  con- 
tiiining  water;  by  which  means  the  zinc 
will  be  granulated.  Fifty-four  pounds  of 
copper  shot  are  now  annexed  with  lOlbs. 
of  calcined  and  pulverized  calamine,  to- 
gether with  about  one  bushel  of  charcoal : 
a  handful  of  this  mixture  is  first  put  into  a 
casting-pot,  tlien  31bs.  of  the  gi-anuialed 
zinc ;  upon  which  the  composition  befoi'e 
specified  is  laid  till  the  vessel  is  filled : 
Mr.  Emerson,  however,  has  not  stated  the 
exact  proportion  of  the  ingi-edients.  Eight 
similar  pots  are  now  to  be  supplied  with 
the  same  materials,  and  the  whole  must 


BRA 


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be  submitted  to  the  heat  of  a  furnace,  for 
the  space  of  12  hours ;  when  the  pro- 
cess will  be  completed  and  821bs.  of 
brass  be  prociu'ed ;  which  the  Patentee 
asserts  to  be  of  a  very  superior  quality  to 
that  manufactured  from  copper  and  cala- 
mine. 

Various  articles  made  of  brass  have 
sometimes  an  appearance  of  well  gilt  me- 
tal. This  appearance,  we  now  know,  is 
produced  by  means  of  a  solution  of  gum- 
lac  in  spirit  of  wine,  with  which  they  are 
rubbed.  As  long  as  the  lac  lasts,  they 
retain  their  splendour.  These  articles, 
however,  are  attended  with  one  inconve- 
nience, that  they  must  never  be  cleaned 
with  a  strong  brush,  or  scoured  with 
chalk  or  whiting,  but  only  wiped  with  a 
soft  rag;  for  as  soon  as  the  lac  is  rubbed 
off  they  loose  their  brilliancy-  A  varnish 
of  this  kind  may  be  prepared  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : 

Dissolve  two  ounces  of  very  pure  and 
fine  gum  lac  in  forty-eight  ounces  of  al- 
cohol, and  place  the  solution  in  a  sand 
bath  exposed  to  a  moderate  heat.  To 
prevent  the  too  abundant  evaporation  of 
the  spii'it  of  wine,  as  well  as  the  bui'sting 
of  the  glass,  a  piece  of  bladder  ought  to 
be  bound  over  the  latter,  and  a  few  holes 
made  in  it  with  a  needle.  In  another 
glass,  dissolve  in  the  same  quantity  of 
spu-it  of  wine,  an  ounce  of  di-agon's  blood 
in  grains.  When  both  the  solutions  are 
completed,  mix  them  together,  then  put 
three  grains  of  yellow  wood  into  it,  and 
suffer  it  to  remain  there  twelve  houi's  in  a 
moderate  heat :  after  which,  strain  the  li- 
quor through  filtering  paper,  and  pre- 
serve it  for  use  in  a  clean  glass  bottle. 
To  give  this  lac-varnish  a  high  gold  co- 
loui',  yellow  wood  is  preferable  to  every 
other  substance.  If  the  varnish  be  in- 
tended to  be  pale,  and  not  to  change  the 
colour  of  tlie  brass-  tlie  yellow  wood  may 
be  omitted,  but  if  a  stronger  colour  be  re- 
quired, a  half  more  of  the  yellow  wood 
may  be  added. 

'the  uses  of  brass  are  too  numerous  to 
be  mentioned.  It  is  applicable  to  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  purposes,  is  easily  wrought 
by  casting  and  hammering,  and  by  the 
lathe  ;  its  wh-e  is  eminently  useful,  and  it 
takes  a  high  and  very  beautiful  pohsh 
The  appearance  of  brass  is  given  to  otlier 
metals  by  washing  them  with  a  yellow  lac- 
quer or  Varnish,  a  substitution  often 
very  much  to  the  detriment  of  the  manu- 
factiu-ed  article. 

Many  other  yellow  alloys  of  copper  are 
used,  such  as  bronze,  bell-metal,  &c. 
most  of  which  are  triple  compounds, 
and  \vill  be  noticed  under  the  article  Cop- 


BREAD,  an  important  article  of  food, 
prepared  of  flour  kneaded  with  a  mixtiu'e 
of  yeast,  water,  and  salt,  and  afterwards 
baked  in  an  oven. 

Before  the  invention  of  mills  for  grind- 
ing corn,  bread  was  prepared  by  boiling 
the  grain,  and  forming  it  into  viscous 
cakes,  not  very  agreeable  to  the  ]5alate, 
and  difficult  of  digestion.  In  process  of 
time,  machines  were  constructed  for  grind- 
ing corn,  as  well  as  for  separating  the  pure 
flour ;  and  a  method  was  discovered  to 
raise  the  dough  by  fermentation.  Dough 
may  be  fermented  either  b)'  leaven  or  by 
yeast ;  but  as  the  latter  raises  the  kneaded 
mass  more  uniformly,  and  produces  the 
sweetest  and  lightest  bread,  it  is  generally 
preferred.  Bread  well  raised  and  baked 
is  not  only  more  agreeable  to  the  taste 
tiian  unfermented  bread,  but  more  readily 
mixes  with  water,  without  forming  a  vis- 
cous mass,  or  puff,  and  is  at  the  same  time 
more  easily  digested  in  the  stomach. 

Bread  [in  England]  is  divided  into 
three  kinds,  namely,  white,  wheaten,  and 
household.  Fine  white  bread  is  made  only 
of  flour ;  the  wheaten  contains  a  mixture 
of  the  finer  part  of  the  bran ;  and  the 
household  of  the  whole  substance  of  the 
grain. 

Altliough  we  have,  in  the  article  Bak- 
ing, given  general  directions  for  sticcess- 
fuUy  conducting  this  complicated  pro- 
cess, j-et  we  think  it  will  be  useful,  in  Uiis 
place,  to  add,  by  way  of  supplement,  a 
few  particulars  relative  to  this  subject, 
and  more  especially  applicable  to  domes- 
tic purposes.  Mr.  Dossie,  who  appears  to 
have  paid  great  attention  to  the  ai-t  of 
baking,  gives  the  following  simple  and 
much  approved  method  of  making  good 
white  bread:  Take  of  fine  flour,  six 
pounds;  of  water,  moderately  warm,  but 
not  hot,  two  points  and  a  half;  of  liquid 
}  east,  eight  spoonsful ;  and  of  salt,  two 
ounces.  Put  about  a  pint  of  tlie  warm 
water  to  the  yeast,  and  ml-:  tliem  well,  by 
beating  them  together  with  a  whisk.  Let 
the  salt  be  put  to  the  remaln'mg  part  of  the 
water,  and  stirred  till  completely  dissolv- 
ed. Then  put  both  quantities  of  the  fluid 
gjadually  to  the  flour,  and  knead  the  mass 
well  till  the  whole  is  properly  mixed.  The 
dough  thus  made  must  stand  four  or  five 
hours,  that  is,  till  tlie  exact  moment  of  its 
being  fully  risen,  and  before  it  is  sensibly 
perceived'  to  fall.  It  is  then  to  be  formed 
into  loaves,  and  immediately  placed  in  the 
oven.  To  bake  it  properly,  is  attended 
with  some  difficultv  to  those  who  are  not 
skilled  in  the  art.  The  fu-st  cai-e  is  to  see 
that  the  oven  be  sufficiently  heated,  yet 
not  to  such  a  degree  as  to  burn  the  crust. 
If  a  green  vegetable  turns  black  when  put 


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ill,  the  oven  will  scorch  the  bread ;  in 
which  case  it  must  stand  open  till  the  Iieat 
has  somewhat  abated.  The  next  circum- 
stance to  be  attended  to  is,  that  the  mouth 
of  tlie  oven  be  well  closed,  till  the  bread  has 
risen  to  its  full  Iieiglit,  which  will  not  take 
place  in  less  tlian  2  or  3  hours.  After  this, 
but  not  before,  the  oven  may  be  opened 
for  the  ])urpose  of  viewini^  the  bread,  and 
seeing  that  it  is  baked  witliout  being 
either  bm'nt,or  too  crusty;  for  if  the  mouth 
of  the  oven  be  not  kept  closely  stopped 
till  the  bread  is  fully  risen,  it  will  flatten 
and  become  heavy.  Wiien  properly  ma- 
naged, the  above  mentioned  ingredients 
will  have  lost  about  one  pound  two  ounces 
in  weight,  so  that  a  well-bakedloaf  of  this 
kind  sliould  amount  to  seven  pounds 
twelve  ounces. 

Bread  may  be  made  ivithout  yeast,  as  is 
practised  in  Hungary,  by  tlie  following- 
process  :  Boil  two  good  handsful  of  hops 
in  four  quarts  of  water ;  pour  the  decoc- 
tion upon  as  much  wlieat  bran  as  the  li- 
quor will  moisten.  Then  add  four  or  five 
pounds  of  leaven;  mix  the  whole  togeth- 
er, till  perfectly  united  Put  this  mass  into 
a  warm  place  for  twenty -four  liours ;  then 
divide  it  into  pieces  about  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg;  let  these  be  dried  in  the  air, 
but  not  in  the  sun,  and  they  will  keep 
good  for  six  months  Or,  make  the  above 
into  six  lai-ge  loaves,  take  six  good  hands- 
ful of  dough,  broken  small  and  dissolved 
in  eight  quaiters  of  wai*m  water,  and 
poured  through  a  sieve  into  one  end  of  the 
bread-trough ;  tlien  pour  three  quarts 
more  of  warm  water  through  the  sieve  af- 
ter it,  and  what  remains  in  the  sieve  must 
be  well  expressed. 

To  maie  bread  viith  salt. — Take  as 
much  salt  as  is  necessary  to  a  loaf  of  the 
size  intended,  dissolve  it  in  as  much  warm 
water  as  will  mix  the  flour.  Set  it  in  a 
pot  at  a  distance  from  the  fire,  sufiicient 
to  wai-in,  but  not  to  bake  the  flour  on  the 
side  of  the  pot ;  a  yellow  water  will  rise  on 
the  top,  which  take  oft"  with  a  spoon,  and 
the  rising  will  begin.  Then  mix  it  with  as 
mucli  flour,  as  will  make  the  loaf,  and  if  it 
should  not  be  sufficient  add  a  little  warm 
water  ;  in  less  than  an  hour  it  will  be  fit  to 
bake.  P'rom  the  time  the  salt  water  and 
flour  are  mixed,  three  or  four  hours  arc 
required.  The  mass  does  not  rise  hke 
bread  made  with  yeast.  The  editor  has 
lasted  bread  made  agreeable  to  the  above 
recipe,  and  found  it  pk  asant  and  light. 

Mr.  Ferryman,  of  England  has  invent, 
fd  a  machine  for  separating  the  outer 
coat  or  bran  of  wheat,  without  loosing  the 
internal  coat,  which  adheres  to  the  outer, 
and  has  always  hitlierto  been  thrown  off 
with  the  former  in  grinding.  It  is  asserted 


that  this  second  coat,  is  highly  nourisliing 
and  gives  a  sweetness  to  bread,  which  it 
never  has,  when  made  from  common 
flour.  The  late  Duke  of  Bedford  bore  tes- 
timony before  a  committee  of  the  house  of 
commons,  of  the  superiority  of  bread 
made  of  grain  tlius  blanched.  The  only 
objection  which  can  be  made  to  such 
bread  is  that  it  is  of  a  darker  hue  than 
common  bread. 

One  hundred  pounds  weight  of  flour 
will  make  from  134  to  138i  pounds  of 
bread. 

In  an  experinjent  made  to  asceiliun  the 
number  of  loaves  of  bread  which  a  barrel 
of  flour  will  produce,  it  appeared  that  oilb. 
of  flour  produced  4  lb.  9  oz.  of  good  light 
bread.  This  is  an  increase  of  about  40 
per  cent.  Therefore,  a  barrel  of  flour  will 
make  372 Mbs.  of  bread,  which  will  pro- 
duce 312  loaves,  weighing  14  oz.  and  at  6 
cents,  or  -L  of  a  dollar,  jdeld  §19-  ^*^°^ 

A  machine  for  kneading  flour  is  used  in 
the  public  bakmg  houses  at  Genoa,  and 
is  calculated  to  save  much  labour.  An 
account  of  this  machine,  together  with  a 
plate  may  be  found  in  Nicholson's  Phil. 
Jour  and  the  Hep.  of  Arts ,-  taken  fi  om  the 
Trans,  of  the  Pat.  Society  of  Milan,  vol.  2- 

Like  all  other  farinaceous  substances, 
bread  is  very  nourishing,  on  account  of 
the  copious  mucilage  it  contains  ;  but,  if 
eaten  too  freely,  it  is  in  weakly  habits, 
productive  of  viscidity  which  obstructs 
the  intestines,  and  lays  the  foundation  of 
habitual  costiveness-  Leavened  bread,  or 
such  as  has  acquired  an  acidulated  taste 
by  a  slow  fermentation  of  the  dough,  is 
cooling  and  antiseptic.  By  this  process, 
all  the  viscous  are  combined  witli  the 
drier  parts  of  the  flour,  and  the  fixed  air 
is  expelled  in  baking.  New  baked  bread 
contains  a  large  propoilion  of  indigestible 
paste,  which  may  be  rendered  less  un- 
wholesome by  allowing  it  to  dry  tor  two 
or  three  days,  or  by  toasting  it.  This 
mode  ought  to  be  adopted,  both  on 
account  of  health  and  economy,  especi. 
ally  in  times  of  scarcity.  Stale  bread,  in 
every  resiiect,  deserves  the  preference  to 
that  which  is  newly  baked;  and  persons 
troubled  with  flatulency,  cramp  of  the  sto- 
macli,  or  indigestion,  should  abstain  fiom 
new  bread,  and  particularly  from  hot  rolls. 

Various  substances  have  been  used  for 
bread,  instead  of  wheat.  In  the  jears 
1629  and  1630,  when  there  was  a  deartli 
in  England,  bread  was  made  in  London  of 
turnips,  on  t!ie  recommendation  of  Dr. 
Beale-  In  1693  also,  when  com  was  very 
dear,  a  great  quantity  of  turnip-bread  was 
made  in  several  parts  of  the  kingdom,  but 
particulai'ly  in  Essex,  by  a  receipt  regis- 
tered in  the  Philosophical   Transactions . 


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The  process  is,  to  put  tlie  turnips  into  a 
kettle  over  a  slow  fire,  till  they  become 
soft ;  they  are  then  taken  out,  squeezed, 
and  drained  as  dr)-  as  possible,  and  after- 
wards mashed  and  mixed  with  an  equal 
weight  of  flour,  and  kneaded  with  yeast, 
salt,  and  a  little  warm  water. 

The  following  is  anotlier  method  of 
making  bread  of  turnips,  wliich  deserves 
to  be  recommended  for  its  cheapness : 
Wash  clean,  pare,  and  afterwards  boil  a 
number  of  turnips,  till  they  become  soft 
enough  to  mash  ;  press  the  greatest  part 
of  the  water  out  of  them,  then  mix  them 
with  an  equal  weight  of  wiieat-meal,  make 
the  dough  in  tlie  usual  manner  with  yeast, 
&c.  it  will  rise  well  in  the  trough,  and,  af- 
ter being  well  kneaded,  may  be  formed 
into  loaves  and  put  into  the  oven.  Bread 
prepared  in  this  manner  has  a  peculiar 
sweetish  taste,  whicli  is  by  no  means  dis- 
agreeable ;  it  is  as  light  and  white  as  tbe 
wheaten,  and  should  be  kept  about  twelve 
hours  before  it  is  cut,  when  the  smell  and 
taste  of  tlie  turnip  will  scarcely  be  percep- 
tible 

■  Potatoes  have  also  been  made  into 
bread,  by  different  processes.  The  simp- 
lest is  to  choose  tlie  large  mealy  sort,  boil 
them  as  for  eating,  then  peel  and  mash 
them  verj-  fine  without  adding  any  water. 
Two  parts  of  wheat  floiu-  are  added  to 
one  of  potatoes,  and  a  little  more  yeast 
than  usual.  The  whole  mass  is  to  be 
kneaded  into  dough,  and  allowed  to  stand 
a  proper  time  to  rise  and  ferment,  before 
it  is  put  into  the  oven.  Bread  thus  prepar- 
ed is  good  and  wholesome  ;  and  if  bakers 
were  to  make  use  of  no  worse  ingredients 
than  this  nutritive  root,  they  might  be 
justified  in  times  of  scarcity,  provided 
they  sold  it  at  a  moderate  price,  and  un- 
der  proper  limitations. 

M.  Parmentier  found,  from  a  variety  of 
experiments,  that  good  bread  might  be 
made  of  equal  quantities  of  flour  and  po» 
tatoe  meal.  He  also  obtained  well-fer- 
mented bread  of  a  good  colour  and  taste, 
from  a  mixture  of  raw  potatoe-pulp  and 
wheaten  meal,  witLi  the  addition  of  yeast 
and  salt. 

Dr.  Darwin  asserts,  that  if  eight  pounds 
of  good  raw  potatoes  be  grated  into  cold 
water,  and  after  stu-ring  the  mixture  the 
starch  be  left  to  subside,  and  when  collect- 
ed, it  be  mixed  with  eight  pounds  of  boil- 
ed potatoes,  the  mass  will  make  as  good 
bread  as  that  from  the  best  wheaten  flour. 
He  likewise  observes,  that  haj-,  which  has 
been  kept  in  stacks,  so  as  to  undergo  the 
saccharine  process,  may  be  so  managed, 
by  grinding  and  fermentation  with  yeast, 
like  bread,  as  to  sene  in  part  for  the  sus- 


tenance of  mankind  in  times  of  great  scar- 
city. As  an  instance  of  the  very  nutritive 
quality  of  hay,  it  is  mentioned,  that  a  cow, 
after  drinking  a  strong  infusion  of  it  for 
some  time,  produced  above  double  the 
usual  quantity  r)f  milk.  Hence,  if  bread 
cannot  be  made  from  ground  hay,  there  is 
reason  to  believe,  that  a  nutritive  bever- 
age may  be  prepared  irom  it,  either  in 
its  saccharine  state,  or  by  fermenting  it  in- 
to a  kind  of  beer. 

There  are  other  vegetables,  says  Dr. 
Darwin,  which  would  probably  afford 
wholesome  nutriment,  either  by  boiUng, 
or  dryuig  and  grinding  them,  or  by  both 
these  processes.  Among  these  may  be 
reckoned  perhaps  the  tops  and  bark  of 
gooseberry-trees,  holly,  gorse,  and  haw- 
thorn. The  inner  bark  of  the  elm  may  be 
conveiled  into  a  kind  of  gruel,  and  the 
roots  of  fern,  and  probably  those  of  many 
other  plants,  such  as  grass  or  clover, 
might  yield  nourishment  either  by  boiling, 
baking  and  separating  the  fibres  from  the 
pulp,  or  by  extracting  the  starch  from 
those  which  possess  an  acrid  mucilage, 
such  as  the  white  biyony. 

Tlie  adulteration  of  flour  and  bread  has 
often  been  the  subject  of  animadversion. 
Mealmen  and  millers  have  been  accused 
of  adding  chalk,  lime,  and  whiting  to  the 
flour,  and  bakers  of  mixing  alum  with  the 
dough.  There  is  much  reason  to  suspect, 
that  these  practices  are  but  too  prevalent. 

It  has  been  asserted,  that  the  adultera- 
tion of  bread  is  owing  to  the  legal  distinc- 
tions in  the  quality  of  it,  and  to  our  mak- 
ing colour  the  standard  of  goodness.  Dr. 
Darwin  observes,  that  where  much  alimi 
is  mixed  with  bread,  it  may  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  eye  :  when  two  loaves  so 
adulterated  have  stuck  together  in  the 
oven,  they  break  from  each  other  witli  a 
mucli  smoother  surface,  where  they- had 
adhered,  than  those  loaves  do,  which  con- 
tain no  alum. 

An  excellent  method  of  making  bread 
of  rice  is,  by  boiling  three-fourths  of 
wheaten  flour  and  one-fourth  of  rice  sepa- 
rately. The  rice  should  be  well  boiled, 
the  water  sqtieezed  out  (wliich  may  be  af- 
terwards used  as  starch  for  linen,  for  there 
can  be  no  better),  and  the  mass  sliould 
then  be  mixed  with  the  flour.  It  is  made 
in  the  same  manner  as  common  bread,  and 
is  very  nutritive.  One  pound  and  a  half  of 
flour  mixed  with  half  a  pound  of  rice,  will 
produce  a  loaf  weighing  from  three 
pounds  to  three  pounds  two  oimces, 
which  is  greater  than  that  obtained  by 
baking  bread  of  wheat  flour  only.  Rice 
has  also  beentiied  in  the  same  propoi-tion 
with  barley,  and  makes  good  bre.ad  for 


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labouiing  people  ;  but  the  gain  in  baking 
is  bv  no  means  equal  to  that  obtained  by 
mixing  it  wilb  wlieat. 

Another  mode  of  prepai-ing  bread  with 
bran,  is  as  follows:  "  Take  seven  pounds 
seven  ounces  of  bran  and  pollard,  and 
fourteen  quarts  of  water,  and  boil  the 
whole  very  gently  over  a  slow  lire,  ^^'hen 
the  mixture  begins  to  swell  and  thicken, 
let  it  be  frequently  stirred,  to  prevent  its 
boiling  over,  or  burning  either  at  the  bot- 
tom or  sides  of  the  vessel.  After  liaving 
boiled  two  hours,  it  will  acquire  the  coii- 
sistence  of  a  thin  pudding.  Now  put  it 
into  a  clean  cloth,  and  squeeze  out  tlie  U- 
quor :  take  a  quart  of  this,  mix  it  with 
three  i)ints  of  yeast,  and  set  the  sponge  for 
twenty-eight  pounds  of  flour.  The  mass, 
bran,  and  pollard,  even  after  the  liquor 
has  been  separated,  will  be  found  to  be 
above  four  times  its  original  weight;  it  is 
then  to  be  placed  near  the  fire,  in  about 
two  Jiours,  the  sponge  will  have  sufficient- 
ly risen.  The  bran  and  pollard,  then 
lukewarm,  should  be  mixed  with  the 
flour ;  and,  after  adding  half  a  pound  of 
salt,  the  whole  must  be  well  kneaded, 
with  one  quart  of  the  bran  liquor.  Thus 
j)rcpared,  the  dough  is  formed  into  loaves, 
and  baked  for  two  hours  and  a  quarter  in 
a.  common  oven.  The  bread,  when  cold, 
will  weigh  one-half  more  than  the  same 
quantity  of  flour  would,  without  the  addi- 
tion  of  the  bran. 

If  the  bran-water  only  is  used,  and  the 
bran  itself  (which,  by  tlie  boiling,  in- 
creases considerably  in  weigh.t)  is  not 
added  to  the  dough,  the  increase  of  bread 
will  still  be  considerable;  but  not  more 
than  one-third  of  the  increase  obtained, 
when  all  the  bran  is  used. 

It  is  known  that  rice  gains  greatly  in 
boiling;  and  hence,  when  made  into 
bread  with  flour,  is  highly  economical,  as 
will  appear  by  the  following  experi- 
ments :  Six  ounces  of  rice  were  boiled  in 
a  quart  of  water,  till  it  was  dry  and  soft, 
and  two  pounds  of  flour  were  then  add- 
ed, and  the  whole,  with  two  table  spoons- 
ful of  yeast  well  worked  into  dough  to- 
gether, with  the  usual  quantity  of  salt, 
giving  it  rather  longer  time  to  rise,  whicli 
it  was  found  it  required — The  loaf  thus 
made,  when  baked,  was  light  in  <iualily, 
sweeter  and  more  palatable  than  the  com- 
mon bread,  and  produced  three  pounds, 
seven  ounces  and  a  half. 

From  this  experiment  the  following  fact 
appears,  that  rice  gains  in  weight  in  a 
double  proportion  to  that  of  any  other 
grain.  This  will  be  further  seen  by  the 
following  statement : 


2  pounds  of  flour 32 

Kice 6 

38 

Bread  produced 55^ 

Deduct  per  contra 38 

Gained 17^ 

To  make  a  quartern  loaf  are  ge- 
nerally used  three  pounds  and 

an  half  of  flour, 56 

"When  baked,  is  by  standard  to 
weigh  four  pounds  five  oun- 
ces eight  draciims,     .     .     .  69^ 
Deduct  as  per  contra  ....  56 


Gained 


I3i 


Therefore  the  diflercnce  is,  that  two 
pounds  of  flour  and  si;:  oimces  of  rice, 
produce  four  ounces  weight  more  than 
three  and  a  half  pounds  of  flour — Two 
pounds  of  flour,  awd  six  ounces  of  rice 
boiled  till  it  was  quite  dry  and  soft,  pro- 
duced four  pound^i  twelve  ounces  of  ex- 
cellent bread — One  pound  of  flour,  and 
three  ounces  of  rice,  wet  with  bran- 
water,  produced  one  pound  twelve  ounces 
of  bread. 

Another  experiment — In  doubling  the 
quantity  of  rice  to  the  same  quantity  of 
flour,  it  was  found  to  ans'.v<_r  for  im- 
mediate consumption,  but  would  not  an- 
swer for  general  purjDoses ;  it  may  be 
safely  concluded,  tiiat  one-f.iVh  of  rice 
maybe  used  with  floiu*  to  great  advan- 
tage to  tlie  public,  by  increasing  the  sus- 
tenance, and  M'ith  jirofit  to  the  baker, 
who  can  attbrd  to  sell  it  at  1  ^d.  under  the 
assize,  and  gain  double  what  he  does  by 
baking  the  standard  bread. 

In  making  the  foregoiiig  experiments, 
it  was  proved,  that  nine-tenths  flour  and 
one-tenth  rice,  and  in  the  same  way  as 
directed  for  making  bread  (except  using 
yeast  and  salt)  produced  a  finer  crust  in 
pastry  than  using  floin-  alone. 

Bread  thus  made  keeps  longer  moist 
than  wheaten  bread,  and  is  better  the 
second  day  than  the  first.  Rice  may  be 
steamed  rather  than  boiled ;  and  if  the 
quality  of  the  i-.ce  is  good,  half  a  pound 
steamed  in  a  little  more  than  a  quart  of 
water,  till  it  is  quite  dry  and  soft,  gains 
two  pounds,  tliat  is,  four-fifllis  in  weight. 

French  bread  is  prepared  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  Take  half  a  bushel  of  the 
best  wheaten  flour,  and  dilute  one  pint  of 
good  yeast  with  three  quarts  of  warm 
water ;  mix  the  whole  properly,  and  co- 
ver it  with  flannel,  till  tlie  sjjonge  be 
formed.  After  the  dough  has  sufliciently 
risen,  six  quarts  of  lukewarm  skimmed 


BRE 


BRE 


milk,  and  one  pound  of  salt,  are  to  be 
worked  in,  with  the  fingers,  till  the 
sponge  be  weak  and  ropy  .•  when  it  must 
again  be  covered,  and  kept  warm.  The 
oven  being  now  made  very  hot,  and  the 
paste  moulded  into  bricks  or  rolls,  they 
are  put  in  expeditiously  ;  the  former  re- 
quiring one  liour  and  a  half;  but  the  lat- 
ter only  half  an  hour.  As  soon  as  the 
bread  is  baked,  it  must  be  drawn  ;  and, 
if  burnt,  the  black  crust  should  be  rasp- 
ed— When  the  milk  is  added  to  the 
sponge,  two  ounces  of  butter  are  some- 
times incorporated ;  but  this  addition  be- 
ing immaterial,  it  may  be  omitted. 

The  great  advantage  of  eating  pure 
and  genuine  bread  must  be  obvious.  Everv- 
part  of  the  wheat,  which  may  be  called 
flour,  was  not  only  intended  to  be  eaten 
by  man,  but  it  really  makes  tlie  best 
bread,  since  that  may  be  called  the  best 
which  is  of  most  general  use,  and  so  fine 
as  to  contain  no  part  of  the  husks  of  the 
gi'ain.  But  the  delusion,  by  which  so 
many  persons  are  misled,  to  think  that 
even  the  whole  flour  is  not  good  enougli 
for  them,  obliges  them  to  pay  a  seventh 
or  eighth  part  more  than  they  need,  to 
gratify  a  fanciful  appetite.  Had  it  not 
been  for  the  custom  of  eating  whiter  bread 
than  the  whole  of  the  flour  will  make,  the 
miller  and  baker  would  not  have  employ- 
ed all  their  art  to  render  the  bread  as 
white  as  possible,  and  make  tlie  consumer 
pay  for  this  artificial  whiteness. 

J\'eii>  Substitutes  for  Flour  or  Bread. — 
We  have,  in  the  preceding  analysis,  men- 
tioned vai-ious  substances  which  might 
advantageously  be  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  this  indispensable  article  of 
human  sustenance  ;  independently  of  the 
different  kinds  of  grain  and  roots  that  are 
already  made  subservient  to  this  beneficial 
purpose.  In  order  to  exhibit  a  distinct 
view  of  tlie  most  promising  substitutes, 
whether  indigenous  or  exotic,  and  espe- 
cially such  as  have  actually  been  used, 
on  the  authority  of  creditable  evidence, 
we  shall  here  divide  them  into  three  clas- 
ses, and,  in  the  course  of  the  work,  give 
a  more  particular  account  of  each  article, 
in  its  alphabetical  order. 

T.  Farinaceous  Seeds. — Wheat -grass, 
Millet,  Common  Buck-wheat,  Siberian 
Buck-wheat,  Wild  Buck-wheat,  Wild 
Fescue -grass.  Maize,  or  Indian  Corn, 
Rice,  Guinea  Corn,  or  White  Round- 
seeded  Indian  Mdlet,  Canary-grass,  Hough 
Dog's-tail  Grass,  Water  Zizany,  Upright 
Sea  Lime-grass,  Sea-reed,  MaiTam,  Hel- 
me,  or  Sea  Mat-weed. 

The  following  mealy  fruits,  however, 
deserve  a  decided  preference  over  many 
of  the   preceding:  viz.  Water  Caltrops, 


or  the  fruit  of  the  Pulse  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  Peas,  Lentils,  Beans,  and  the 
seeds  of  the  Common  Vetch,  Fetch,  or 
Tare-acorns,  and  especially  those  of  the 
Quercus  cerris  and  esculus ;  the  seeds  of  the 
White  Gri>ose-foot,  Common  Wild  Orange, 
or  the  Chenopotlium  Album:  the  seeds 
and  flowers  of  the  Rocket,  of  the  Sorrel, 
of  the  different  species  of  Dock,  of  the 
Yellow  and  White  Water-lily,  of  the  Corn- 
spurrey,  or  of  the  Spin  age,  of  the  Com- 
mon Gromwell,  or  GrajTiiill,  of  the  Knot- 
grass, the  Beech-nut,  (see  Beech-mast 
Oil,,)  the  husks  of  the  Lint-seed,  &c. 

II.  Farinaceous  Roots :  7iamely,  those 
of  the  Common  and  Yellow  Bethlem  Star, 
of  the  Y'ellow  Asphodel,  of  the  Wake 
Robin,  (after  being  properly  dried  and 
washed)  of  the  Pilewort,  or  Lesser  Ce- 
landine, of  the  Common  Dropwort,  of  the 
Meadow-sweet,  of  the  White  Bryony, 
of  the  Turnip-rooted  Cabbage,  of  the 
Great  Bistort,  or  Snake-weed,  of  the 
Small,  Welch,  or  Alpine  Bistort,  of  the 
Common  Orobiis,  or  Heath-Pea ;  the  Tu- 
berous Vetcli ;  the  Common  Reed ;  both 
the  Sweet-smelling  and  Common  Solo- 
mon's Seal ;  the  Common  Corn-flag,  the 
Salt-marsh,  Club-rush,  &c. 

m.  Fibrous  and  less  juicy  roots  .•  viz. 
those  of  the  Couch -grass,  or  Creeping 
Wheat-grass;  the  Clown's  or  Marsh 
Wound-wort,  the  M.arsh  Mary-gold,  or 
Meadow-Bouts  ;  the  Silver-weed,  or  Wild 
Tansey  ;  the  Sea  Seg,  &c. 

Having  thus  stated  the  various  substi- 
tutes for  bread,  which  have  either  already 
been  adopted  with  success,  or  which 
might,  in  times  of  real  scarcity,  be  easily 
converted  into  proper  nutriment,  we  can- 
not better  conclude  this  article  than  in  the 
words  of  Arthur  Y'oung,  Esq.  who,  in 
his  Observations  on  the  late  Royal  Pro- 
clamation, recommending  frugality  in  the 
consumption  of  corn  as  one  of  the  surest 
and  most  effectual  means  of  alleviating 
the  present  pressure  of  the  times,  es- 
pouses the  cause  of  the  unfortunate  poor, 
nearly  in  the  following  words :  Everv 
master  or  head  of  a  family  is  in  dufy 
bound  to  second,  without  compidsion,  the 
humane  views  of  the  legislature.  Hence, 
bread  made  of  the  whole  produce  of  the 
wheat,  excepting  only  seven  pounds  of 
the  bran  in  each  bushel,  and  adding  one- 
Iburth  or  third  part  of  a  substitute,  would 
probably  be  the  most  effective  saving.  If 
the  consumption  of  the  whole  kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  be  computed  at  8,000,000  of 
quarters  in  twelve  months,  this  saving  on 
all  the  wheat  consumed  in  nine  months 
would  be  700,000  quarters,  wliich  would 
feed  875,000  persons,  at  tlie  ordinary  con- 
sumption of  one  quarter  a  head  per  an- 


BRE 


BRE 


num ;  and  probaljly  he  eqiial,\inderlheprf- 
scnt  rcstricions,  to  afford  food  to  1,000,000 
of  people  for  the  next  nine  months — Far- 
tlier,  if  the  savinc^  of  oats  to  the  su])posed 
numher  of  500,000  liorses  of  hixury,  lie 
calculated  onlj'at  1  biisiiel  per  week,  this 
would,  in  9  months,  amount  to  18,000,000 
of  bushels ;  or  sufficient  to  su])port 
1,000,000  of  persons  for  the  same  period 
of  time,  allowing-  to  each  not  less  than 

twenty-five  bushels    per    annum With 

due  deference  to  .'Mr.  Young's  statistical 
information,  liowever,  we  beg  leave  to 
doubt  whetiier  500,000  fat  horses,  cram- 
med on  the  food  of  man,  move  about  the 
country  ;  though  it  must  be  acknowledg- 
ed, that  pleasiirf  horses  "are  spectacles 
of  envy  to  the  starving  poor — abominable 
and  scandalous  spectacles,  which,  in 
times  of  scai-city,  ought  to  be  removed 
from  the  view  of  those  whose  miserable 
children  might  be  fed  on  the  corn  thus 
saved." 

BREEDING  of  Cattle :  As  the  different 
circumstances  to  be  attended  to  in  the 
management  of  cattle,  has  been  stated 
when  treating  of  domestic  animals,  we 
shall  here  only  observe,  that  the  first 
thing  to  be  considered  is  beauty  of  form  ; 
the  next  is  proportion  of  j^arts,  or  what 
maybe  called  ittility  of  form;  the  third, 
which  has  engaged  the  attention  of  mid- 
land breeders,  is  the  texture  of  the  mus- 
culai"  parts,  or  what  is  called  fiesh ;  a 
quality  which,  liowcvcr  familiar  it  may 
have  been  to  the  butcher  and  consumer, 
has  not  in  general  been  attended  to  by 
breeders.  In  short,  it  is  a  rule  applicable 
to  all  sorts  of  live-stock,  to  breed  from 
straight  backed,  round  bodied,  clean, 
small  boned,  healthy  animals :  carefully 
rejecting  such  as  have  roach  backs  and 
heavy  legs,  with  much  extern-.d  appear- 
ance of  ofl'al,  &.C. 

To  the  late  Mr.  Rakewell  of  Dishley,Eng- 
land,  who  was  undoubtedly  the  most  scien- 
tific breeder  of  his  time,  we  are  indebted 
for  many  new  and  im|>ortant  impj-ovements 
in  the  art  of  breeding  cattle.  Ills  princi- 
ple was  to  procu.re  the  best  beast,  that 
would  weigh  most  in  the  valual)lc  joints  ; 
and  thus,  while  he  gained  in  point  of 
shape,  he  also  acquired  a  breed  much 
hardier,  and  easier  fed  than  any  other. 

AVith  resi^cct  to  the  breed  of  oxen,  Mr. 
Bakcwell  asserts,  that  the  smaller  the 
bones,  the  more  perfect  will  be  the  make 
of  tlie  beast,  and  the  quicker  it  will  fat- 
ten. The  breed  preferred,  and  considcr- 
ed  by  him  as  the  best  in  England,  is  thai 
of  Lancashire.  The  sha])e  which  should 
be  the  criterion  of  a  cow  or  bull,  an  ox, 
or  ashee]),  is  that  of  a  hogshead,  or  a  fir- 
kin with  legs  as  small  and  short  as  possi- 


ble.  lie  found  from  various  experiments 
in  diflx^rent  parts  of  England,  that  no 
land  is  too  bad  for  a  good  breed  of  cattle, 
and  particularly  of  sheep.  The  great  ad- 
vantage  arising  from  his  breed  is,  that  the 
same  quantity  of  food  will  suffice  them, 
much  longer  than  it  will  any  other  kind  ; 
besides  which,  the  wool  is  of  the  finest 
quality,  and  the  sheep  stand  in  the  fold 
perfectly  well. 

The  wintering  of  cattle  also  received 
particular  attention  from  this  professional 
breeder  :  his  horned  beasts  were  tied  up 
during  the  winter,  in  sheds,  and  fed  with 
straw,  turnip.s,  or  hay  ;  all  the  lean  beasts 
were  fed  with  stiaw  alone,  and  lay  with- 
out litter.  Young  cattle,  that  require  to 
be  kept  in  a  thriving  state,  are  fed  upon 
turnips  ;  and  as  the  spring  advances,  and 
this  vegetable  becomes  scarce,  hay  is  their 
only  food. 

The  floors,  on  which  the  cattle  stand, 
are  paved,  and  raised  six  or  eight  inches 
above  the  level  of  the  yard  ;  and  each 
crib  being  only  broad  enough  for  a  beast 
to  stand  on,  its  dung  falls  on  the  lower 
pavement;  by  which  contrivance  it  is 
kept  perfectly  clean  without  litter. 

Little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
))reservation  of  a  good  breed  of  cattle  in 
the  United  States.  Some  with  excellent 
qualities,  have  been  imported,  and  are  oc- 
casionally met  with  ;  but  they  are  in  ge- 
neral fattened  and  killed,  instead  of  being 
carefully  preserved  for  breeding  cattle. 
But  this  is  not  the  way  to  improve.  It 
was  by  a  practice  directly  the  reverse 
that  Bakewell  brought  his  breed  to  unri- 
valled  celebrity. 

Droves  of  cattle  are  annually  brought 
to  Philadelphia  from  New  England  and 
North  Carolina.  The  former  are  larger 
and  more  profitable  than  the  latter,  whicli 
are  generally  small,  and  wild  from  having 
been  fed  in  the  woods. 

Several  very  large  cattle  have  been  fed 
and  killed  within  a  few  years  in  Philadel- 
phia. They  have  in  general  been  raised 
near  Elizabeth-town,  New-Jersey,  but 
whether  fj-om  a  native  or  imported  stock 
is  unknown.  The  following  are  the 
weights  of  a  few  of  these  beasts : 

1.  A  Cow  raised  by  the  late  Mr.  Hilt- 
zheimer,  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and 
killed  on  the  2dof  IVIarch,  1787. 
The  fore-quarters  weighed, 

(one)  .  .  .  326  lbs. 
The  other,  328 


The  hind-quarters  weigh- 
ed, (one)     282 
The  other,  289 


1I).S 

654 


571 


The  nett  Beef 122j 


BRE 


BRE 


Brought  forward 

The  Hide  weighed  ...  Ill 
Head  and  Heart  .  .  49 
Belly  and  Feet  .  .  .  72 
Fack 35 


Tallow 163 


lbs. 
1225 


430 


Eiitii-e  weight  (exclusive  of'gvits)  .  .  1655 

2.  A  five  year  old  steer,  fed  by  Mr  Sec- 
kel,  of  Philadelphia,  a  few  yeara  since,  one 
summer  and  one  winter,  weighed  ahve, 
1,4944  lbs. 

Tiie  belly  fat    .  .  278  lbs. 
Kidney    do  ....  100 

3.  Ten  head  of  cattle,  fed  by  the  same 
gentleman,  produced  2,439  Ibu.  of  beiiy 
and  kidney  fat,  with  one  summer  feeding 
on  grass. 

4.  A  steer,  raised  at  Tulpehocken,  was 
killed  on  the  12th  March,  1787,  weighed 
alive,  2,184  lbs. 

5.  A  steer  raised  at  Haddonficld,  New- 
Jersey,  killed  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  7th 
April,  1787,  weighed  alive,  2,140  lbs. 

Formerly  a  great  prejudice  prevailed  in 
favour  of  large  beasts,  but  it  has  been  as- 
certained diat  this  large  big  boned  breed 
is  not  so  profitable  as  the  middle  sized, 
barrel  shaped,  short  legged  kind.  jNIuch  may 
be  done  towards  improving  the  breed  by 
a  careful  attention  to  stock.  Mr.  Bake- 
well  and  his  disciples  relied  upon  a  kind- 
ly skin,  as  a  principal  point  in  the  choice 
of  a  beast.  By  that  is  meant  a  skin  that 
feels  soft,  though  firm  to  the  touch,  which 
is  equally  distant  from  the  hard  diy  skin, 
peculiar  to  some  cattle,  as  from  the  loose 
and  flabby  feel  of  others. 

Some  breeds  have  a  tendency  to  gene- 
rate fat  on  certain  parts  of  the  body  in 
great  quantities,  while  others  have  it  more 
mixed  willi  the  tlesh  of  every  part  of  the 
body.  These  parliculai'S  demand  the  at- 
tention of  improvers. 

The  first  object  that  nattu'ally  offers  to 
be  attained,  is  the  possession  of  a  breed 
of  cattle,  which,  with  a  given  quantity  of 
food,  will  afford  the  quickest  and  greatest 
return  of  the  most  valuable  parts  of  flesh, 
or  of  milk  or  butter.  After  repeated  ex- 
perience and  close  attention  to  the  subject, 
b_v  European  improvers,  it  has  been  found, 
that  so  far  as  ficsh  is  concerned,  there 
are  certain  forms  and  pi-oportions  of  body, 
intimately  connected  with  the  gTeat  object 
in  view,  and  these  shall  now  be  detailed. 

2d.  Of  a  Boll. — The  head  should  be 
rather  long,  and  small,  muzzle  fine,  chaps 
clean,  eyes  lively  and  prominent,  ears  long 
and  thin,  horns  tapering,  bright  and  spread- 
.  ing  ;  neck  fine,  rising  witli  a  gentle  curve 
from  his  shoulders,  and  sm&ll  and  fine 
VOL.    I. 


where  it  joins  the  head,  progressively 
leading  down  to  a  full  and  deep  bosom  j 
shoulders  moderately  broad  at  tlie  top, 
joining  full  to  the  chine  crops  and 
chest ;  breast  broad,  and  pi-ojecting  well 
before  his  legs  ;  his  arms  or  fore -thighs 
muscular  and  tapering  to  his  knee  ;  his 
legs  clean,  straight,  and  very  fine  boned, 
and  standing  wide  ;  his  chine  and  cuest  so 
full  as  to  leave  no  hollows  behind  t'.ie  sliuul- 
dcrs,  the  plates  sti'ong,  to  keep  his  belly 
frora  sinking  bt;low  ihe  level  ef  h.^  b'-east ; 
\\:i  back  or  loii:s  broad,  straight  and  fiat ; 
his  ribs  rising  one  above  another,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  last  rib  shall  h^  rather 
■J-e  highest,  leaving  only  a  small  space  to 
j  the  hips,  tht:  whole  torr.iing  a  round,  b?x- 
!i'el-hke,  br.t  capacious  carcase;  his  hips 
*  should  be  wide,  round,  and  a  little  higher 
tlian  the  back;  the  rump  wide,  and  lying 
in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  not  sinking 
backwards,  but  even  with  the  general 
level  of  the  back  ;  the  huckle  bones  and 
rump  bones  not  in  the  least  protuber- 
ant ;  the  tail  should  be  thin,  round  and 
tapering,  not  hairj',  and  set  on  so  high  as 
to  take  ill  the  same  horizontal  line  with 
the  back  ;  it  should  moreover  be  broad 
at  bottom,  to  prevent  the  appearance  of 
the  cavities  at  the  nache  ;  and  the  gris- 
tles at  the  setting  on  of  the  tail  should 
rather  project  on  each  side,  as  they  ac- 
cumulate much  fat  in  this  part.  The  skin 
should  be  mellow  and  elastic,  yielding 
pleasantly  to  the  touch,  especially  on  the 
chine,  shoulders  and  ribs ;  feeling  soft, 
though  firm  to  the  touch,  equally  distant 
from  the  dry  hard  skin,  or  loose  flabby 
feel :  finally,  whatever  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal may  be,  just  and  equal  proportions  of 
length,  depth  and  substance,  are  the 
truest  indications  of  vigour,  and  of  the 
ability  of  the  animal  to  produce  and  stand 
under  the  greatest  possible  load  of  flesh. 
This  improvement  is  to  be  effected  by 
a  conjunction  of  male  and  female,  of  the 
desired  spec'es,  form,  and  properties ; 
some  steps  being  gained  in  every  procrea- 
tion. The  male,  of  course,  being  able  to 
multiply  his  likeness  to  such  an  extent, 
must  be  the  prime  instrument  in  the  busi- 
ness :  it  is  therefore  of  the  utmost  conse- 
qtience  that  he  be  thorough-shaped,  or 
tliorough-bred  :  "That  is,  descended  front 
a  race  of  ancestors,  who  have,  through 
several  generations,  possessed,  in  a  higli 
degree,  the  properties  wliich  it  is  oiu-  oIj- 
ject  to  obtain.  The  female  ouglit  also  to 
"be  selected  with  tlie  strictest  care,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Ml-.  Chr.e,  ought  rather  to  be- 
])roportionally  larger  than  tlie  mide,  since 
the  improvement  depends  on  tliis  princi- 
ple, tltat  the  power  of  the  female  to  sup- 
\>ly  iier  ofispring  vilh  rimui.^iuTieut  in  pro- 

15 


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portion  to  her  size,  and  the  power  of  nour- 
ishing herself  from  the  excellence  of  iier 
constitution.  In  tins  particular  an  error 
is  very  commonly  committed,  the  atten- 
tion being  confined  to  the  male.  In  tlie 
case  of  the  Horse,  where  perfection  in  a 
great  degree  consists  in  the  excellence  ot 
their  "  wind  "  this  depends  on  parentage, 
and  most  on  the  female. 

Some  however,  object  to  the  principle 
laid  down  by  Mr.  Cline,  respecting  the 
advantages  of  propagating  from  large  in 
preference  to  small  ft-malcs.  "  Nature," 
he  says,  "  lias  given  to  the  ott'spring  of 
many  animals,  (those  of  the  slieep,  the 
cow,  and  the  mare,  afford  familiar  exam- 
ples) the  power,  at  an  early  age,  to  ac- 
company tluir  parents  in  flight ;  and  the 
legs  of  such  animals  are  very  nearly  of 
the  same  length  at  the  birth,  as  when 
they  have  attained  their  perfect  growth. 
When  the  female  parent  is  large,  and  the 
fcetus  consequently  so,  the  oli'spring  will 
be  large  at  its  birth,  in  proportion  to  the 
bulk  it  will  ultimately  attain,  and  its 
legs  will  thence  be  long  comparatively 
with  the  depth  of  the  chest  and  shoulders. 
When,  on  the  contrary,  the  female  is 
small,  and  the  foetus  so,  at  the  birth,  the 
length  of  the  legs  of  the  yovmg  animal 
will  be  short  comparatively  with  the  dcjnh 
of  its  chest  and  shoulders  :  and  an  animal, 
in  the  latter  form,  will  be  greatly  prefer- 
able, either  for  the  purposes  of  labour,  or 
of  food  to  mankind.  This  difference  in 
the  influence  of  the  male  and  female  pa- 
rents on  the  offspring,  has  been  very 
strikingly  exemplified,  in  the  result  of 
an  attempt  to  obtain  very  large  mules 
from  the  male  ass,  and  the  mare.  The 
largest  females,  that  could  be  procured, 
were  selected,  and  the  forms  of  the  off- 
spring  at  the  birth,  were  j^erfectly  con- 
sistent with  the  theory  of  Mr.  Cline; 
they  were  remarkably  lai-ge,  and  the 
length  of  their  legs,  when  tliey  were  only 
four  days  old,  very  nearly  equalled  that 
of  the  legs  of  their  parents.  The  same 
animals  when  five  years  old,  in  the  depth 
of  their  chests  and  shoulders,  very  little 
exceeded  their  male  parent,  (a  Spanish 
ass)  but  from  marcs  of  small  stature,  were 
])erfectly  well  proportioned. 

"There  is  another  respect  in  which  the 
powers  of  the  female  aj^pear  to  be  preva- 
lent in  their  influence  on  the  oifspring, 
and  that  is  relative  toils  sex.  In  several 
species  of  domesticated,  or  cultivated  ani- 
mals, particular  females  are  found  to  pro- 
duce a  very  large  majority,  and  sometimes 
all  their  offspring,  of  the  same  sex  ;  and 
it  has  been  proved  repeatedly,  that,  by 
dividing  a  herd  into  three  equal  parts,  a 
very  large  majoiity  of  females  could  be 


obtained  from  one  part,  of  males  from 
another,  and  nearly  an  equal  number  of 
males  and  females  from  the  remainder. 
Endeavours  have  been  made  to  change 
these  habits,  by  changing  the  males,  but 
always  without  success  ;  in  some  instan- 
ces, the  offspring  of  one  sex,  though  ob- 
tained from  different  males,  exceed  those 
of  the  other,  in  the  proportion  of  five  or 
six,  and  even  seven  to  one.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  in  the  iitimerous  oftspring 
of  a  single  bull,  or  ram,  or  horse,  no  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  number  of  off- 
spring of  either  sex,  has  ever  been  obser- 
ved. We  are  therefore  disposed  to  be- 
lieve, that  the  sex  of  the  offspring  is  given 
by  the  female  parents. 

To  obtain  t^e  most  approved  form,  two 
modes  of  bi-eeding  have  been  practised, 
one  by  the  selection  of  individuals  of  the 
same  family,  called  breeding,  "in-and-in ;" 
the  other,  by  selecting  males  and  females 
from  different  varieties  of  the  same  spe- 
cies, which  is  called  "crossing  the 
breed." 

When  a  particular  variety  approaches 
perfection  in  form,  breeding  in.a7id-{n  may 
be  the  better  practice.  In  following  this, 
however,  great  caution  is  requisite  in  se- 
lecting the  best  shaped  individuals.  It 
was  thus  the  celebrated  Bakenuell  pre- 
served his  various  stock,  without  degene- 
ration in  any  of  the  cjualities  for  which 
they  were  famous.  But  as,  in  the  United 
States,  the  origination  of  a  breed  of  neat 
cattle  is  to  be  aimed  at,  the  system  of 
crossing  must  be  adopted,  and  for  this 
end,  the  following  rules  should  be  attend- 
ed to. 

Individual  variety  of  size  and  shape 
prevails  in  all  breeds,  to  the  infinite  use 
and  convenience  of  man.  Some  will  run 
naturally  to  length  and  depth  of  carcase  ; 
others  will  have  a  tendency  to  tlie  con- 
trary form,  or  ivith  much  substance,  widr 
loins,  and  sliort  legs.  The  improving 
breeder,  in  joining  the  sexes,  will  take  ad- 
vantage of  these  varieties  of  shape  or  pe- 
ctdiar  j)ropertics;  hicreasing  length  and 
depth  of  carcase,  when  required,  or  mo- 
derating too  great  length  with  its  opi)o- 
site, — with  rotundity  of  form,  and  width 
of  loin,  and  shortness  of  leg;  ever  liaving 
especial  regard  to  ))reserving  substance  iu 
the  form  of  his  stock,  and  to  prevent  the 
increasing  length  and  too  near  ajijiroach 
of  the  legs.  It  is  ^ery  conmion  for  tlic 
best  breeds  to  degenerate  in  this  way 
from  neglect;  in  which  case  it  will  be  ne- 
cessan  to  change  the  males  for  others  of 
a  still  sjiorter  and  more  substantial  foi-m, 
i:ither  from  the  same  or  a  kindred  va- 
riet\ ,  and  to  pay  an  increased  attention  to 
tlie  selection  of  females. 


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Disposition.  —It  is  of  great  importance 
to  have  a  breed  distinguished  by  a  tame 
and  docile  disposition,  without  however 
being  deficient  in  spirit.  Such  a  breed  is 
not  so  apt  to  injui'e  fences,  to  break  intu 
fields,  and  unquestionably  less  food  will 
rear,  support  and  fatten  them.  As  tame- 
ness  of  disposition  is  much  owing  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  animal  is  brought 
up,  attention  to  inure  them  early  to  be  fa- 
miliar and  docile,  cannot  be  too  much  re- 
commended. 

Hardiness. — This  is  a  most  important 
requisite.  Even  where  slock  is  most  at- 
tended to,  it  is  of  essential  consequence 
that  they  should  be  as  little  liable  as  pos- 
sible to  disease,  or  any  hereditary  dis- 
temper, as  being  black  fleshed,  or  having 
yellow  fat.  It  is  a  popular  beUef  that  a 
dark  colour  is  an  indication  of  hardiness, 
and  tliat  cattle  with  light  colours  are  soft- 
er and  more  delicate.  A  rough  piile  is 
also  reckoned  a  desh-able  property  in  out- 
'oiinterers. 

Easily  maintained. — On  an  attention  to 
this  poait  depends  the  profit,  in  a  great 
measure,  of  the  grazier.  It  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  shape  above  mention- 
ed, and  with  smallncss  of  bone  In  the 
horse,  every  one  knows  that  acertain  shape 
is  indicative  of  being  easily  kept,  and  the 
remark  will  apply  to  neat  cattle. 

Early  maturity. — Arriving  soon  at  per- 
fection is  a  material  object  for  the  breed- 
er, as  his  profit  must  in  a  great  measure 
depend  upon  it.  Something  will  certain- 
ly depend  upon  their  being  fed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  keep  them  constantly  in  a 
growing  state :  in  this  way  they  make 
more  progress  in  three  years,  than  they 
usually  do  in  five,  when  they  are  half 
starved  during  wintei',  and  their  growth 
checked. 

Quiility  of  Flesh. — The  quality  of  flesh 
most  certainly  depends  much  upon  age 
and  sex;  heifers,  for  instance,  must  be 
finer  grained  than  oxen ;  and  the  coarse- 
ness of  sta^  beef  is  proverbial.  The  ex- 
cellence of  the  meat  also  greatly  depends 
upon  their  food,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil 
producing  it.  On  the  whole,  there  is  no 
better  sign  of  good  flesh,  than  when  it  is 
marbled,  or  the  fat  and  lean  nicely  and  al- 
ternately mixed  with  each  other. 

U'l'rking. — In  the  case  of  working  oxen, 
a  quick  step,  and  strength  in  proportion 
to  speed,  are  of  the  greatest  importance; 
and  that  these  qualities  may  be  imparted 
to  an  ox,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  In 
England,  they  are  supposed  to  have  been 
obtained  by  an  admixtiu'e  of  the  lighter, 
small  boned  French,  Norman  or  Guernsey 
breed,  with  some  of  the  native  breeds. 
Their  gentleness  of  disposition,  mildness 


and  hardihood,  also  serve  to  recommend 
the  French  breed  When  well  kept,  they 
gi'ow  to  good  sizes,  although  naturally 
small.  In  the  United  States,  a  great  di- 
versity is  found  in  respect  to  the  gait  of 
oxen ;  for  while  some  are  slow,  others  will 
walk  nearly  as  fast  as  a  horse.  The  for- 
mation of  tkeir  fore -quarters,  as  before 
noted,  will  greatly  influence  their  speed. 
If  a  breed  could  be  originated,  which, 
with  the  above  mentioned  qualities,  this 
of  quickstep  were  joined,  a  great  object 
would  be  obtained,  and  would  amply  re- 
pay the  breeder. 

It  may  be  asserted  with  safety,  that  in 
no  country  does  the  dairy-man  receive 
greater  prices  for  his  milk,  butter  or 
cheese,  than  in  the  United  States ;  and  yet 
it  is  notorious,  that  the  cows  in  general 
are  far  fi-om  excellent.  The  abundant 
provision  required  for  the  support  of 
stock,  during  our  long  winters,  ought  to 
insure  a  plentiful  supply  of  rich  milk  in 
summer,  and  yet  it  is  believed  that  the 
profit  from  them  is  much  smaller  than  is 
commonly  imagined.  We  are  much  more 
deficient  in  this  article  of  farm  stock  than 
in  any  other,  which  calls  loudly  for  the  at- 
tention of  the  improver.  The  indications 
of  form,  which  so  strongly  ciiaructerise 
the  profitable  cattle  for  beef,  fail  with  re- 
spect to  milk,  as  we  find  that  some  of  the 
most  excellent  milk  breeds  arc  very  dif- 
ferent in  external  form.  The  surest  mode 
of  procedtu*e  for  the  improver,  is  to  breed 
from  good  milkers,  that  is,  such  as  give 
rich  milk,  and  if  possible,  from  such  as 
possess  the  forms  approved  of  for  bulls 
in  the  preceding  pages,  making  allowance 
for  the  difference  of  sex.  There  ai-e,  how- 
ever, some  marks  of  a  good  milch  cow, 
in  every  breed,  which  it  may  be  useful  to 
note;  namely,  a  capacious  and  thin-skin- 
ned udder,  large  teats,  with  a  large  and 
distinct  milk- vein ;  fine  head  and  chaps, 
thin  neck,  shallow  and  light  fore-quarters, 
capacious  behind,  wide  loin,  thin  thig-h, 
and  white  horns.  A  gaunt  and  meagre 
appearance  of  body,  promising  no  great 
disposition  to  fatten,  is  added  by  some  as 
a  sign  of  a  good  milker;  but  although 
good  milkers  are  often  of  a  tiiin  habit,  yet 
there  can  be  no  reason  why  the  rule  should 
be  absolute. 

The  combination  of  the  valuable  pro- 
perties in  a  breed  of  milk  and  beef,  is  so 
important,  and  hat.  been  thought  to  be  so 
difficult  of  attaining,  that  it  has  been  re- 
commended not  to  attempt  the  union,  for 
in  proportion  as  we  gain  in  one  point,  we 
lose  in  the  other.  We  know  in  general, 
that  good  milkers  are  seldom  quick  feed- 
ers. The  two  objects  have  however  been 
accomplished  to  a  certain  extent  in  Eng  ■ 


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land,  in  the  case  of  tlie  North  Devon  cows, 
and  in  some  individuals  ot*  tlie  K}  Ice  or 
Highland  breed,  and  in  the  Siifiolk  Duns; 
a»nd  there  is  no  reason  why  the  same  suc- 
cess should  not  attend  equal  industry  in 
this  country. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  opportunities 
for  the  improvement  of  stock  of  neat  cat- 
tle by  meuns  of  the  improved  breeds  of 
Europe  are  so  few,  and  that  even  tho 
knowledge  of  the  existence  of  any  among 
us  is  so  parLialiy  diflused. 

In  ihe  scarcity  therefore  of  good  foreign 
breeds,  we  must  have  recourse  to  our  na- 
tive stock,  and  it  is  a  great  satisfaction  to 
know  tliat  there  are  excellent  materials 
among  us,  on  which  we  may  commence 
the  attempt.  We  every  year  see  beasts 
of  good  lorm  brought  down  in  droves 
from  various  quarters,  and  sacrificed,  af- 
ter performing  their  duty  for  a  season  in  a 
herd  of  cows ;  and  which,  if  kept  as  breed- 
ers, would  naturally  improve  tiie  stock  of 
the  district.  As  a  general  rule,  let  no 
offspring  be  raised  except  from  the  finest 
boned,  cleanest  headed,  straight  backed, 
and  best  fleshed  of  every  stock,  both  male 
and  female- 

The  lale  colonel  Pollen,  a  Dsitish  offi- 
cer, and  well  informed  on  the  subject  of 
cattle,  passed  ihrough  the  United  States 
in  1802,  and  mentioned  in  a  note  to  a  gen- 
tleman of  Philadelphia,  thai  he  saw  "a 
breed  of  cows  near  Lancaster,  with  a  fine 
small  head,  smooth  and  delicate  hair, 
small  eye,  round  rib,  and  straight  back, 
which  would  be  an  acquisition  to  England 
if  introduced  tliere."  This  remark,  macie 
by  an  inielligent  foreignier,  who  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  improved  breeds  of 
Entjland,  ought  to  have  its  due  weight, 
and  slioidd  stimulate  us  to  attend  to  the 
animals  wc  meet  with,  which  may  possess 
some  valuable  properties. 

A  close  adherence  to  those. principles 
of  choice  at  home,  and  in  occasional  pur- 
chase at  markets,  will  sooii  convince  any 
man  how  striki'ig  the  improvement  of  his 
stock  might  become  in  a  few  years  :  and 
we  look  forward  with  great  satisfaction 
to  the  period  when  the  eflects  of  our  re- 
commendation shall  be  shown. 

Sir  John  Sinclair  sums  up  the  desirable 
qualities  ot  cattle  as  follows. 

1.  .\  moderate  size,  unless  when  food  is 
of  a  natine  peculiarly  forcing.  i 

2.  Shai)c  the  most  likely  to  yield  pi'ofit  ■ 
to  the  farmer.  i 

".  Of  a  docile  disposition,  without  being  ': 
deficient  in  spirit.  I 

4.  Hard}',  and  not  liable  to  disease.         i 

5.  Kasily  maintained,  and  on  food  not  of 
a  costly  natuic. 

6.  Arrivi)ig  soon  at  maturity. 


7.  Producing  considerable  quantities  of 
milk. 

8.  Having  flesh  o£  an  excellent  quali- 
ty- 

9.  Having  a  tendency  to  take  on  fat. 

10.  Having  a  valuable  liide.  To  which 
may  be  added, 

Listly,  A  quick  step,  and  proportion- 
ate speed  in  woiking. 

3d-  Of  a  Ram. —  The  head  should  be 
fine  atul  small ;  the  eye  prominent  and 
lively,  the  ears  thin,  but  not  reg-ular  ;  the 
collar  fidl  from  the  breast  and  shoulders 
but  tapering  down;  the  shoulders  should 
be  broad  and  full,  joining  to  the  collar 
forward,  and  a  chine  backward  in  a 
straight  line,  so  as  to  leave  no  hollow  in 
either  place ;  the  mutton  upon  the  fore 
thigh  siiould  come  down  to  the  knee,  the 
legs  should  be  straight,  with  a  fine  clean 
bone,  free  fi'om  superfluous  skin  and 
coarse  hairy  wool,  from  the  hough  and 
knee  downwards:  the  breast  should  be 
broad,  and  project  well  before  the  legs : 
the  fore  legs  should  be  wide  asunder ;  the 
back  and  loins  broad,  flat  and  straight, 
and  from  the  ribs  should  rise  in  a  circular 
direction;  the  hind  quarters  should  be 
long  and  full,  with  the  nuitton  down  to 
the  hough,  which  should  be  wide  and  ra- 
ther boning  out.  In  the  Merino  race  a 
rosy  hue  in  the  skui,  and  abundance  of 
yoke  or  natiu'al  grease  in  the  fleece,  are 
peculiarities  denoting  healdi  and  high 
proof. 

Wool  is  divided  into  two  kinds,  viz. 
long  or  combing,  and  the  short  or  carding 
species ;  in  both  cases;  the  thicker  and  finer 
the  fleece  the  better.  The  particular  spe- 
cies, whether  long  or  short  wooUed,  hav- 
ing become  fixed  on,  it  will  be  found  best 
to  adhere  thereto,  and  not  to  cross  with  a 
view  to  the  division  of  properties.  Thus, 
an  attempt  to  produce  a  mi.Kture  of  the 
long  and  short  woolled  breeds,  might  in 
all  probability  disappoint  expectation,  and 
not  be  useful  for  either  combing  or  card- 
ing. Lengtli  of  staple  in  the  long  wool- 
ed  breed,  and  fineness,  elasticity,  and 
closeness  in  the  short -woolled  fleece,  will 
be  the  best  guides  in  this  case. 

In  all  cases  the  carcass  of  the  animal 
ought  to  be  amp!}-  and  regularly  covered ; 
it  is  a  great  dcfi;ct  when  the  belly  is  bare, 
as  Is  too  often  the  case  with  the  .\merican 
sheep,  and  a  still  greater  when  the  wool 
is  thin  and  open  along  the  ridge  of  the 
back,  admitting  rain,  which  washes  out 
the  yoke  or  natural  grease  and  chills  the 
animal.  At  shearing  time,  notice  siiouid 
be  taken  of  the  fleece  when  cut  oflj  and  if 
it  be  stichy-haired  at  tlie  bottom  or  part 
of  separation,  it  should  be  marked  for 
fattening.  In  the  formation  of  a  stock,  such 


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sheep  should  be  avoided.  In  a  general 
way,  those  should  be  chosen  for  breeders 
that  have  the  finest,  closest  pile  or  thick- 
est  fleece,  and  have  the  greatest  unifor- 
mity in  the  texture  of  tlie  whole  fleece,  and 
are  in  the  best  condition  at  the  time,  pro- 
vided the  pasture  has  been  nearly  equal. 

In  various  parts  of  the  United  States, 
sbee]^  of  good  forms  and  valuable  fleeces 
are  to  be  seen  ;  but  few  persons  have  at- 
tended to  the  preservation  of  their  stock, 
with  tliat  care  which  a  measure  so  im- 
portant deserved.  Witliin  a  short  time 
however  the  eyes  of  the  public  have  been 
ope,,  jd,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  de- 
basement of  a  valuable  stock  by  the  ne- 
glect and  unrestrained  intercourse  with 
interior  rams,  will  be  no  longer  permitled- 
Those  anxious  to  improve  should  make 
it  a  point  to  preserve  the  best  formed  and 
most  thriving  of  their  lambs  for  breeders, 
whether  ewes  or  rams,  and  carefully  put 
away,  or  fatten  all  those  of  inferior  iyrms 
or  of  less  thrifty  dispositions. 

Of  imported  sheep  we  have  four  kinds, 
and  all  valuable,  viz.  Spanish  or  Merino, 
Broad-tailed  or  Tunis,  Irish,  snd  New 
Leicester  breeds,  on  each  of  which  a  few 
remarks  shall  be  made. 

The  Spanish  or  Merino  sheep  are  uni- 
versally known  for  the  superior  fine  quaU- 
ty  of  the  wool,  and  it  is  agreeable  to 
know  that  so  far  from  degenerating  in 
this  coimtry,  the  improvement  in  fleece  is 
evident  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of 
blood. — It  is  a  fact,  that  upon  some  occa- 
sions, tlie  very  tii'st  cross  between  the 
Spaniard  and  American  ewes  gives  lambs, 
which  in  ihe  course  of  even  the  first  year 
attain  to  a  greater  size  than  the  sire : — 
that  the  mutton  is  excellent ;  that  tlie 
crosses  fatten  in  much  less  time  than  the 
common  sheep  of  the  country  : — that  they 
are  very  hardy,  hcidtli}',  and  do  not  be- 
come sick  whenlat,  nor  are  they  affected 
by  tlie  pelt  rot,  like  our  native  sheep  in 
winter,  if  kept  in  good  heart,  (as  they  al- 
ways should  be)  ;  nor  do  they  shed  their 
woi)l  in  the  spring ;  that  their  bodies  are 
completely  covered,  and  lastly,  tiiat  tlie 
ewes  make  excellent  nurses. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  to  tlie 
American  improver,  that  no  judgment 
can  be  formed  with  respect  to  tlie  ulti- 
mate quality  of  the  wool  or  forms  of  this 
breed  from  the  appearance  of  the  lambs, 
until  they  are  upwards  of  a  year  old  ;  and 
for  this  reason,  no  males  of  the  higiier 
bloods  should  be  sold,  until  the  second 
yeai-,  unless  they  are  defective  in  form. 

The  facts  stated  with  respect  to  the 
importance  of  the  female  in  all  attempts 
to  improve  form,  particularly  apply  to  the 
case  of  sheep.     One  objection  to  the  Me- 


rino breed,  which  frequently  Las  been  of- 
fered by  those  wljo  consider  size  as  ail 
important  in  cattle,  is  the  general  diminu- 
tive appeai"ance  of  the  full  blooded  rams. 
But  it  should  be  known,  tlu>t-  it  is  upon 
the  mother  we  must  principally  depend 
for  an  increase  of  carcase,  and  for  im- 
provement of  form.  The  sire  gives  the 
fleece  ;  a  due  attention  therefore  to  the 
size  and  form  of  the  ewes  in  ihe  forma- 
tion of  a  flock,  is  of  the  first  consequence 
to  insure  success.  I'hese  principles,  hi- 
therto but  little  known  in  this  country, 
will  probably  admit  of  conti'overs}:,  or  ex- 
cite doubts,  but  their  accuracy  has  been 
repeatedly  demonstrated  by  the  expe- 
rience of  numerous  intelligent  breedci-s, 
and  by  all  those  European  improvers 
A\ho  liave  favoured  the  public  \\ith  the 
result  of  their  experiments  and  observa- 
tions. 

The  idle  notion,  that  Merino  sheep  can 
produce  line  wool  onh'  in  Spain,  lias  been 
amply  disproved  by  Lasteyric,  and  by  the 
result  of  tlie  experience  of  the  EngUsh  and 
American  improvers. 

In  France,  owing  to  the  care  taken  to 
provide  plcnt}-  of  food  at  all  times ;  to  the 
selection  of  tne  largest  and  best  formed 
and  finest  wpoiled  ewes  and  rams  for 
breeders,  and  to  not  using  eitlier  until 
the  second  year,  the  flock  of  the  national 
farm  has  been  brouglit  to  carry  finer  and 
heavier  fleeces,  and  to  be  better  formed 
than  any  in  Spain.  The  long  journies 
which  the  Merino  breed  in  Spain  are 
obliged  to  take,  to  procure  food  every  day, 
owing  to  the  numbers  kept  together,  and 
wliich  are  absurdly  su|)posed  to  contri- 
bute to  the  pre.'-ervation  of  tlie  fine  quali- 
ty of  the  wool,  tends  on  the  contrary  to 
diminish  tlieir  size,  and  injure  the  wool ; 
for  instead  of  laying  down  to  chew  their 
cud,  after  they  iiave  iiiled  their  stomach, 
tiiey  are  forced  to  m;ii,'cii  several  miles, 
and  by  this  forcible  deviation  from  the 
laws  of  nature,  their  digestion  is  impeded, 
and  nutrition,  and  c(?nsequent  growth,  is 
proporticmably  defective. 

The  Merino  race  aflord's  a  variety  of 
advantages  over  every  other  kind  of  sheep, 
and  ouglit  therefore,  under  the  present 
circumstances  of  the  country,  to  demand 
the  first  attention  fro-ii  our  farmers.  Mr. 
Li\ingston  has  remarked,  and  with  great 
truth,  tliatwool,  in  the  United  States,  is 
more  valuable,  and  is  certainly  more 
scarce  than  meat;  wliiie  the  contrary  is 
tl.e  case  in  Europe,  and  particularly  in 
England.  Merino  wool  sells  from  75  cts. 
to  2  dolls,  per  lb.;  and  from  tiie  increas- 
ing numbed  of  manufactories  in  tiie  Uni- 
ted States,  will  for  many  yeavs  command 
those  prices;  for  tiie  consumption  of  fine 


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cloth  will  increase  in  proportion  to  the 
readiness  n  iiii  wliicli  it  can  be  obtuinei' 
Hut  the  tiicl  is, as  ah'oudy  stated,  llial  i.lii-> 
breed,  having'  a  fair  cliance,  yields  good 
mutton,  as  well  as  good  wool 

The  Barbaiy  breed  of  sheep  with  broad 
tails  cairy  good  and  long  wool,  and 
fatten  easily  and  to  desirable  weights. 

The  Irish  breed  is  confined  principally 
to  the  vicinity  of  West  Cliester  in  this 
state :  they  fatten  to  gTeat  wciglits  at  tliree 
years  old. 

The  possession  of  the  new  Leicester 
sheep  may  be  justly  deemed  a  treasure  to 
the  United  States;  where,  from  great  inat- 
tention, most  of  the  breeds  formerly 
among  us  have  become  worn  out,  so  that 
they  are  difficult  to  fatten,  and  have  de- 
generated in  form. 

We  owe  tlie  introduction  of  this  vahui- 
ble  breed  to  tlie  spirit  and  exertion  of 

, ,  Beans,  now  of  New  Jersey,  who 

succeeded  in  sliipping  some  rams  and 
ewes  from  England,  a  few  years  since; 
the  full-blood  descendants  of  which  are 
exclusively  in  the  possession  of  captain 
Farmer  of  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey. 
But  tlieir  progeny  is  distributed  through- 
out the  state  of  i\  ew  Jersey,  and  a  part  of 
Pennsylvania. 

The  barrel  shape  of  the  bodies  of  the 
New  Leicesters,  tlieir  very  gentle  dispo- 
sition, and  natui\il  indolence,  cause  them 
to  take  on  fat  very  speedily,  and  hence 
answer  admirably  to  ci-oss  with  tlie  nar- 
row backed,  flat  sideil,  long  leggetl 
brei:<ls.  The  objection  to  the  full  breed 
in  Eiig-land  is  tlie  same  that  is  made  to 
all  the  stock  oi'  Bakewell;  namcl},  a  too 
g-reat  tendency  to  take  on  external  fat 
without  a  due  pi'oportion  of  lean.  Thi.-, 
objeciion  will  not  upply  to  the  cross  with 
most  of  the  Ajiierican  shee)),  in  which  all 
addition  of  fat  may  be  consitlered  as  clear 
g'ain.  The  object  to  be  aimed  at  by  the 
assistance  of  the  new  Leicester  sheep,  is 
the  origination  of  a.  bleed  by  crossing 
with  our  native  stuck,  wliich  will  increase 
the  tendency  to  sjJLedy  fattening,  wuliout 
diminishing  the  due  prop  irlioii  of  fiesh, 
so  desirable  in  all  stock  ;  and  to  thiis  oi)- 
ject  we  beg  leave  to  diiect  the  attention 
of  the  American  inijirover. 

Sii'tKe. — A  great  diversity  of  breeds  ol' 
Swine  are  fiumd  in  all  jiartsof  the  United 
States,  some  of  which  are  highly  valuable, 
and  others  vei-y  woiihles.s.  Several  |)er- 
sons  within  my  kuDwledge  iiave  Iiol^s 
wliich  at  15  and  18  iiumlhs  old,  will 
Weigh  oOOlbs.  and  upwards.  Of  the 
foreign  breeds  near  I'iiiladelphia,  only 
two  are  distinctly  and  accurately  marked, 
viz.  the  African  and  Chinese.  The  fii  st  is 
most  commonly    white,  of  good  shape, 


wide  behind,  small  pointed  ears,  and  a 
1  ouch  on    each  jowl.     They   will  fatten 
with  less   food   than    almost    any    other 
breed ;  have   very   tlim   ski.is,  and   very 
small    bones  -.    at   four    weeks   old    wiU 
Weigh  ten  and  a  half  lbs. ;  hence  they  take 
the  lead  as  roasters  in  our   markets.     .\t 
18  moiitlis  they  wiil  weigh  from   1.^0  lbs. 
to    501bs.  but  are  ripe  with  good  keeping 
at  12  months.     The  objection  to  them  is, 
that  they   incline   too  much  to  fat,  and 
throw  it  on  the  outside,  and  do  not  mar- 
ble the  Hesh,  and  hence  are   most  fit  for 
'  the  labouring  class.     When  deep  in  the 
blood,  they  become  so  fat,  merely  by  gra- 
zing and  having  the  common  slops  of  a 
farm,  as  to  diminish  their  disposition  to 
procreation.     For  these  reasons,  a  cross 
',  with  some  of  the  common  breeds  forms  an 
'  e\'ident  improvement,  for  more  flesh  is 
•  thus  acquired,  than  is  possessed  b;,   the 
I  African,  while   the  superior  tendency  of 
i  the  latter  speedily  to  take  on  fat,  is  what 
i  our  common  breeds  are  lamentably  defi- 
I  cient  in.     'i"he  Chinese  hogs  are  invariably 
black,  fatten  easily,   are  smaller  than  the 
African,  are  veiy  prolific, iiave  thick  skins, 
hollow  backs  and  pendant  bellies,  almost 
totiching  the  ground  ;  their  tails  are  cur- 
led and  in  perpetual    motion.     It  is  ex- 
treniolj'   desirable   to  originate  a   breed 
which  shall  partake  of  the  disposition  to 
fatten  sj)eedily,  and  at  the  same  time  w  ill 
diiluse  the  fat- through  tiie  flesh. 

1  shall  conclude  the  subject  of  the  im- 
provement of  the  breed  of  cattle,  by  the 
following  observations  of  sir  John  Saun- 
ders Sebright,  Bart.  M.  I',  contained  in  a 
small  pamphlet,  recently  published. 

"  Were  I  to  define  what  is  called  the 
art  of  breeding,  I  .should  say,  that  it  con- 
sisted in  the  selection  of  males  an<l  fe- 
males, intended  to  breed  together,  in  re- 
ference to  each  other's  merits  and  de- 
lects. 

Jt  is  not  always  by  putting  the  best 
male  to  the  best  female,  that  the  best 
produce  \\  ill  be  obtained  ;  fiir  should  they 
both  have  a  lendcnc}  to  the  same  de- 
fect, although  in  ever  so  slight  a  degree, 
it  will  in  general  preponderate  so  much 
in  the  produce,  as  to  render  it  of  little 
value. 

A  breed  of  animals  may  be  said  to  be 
improved,  when  any  desi.ed  quality  has 
liecn  increased  by  art,  beyond  what  that 
cpiality  was  in  the  same  breed,  in  a  suite 
of  nature  :  the  swiftness  of  the  race-horse, 
the  proiiensity  to  fatten  in  c.itlle,  and  the 
iiiu;  wool  in  sheep,  are  iini)rovenicnts 
wliich  have  been  made  in  jjarticular  \a- 
rielies  of  the  species  to  which  these  ani- 
mals belong.  What  has  been  produced 
by  art,  must  be  continued  by  the  same 


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means  ;  for  the  most  improved  breeds  will 
soon  return  to  a  state  of  nature,  or  per- 
haps defects  will  arise,  which  did  not  ex- 
ist when  ihe  breed  was  in  its  natural  state, 
unless  the  greatest  attention  is  paid  to  the 
seleciion  of  the  individuals  who  are  to 
breed  together. 

We  must  observe  the  smallest  tenden- 
cy to  imperfection  in  our  stock,  the  mo- 
ment it  appears,  so  as  to  be  able  to  coun- 
teract it,  before  it  becomes  a  defect ;  as  a 
rope  dancer,  to  preserve  his  equilibrium, 
must  collect  the  ballance,  before  it  is 
gone  too  far,  and  then  not  by  such  a  mo- 
tion as  will  incUne  it  too  much  to  the  op- 
posite side 

The  breeder's  success  will  depend  en- 
tii-ely  upon  the  degree  in  which  he  may 
happen  to  possess  this  particular  talent. 

Regard  should  not  only  be  paid  to  the 
qualities  apparent  in  animals,  selected  for 
breeding,  but  to  those  whicli  have  pre- 
vailed in  the  race  from  wiiich  tliey  are  de- 
scended, as  they  will  alwa\  s  show  them- 
selves, sooner  or  later,  in  the  progeny  :  it 
is  for  this  reason  that  we  should  not  breed 
from  an  animal,  however  excellent,  unless 
we  can  ascertain  it  to  be  v.hat  is  called 
•Kell  bred ;  that  is,  descended  from  a  race 
of  ancestors,  wiio  have,  ilii-ough  several 
generations,  possessed,  in  a  high  degree, 
the  properties  which  it  is  our  object  to 
©btain. 

The  ofispring  of  some  animals  is  veiy 
unlike  themselves ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  good 
precaution,  to  try  the  young  males  with  a 
few  females,  the  quality  t.f  whose  produce 
has  been  already  ascertidned :  by  this 
means  we  shall  know  the  sort  of  stock 
they  get,  and  the  description  of  females  to 
which  they  are  the  best  adapted. 

If  a  breed  cannot  be  improved,  or  even 
continued  in  the  degree  of  perfection  at 
which  it  has  already  lu-rived,  but  by  breed- 
ing from  individuals,  so  selected  as  to  cor- 
rect each  other's  defects,  and  by  a  judi- 
cious combination  of  tiieir  dilt'erent  pro- 
perties, (a  position,  I  believe,  that  will  not 
be  denied,)  it  follows  that  animals  must 
degenerate,  by  being  long  bred  h-orn  the 
same  family,  without  the  intermixture  of 
any  other  blood,  or  from  being  what  is 
technically  called,  bred  in  and-in. 

I  do  not  believe,  th:'.t  there  ever  did  ex- 
ist an  animal  without  some  defect,  in  con- 
stitution, in  form,  or  in  some  other  essen- 
tial quality  ;  a  tendency,  at  least,  to  tlie 
same  imperfection,  generally  prevails  in 
dirtereut  degrees  in  the  same  family.  By 
breeding  in  and-in,  tliis  defect,  however 
small  it  may  be  at  first,  will  increase  in 
every  succeeding  generation ;  and  will,  at 
last,  predominate  to  such  a  degree,  as  to 
render  the  breed  of  little  value.    Indeed,  1 


have  no  doubt  but  by  this  practice  bcln^ 
continued,  animals  would,  in  coiu-se  of 
time,  degenerate  to  such  a  degree,  as  to 
become  incapable  of  breeding  at  all. 

The  effect  of  breeding  in  and-in  mav  be 
accelerated,  or  retarded  by  selection,  par- 
ticularly in  those  animals  who  produce 
many  young  ones  at  a  time.  Tlitre  mav 
be  Kimilies  so  nearly  perfect,  as  to  go 
through  several  generations,  without  sus- 
taining much  injury,  from  having  been 
bred  tn  and-in  ;  but  a  good  judge  would, 
upon  examination,  point  out  by  what  they 
must  ultimately  fail,  as  a  mechanic  would 
discover  the  weakest  part  of  a  machine, 
before  it  gave  way. 

Breeding  in  ana-in,  will,  of  course,  have 
the  same  efiect  in  strengthening  the  good, 
as  tlie  bad  properties,  and  may  be  benefi- 
cial, if  not  carried  too  f.ir,  particularlv  in 
fixing  any  variety  which  may  be  thought 
valuable. 

By  selecting  animals  for  one  property 
onij',  the  same  effect  will,  in  some  degree, 
be  produced,  as  by  breeding  in-and-in  .- 
we  shall  obtain  animals,  with  the  desired 
property  in  great  perfection,  but  so  defi- 
cient, in  other  respects,  as  to  be  upon  th& 
whole  an  unprofitable  stock. 

We  should,  theretbre,  endeavour  to  ob- 
tain all  the  properties  that  are  essential 
to  the  animals  we  breed.  Tlie  Leicester- 
shu-e  sheep  prove  that  too  much  may  be 
sacrificed,  even  to  that  most  desirable 
quality  in  graxing  stock  j  a  disposition  to 
get  fat  at  an  eai'ly  age,  and  with  a  small 
quantity  of  food. 

Many  causes  combine  to  prevent  ani- 
mals, in  a  state  of  nature,  from  degenera- 
ting ;  they  are  perpetually  intermixing, 
and  therefore  do  not  feel  'the  bad  effects 
of  breeding  in-and-in  :  the  perfections  of 
some  correct  the  imperfections  of  the  oth- 
ers, and  they  go  on  without  any  material 
alteration,  except  what  arises  from  the  ef- 
fects of  food  and  climate. 

The  greatest  number  of  females  will, 
of  course,  fall  to  tlie  share  of  the  most  vi- 
gorous males  ;  and  the  strongest  individu- 
als of  both  sexes,  by  driving  awav  the 
weakest,  v.ill  enjoy  the  best  food,  and  the 
most  tiivourable  situations,  for  tliemselvcs 
and  for  their  offspring. 

A  severe  winter,  or  a  scarcity  of  food, 
by  destroying  the  we;ik  :ind  the  unhcal- 
tiiy,  has  all  the  good  effects  of  the  most 
skilful  selection.  In  cold  and  barreii 
countries  no  animals  can  live  to  tlie  age 
of  maturity,  but  those  who  have  strong 
constitutions ;  the  weak  and  unhealtliy 
do  not  live  to  propagate  their  infirmities, 
as  is  too  often  tlie  case  with  our  domestic 
animals.  To  this  I  attribute  the  pecuhar 
hardiness  of  the  horses,  cattle,  and  slieep, 


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bred  in  mountainous  countries,  more  than 
to  their  having  been  inured  to  the  severity 
of'tlie  dlmate  ;  for  our  domestic  animals 
do  not  become  more  hardy  by  iKJiig  ex- 
posed, when  young,  to  cold  and  hunger  : 
animals  so  treated  will  not,  when  ariived 
at  the  age  of  maturity,  endure  so  much 
hardship  :is  thorie  who  have  been  better 
kejjt  in  thcirinfant  slate. 

Although  1  believe  the  occasional  inter- 
mixture ot  diliercnt  families  to  be  neces- 
sary, 1  do  not,  b\-  any  means,  approve  of 
mixing  two  distinct  breeds,  with  the  view 
of  uniting  the  valuable  properties  of  both : 
this  experiment  lias  been  frequently  tried 
by  others,  as  well  us  by  myself,  but  has,  1 
believe,  never  succeeded.  The  first  cioss 
frequently  ])ioduces  a  tolerable  animal, 
but  it  is  a'  breed  t'lat  cannot  be  continued. 

The  introduction  of  Merino  sheep  to 
this  country  opens  a  fine  field  for  im- 
provement :  it  has  been  ascei'tained,  that 
neither  the  sheep  nor  the  wool  sustain 
any  injury  from  the  change  of  climate  or 
pastiu-e ;  and  the  absurd  prejudice,  that 
Aleriiio  wool  could  be  grown  only  in 
Spain,  is  fortunately  eradicated. 

It  is  is  well  known,  that  a  particular 
formation  generally  indicates  a  dis]K)si- 
tion  to  get  fat,  in  all  sorts  of  animals  :  but 
this  rule  is  not  universal,  for  we  some- 
times see  animals  of  the  most  api)iuved 
foiiiij,  who  are  slow  J'eeders,  and  whose 
flesh  is  of  a  bad  (juality,  which  the  grazi- 
ers easily  ascertain  by  the  touch.  The 
disprisition  to  get  fat  is  more  generally 
found  in  some  breeds  than  in  others. 

I  have  always  found  the  fineness  of  the 
fleece  in  exact  ])r()i)ortion  to  the  quantity 
of  yolk  it  cunt;yiied.  Those  wiio  are  un- 
accustomed to  examine  wool,  may  consi- 
der tliis  as  a  certain  criterion  of  its  quali- 
ty :  for  although  the  hair  of  some  dry 
fleeces  may  be  fine,  it  will  always  want 
the  elasticity  which  is  so  much  valued  by 
tlic  manufactiu'er. 

It  is  to  be  regretted,  that  so  little  atten- 
tion his  been  puid  to  the  improvement  of  | 
iJriiish  wool,  and  particularly  to  tlnit  ofi 
the  hliort-woolied  breeds;  a  fine  fleece  is  i 
not  only  more  profital>leto  the  owner,  but 
iiom  tlie  cl<)seiu;ss  of  its  texture,  ancl  the 
tjuai'tity  of  yolk  it  always  contains,  is  a; 
nnich  better  protection  to  th<;  sheep  in  !)ad' 
weaihcr,  than  the  open  and  Imiry  covtr- 
ing,  which  too  generally  disgrace  oiu- i 
flc?cks.  ■  .  I 

The  fineness  of  the  fleece,  like  every  | 
other  property  in  animals  of  all  kinds,  j 
may  be  imi)roveil  by  selection  in  breeding.  '■ 
The  opinion  that  g(jod  wool  could  only  be  [ 
])r'.)(luced  in  i)artieular  districts,  is  apre-f 
judice  which  fortunately  no  longer  exists.: 

Climate,  food,  and  soil,  have  certainly  ■ 


some  cfTcct  upon  the  quality  of  wool,  but 
not  so  nmch  as  is  gener.'dly  supposed. 
The  fleece  is  alfected  by  the  degree  of 
nourishment  which  the  animal  receives, 
not  by  tlie  quality  of  the  pasture  on  which  | 
it  is  fed.  if  sheep  are  highly  kept,  the 
wool  will  l)e  less  fine,  but  in  other  res- 
jjects  its  flesh  will  not  be  deteriorated. 
Tlie  wool  of  a  starved  sheep  may  be  ap- 
parently fine,  but  it  will  be  brittle,  imd  of 
little  value  to  the  manufacturer. 

A  regidar  supply  of  food  to  tlie  sheep  is 
essential  to  the  growth  of  good  wool,  for 
that  part  of  the  haii-  which  grows  when 
the  animal  is  in  a  high  state  of  flesh,  will 
be  thick,  and  that  wliich  is  grown  when  it 
is  reduced  by  hunger,  will  be  weak  and 
thin ;  and  conseciuently  the  thickness  of 
hair  will  always  be  irregular,  if  tjie  animal 
jKisses  from  one  extreme  to  the  other. 

The  alteration  which  may  be  made  in 
any  bjeed  of  animals  by  selection,  can 
hardly  be  conceived  by  those  who  have 
not  paid  s(jme  attention  to  this  subject; 
tlicy  attribute  every  improvement  to  a 
cross,  when  it  is  merely  the  effect  of  judi- 
cious selection. 

Upon  the  contested  point  of  the  size  of 
cattle,  it  may  be  proper  to  say  something 
on  the  jn-esent  occasion.  Even  keeping 
the  grand  oi^ject  of  all  farmei'S  and  gra- 
ziers, iu  view,  viz.  jn'ofit,  the  only  conside- 
ration would  seem  to  be,  what  variety  of 
any  particidar  breed  of  cattle  will  soonest 
make  the  most  profit,  or  return  of  flesh  or 
fleece  from  a  given  quantity  of  food.  It 
follows  therefore  clearly,  tiiat  if  the  same 
quantity  of  food  be  j)laced  on  one  animal 
or  on  three,  in  a  given  time  tlie  profit  to 
the  farmer  is  the  same.  In  the  case  of 
sheep,  the  superior  value  of  the  fleece  may 
even  more  than  compensate  for  a  defi- 
ciency of  flesh,  wcvc  that  an  object  of 
prime  attention,  but  it  is  a  fact,  as  has 
been  more  than  once  stated,  that  even  in 
respect  to  flesh  t!ie  Merino  bi'eed  is  infe- 
rior to  none.  M'ithout  detailing  the  argu- 
ments w hich  might  be  lUi^ed  on  both  sides 
of  the  ipiestion,  we  m;.y  say  generally, 
that  the  result  of  several  experiments 
made  i\»  direct  refl;rehce  to  the  point,  was 
in  favour  of  the  su[)erior  profit  of  smaller 
animals.  .Much  more  however  will  cer- 
tainly tlepend  upon  the  dispo.sition  of  tlie 
animal  to  take  on  liit,  than  uj)on  his  size, 
and  hence  the  great  importance  of  attend- 
ing to  the  im|)rovement  of  flirni  is  made 
inanifes'.  In  the  case  of  siieep,  it  will  be 
seen,  by  the  comnuuucalion  in  this  num- 
ber, tiiat  those  of  a  small  size  are  more 
profilal/le  feeders  than  the  larger  species. 
'}?o;h  lari^'c  and  small  cattle  however  are 
necessary ;  the  former  for  long  voyages, 
the  latter  ibr  home  consumption,  and  the 


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judicious  farmer  will  alvvaj's  of  course 
suit  his  stock  to  his  pasture,  or  to  the  par- 
ticular situation  or  ciixurastances  in  which 
he  may  be  placed.  Thus  on  upland,  if 
the  fafnier  feeds  on  clover  and  has  not 
the  excellent  g^reen  grass,  or  speai-  gi'ass 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  {Poa  Viridis)  it 
is  a  folly  to  attempt  to  feed  cattle  above  6 
or  700  Cwt.  for  the  frost  will  desU'oy  his 
grass,  and  then  corn,  potatoes  and  hay 
must  be  resorted  to.  In  the  luxuriant 
meadows  on  Delaware  and  Schuylkill, 
owinj;-  to  the  abundance  of  that  most  ex- 
cellent natural  production  of  the  United 
States,  just  meriioned,  catdc  will  conti-' 
nue  to  thrive  a  fwil  month  after  frost,  and 
then,  if  destbied  for  long  voyages,  corn 
meal  for  a  short  tinle  will  pay  well ;  but 
as  usually  given,  a  loss  will  inevitably  be 
suscained. 

Breeding  of  Fish.  The  necessary 
qualities  of  a  pond  for  breeding  fish  are 
very  different  from  tliose  which  are  re- 
quisite to  make  it  serve  for  their  nourisli- 
ment.  A  good  breeding  pond  is  more  rai-ely 
to  be  met  with  dian  a  good  feeding  one. 
The  best  indications  of  the  former  are 
plenty  of  rushes  and  grass  about  its  sides, 
with  gravelly  shoals,  like  those  of  horse- 
ponds.  The  quantity  of  the  spawn  of  fish 
is  prodigious  ;  and  where  it  succeeds,  one 
fish  may  sometimes  produce  millions. 
Hence  two  or  three  meltci-s,  and  as  many 
spawners,  placed  in  such  a  pond,  will,  in  a 
short  time,  stock  a  whole  country.  If  it 
be  not  intended  to  keep  these  ponds  en- 
tirely for  breeding,  but  to  let  the  fish  gi-ow 
to  a  considerable  size,  their  numbers 
should  be  thinned,  or  they  will  otherwise 
starve  each  other.  Different  kinds  of  fish 
may  also  be  added,  which  will  prey  upon 
the  young,  and  prevent  their  increasing  in 
number,  for  this  purpose,  eels  and  perch 
are  most  useful,  because  they  not  only- 
feed  upon  the  spawn  itself,  but  also  upon 
the  young  fry.  Some  fish  will  breed 
abundantly  in  all  kinds  of  waters ;  of  this 
nature  are  the  roach,  pike,  perch,  &c. 

BRE^VING.  The  art  of  preparing  beer 
or  ale  from  malt,  by  extracting  all  its  fer- 
mentable parts  in  the  best  manner ;  by- 
adding  hops  in  such  proportions  as  expe- 
rience has  shewn  will  preserve  and  me- 
liorate the  extracts ;  and  by  causing  a  per- 
fect fei-mentation  in  them,  by  means  of 
yeast  and  bai'm.  One  of  the  most  approv- 
ed methods  of  performing  this  operation, 
is  as  follows  : 

Take  of  the  purest  and  softest  water 
you  can  procure,  as  much  as  you  will 
have  occasion  for ;  boil  it,  put  it  into  large 
tubs,  and  let  it  stand  exposed  to  the  air  to 
piu-ge  itself,  at  least  one  week.  Grind  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  best  brown,  high- 
VOL.    I. 


dried  malt ;  let  it  remain  four  days  before 
you  use  it,  that  it  may  mellow,  and  dis- 
pose itself  for  fermentation  Fill  a  copper 
tvith  your  prepared  water,  and  let  it  boil ; 
then  lade  about  tliree-quarters  of  a  hogs- 
head into  the  mash-tub,  filling  the  copper 
up  again,  and  making  it  boil.  When  the 
water  in  the  mash-tub  is  cooled  tu  such  a 
degree,  that  in  consequence  of  the  steam 
subsiding,  you  may  see  your  face  in  it,  emp- 
ty into  It,  by  degrees,  nine  bushels  of  the 
malt,  mash  it  well,  and  stir  it  about  with 
the  rudder  near. half  an  hour,  till  it  is 
tlioroughly  wetted,  and  incoi-porated  with 
the  water :  then  spread  anfither  bushel  of 
malt  liglitly  over  its  surface,  cover  the 
whole  witli  emptj'  s.ar.k<;  to  keep  in  the 
■itpum,  and  leave  it  for  an  hour. 

At  the  end  of  the  hour,  the  water  in  the 
copper  being  boihng,  damp  the  fire,  and 
let  the  water  cool  a  little  as  before  :  then 
lade  as  much  as  is  necessaiy  on  the  mash, 
till  the  whole  together  will  yield  a  bout  a 
hogshead  of  wort.  When  this  second 
quantity  of  water  is  added,  stir  it  again 
well,  cover  it,  and  leave  it  for  another 
hour.  Then  let  the  first  wort  run  in  a 
small  stream  into  the  under  back,  and  lade 
another  hogshead  [or  64  gallons]  on  the 
mash :  stir  it  again  as  before,  cover  it,  and 
let  it  remain  for  two  hoiu-s. 

In  the  mean  time,  return  the  first  wort 
into  the  copper,  and  put  into  it  six  pounds 
of  fine  brown  seedy  hops,  first  rubbing 
them  between  the  hands.  Then  make  a 
brisk  fire  under  your  copper,  till  the  li- 
quor boils  ;  let  it  continue  to  boil  till  tlie 
hops  sink  :  [the  sinking  of  tlic  hops  is  not 
always  a  sign  of  the  liquor  beuig  boiled 
enough.  A  better  method  is  when  the 
woi-t  bucks  well  and  is  perfectly  clear. 
The  casks  must  be  filled  up  every  three 
hours.  A.  A.]  Then  damp  the  fire  and 
strain  the  liquor  into  coolers.  When  it  is 
about  as  warm  as  new  milk,  mix  some 
yeast  or  barm  with  it,  and  leave  it  to  work 
till  the  surface  appear^s  in  curls  ;  then  stir 
and  mix  the  whole  properly  with  a  hand- 
bowl,  and  let  it  again  ferment.  Repeat  the 
stin-ing  with  the  bowl  three  times,  then 
tun  it,  and  leave  it  to  work  in  the  hogs 
head.  When  it  has  nearly  done  working, 
fill  up  the  cask,  and  bung  it,  but  let  tlte 
vent-hole  remain  open. 

Set  the  second  wort  aside  for  the  next 
brewing,  which,  as  far  as  wetting  the 
mash,  must  be  managed  exactly  in  thu 
same  manner  as  the  first ;  but  afterwards, 
instead  of  water,  heat  the  second  wort  of 
the  first  brewing,  and  lade  it  on  the  mash, 
which  will  give  the  new  wort  additional 
strength  and  softness.  Make  the  second 
wort  of  the  second  brewing-  with  water, 
and  save  it  for  tiie  first  wort  of  the  third  ■ 


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and  so  on  for  as  many  brewings  as  you  | 
please.  A  third  wort  may  be  taken  from  • 
tlie  first  brewing,  which  should  l)e  heated  | 
and  laded  on  the  mash  of  your  second  j 
brewing,  after  taking  ofi'  the  second  wort ; 
and  thus  an  additional  hogshead  of  very 
good  mild  beer  may  be  procured. 

On  taking  a  review  of  the  above  pro- 
cess, and  the  multiplicity  of  circumstan- 
ces  to  be  attended  to,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  operation  of  brewing  is  of  a  very  pre- 
carious nature ;  and  requires  great  skill 
and  dexterity  to  manage  it  with  complete 
success.  The  goodness  of  the  beer  will 
depend  on  the  quality  of  the  malt  from 
which  it  is  made  ;  on  the  pecidiar  proper- 
ties of  the  \tzriipv  It/If  1-1  w.-hirh  it  is  infuScd  ; 

on  the  degree  of  heat  applied  in  tlic  ma«h. 
ing ;  on  the  length  of  time  the  fusion  is 
continued ;  on  the  due  manner  of  boiling 
the  wort,  together  with  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  hojjs  employed  :  and  on  thp 
proper  degree  of  fermentation  :  to  ascer- 
tain all  which  particulars,  with  precision, 
constitutes  the  great  mystery  of  brewing, 
and  can  only  be  learnt  by  experience  and 
repeated  observation. 

Afr.  Mills,  in  his  System  of  Practical 
Husbandry,  and  Mr.  Combrune,  in  his 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Breiviiig,  give  the 
following  directions  for  the  choice  of  ma- 
terials used  in  brewing,  and  for  conduct- 
ing the  whole  process : 

1.  Of  the  Tl'ater. — Pure  rain-water,  as 
being  the  lightest,  is  esteemed  the  most 
prop'^r.  Well  and  spring  waters  are  com- 
monly hard,  and  consequently  unfit  for 
drawing  the  tincture  completely  from  any 
vegetable-  River-water,  in  point  of  soft- 
ness, is  next  to  rain-water  :  and  even  pond- 
water,  if  piu-e,  is  equal  to  any  other  for 
brewing. 

2.  Of  Malt.— Those  malts  are  to  be 
preferred  for  brewing,  which  have  been 
properly  wetied  and  germinated,  then 
dried  by  a  modtrate  heat,  till  all  the  ad- 
ventitious moistut°.  is  evaporated,  without 
being  blown,  vitrified,  or  scorched,  by  too 
hot  or  hasty  fires.  For,  tlie  better  the 
malt  is  dryed,  the  sovmder  will  be  the 
beer  brewed  from  it,  and  the  longer  it  will 
keep.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  quality  of 
this  article,  bite  a  grain  of  it  asinKler,and 
if  it  tastes  mellow  and  sweet,  breaks  soft, 
and  is  full  of  flour  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  it  is  good;  which  may  also  be 
known  by  its  swimming  on  the  surface, 
when  put  into  the  water.  The  best  way  of' 
grinding  it,  is  to  bruise  it  in  a  mill  com- 
posed of  two  iron  cylinders.  These  break 
the  malt  without  cutting  its  husk,  so  that 
the  hot  water  instantly  pierces  its  whole 
substance,  and  soon  draws  fortli  a  rich 


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tincture,  with  much  less  mashing  tlian  in 
the  common  way. 

3.  Of  //o/Ji.— Experience  has  proved, 
that  hops  slack-dried,  or  kept  in  a  damp 
place,  are  pernicious  ingredients  for  ma- 
king beer;  and  likewise,  that  they  yield 
their  aromatic  bitter  more  efficaciously, 
when  boiled  in  Avort  than  in  water  :  hence, 
to  impregnate  the  extracts  from  malt 
with  a  due  proportion  of  hops,  their 
strength,  as  well  as  that  of  the  extract, 
should  previously  be  ascertained.  The 
newer  the  hops  are,  the  better  they  always 
prove ;  the  fragrance  of  their  flavour  be- 
ing in  some  degree  lost  by  keeping,  not- 
withstanding the  care  used  in  preserving 
them.  Private  families,  who  regard  only 
the  flavour  and  salubrity  of  their  malt  li- 
quors, should  use  from  six  to  eight  bush- 
els of  malt  to  the  hogshead  of  their  strong- 
est beei-.  The  quantity  of  hops  must  be 
suited  to  the  taste  of  the  drinker,  and  to 
the  time  the  hquor  is  intended  to  be  kept. 
From  two  to  three  potmds  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  a  hogshead,  though  some  go  as 
far  as  six  pounds.  Mr.  Mills  is  of  opin- 
ion, that  small  beer  should  always  be 
brewed  by  itself ;  in  which  case,  two  bush- 
els and  a  half  of  malt,  and  a  pound  and  a 
half  of  hops,  are  sufficient  to  make  a  hogs- 
head. 

4.  Of  the  Vessels  used  in  Brevsing. — The 
brew-house  itself,  and  every  vessel  in  it, 
ought  to  be  perfectly  clean  and  sweet ; 
for  if  the  vessels  are  in  the  least  degree 
tainted,  the  liquor  put  into  them  will  con- 
tract a  disagreeable  scent  and  taste.  A 
vessel  of  the  most  simple  and  excellent 
contrivance,  among  the  multiplicity  of 
brewing  utensils  adapted  to  family  purpo- 
ses, is  that  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Bordley,  who  has 
described  it  in  his  Essays  and  JVotes  on 
Husbandry  and  Rural  ^/iffairs,  (Philadel- 
phia, 1801.)  He  terms  his  process,  by  way 
of  distinction,  a  tripartite  method  (fbreiv- 
ing :  because  the  kettle-apparatus  is  worked 
in  three  divisions.  The  whole  vessel  is  40 
inches  long,  20  broad,  and  24  deep ; 
namely,  the  first  or  upper  division  is  two, 
the  second  is  nine,  and  the  third  or  bot- 
tom, thii'teen  inches  deep.  I'he  bottoms 
of  the  two  uppermost  are  finely  perforated 
and  moveable.  In  the  bottom  division  is 
Xhauater  or  ivort ;  the  middle  one  contains 
the  malt ;  and  into  tlie  top  the  hot  water 
is  pumped  up,  or  poured  over  by  means 
of  a  small  pump,  and  thus  passes 
through  every  particle  of  the  malt ;  so 
tliat,  by  frequent  agitation,  the  water  in  a 
manner  washes  out  its  whole  substance, 
;uid  extracts  all  its  farinaceous  and  saccha. 
rine  ingredients.  This  oijeration  is  re- 
peated, occasionally  stirring  up  the  gi-ains. 


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till  the  Ikiuor  becomes  clear,  when  it  must 
be  l^t  off  into  a  kettle  and  boiled  with 
baps,  the  proper  proportion  of  which  must 
be  determined  by  experiment ;  it  must  af- 
terwai-ds  be  let  out  into  coolers.  Mr. 
Bordley  ingenuously  acknowledges,  that 
a  Swedish  method  of  brewing  in  camp  af- 
forded him  the  hint  for  this  invention.  He 
also  observes,  that  his  tripartite  kettle  is 
made  of  copper,  and  the  small  pump  of 
tnetal,  and  may  be  either  permanently  fix- 
ed, or  past  through  a  cylinder,  so  as  to 
raise  the  water  from  the  lower  to  the  up- 
per division ;  though  we  are  inclined  to 
think  that,  for  the  latter,  wood,  or  pure 
tin,  would  be  preferable  to  brass,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  verdigrise.  At 
the  bottom  is  a  cock  on  one  side  of  the 
vessel.  On  the  whole,  we  consider  this  as 
the  most  proper  and  convenient  piece  of 
machinery,  ever  conti'ived  for  family- 
brewing. 

5.  0/  the  heat  of  the  nxaterfor  JMashing. 
— Particular  care  should  be  taken,  that 
the  malt  be  not  put  into  tlie  water  whilst 
boiling  hot.  In  order  to  bring  the  water 
to  an  exact  heat,  Mr.  Combrune  advises 
us,  to  put  on  the  fire  22  quarts,  gallons, 
or  barrels,  according  to  the  quantity 
wanted;  and  when  it  has  just  arrived  at 
the  boiling  point  of  the  thermometer,  to 
add  10  similai-  measures  of  cold  water, 
which,  when  mixed  with  the  former,  will 
be  of  a  temperature  not  exceeding  161°  of 
Fahrenheit :  and  this  he  considers  as  tlie 
most  proper  heat  for  mashing.  He  far- 
ther remarks,  that  water  which  has  en- 
dured  tlie  fire  the  shortest  time,  pro- 
vided it  be  hot  enough,  will  make  the 
strongest  extract. 

6.  Of  Mashing. — When  the  water  is 
Iirought  to  a  due  heat,  the  malt  is  to  be 
put  in  very  leisurely,  and  uniformly  mixed 
iiitli  it. 

7.  Of  boiling  the  Wort — As  the  design 
of  boiling  the  wort  is  to  clear  the  liquor  of 
its  impurities,  and  to  obtain  the  virtue  of 
'  he  hop,  a  much  shorter  time  than  usual  is 

ufhcieut.  Long  boiling  of  the  hop  is  a 
nost  pernicious  practice,  and  produces  an 
.ustere,  nauseous  bitter,  but  not  a  plea- 
ant  aromatic  one.  Instead  of  adding 
he  hops  to  the  wort,  when  this  is  put  in- 
o  the  copper,  or  before  it  boils,  they  may 
i)e  infused  about  five  minutes  before  the 
vort  is  taken  off  the  fire :  if  this  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  give  tlie  desired  degree  of  frag- 
rant bitter,  ten  minutes  may  be  taken,  or 
as  much  longer  as  will  be  found  necessa- 
ry. Mr.  Mills  prefers  putting  the  hops  to 
the  wort  towards  the  latter  end  of  the 
boiling,  rather  than  at  the  beginning,  be- 
cause the  continued  boiling  of  the  liquor 
is  apt  to  dissipate  their  fragrance. 


8.  Of  Fermentation.— One  gallon  of 
yeast,  in  the  coldest  fermenting  weather, 
is,  according  to  Mr.  Combrune,  sufficient 
to  ferment  the  extract  from  one  quarter  of 
malt;  and,  if  properly  managed,  will  yield 
two  gallons  of  yeast.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  the  choice  of  yeasts,  as  they 
are  liable  to  be  soon  tainted,  and  very  rea- 
dily communicate  their  infection  to  the 
liquors  fermented.  The  whole  process  of 
fermentation  ahould  be  carried  on  in  the 
slowest  and  coolest  manner ;  so  that  the 
temperature,  which  at  the  commencement 
was  between  40  and  50"  of  Fahrenheit, 
should  very  gradually  be  raised  to  the 
70th  degree.  [This  is  proper  for  a  large 
quantity ;  but  for  small,  66  is  the  best.] 
Fermentation  will  always  succeed  best 
where  the  air  is  purest.  If  too  hot  water 
has  been  employed  for  obtaining  strong 
and  fatty  extracts,  from  the  malt,  fei-men- 
tation  will  be  retai-ded :  on  the  contrary, 
in  weak  extracts,  it  is  so  much  accelerat- 
ed, that  the  whole  soon  becomes  sour. 
When  the  femientation  is  at  its  height,  all 
the  feculent  matter,  or  foul  yeast,  which 
rises  on  the  surface,  must  be  carefully 
skimmed  off,  whatever  be  the  quality  of 
the  liquor.  The  beer,  as  soon  as  it  is  tole- 
rably clear,  should  be  racked  off  into  per- 
fectly clean  and  sweet  casks ;  and  when 
managed  in  tliis  manner,  M'ill  remain  a 
long  time  in  a  state  of  perteclion. 

9  Of  fning  the  Liquor. — As  the  excel- 
lenc}'  of  all  fermented  liquors  depends,  in 
a  great  measure,  on  their  transparency,  it 
often  becomes  necessary  to  resort  to  arti- 
ficial means,  in  order  to  bring  them  to  tliis 
state  of  perfection,  if  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation has  been  mismanaged.  Thus, 
a  solution  of  isinglass  in  stale  beer,  is  used 
to  fine  and  precipitate  other  beers  :  but,  as 
this  method  has  proved  ineffectual  in 
brown  beers,  we  are  informed  by  Dr.  Com- 
brune, that  breweis  "  sometitnes  put  one 
pound  of  oil  cf  vitriol  into  one  butt,  thovigh 
four  ounces  should  never  be  exceeded  in 
that  quantity. 

10.  Of  the  distempers  of  Malt  Liquors. 
Among  the  distempers  incident  to  beer, 
one,  which  has  been  found  most  difncuit 
to  cure,  is  that  of  its  appearing  ropy.  A 
bunch  of  hyssop  put  into  the  cask  will, 
however,  effectually  remedy  this  evil. 

It  deserves  to  be  remarked,  \h?i\.  brown 
beer,  made  from  well-tb-ied  malt,  is,  in  tlie 
opinion  of  Mr.  Combrune,  less  lieatliig 
than  pale  beer,  bre^^'ed  from  slack-dried 
malt.  If  extracts  from  pple  malt  be  made 
with  verj'  hot  water,  tliey  will  keep  sound 
for  a  long  time  ;  but  those  obtained  from 
brown  iiialt,  with  too  cold  wat<jr,  will  fre? 
quently  tuvn  sour. 


BRE 


BRK 


l-amily  brewing,  and  brewing  in  small 
quuntiiies. 

An  establishment  for  a  moderate  family 
may  be  thus  formed, 

A.  Brew-house  20  feet  by  15  on  the 
ground  plan  A  copper  with  a  brass 
cock  at  the  bottom ;  to  hold  not  less  than 
40  gallons,  to  be  set  high.  A  m  ash-t  u  k 
to  hold  twice  as  much  as  the  copper,  for 
the  malt  will  occupy  when  wetted  as  much 
space  as  the  A\ater.  The  mash-tun  should 
stand  a  little  below  the  level  of  the 
cock  of  tlie  copper;  so  that  the  water 
of  the  copper  can  run  into  the  mash.  The 
mash-tun  should  have  a  false  bottom  on 
which  the  malt  is  placed,  this  should  be 
bored  with  -j  inch  holes,  at  about  3  inches 
distance ;  the  depth  between  the  solid  bot- 
tom and  the  false  moveable  bottom  6  inch- 
es. A  cock  or  plug  should  be  fixed  be- 
tween the  two  bottoms,  to  let  off  the  wort 
into  the  vndbr-back;  this  should  hold 
as  much  as  tlie  copper. 

Fi'om  the  under-back,  the  wort  is 
pumped  up  into  the  copper,  to  be  boiled: 
when  boiled,  it  is  let  into  the  Coolers  : 
Of  these  there  should  be  two,  each  to  hold 
45  gallons.  They  should  be  placed  one 
under  the  other,  and  a  little  below  the  le- 
vel of  the  cock  of  the  copper ;  that  is  on 
a  level  with  the  top  of  the  mash  tub.  The 
wort,  when  boiled,  is  to  be  let  oft"  into  tl)c 
first  cooler,  and  then  mto  the  cooler  un- 
derneath; whence  it  rims  into  a  working 
tun  of  the  same  sixeas  the  mash-tun  :  for 
tliough  not  more  than  32  or  33  gallons  of 
wort  runs  in  at  a  time,  yet  the  head,  pro- 
duced during  the  working  or  fernncntation, 
will  occupy  a  considerable  space.  The 
coolers  should  not  be  more  than  6  inches 
deep — Tiience  the  estabUshment  of  uten- 
sils will  be- 

A  copper  of  40  gallons,  or  4  J. 
A  mash-tun  of  80  gallons. 
An  under-back  of  40  gallons. 
A  working  tun  of  SO  gallons. 
Two  coolers,  6iiiclies  deep  to  hold  each 
40  or  45  gallons, 6  ft.  by  2  ft.  6  inches  each. 
A  hand  pump  to  pump  the  wort  into  the 
copper,  unless  it  can  be  dcme  by  the  water 
puni]). 

Pales,  Bowls,  kc. 

A  stilling  to  set  tlie  casks  on  when  full 

'iout  ten  inches  high,  and  14  inches  Avide 

.1  the  filear.    Four  rum  ])uncheons  sawed 

'rough  the  middle,  would  answer  tolera- 

!  ly  well  for  almost  all  the  utensils.     One 

bushel  of  malt  and  lib.  of  sugar  will  make 

one  ban-el  of  good  table  beer,  of  strength 

between  ale  and  small  beer,  if  the  first  and 

second  worts  are  boiled  and  mixed  toge- 

■lieV.     This,  exclusive  of  trouble,  will  not 

ost  above  one-si.'cteenih  of  a  dollar  a  gal- 

■n.    The  Brewhouse  sliould  be  placed  on 


the  north  side  of  the  buildings ;  it  sliould 
be  open  on  three  sides  to  let  in  air,  &\\d  let 
out  steam  ;  the  three  open  sides  shotUd 
have  hooks  fixed  to  them,  so  as  to  hang  on 
flap-boards,  or  slanting  battens  to  keep 
out  the  wet.  But  as  there  are  many  small 
families,  who  cannot  afford  such  an  estab- 
lishment these  may  brew  in  small  quanti- 
ties as  follows. 

Every  family  has  a  large  kettle  or  ves- 
sel to  boil  their  clothes  in  ;  suppose  this  to 
contain  about  3  gallons,  this  will  serve  for 
a  copper.  A  common  pail  with  a  hole  bor- 
ed through  the  bottom,  and  set  upon  a 
stilling  or  some  other  contrivance  to  raise 
it,  another  pail  may  receive  the  wort,  and 
may  answer  for  a  fermenting  tun,  and 
when  the  beer  has  worked  so'  as  that  the 
head  begins  to  fall,  draw  it  off  into  a  five 
gallon  keg. 

ProportioTis  for  5  gallons  of  ale. 

Malt  1  i  peck ;  sugar  ^Ib.  hops  J  of  a  lb. 
malt  amber  coloured,  or  pale  dried. 

Proportions  for  5  gallons  of  porter, 
brewed  in  that  quantitj'. 

Malt  IJ  peck;  sugar  made  into  essentia 
^Ib.  molasses  ilb.  hops  ^Ib.  ginger  about  a 
teaspoonful.  The  malt  to  be  high  dried, 
or  else  half  amber  and  lialf  high  dried. 

These  proportions,  used  according  to 
the  foregoing  directions,  will  produce  a 
good  wholesome  liquor,  which  the  women 
of  the  family  may  brew  occasionally  when 
they  have  not  much  else  to  do. 

Or  THE  Brew-House. — The  following 
is  an  eligible  construction  where  brewing 
is  followed  as  a  trade  "  The  cold  liquor 
(Note.  Brewer.';  call  water  whether  warm 
or  cold,  liquor.)  pump  A.A.  raises  the  wa- 
ter from  the  river  or  well  B.  which,  as  well 
as  the  wort  pump  M.M.  is  driven  by  a 
horse  with  proper  machinery  wliich  like- 
wise grinds  the  malt  used  in  the  brew- 
house.  The  grinding  house  is  situated 
between  the  pumps,  as  may  be  seen  by  the 
mill-spout  P.  which  conducts  tlie  malt 
from  the  mill  into  the  mash  tun  H.  The 
liquor  from  the  river  B.  is  pumped  into  the 
cistern  or  reservoir  C  where  it  is  ready  at 
all  times  during  the  hurry  of  brewing; 
and  from  the  cistern  it  passes  through  the 
large  pipe  D.  uito  the  liquor  copper  E. 
where  it  may  be  stopped  by  a  cock  at  the 
extremity  of  the  pipe.  The  liquor  when 
warmed  for  mashing  is  let  into  tlie  mash- 
tun  H.  by  opening  the  cock  F.  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  copper,  and  runs  down  the 
trunk  Z.  wliicli  carries  it  into  the  raising 
spout  G.  in  the  mash-tun  H.  this  spout  by 
a  notch  in  the  moveable  or  false  bottoms 
of  the  mash-tun,  conducts  the  liquor  be- 
tween the  moveable  and  real  bottoms, 
wliich,  by  ascending,  assists,  the  masliing 
verv  much. 


BRE 


I3RE 


"  The  extract  or  wort  is  let  go,  by  turn- 
ing  the  cock  K.  into  the  uiiderback  L.  and 
is  from  thence  carried  by  the  horse-pump 
M.M.  into  a  level  with  the  wort  copper  O. 
and  runs  from  the  pump  through  the  pipe 
N.N.  into  the  wort  copper. 

"  When  cold  liquor  is  required  for 
mashing,  as  is  tlie  case  in  small  beei* 
brewing,  it  is  obtained  from  the  cistern  C. 
by  the  pipe  Q.  which  communicates  with 
it. 

'•  Thus  these  three  very  laborious  parts 
of  the  business,  viz.  pumping  tlie  hquor 
from  the  river  or  well;  mashing,  and 
pumping  up  the  worts  into  the  copper, 
may  be  easily  performed  by  two  men  ;  and 
they  are  able  to  mash  a  very  considerable 
quantity  of  malt,  and  attend  to  the  steam- 
ing of  the  casks,  liquoring  the  backs,  &c. 
between  the  mashes.  When  all  the  worts 
are  in  the  great  copper  O.  and  are  boUed 
sufficiently,  they  are  run  off  into  the  first 
back  T.  by  turning  the  cock  R.  the  spout 
W,  conducting  the  worts  from  the  di'ainer 
S.  which  detains  the  hops,  Tliis  back 
communicates  with  the  two  large  backs 
Y.Y.  which  are  sufficient  to  contain  all  the 
worts,  and  they  may  be  laid  at  a  greater 
or  less  depth,  by  using  one  or  both  these 
backs,  stopping  eitlier  of  the  pipes  X.  by 
patting  in  one  of  the  plugs  U.U.  The  si- 
tuation  of  tliese  two  backs  is  higher  tlian 
the  fermenting  tuns,  and  by  pipes  the 
worts  are  conveyed  into  them  below  :  and 
if  there  is  conveniency,  the  tuns,  when 
cleansing,  (filling  the  casks  from  the  fer- 
menting tub,)  ought  to  be  high  enough  to 
fill  tlie  casks  in  the  cellars  by  means  of  a 
leathern  pipe." 

Of  Brewiimg — Take  care  that  every 
utensil  is  made  perfectly  clean. 

Boil  your  liquor  (water)  ;  when  boiled, 
reduce  it  to  about  the  temperature  of  175 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  If  the  malt 
is  newly  ground,  do  not  let  the  water  go 
on,  till  it  is  reduced  to  165". 

Ifyouhaveno  thermometer,  there  are 
three  rules  which  may  serve  tolerably 
well. 

1st,  Let  the  boiling  water  be  mixed 
witli  cold  water,  till  you  can  perfectly  see 
your  face  in  it;  or,  2dly.  till  it  will  just 
scald  your  finger,  unless  you  take  it  out 
immediately.    Or, 

3dly.  Add  in  winter  1  gallon  of  cold  to 
16  of  boiling,  and  in  summer  1  gallon  of 
cold  to  about  12  of  boiling  water,  if  you 
use  rain  or  river  water ;  for  of  these  the 
temperatm-e  varies  with  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere. If  you  use  well  water,  1  gallon  to 
16  for  your  first  wort  throughout  the  year, 
wijVbe  about  enough.  Never  use  rain 
water,  where  the  wasliings  of  the  roof 
£ive  it  a  bitter  taste. 


Your  first  wort  will  requiie  about  twice 
as  much  water  as  the  two  succeeding ;  for 
the  malt  imbibes  and  retains  about  one 
half  of  the  whole  quantity  :  never  let  the 
malt  stand  dry  in  the  mash-tub.  When 
the  water  is  risen  through  the  holes  of  the 
moveable  bottom  sufficiently,  pour  in)'our 
malt,  and  let  a  man  stir  it  about  with  a 
rake  while  3'ou  pour  it  in.  When  the  malt 
is  thoroughly  wetted,  stir  it  up  with  the 
oars,  and  raise  the  malt  repeatedly  fiom 
the  bottom,  and  beat  it  about :  this  should 
be  done  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  20  mi- 
nutes. Then  sprinkle  some  dry  malt  over 
the  top,  cover  it  with  a  cloth  or  mat  to  re- 
tain tlie  heat,  and  let  it  remain  3  hours  in 
winter,  and  2  in  summer.  Then  run  it 
off:  pour  back  the  first  runnings  if  they 
are  muddy.  A  handful  of  hops  put  into 
the  vessel  in  which  the  wort  runs,  is  ad- 
vantageous, pai-ticularly  in  summer ;  pre- 
venting the  liquor  from  turning  sour. 

While  this  first  mash  is  about,  fill  your 
copper  again  and  boil  the  water  for  the 
next  mash  ;  which  may  now  be  at  185,  or 
10  degrees  hotter :  rake  and  beat  this  as 
before  and  let  it  stand  one  hour.  For  the 
third  mashing,  use  water  at  about  190; 
let  it  stand  one  hour  :  it  is  convenient  t(i 
finish  mashing  by  evening,  in  order  to 
gain  the  coolness  of  the  night  for  the  wort. 
When  all  the  wort  is  extracted,  put  them 
together  and  boil  them  till  you  get  the 
quantity  you  mean  to  have  from  the  mult. 
The  boiling  should  be  quick  and  fierce  : 
the  hops  should  be  wetted  and  then  bro- 
ken in  among  the  worts.  The  worts  may 
boil  fi-om  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half: 
tlie  copper  should  have  a  sloping  rim. 

The  strength  of  the  worts,  and  of  con- 
sequence of  ihe  liquor,  may  be  ascertain- 
ed by  an  hydrometer ;  a  mode  first  sug>- 
gested  by  Richardson,  in  his  treatise  on 
brewing — Thus,  if  a  Florence  flask  filled 
with  water  accurately,  up  to  a  mark  in 
the  neck,  weighs  2  lbs.  for  instance,  the 
same  flask  filled  with  wort  properly  boil- 
ed for  ale,  and  ready  to  be  let  off  into  the 
cooler,  will  weigh  more.  When  you  have 
once  ascertained  the  weight  of  the  wort 
which  will  make  good  ale,  you  may  al- 
ways know  in  futiu'e  when  your  wort  is 
sufficiently  boiled ;  for  little  evaporates 
but  steam  of  water  impregnated  with  the 
oil  of  the  hops.  Wlien  boiled,  turn  the 
worts  into  the  coolers,  and  the  instant  they 
are  cool  enough,  put  tliem  to  ferment. 
Otherwise,  especially  in  summer,  they 
are  apt  to  Jbx,  as  it  is  called ;  that  is,  they 
acquire  a  reddish  colour  and  a  disagree- 
able flavom". 

They  are  cool  enough  at  45  or  50,  that 
is,  for  a  large  brewing  ;  but  for  smaller 
Ijrewiug  60  to  62  degrees  will  be  proper  .- 


BRE 


BIIE 


and  in  family  brewing  66  to  70,  and  in  ve- 
rv  cold  weather  76°  will  be  Uie  rig-ht  tem- 
perature. Fahrenheit's  scale  is  alluded 
to.  * 

In  winter,  allow  one  gallon  of  yeast  to 
the  quarter  of  malt :  in  summer  half  a 
gallon.  In  winter  jiut  in  the  yeast  ut  once, 
in  summer  one  half  at  first,  or  v.'hen  the 
tun  is  about  half  full  of  wort,  and  the 
other  half  when  tlie  beer  is  fit  to  be  clean- 
sed, (that  is  filled  up  with  wort).  When 
the  wort  begins  to  cream,  stir  it  about,  and 
mix  the  yeast  well  with  the  liquor.  In 
winter  the  beer  should  be  cleansed  when 
tlie  head  or  froth  is  just  beginning  to  be- 
come solid  and  thicken.  In  summer,  as 
soon  as  it  begins  to  shew  a  white  head 

Generally,  wlien  the  head  becomes 
brown,  solid,  and  of  a  yeasty  consistence, 
and  seems  just  ready  to  full  back  into  the 
liquor,  the  beer  should  be  pvit  into  casks. 
Never  suffer  the  head  to  b)-cak.  Better 
fill  the  casks  a  few  hours  too  soon  than 
one  hour  too  late.  Strong  beer,  if  brev/ed 
in  small  qtiantities,  and  ale  in  any  quanti- 
ty, should  be  tunned  the  second  day. 

The  casks,  when  well  cleaned  with  hot 
water,  (and  if  necessary  also  witli  lime 
or  ashes  to  neutralize  the  acid  absorbed 
by  the  wood,)  should  be  filled  and  put 
upon  the  stilling,  or  frame,  of  about  12 
inches  high. 

Fill  up  the  casks  as  they  work  over, 
once  every  hour  for  the  first  6  or  8  hours 
be  sure    to  keep  the  casks  filled  till  the 
fermentation  has  entirely  subsided,  which 
will  be  in  a  few  days. 

Place  vessels  under  the  casks  to  col- 
lect the  workings  over,  and  the  casks 
may  be  filled  up  with  the  clear  part  of 
tiiesc  workings.  Take  great  care  to  keep 
jour  cellar  diy,  and  free  from  the  drip- 
jiings  of  the  casks  :  if  the  cellar  be  damp 
and  musty,  your  beer  will  be  in  hazard  of 
smelling. 

When  the  beer  has  worked  in  the  casks, 
bung  it  and  remove  it,  if  necessary,  to  tlie 
[)lace  where  it  is  to  remain :  then  draw 
the  bung,  and  fill  up  with  clear  beer, 
scumming  off  the  sediment  that  may  be 
thrown  up  by  rolling.  Biuig  the  casks 
tight  ;  bore  u  vent  hole,  and  put  in  a  vent 
peg,  which  should  be  rather  slack  while 
ihe  beer  is  observed  to  be  on  the  fret.  If 
it  runs  out  at  the  vent  hole,  draw  off 
about  a  (piart,  to  give  it  room  and  prevent 
the  starting  of  the  wood. 

When  beer  is  di-awn,  take  care  never 
to  leave  the  vent  peg  out,  or  loose  :  the 
best  liquor  may  soon  become  flat  and  va- 
pid by  the  carelessness  of  ser\ants  in  tliis 
respect. 

Take  care  also  that  the  sides  of  the  bar- 
rels, the  stoops  and  the  floor,  are  not  suf- 


fered to  remain  wet  with  the  beer  spilled 
or  running  over.  Dirtiness  and  moisture 
are  apt  to  make  tlie  beer  smell  in  the  bar- 
rel. 

0/  the  proportions  of  JVIalt  and  other 
Ingredients.  The  following  are  about  the 
average  propoi-tions  of  malt,  used  in 
England:  but  the  barley  of  America  is 
not  equally  good,  nor  is  the  process  of 
malting  carried  to  such  perfection  :  hence, 
the  same  quantity  of  ale  or  porter  will  re- 
quire about  one  fourth  more  of  malt  to 
make  a  liquor  in  America  of  equal 
strength.  When  nothing  is  used  to  make 
ale  or  porter,  but  malt  and  hops,  it  will 
require,  in  England,  about  three  bushels 
of  malt  to  make  one  barrel  of  ale  of  32 
gallons,  or  porter  of  36  gallons.  But 
this  will  be  strong. 

For  ale  intended  to  be  drank  immedi- 
atelv,  ^  of  a  lb.  of  hops  to  the  bushel,  will 
suffice.  If  meant  to  be  kept  a  twelve- 
monUi,  allow  1  lb.  to  the  bushel :  if  long- 
er lA  lb. 

Porter  requires  IHb.  of  hops  to  the 
bushel,  if  no  bitter  but  hops  be  used. 

Small-beer  is  usually  brewed  from  the 
malt  after  the  quantity  of  wort  intended 
for  ale  is  taken  off:  then  a  quarter  (or  8 
bushels)  of  malt,  will  make  about  one 
barrel  of  sti'ong  ale,  and  two  barrels  and 
an  half  of  good  small-beer  :  the  hops  used 
for  the  ale,  kept  in  a  net  during  boilijig, 
will  do  with  a  little  addition  for  the  small- 
beer- 

But  small-beer  so  made  is  never  so 
good  as  when  it  is  run  off  by-  itself  from  a 
quantity  of  malt  wholly  appropi'iated  to 
it. , 

In  this  case  about  1|  or  1^  bushels  of 
malt  will  make  one  barrel  of  good  small- 
beer,  with  \  of  a  lb.  of  hops  to  the  bushel. 

But  in  malt  liquor,  the,  addition  of  a 
small  portion  of  sugai-  gives  more  strength 
to  the  liquor,  and  enables  it  to  keep  bet- 
ter ;  pai'ticularly  in  summer  time  :  hence 
the  following  proportions  seem  prefei'able 
in  practice,  for  this  country. 

Ale — Malt  (amber)  tliree  bushels : 
hops  olbs. ;  good  moist  sugar  1^  lb.; 
about  A  an  oimce  of  coriander  seeds  will 
be  an  improvement.  The  addition  of  the 
sugar  will  netu'ly  make  up  for  the  defici- 
ency in  strength  of  tlie  AmericaJi  malt. 
This  will  make  one  barrel  of  strong 
ale. 

Having  thus  afforded  an  analytical  view 
of  this  important  subject,  we  shall  con- 
clude it  with  an  account  of  the  latest 
patents,  which  have  been  granted  to  those 
who  have  contributed,.or  attempted  to±n- 
prove  the  Art  of  Brewing.  • 

In  Mai-ch,  1788,  Mr.  W.  Ker,  of  Kerfield, 
Twecdale,  received  the  king  of  Great  Bfi- 


BRE 


BRE 


tain's  patent  for  his  improvement  in  brew- 
ing ale,  beer,  porter^  and  other  malt  liquors, 
so  as  to  save  a  considerable  portion  of  hops, 
to  produce  the  liquors  of  a  superior  flavour 
and  quality,  and  render  them  less  liable  to 
become  acid  or  putrid.  The  steam  which 
arises  from  the  boiling  copper,  is  known 
to  be  strongly  impregnated  with  the  es- 
sential oil  of  the  hops,  in  which  their  fla- 
vour consists.  Instead,  therefore,  of  al- 
lowing it  to  escape  and  evaporate,  as  it 
does  in  the  common  mode  of  brewing, 
Mr.  Ker  contrives  to  preserve  and  con- 
dense it,  by  means  of  a  winding-pipe  fixed 
to  the  copper,  similar  to  the  worm  of  a 
still,  or  by  a  straight  pipe  passing  througli 
cold  water,  or  any  other  cooling  medium. 
The  oil  and  water,  thus  obtained,  are  re- 
turned into  the  worts  when  boiled ;  or  the 
oil,  after  being-  separated  from  the  water, 
along  with  which  it  has  been  exhaled,  is 
returned  into  the  worts  after  they  are 
boiled^  and  the  watery  part,  which,  after 
the  oil  is  separated,  still  continues  im- 
pregnated with  the  aromatic  taste  and 
bitter  of  the  hop,  is  returned  into  the  next 
copper  or  boiling  vessel,  and  so  on,  from 
one  copper  or  boiling  vessel  into  anotiier. 
By  this  process,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
hop  and  flavour,  Avhich  is  lost  in  the  or- 
dinary mode  of  brewing,  is  presei^ved  ; 
the  flavour  of  the  liquor  is  improved  by 
the  preservation  of  the  finer  parts  of  the 
aromatic  oil ;  and  the  ale  and  beer  ai-e 
better  secured  from  any  tendency  to  acid- 
ity or  putrefiiction,  and  therefore  must  be 
fitter  for  home  consumption  and  exporta- 
tion. 

In  June,  1790,  Mr.  John  Long,  of  Ire- 
land, obtained  a  patent  for  an  improve- 
ment which  he  calls  an  entire  nttu  7netliod, 
in  ail  the  essential  parts,  of  brewing  good' 
malt  liquor.  Though  this  method,  in  one 
respect,  is  similar  to  that  adopted  by  Mr. 
Ker,  yet  as  it  comprehends  the  whole  pro- 
cess of  brewing,  we  shall  lay  it  before  our 
readers,  nearly  in  the  words  of  its  au- 
thor. 

1.  For  the  better  extracting  the  virtues 
of  malt,  place  near  a  mash-tun  a  shallow 
copper,  or  otiier  vessel,  that  will  readily 
heat,  the  curb  of  which  to  be  on  a  level 
with  the  tun,  ?nd  to  contain  from  two  to 
six  hogsheads,  according  to  the  dimen- 
sion of  the  tun,  more  or  less;  and,  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  copper,  have  a  cock, 
fi-om  two  to  five  inches  in  diameter,  to 
conduct  the  heated  liquor  from  the  cop- 
per into  a  tube,  which  passes  down  the 
external  part  of  the  tun,  and  enters  it 
through  an  aperture  about  six  inches 
from  the  bottom;  then  forming  two  revo- 
lutions, more  or  less,  through  the  body  of 
the  tun,  and  communicating  its  heat  to 


the  wort  as  it  passes  through  the  tube; 
and  then,  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
the  place  where  it  first  entered,  it  runs 
from  the  tun  into  a  cistern  or  tub,  situate 
j  as  near  as  convenient  to  the  copper  or 
heating-vessel.  In  tlie  tub  or  cistern  i.'i 
to  be  placed  a  pump,  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  the  cooler  liquor  back  to  the 
copper  or  heating  vessel  again,  there  to 
receive  the  heat  of  208  degrees,  more  or 
less,  (which  it  will  require  after  the  first 
half  hour,)  and  then  convey  it  through 
the  mashing-tun,  as  before,  and  in  the 
same  manner,  as  long  as  the  working 
brewer  may  thuik  necessary,  to  raise  the 
mashing-tun  to  an)-  degree  of  heat  re- 
quired. By  adhering  to  the  foregoing 
process,  the  first  liquor  ma}-,  with  tlie 
greatest  safety,  be  let  upon  liie  malt,  from 
20  to  30  degrees  lower  than  the  present 
practice ;  by  which  means  it  operates  witii 
gentleness,  opens  and  expands  the  malt, 
and  prepares  it  for  the  reception  of  sharp- 
er or  warmer  liquor,  so  as  to  extract  the 
whole  of  the  saccharine  quality  from  the 
malt.  By  the  foregoing  metiiod,  the 
mashing-tun,  instead  of  losing  its  first 
heat,  (which  it  does  by  the  present  pi-ac- 
tice,)  continues  to  increase  in  heat  everv 
moment  by  conveying  the  heated  liquor 
through  the  tube  into  the  tun ;  by  which 
means,  at  the  end  of  two  hours,  the  work- 
ing brewer  can  have  the  tun  brought  to 
any  degree  of  heat  he  shall  think  best 
suited  to  the  difl^erent  qualities  of  tlie 
malt.  Persons  who  would  wish  to  savr 
expense,  may  heat  their  mashing-tun  at 
the  side  or  bottom,  by  a  large  piece  of 
metallic  substance  made  fire-proof,  and 
fixed  therein ;  which,  in  some  degi-ee,  will 
answer  the  end  proposed,  but  with  great 
trouble  and  delay. 

2.  To  prevent  the  wort  from  receiving 
a  disagi-eeable  flavour,  while  in  the  under- 
back,  a  tube  must  be  placed  at  the  cock, 
of  the  mashing-tun,  to  receive  the  wort  as 
it  comes  ofl",  and  convey  it  to  a  great  cis- 
tem,  or  refrigeratory,  which  is  suppUed 
with  a  stream  of  water.  Tiie  wort,  pass- 
ing through  that  medium  in  a  spiral  tube, 
soon  loses  that  heat  which  so  often  proves 
prejudicial  to  the  brewer  in  warm  wea- 
ther; it  is  then  poured  from  the  tube  into 
a  vessel  in  which  pumps  are  placed,  to  re- 
turn the  worts  into  the  copper,  for  the 
purpose  of  boiUng  off". 

3  As  the  great  object  of  long  boiling 
the  wort  is  remedied,  by  this  invention  of 
talcing  the  extract"  from'  the  hops  in  a  se- 
parate manner  from  the  woits,  Mr.  Long 
boils  tlie  latter  no  longer  than  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes ;  and,  by  piu-suing  that 
method,  he  saves  much  time  and  fuel,  and 
regulates  the  length  of  time  accordingly. 


CRE 


BRE 


4.  He  steeps  liis  hops,  the  pveceding- 
day  to  whicli  they  are  to  be  used,  in  a 
copper  or  other  vessel,  with  as  mucli 
fluid,  blood-warm,  as  will  cover  the  hops  ; 
where  it  is  to  remain  over  a  slf)w  fire,  at 
least  fourteen  hours,  close  covered ;  the 
copper,  at  the  tenth  hour,  not  to  be  of  a 
gicater  heat  than  175  degrees,  continuing 
slow  until  tlie  last  hour.  Then  he  brings 
the  copper  gradually  to  a  simmer,  or  slow 
boil ;  in  which  state  he  suffers  it  to  re- 
jnain  about  ten  minutes,  and  then  runs  off 
the  uuid ;  and  this  he  does  at  the  same 
time  the  first  wort  is  boiled  off,  that  they 
may  both  pass  togetlier  through  the  re- 
iHgeratoi'v,  into  the  fermentation  or  work- 
ing-tun. After  the  foregoing  operation, 
he  covers  the  hops  again  with  other  li- 
quor, brings  the  copper  to  boil  as  soon  as 
convenient,  and  lets  it  remain  in  that 
state  a  considerable  time,  until  the  second 
worts  are  boiled  off.  Then  he  passes  the 
hop-fluid  with  the  wort,  the  same  as  in 
tlie  first  instance;  and,  if  there  is  a  third 
wort,  he  boils  the  hops  a  third  time  with 
small  worts,  and  drains  off  the  liquid  as 
before  ;  by  which  means,  he  gradually  ob- 
tains the  whole  of  the  essential  oil  and 
pleasant  bitter  from  the  hops,  which  is  ef- 
iectually  preserved  in  the  beer, 

5.  When  the  wort  is  boiled  off,  it  is 
conducted  from  the  cock  of  the  cojjper  or 
boiler  into  a  ttibe  of  a  proper  dimension, 
wliich  piisses  the  wort  from  the  cock  to 
the  large  cistern  or  refrigeratory,  and 
there  performs  several  revolutions,  in  a 
spiral  manner,  through  the  same  tube; 
w  jiich  is  immersed  in  a  constant  supply  of 
oold  water,  where  it  loses  the  greatest 
part  of  its  heat  in  a  short  time,  and  thence 
continues  a  straight  course  through  the 
lube,  a  little  elevated,  and  of  a  suitable 
length,  placed  in  brick-work,  until  it 
■neets  a  small  refrigeratory,  sni)plied  with 
';older  water  from  a  reservoir  made  for 
that  purpose,  at  the  head  of  the  works; 
whence  a  continual  stream  runs  on  the 
surface  of  the  tube  down  to  the  great  re- 
frigeratory, cooling  the  wort  as  it  passes, 
in  order  to  enable  the  working  brewer  to 
send  it  into  the  backs,  or  working-tuns,  at 
whatever  degree  of  heat  he  may  think 
proper.  The  tiibcs  may  be  made  of  lead, 
or  any  other  metallic  substance. 

6.  To  enable  him  to  brew  in  tlie  warm 
summer    months,   Mr,  Long    sinks    the 

lacks,  or  working-tuns,  at  least  to  a  level 
vlth  tl)e  ground,  but  if  deeper,  the  better, 
lud  covers  them  closely  by  an  arch  made 
of  bricks,  or  other  materials,  that  will  to- 
tally exclude  the  almos]jlu;ric  air.  He 
rheii  placcfe  them  as  near  as  possible  to  a 
pring  or  sand-drain,  as  their  depth  will 
•  latur'allv  dr.iv/  the  water  thence,  which 


must  be  so  contrived  as  to  pass  or  flow 
round  the  backs  or  tuns.  Next,  lie  in- 
troduces a  large  tube, -which  passes 
through  the  tuns,  and  keeps  tiie  wort  se- 
veral degrees  lower  than  can  possibly  be 
done  by  the  present  practice  ;  by  which 
means  he  produces  a  complete  fermenta- 
tion, even  in  the  dog-days. 

7.  In  cold  or  frosty  weather,  if  the  tuii 
and  backs  should  lose  the  first  heat,  in- 
tended to  be  conducted  through  the  pro- 
cess by  tlie  foregoing  method,  a  supply  of 
warm  or  boiling  water  may  be  conveyed 
by  the  tube  which  passes  through  the 
body  of  the  backs  or  tun,  communicating 
its  heat,  which  rises  to  any  degree  the 
working  brewer  shall  think  proper :  by 
pursuing  this  method,  in  the  coldest  sea- 
son, a  fermentation  may  always  be  pi-o- 
cured. 

In  February  1798,  Dr,  Richard  Shannon 
obtained  a  patent  for  his  method  of  im- 
proving the  processes  of  brewing,  distil- 
ling, boiling,  evaporating,  raising,  apply- 
ing and  condensing  steam  or  vapour  from 
aqueous,  spirituous,  saccharine,  saline, 
and  other  fluids.  The  principle  of  his  in- 
vention consists  chiefly  in  tlie  following 
arrangement:  By  covering  and  making 
the  mash-tun  air-tight,  and  casing  it  round, 
under  and  over,  with  a  steam-tight  casing, 
so  that,  during  the  mashing  and  soaking 
of  the  malt  and  grain  used,  the  heat  may 
be  preserved,  or  i-aised  and  regulated  to 
any  pitch,  by  the  application  of  steam, 
both  in  and  between  the  casing  of  the 
mash-tun ;  by  which  contrivance,  the 
whole  of  the  farina  and  substance  of  the 
grain  may  be  as  effectually  extracted  iu 
one,  or  at  most  in  two  mashings,  as  is 
now  done  in  three  or  four.  The  steam, 
conducted  by  a  proper  tube  or  pipe,  is  to 
be  also  employed  for  sweetening  and 
cleansing  all  the  brewing,  distilling,  and 
vinegar-making  utensils,  and  casks  em- 
ployed in  each,  &c.  so  as  in  future  to  pre- 
vent furring,  tbxing,  &c.  even  in  tlie  in- 
miost  crevices. 

In  June  1798,  the  same  patentee,  in 
partnership  with  Mr.  Robert  Burnett,  of 
Vauxhall,  procured  another  patent,  for 
the  discovery  of  a  principle  and  invention 
of  a  method  of  improving  the  process  of 
fiirmentation,  by  which  porter,  beer,  ale, 
malt  and  molasses  wash,  wine,  cyder,  and 
all  other  saccharine  and  fermentable 
fluids,  may  be  conducted  with  certainty 
through  the  vinous  process  of  fermenta- 
tion in  mild,  warm,  hot,  and  cold  wea- 
ther, without  being  materially  injured  as 
heretofore,  by  the  different  changes  of  the 
atmosphere,  &c.  But  as  these  improve- 
ments dei)end  on  the  application  of  an  ex- 
pensive pneumatic  apparatus,  which  docs 


BRI 


BRI 


not  appear  to  us  adapted  to  tlie  use  of  fa- 
milies,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  tenth  and 
fourteenth  volumes  of  the  Repertory  of 
Arts  and  Manufactures,  where  he  will 
find  a  detailed  specification  of  both  pa- 
tents. 

The  hist  patent  we  shall  mention,  is 
that  of  Mr.  'I'iiornton,  of  East  Smithfield; 
which,  being-  dated  April  15,  IZTS,  is 
eai'lier  th;.n  either  of  the  preceding",  and 
does  not  strictly  relate  to  the  process  of 
brewing-,  as  his  invention  consists  in  a 
new  method  of  I'educing  tnalt  and  hops  to 
an  essence  or  extract,  from  which  beer 
may  be  made  either  at  sea  or  in  distant 
Goiintries.  The  whole  is  managed  by  the 
transmitted  heat  of  compressed  vapour  of 
boiling  water  5  and  a  proper  apparatus  for 
that  purpose.  This  apparatus  may  be 
made  of  iron,  tin,  or  copper  :  it  consists  of 
a  boiler  of  any  dimensions,  a  clo^'ble  ves- 
sel, and  conducting  tubes.  The  double 
Vessel  consists  of  one  vessel  placed  witliin 
another,  and  fitted  tiglit  at  their  rims. 
The  upper  vessel  forms  the  upj^er  p'ait  of 
the  under  vessel,  and  contaii\s  the  liquor 
to  be  evaporated.  Tlic  luider  vessel  is 
every  where  inclosed,  except  at  an  aper- 
ture communicating  with  the  boiler,  and 
at  anotlier  aperture  communicating  witli 
the  conducting  tubes;  and  is  constructed 
so  as  not  to  allow  any  part  of  tlie  vapour 
condensed  into  drops  within  it  to  escape, 
except  back  again  into  the  boiler :  it  is  not 
so  extensive  as  to  act  as  a  common  refri 
geratory,  and  yet  is  cajjacious  enougl>  to 
prevent  the  liquor  boiling  over.  The 
aperture  communicating  with  the  boiler, 
is  large  enough  to  freely  admit  the  vapom- 
from  tlie  boiler  into  the  under  vessel ;  and 
the  aperture  communicating  with  the  con- 
ducting tulieG,  is  of  a  proper  size  to  al- 
low of  the  vapour  in  the  under  vessel  be- 
ing compressed,  to  a  degree  capable  of 
transmitting  to  the  liquor  to  be  evapo- 
rated a  proper  heat,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  serve  as,  a  passage  for  more  heat  than 
is  necessary  to  keep  up  that  degiee  of 
compression.  The  conducting  tubes  are 
to  convey  this  superfluous  heat  or  vapour, 
to  be  used  for  farther  pin-poses,  or  imme- 
diately out  of  the  building-. 

Tliose  of  our  readers  who  are  desirous 
of  farther  information  ou  the  subject,  may 
consult  tlie  last  edition  of  Philosophical 
Principles  of  Brevjing,  by  Mr.  Uiciiurd- 
son,  of  Hull,  England;  a  work  of  ac- 
knowledged merit,  and  practical  utili- 
ty- 

BRICK.  Among  the  numerous  branches 
of  the  general  art  of  fashioning  argilla- 
ceous earths  into  useful  forms,  and  after- 
wards hardening  them  by  fire,  tlie  art  of 
making  bricks  and  tiles  is  by  no  means 
VOL.  I. 


one  of  tlie  least  useful.  By  this  art  \ves, 
possess  tlie  advantage  of  obtaining  the  ma- 
terials for  constructing  edifices  at  clieap 
rates,  in  almost  every  situation,  without: 
tlie  expense  of  carrying  stone  from  re- 
mote quarries ;  and  this  is  so  far  from  be- 
ing the  only  advantage,  that  it  is  extreme- 
j  ly  probable,  that  these  artificial  coniposi- 
I  tions,  if  jji-operly  made,  would  prove  su- 
perior  in  durability  to  every  natural  stone. 
The  streets  in  Holland  are  every  where 
paved  with  a  hard  kind  of  brick,  known 
b}'  Its  under  the  name  of  clinkers,  and 
used  in  tliis  country  for  paving  stables 
and  court-yards ;  and  the  houses  in  Ain- 
stei-dani  tippear  to  be  not  at  all  decayed, 
but  are  perfectly  fresh,  as  if  new,  though 
most  of  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Excliange  have  stood  at  least  two  centu- 
ries. The  sjiirit  of  improvement  may 
perhaps  efiect  at  some  future  period  la 
tJiis  country,  what  the  stimulus  of  ne- 
cessity has  done  on  that  naturally  poor 
spot. 

The  art  of  bvickmaking  has  for  the 
most  part  been  confined  to  the  manufac- 
tories,  no  one  having  attended  to  it  in  a 
direct  chemical  way,  except  the  cele- 
brated Bergman.  AVe  shall  therefore  in 
the  present  article  give  an  account  of 
the  leading  facts  and  observations  in  his 
treatise. 

'Jhe  pottery  made  use  of  in  the  con- 
struction of  edifices  may  be  considered  as 
of  two  forms;  tiles  for  the  roof,  and  bricks 
for  the  walls ;  to  which  may  be  added  ano- 
ther kind  of  bricks  for  pavements.  Soft- 
ness and  porosity  are  the  greatest  fault  of 
tiles.  The  water  retained  in  the  pores  of 
tiles  becomes  frozen  in  winter;  and  as  ice 
occupies  a  larger  space  than  water,  the 
expansion  of  the  water,  at  the  instant  of 
its  congelation,  does  not  fail  to  split  and 
destroy  such  porous  and  brittle  substances 
as  tiles  which  are  HI  made.  This  has 
been  remedied  by  covering  them  witli  a 
glaze,  which  adds  considerably  to  the  ex- 
pense. Bergman  is  of  opinion,  that  a 
stronger  heat  used  in  the  baking  would 
render  them  so  close  as  to  absorb  very  lit-. 
tie  moisture. 

This  illustrious  chemist  did  not  find 
that  pure  clay,  or  argillaceous  earth,  was 
fusible  eitiier  alone  or  when  mixed  in 
any  proportion  with  lime,  though  the  ad- 
dition of  the  smallest  quantity  of  sili- 
ceous earth  brought  the  mass  into  fu- 
sjon.  Neither  was  clay  fusible  with 
pure  quartz  alone.  Spath  fluor  ren- 
ders it  fusible ;  as  does  likewise  feld 
spar. 

Common  clay  is  scarcely  ever  found  in, 
a  state  appi-oac'hing  to  purity  on  tlie  sixr- 
face  of  the  earth.     It  usually  contains  a 
Y 


BHl 


BRl 


large  proportion  of  siliceous  eaitlj.  liei'g- 
luan  exiumnecl  several  clays  iu  the  neigli- 
boiirhood  of  Upsal,  :uiu  made  bricks, 
which  he  baked  with  various  degrees  of 
licat,  suflfcred  them  to  cool,  inunersed 
them  in  water  for  a  considerable  time,  and 
then  exposed  them  to  the  open  air  for 
tliree  yeai-s.  'I'hey  were  formed  of  clay 
and  saird  The  hardest  were  those,  into 
the  composition  of  whicli  a  fourth  part 
of  sand  had  entered.  Those  which  had 
been  exposed  for  the  shortest  time  to  the 
fire  were  almost  totally  destroyed,  and 
crumbled  down  by  the  action  of  the  air : 
such  as  hud  been  more  thoroughly 
burned,  suffered  less  damage ;  and  in 
those  which  had  been  formed  of  clay 
alone,  and  were  half  vitrified  by  the 
heiit,  no  change  whatever  was  pro- 
duced. 

On  the  whole,  he  observes,  that  the 
propoj'tion  of  sand  to  be  used  to  any  clay, 
in  niaking  bricks,  must  be  greater,  the 
more  such  clay  is  found  to  contract  in 
burning  ;  but  that  the  best  clays  are  those 
which  need  no  sand.  Bricks  should  be 
well  burned;  but  no  vitrification  is  neces- 
sary, when  tliey  can  be  rendered  hard 
enough  by  the  mere  action  of  the  heat. 
AVhere  a  vitreous  crust  might  be  deemed 
necessary,  he  recommends  the  projection 
of  a  due  quantivyof  s^dt  into  tlie  furnace, 
which  woxdd  produce  the  effect  in  the 
same  manner  as  is  seen  in  the  fabrica- 
tion of  the  English  poUery  called  stone- 
ware. 

It  is  of  considerable  importance  to  exa- 
mine clay  before  il  is  made  hito  tiles. 
This  is  done  in  a  rough  way  by  ihe  manu- 
facturers ;  but  Bergman  advises  the  fol- 
lowing as  the  most  expeditious  ])rocess: 
Nitric  acid  poured  ilpon  imburned  clay 
detects  tlie  presence  of  lime,  by  ])ro- 
ducing an eflfervescence.  Calcareous cla)s, 
or  marles,  are  often  the  fittest  materials 
for  making  bricks.  In  the  iiext  place,  a 
lump  of  clay,  of  a  given  weiglit  is  to  be 
diffused  in  water  by  agitation.  Tlie  sand 
will  subside,  and  the  clay  remain  suspend- 
ed. Otlier  wasliings  of  the  residue  will 
carry  off"  some  clay,  and  by  due  manage- 
ment in  this  way,  the  sand,  or  quartzose 
matter  may  be  had  separate.  Nitiic  acid 
by  digestion  will  take  up  the  lime  from  a 
part  of  the  clay,  previously  weighed,  and 
this  may  be  precipitated  by  volatile  alka- 
li. The  clay,  the  sand,  and  the  lime  may 
thus  be  well  enough  ascertained  by 
weight,  so  as  to  indicate  the  (luantity  of 
sand  or  other  material  requisite  to  be 
added  in  order  to  ibrm  that  compound, 
which,  from  otlier  experiments,^  may 
have  been  found  best  adapted  to  pro- 
duce  good  tiles   and  bricks,    An  exa- 


mination with  the  microscope  will 
show  whether  the  sand  contain  feld 
spar,  or  other  stones  of  known  fi- 
gure. 

I'he  brickmakers  in  the  vicinity  of  Lon- 
don collect  the  refuse  cinders  and  jishes 
of  the  coal  fires  of  that  metropolis,  and 
employ  women  to  sift  them.    The  cinders, 
called  breeze,  are  used  as  fuel  in   the 
burning,    and    the    smaller  powder,    or 
black  ashes,  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  bricks  instead  of  sand.     The  proper 
management  of  the  clay  is  of  considera- 
ble importance  with  respect  to  the  quali- 
ty of  the  bricks ;  and  various  acts  have 
been  passed,  to  prohibit  its  use  when  re- 
cently dug.     The  clay  is  best  if  dug  in 
the  fall  of  the  year,  and  exposed  to  the 
frosts  during  the  winter,  turning  it  over 
once  or  oftener  during  the  time-    Indeed 
the  more  it  is  turned  and  worked  with  the 
spade  the  better.     When  thus  mellowed, 
it  may  be  thrown  into  shallow  pits  in  the 
spring,  and  left  to  soak  in  water  some 
days. .   It  is   then   to    be  tempered,  and 
wrought  into  a  smooth  paste,  with  as  lit- 
tic  water  as  possible.     This  is   usually 
done  by    a   horsemill.      All   tlie    stones 
j  ought  to  be  picked  out ;  but  this  is  sel- 
idom  done,  except  in  the  finer  articles. 
When  the  materials  are  properly  mixed 
!  and  wrought,  the  bricks  are  fasliioned  in 
wooden  moulds;  and  then  piled  up  in  long 
double  rows  to  the  height  of  four  or  five 
feet,  the  bricks  being  so  arranged  as  to 
admit  a  free  access  of  air  between  them, 
and  covered  at  top  with  straw,  to  defend 
them  from  the  rain.     When  sufficiently 
dried  in  this  manner,  they  are  «X!innionly 
[built  up  into  large  square  heaps,  called 
[clams,  stratified  with  fuel  between  the 
I  rows,  and  leaving  room  for  the  fire  to 
}  play  between  the  bricks.     Two  or  more 
j  arches  likewise,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  clam,  are  formed  at  the  bottom,  for 
)  holding  the  fuel,  and  kindling-  the    fires. 
,  In  this  way  it  is  obvious  the  bricks  cannot 
be  uniformly  burnt;  and  to  deficiencies  in 
;the  management  of  this  process,  and  ne- 
;  giigences  in  temperhig  and  working  the 
j.materials,  we  may  probably  ascribe  the 
bad  qualities  of  too  many  bricks.     A  few 
:  of  tlie  finest  kinds  of  bricks,  for  particular 
uses,  as  well  as  tiles,  are  burnt  in  kilns 
erected  for  the  purpose,  where  the  fire 
can  be  managed  with  nmch  more  regu- 
larity. 

A  kind  of  bricks  called  firr-bricks  are 
made  near  Windsor,  v.  Inch  are  very  hard, 
]lea^y,  and  contain  a  large  projiortion  of 
s.ind.  These  are  chieffy  used  in  the  con- 
I  struction  of  furnaces  for  steam  engines,  or 
I  other  large  works,  and  in  lining  the  ovens 
of  glass-houses,  as  they  will  stand  any- 


BRI 


BRI 


de^ee  of  heat.  Indeed  Ihej'  should  al- 
•viays  be  employed  where  fires  of  any  in- 
tensity are  required. 

English  statute-bricis  ought,  when 
burnt,  to  be  nine  inches  long-,  four  and  a 

auarter  broad,  and  two  and  a  half  ;hick : 
ley  are  commonly  used  for  pa\"ijig'  cellars, 
sewers,  sinks,  hearths,  &c.  There  is, 
however,  a  great  variety  of  bricks,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  different  forms,  dimen- 
siens,  uses,  and  the  method  of  making 
them. 

On  compai'ing  the  strength  and  dura- 
bility of  modern  bricks  with  those  of  the 
ancients,  it  is  evident  that  the  former  are 
in  every  respect  inferior;  and  that  we  are 
either  unacquainted  with  the  exact  mate- 
rials of  which  these  admirable  productions 
of  art  are  composed,  as  well  as  with  tlie 
proper  manner  of  preparing  them;  or  that 
this  useful  manufacture  has  been  shame- 
fully neglected,  while  o\ir  masons  and 
brick-makers  are  little  concerned  about 
the  quality  of  their  materials,  if  they  can 
obtain  them  in  a  cheap  and  expeditious 
manner.  Such  appears  to  be  the  tenden- 
cy of  the  patents  that  have,  from  time  to 
time,  been  procured  bv  various  scheming 
men,  who  are  generally  ignorant  of 
the  fu'st  principles  of  chemistry,  on 
which  the  successful  practice  of  this 
i\Tiportant  branch  of  the  aits  chiefly  de- 
pends. , 

Whoever  is  desirous  of  producing  the 
best  and  most  durable  kind  of  bricks, 
ought  to  attend  to  the  following  rules  : 

1.  Clay  of  every  description,  whether 
fat  or  lean,  whether  more  or  less  mixed 
with  particles  of  lime,  iron,  &c.  must  be 
dug  up  after  Midsummer,  that  is,  be- 
tween the  beginning  of  July  and  latter 
end  of  October,  before  the  first  frost  ap- 
pears :  it  should  be  repeatedly  worked 
with  the  spade,  during  the  winter,  and 
not  formed  into  bricks  till  the  following- 
spring. 

2.  The  clay,  before  it  is  put  into  pits 
for  soaking,  must  be  broken  as  small  as 
]iossible,  and  allowed  to  lie  at  least  ten 
days:  every  stratum  of  twelve  inches 
should  be  covered  with  water,  as  in  this 
manner  it  will  be  more  uniformly  soft- 
ened. 

o.  Two  such  pits,  at  least,  will  be  ne- 
cessary for  every  brick-manjfactoiy,  so 
that  after  having  been  suffered  to  remain 
for  five  days,  the  second  may  be  prepared, 
and  thus  the  manufacture  carried  on  witli- 
out  interruption. 

4.  The  next  step  is  that  of  treading  and 
tempering  the  clay,  which  requu-es^  dou- 
ble the  labour  to  what  is  usually  bestow- 
ed on  it;  as  the  quality  of  the  bricks 
cliiefly  depends  upon  the  first  prepara- 


tion. If,  in  tempering  them,  too  much 
water  be  used,  they  become  dry  and  brit- 
tle; but,  if  duly  tempered,  they  will  be 
smooth,  solid,  and  durable.  Such  a 
brick  requires  nearly  as  much  earth  as 
one  and  a  half  made  in  the  common  way, 
when  too  great  a  proportion  of  water  is 
added;  in  which  case  tlie  bricks  become 
spongy,  light,  and  full  of  flaws,  partly 
through  neglect  in  working  them  proper- 
ly, and  partly  by  a  mixture  of  ashes  and 
hg-ht  sandy  earth,  (as  is  generally  prac- 
tised in  tiie  vicinity  of  London,)  with  a 
view  to  dispatch  and  facilitate  the  work, 
as  well  as  to  save  culm  or  coals  in  the 
burning 

5.  Bricks  made  of  proper  earth,  being 
more  solid  and  ponderous,  require  a 
much  longer  time  for  drying  th:m  those 
made  in  tlie  common  wa\  ;  they  ought 
not  to  be  removed  to  the  kiln,  till  they 
have  become  lighter  by  one-half,  and 
give  a  hollow  sound  on  collision  ;  because 
the  proper  drying  of  bricks  will  prevent 
them  from  cracking  and  crumbling  in  the 
kiln 

6.  Of  whatever  materials  the  kiln  be 
constructed,  each  burning  of  from  6  to 
10,000  bricks,  requires  that  the  fire  be 
kept  up  for  24  hours,  and  double  that 
time  for  a  nimiber  of  fi-om  12  to  50,000. 
The  uniform  increase  of  heat  deserves 
great  attention;  the  duration  of  it  should 
be  regulated  according-  to  the  seasons ; 
and,  during  the  last  24  hours,  the  fire 
should  be  uninterruptedly  supported  by 
means  of  flues ;  but  aflerwaids  the  kiln 
must  not  be  suddenly  closed,  as  there  is 
always  some  danger  either  of  bursting  the 
flues,  or  more  probably  of  melting  the 
bricks. 

Fire  bricks  are  made  in  Philadelphia  of 
certain  proportions  of  clay  from  the  banks 
of  the  Delaware,  a  few  miles  below  Bor- 
dentovm,  and  tlie  sand  found  near  the 
lower  bridge  on  tlie  Schuylkill. 

Besides  their  great  utility  in  the  con- 
struction of  furnaces,  they  ought  to  be 
used  for  fining  the  backs  and  sides  of  fire- 
places. 

Among  the  multiplicity  of  patents  late- 
ly obtained  for  the  making  of  bricks,  it  is 
somewhat  singular,  that  the  inventors 
confine  their  lucrative  views  chiefly  to  the 
formation  of  this  useful  article,  witliout 
paying  much  regard  to  tlie  materials  of 
which  it  may  be  composed.  Of  this  na- 
ture are  tlie  patents  granted  to  tlie  follow- 
ing  indhiduals : 

1.  Mr.  Edmund  Cartwright,  of  Doncas- 
ler,  England,  for  his  invention  of  a  new 
piinciple,  on  which  briclis,  stones,  or  any 
other  building  materials  to  be  substituted 
for  those  ai-ticles,  may  be  so  formed,  as  fc 


BRl 


BRI 


be  applied  with  peculiar  advantage  in  the 
erection  of  walls,  and  in  the  construction 
of  arches.  (Dated  April  14,  1795.)  His 
improvement  consists  in  giving  bricks 
such  a  shape  or  form  as  th;it,  wlicn  in 
work,  they  shall  mutually  lock  into,  or 
cramp  each  other.  The  principle  of  his 
invention,  he  says,  will  be  readily  undei-- 
stood,  by  supposing  the  two  opposite  sides 
of  a  common  brick  to  have  a  groove  oi' 
rabbet  dov/n  the  middle,  a  little  more 
than  half  the  width  of  the  side  of  the 
brick  in  which  it  is  made;  there  will  then 
be  left  a  shoulder  on  e.ach  side  of  the 
groove,  each  of  which  shoulders  will  be 
nearly  equal  to  one  quarter  of  th.e  widtii 
of  the  side  of  the  brick,  or  to  one-half  of 
the  groove  or  rabbet.  Buildings  con- 
structed with  bricks  on  this  priticiplc, 
will  require  no  bond-timber,  one  \miver- 
sal  bond  running  tiirough,  and  connecting 
the  wliole  buildmg  together ;  the  walls  of 
which  can  neither  crack  r.or  bulge  out, 
without  breaking  throngli  tlic  brides 
themselves.  When  bricjfsof  this  .-iimple, 
form  arc  used  for  the  construction  of 
arches,  the  sides  of  the  grooves  or  rab- 
bets, and  tlie  siioulders,  should  be  the 
i-adii  of  the  circle,  of  which  the  intended 
arch  is  to  be  the  segment.  In  forming  an 
arcli,  the  bricks  must  be  coursed  across 
the  centre  on  which  the  arcli  is  turned, 
and  a  grooved  side  of  the  bricks  must 
face  the  workman.  They  may  be  either 
laid  in  mortar,  or  dry,  and  tlie  interstices 
afterwards  filled,  and  wedged  up,  by  pour- 
ing in  lime-putty,  plaster  of  Paris,  grout- 
ing, or  any  other  convenient  material,  at 
the  discretion-of  the  woj'krian,or  builder. 
It  is  obvious,  that  arches  upon  thispi  inci- 
ple,  having  no  lateral  pressure,  can  nei- 
ther expand  at  the  foot,  nor  spi  ing  at  the 
crown,  consequently  they  will  want  no 
abutments,  requiring  only  per]:)endicular 
walls  to  be  let  into,  or  to  rest  upon ;  and 
they  will  want  no  incumbent  weight  upon 
the  crown,  to  prevent  their  springing  up; 
a  circumstance  of  great  importance  in 
many  situations,  in  the  construction  of 
bridges.  Another  advantage  attending 
this  mode  of  torching  is,  that  the  centn's 
may  be  struck  inuuediately ;  so  that  the 
same  centre,  (wliich  in  no  case  need  be 
many  feet  wide,  whatever  may  be  the 
breadth  of  the  arch)  may  be  regidarly 
shifted,  as  the  work  proceeds.  But  the 
greatest  and  most  striking  advantage  at- 
tending ti)is  invention  is,  tlie  absolute  se- 
curity it  adbrds  (and  at  a  very  reason:ible 
rate)  against  the  possibility  of  fire;  for, 
from  the  peculiar  properties  of  this  arch, 
requiring  no  abutments,  it  may  be  laid 
upon,  or  let  into  connuon  w.alls,  no  strong- 
er than  what  are  required  for  timbers,  of 


which  it  will  preclude  the  necessity,  antl 
save  the  expense.  For  a  more  particular 
account,  we  refer  tlie  reader  to  the  third 
volume  of  the  Jieptrtory  of  Jrts  and  Ma- 
Mijactiires,  p.  84,  and  following,  of  which 
he  will  also  find  annexed  two  plates  illus- 
trating the  subject. 

2.  A  very  important  discovery  h»s 
lately  been  made  by  Mr.  'Whitmore  Da- 
vis,  at  Castle  Comber,  in  the  county  of  Kit' 
kenny,  Ireland,  lie  observed  some  per- 
sons in  the  vicinitv  of  a  collier}',  to  cm- 
ploy  a  mortar  for  tiie  backs  nf  their  grates, 
which  in  a  short  time  became  hard. 
Tills  substance  he  foimd,  on  examination, 
to  be  what  miners  term  seat-cnal,  or  that 
fossil  which  lies  between  coal  and  the 
rock.  It  has  been  submitted  to  the  hi- 
vestlgation  of  Mr.  Kirwan,  who  is  of  opi- 
nion, that  it  will,  when  mixed  in  due'|)ro- 
portions  with  clay,  produce  a  kind  of 
bricks,  ca])able  of  resisting  the  action  of 
fire,  and  consequently  well  calculated  for 
furnaces,  or  similar  structures.  Mr.  Da- 
vis has  accordingly  employed  it  with  suc- 
cess; and  he  farther  observes,  that  seat- 
coal,  if  propel ly  prepared,  will  answer 
every  pinpose  of  tarras,  for  buildings  be- 
neath water. 

To  conclude,  \ve  shall  only  add,  that 
the  reasons  why  the  modern  bricks  are 
so  very  inferior  to  those  made  by  the  an- 
cients; which,  in  their  monuments,  after 
having  withstood  the  ravages  of  time  for 
many  centuries,  are  still  in  perfect  preser- 
vation, appear  to  be  principally  the  fol- 
lowing: In  the  present  expensive  state  of 
society,  the  price  of  manual  labour, 
though  far  from  being  adequate  to  the 
pressure  of  the  times,  is  so  considerable, 
that  the  manufacturer  is  under  a  kind  of 
necessity  to  make  choice  of  those  mate- 
rials wjiich  arc  the  cheapest  and  most  ea- 
sily procmed:  thus,  a  mixture  of  the  most 
iiTcproper  earths  and  clay  is  often  em- 
plojed  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks, 
without  reflecting  that  two  bodies  speci- 
fically diflerent  in  their  nature,  must  ne. 
cessarily  require  different  degrees  of 
heat  in  the  kiln,  in  oider  to  produce  an 
uniform  hardtiess,  and  an  intimate  combi- 
nation of  parts.  On  the  contrary,  the  an- 
cients not  only  selected  the  very  best 
sort  of  clay,  but  combined  it  with  other 
ingredients  well  adapted  to  form  tlie 
most  cinnpletc  cement,  such  as  coarsely 
powdered  ciuucoal  and  old  mortar  added 
to  the  clay.  Of  tliis  descriiJiion,  likewise, 
were  the  bricks  which  professor  Pallas,  on 
Ins  last  journey  through  the  southern  pro- 
vinces of  Russia,  discovered  in  the  stu- 
pendous Tartar  monuments,  and  which 
v.'ould  scarcely  yield  to  the  force  of  a 
hamjuer.     Another  advantage  peculiar  to 


BP.I 


BRI 


liie.  bricks  and  tiles  manufactured  by 
^I'.U'  forefiuliers,  arose  from  their  method 
of  buminsj  thein  uniformh',  after  being 
thoroughly  dried.  There  is  no  doubt, 
that  if  all  tlie  defects  before  pointed 
<)u\,  were  removed,  and  modern  brick- 
makers  were  to  pay  more  attention  to 
their  art,  by  digging  the  clay  at  proper 
seasons,  working  it  better  than  is  done  at 
present,  bestowing  more  care  on  the  burn- 
ing of  them,  and  particularly  by  making 
them  much  thinner  than  what  is  pre- 
sci-ibed  by  tlic  standard  form,  we  might 
produce  bricks  of  an  equal  strength  and 
durability  to  tliose  of  our  less  enlighten- 
ed, but  moi'e  provident  and  industrious, 
ancestors. 

BRICKLAYKRS,  artisans  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  build  witli  bricks,  and  to  per- 
form brick-work ;  such  as  tiling,  walling, 
cliimney-work,  and  paving'  with  bricks 
and  tiles  :  in  country  places,  they  also  un- 
dertake the  masons'  and  plasterers'  busi- 
ness. Tl)e  London  bricklayers  were  in- 
corporated as  a  regular  company  in  1568, 
consisting  of  a  master,  two  wardens,  20 
assistants,  and  78  of  the  livery. 

The  art  of  bricklaying  has  bcv^n  ana- 
lysed in  a  paiticular  treatise  l)y  Moxon; 
in  wliich  he  describes  tlie  materials,  tools, 
and  method  of  working  used  l)y  brick- 
layers. Great  care  should  be  taken  tliat 
bricks  be  laid  joint  on  joint  in  the  middle 
of  the  walls  as  seldom  as  may  be.  If 
they  be  laid  in  winter,  let  them  be  kept  as 
dry  as  possible;  if  in  summer,  they  ouglit 
to  be  Vvctted,  because  they  will  then  unite 
with  the  mortar  better  than  if  they  were 
quite  dry,  and  render  the  work  much 
stronger.  In  large  buildings,  or  where  it 
is  too  troublesome  to  dip  each  brick  sepa- 
rately, water  may  be  thrown  on  every 
coiu'se  after  they  are  laid,  as  was  judi- 
ciously done,  when  building  the  College 
of  Physicians  in  London,  on  the  sugges- 
tion of  Dr.  Hooke.  If  bricks  are  laid  in 
summer,  they  sliouid  be  covered,  to  pre- 
vent the  mortar  from  drying  too  quickly ; 
because  tlnxs  it  will  not  be  cemented  so 
firmly  as  if  it  were  left  to  dry  more  gra- 
dually. In  winter  also  they  ought  to  be 
well  covered,  to  protect  them  from  rain, 
snow,  and  frost,  which  last  is  the  worst 
enemy  to  mortar,  especially  If  the  work 
)nis  become  wet  before  the  frost  hap- 
pens. 

BRICK-WATER,  or  water  iinpreg- 
nated  with  the  contents  of  bi-iclcs,  is  pos- 
aessed  of  properties  so  peculiarly  Striking-, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  pei-nicious  in 
their  effects,  wlien  used  for  culinary  pur- 
poses, that  we  cannot,  in  justice  to  oin- 
readers,  withhold  from  them  the  follow- 
ing curious  experiment  made  by  Dr.  Per- 


cival,  and  stated  in  the  first  volume  of  hiB 
,  Essays.  He  steeped  two  or  tl\ree  pieces 
of  common  brick,  four  days  in  a  bason 
full  of  distilled  water,  which  he  after- 
wards decanted  offi  and  examined  by  va- 
rious chemical  tests.  It  was  not  miscible 
with  soap ;  struck  a  lively  green  with  sy- 
rup of  violets;  by  the  fixed  alkali,  and  by 
a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead.  No  change 
was  produced  on  it  by  an  infusion  of  tor- 
mentil  root.  Hence  the  doctor  justly 
concluded,  that  the  lining  of  welit  viith 
bricks,  a  practice  very  common  in  many 
places,  is  extremely  improper,  as  it  can- 
not fail  to  render  the  water  hard  and  un- 
wholesome. Clay  generally  contains  a 
variety  of  heterogeneous  matters;  and  co- 
loured loams  often  participate  of  bitumen, 
and  the  ochre  of  iron.  Sand  and  lime 
eai'th  are  still  more  common  ingredients  in 
their  composition ;  and  the  experiments 
of  Mr.  Geoffrej-  and  Mr.  Pott  prove,  that 
the  earth  of  alum  also  may  in  considera- 
ble  quantity  be  separated  from  clay.  As, 
therefore,  clay  is  exposed  to  the  open  air 
for  a  long  space  of  time,  before  it  is  mould- 
ed into  bricks  and  burnt,  this  process  in 
many  respects  resembles  that  by  which 
the  alum  stone  is  prepared.  And  it  is 
probable,  tJiat  the  white  efllorescence, 
wliich  is  frequently  observable  on  the  sur- 
face of  new  bricks,  is  of  an  aluminous  na- 
ture: indeed  the  combinations  of  the  vi- 
triolic acid  with  the  earth  of  alum,  may  be 
sufficiently  accounted  for,  partly  from  the 
long  exposure  of  clay  to  Jthe  air,  before  it 
is  moulded  into  bricks,  and  partly  from 
the  sulphurcotis  exhalations  of  the  pit- 
coal  used  for  burning  them,  together  with 
the  suffocating,  bituminous  vapour,  arising 
from  the  ignited  coal. 

Tiie  above  experiments  of  Dr.  Percival 
are  highly  interesting,  and  deserve  the  se- 
rious attention  of  city  corporations  and 
private  persons.  The  wells  of  pumps  are 
m  generally  only  steined,  that  is,  lined 
witli  dry  bricks.  Two  disad\antages  arise 
from  this  practice.  The  first,  is  the  bad 
qualities  which  it  appears  are  communi- 
cated to  the  water  by  the  bricks  ;  the  se- 
cond, is  the  inability  of  these  bricks  to 
prevent  the  filthy  contents  of  drains  and 
privies  from  soaking  through  the  ground 
into  the  wells,  to  which  cause  may  be 
faii-ly  attributed  the  bad  taste  of  the  wa- 
ter in  many  pumps  in  Philadelphia,  which 
were  formerly  proverbial  for  their  excel- 
lence. Everv-  privy  and  well,  ought  to  be 
lined  witli  the  valuable  cement  of  Copt. 
Jfunii.  It  is  easily  made,  and,  if  the  work 
be  well  done,  the  cement  will  last  for 
ever.     See  Cement- 

BRINE,  or  Pickle,  is  water  saturated 
with  saline  particles.     It  is  either  native^ 


1 


BRI 


BRO 


as  the  sea-water;  or  factitious,  vh en 
formed  by  a  solution  of  salt  in  water. 

Pickle  made  according  to  the  common 
rule,  that  it  should  bear  an  egg,  may  be 
sufficiently  strong  to  presei-ve  substances 
intended  for  early  use.  A  true  pickle, 
however,  for  preserving  meat,  fish,  and 
butter,  daring  a  long  voyage,  ought  to 
be  boiled  down  till  the  salt  begins  to  crys- 
talize,  which  is  discovered  by  a  thin  scum 
on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  while  it  conti- 
nues over  the  fire.  The  water  being  tlien 
completely  saturated  with  salt,  the  pickle 
is  perfect. 

BROAD-CAST,  a  term  in  husbandry, 
used  to  denote  a  pai-ticular  mode  ot"  sow- 
ing corn,  pulse,  turnips,  clover,  grasses, 
and  most  field-plants.  Wlien  seeds  are 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  groiViid 
by  the  hand,  they  are  said  to  be  sown  in 
broad-cast ;  by  whicli  this  method  is  dis- 
tinguished fi'om  drilling,  and  horse-hoe- 
ing, or  the  new  husbandry. 

The  comparative  merit  of  the  drill  and 
broad-cast,  has,  by  several  e^iperiments, 
been  determined  in  I'avor  of  tiie  former. 
One  of  the  most  practical  details  on  this 
subject,  was  communicated  to  the  Society 
fur  the  Encouragtvimt  of  Arts,  JManufic- 
tures,  and  Coinmerce,  by  Mr.  Boote,  of 
Atherstone,  who,  in  the  year  1789,  ob- 
tained the  gold  medal  from  that  patriotic 
institution,  as  an  acknov/iedgement  of  his 
merit,  in  ascertaining  this  interesting 
point. 

Mr.  Boote  selected  a  piece  of  cold  clay 
land  of  twenty  acres,  four  of  which  were 
drilled  with  four  bushels  of  wheat ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  four  acres  adjoining,  of  a 
similar  soil,  were  sown  in  the  broad- 
cast way,  with  ten  bushels  of  the  same 
grain. 

In  the  beginning  of  April,  1788,  tlie 
drilled  wheat  was  first  hoed,  and  again  in 
the  last  week  of  the  same  mcmth,  when 
tlie  broad-cast  was  also  hoed,  with  hoes  of 
a  proper  size  for  the  purpose. 

At  harvest,  the  crops  were  separately 
reaped  and  thi'cshed,  to  ascertain  tlie  dif- 
ference of  each  produce.  That  of  tlie  four 
acres  drilled  was  one  hundred  and  nine- 
teen bushels,  one  g.allon,  and  four  pints  ; 
and  the  four  acres  broad-cast  yielded 
ninety-four  bushels,  two  gallons,  and  four 
pints.  Hence  the  dlflerence  in  favour  of 
the  former,  was  twenty -fovn-  bushels,  se- 
ven gallons,  valued  at  five  shillings  and 
six  pence  a  bushel,  together  with  .six  busli- 
els  of  seed  saved  by  diilliiig-,  whicli  cost 
seven  shillings  and  four  ])encc  half-penny 
a  bushel,  amounting  in  the  whole  to  nine 
pounds  one  sliilling  and  three  fM.'th- 
in.?s. 

In  tins  comparativje experiment,  a  h'lsh- 


el  of  wheat  produced  by  tlie  broad-cast 
was  nearly  equal  in  weight  to  a  bushel  of 
that  obtained  from  tlie  drill.  Mr.  Green- 
way,  however,  by  an  experiment  made  hi 
the  year  1 TS?,  found  that  the  grain  of  his 
drilled  crop  was  superior  to  that  of  his 
broad-cast,  not  only  in  quantity  but  in 
quality,  the  former  weighing  two  ])ounds 
per  bushel  more  than  the  latter.  But  as 
his  broad-cast  crop  was  not  hoed,  it  may 
be  f lirly  inferred,  tiiat  it  did  not  arrive  at 
full  maturity,  either  in  consecjuenceof  the 
injury  done  to  it  by  weeds,  or  for  want  of 
the  soil  being  pulverized  by  the  hoe 

It  must  be  evident  to  the  agriculturist, 
that  seed  deposited  from  one  and  a  half 
to  t])ree  inches  deep  hi  the  soil,  will  vege- 
tate sooner,  ::nd  grow  faster,  than  that 
sown  on  the  surface,  which  is  seldom  bu- 
ried deeper  than  from  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  to  an  incli — at  a  season,  when  mois- 
ture is  {particularly  requisite  tor  the.growth 
of  the  plant. 

BRONZE,  a  metallic  compound  of  cop- 
per and  tin,  to  which  zinc  and  other  sub- 
stances are  sometimes  added.  It  is  hard, 
brittle,  sonorous,  and  specifically  heavier 
than  the  metals  of  which  it  is  composed. 

INI.  Tiilet,  in  his  memoir  concerning 
the  ductility  of  metals,  observes,  that  in 
bron2,e  the  colotirof  the  copper  is  totally 
disguised  by  that  of  the  tin,  even  though 
the  proj^orlion  of  the  former  be  fovu'-fifths 
to  that  of  the  latter.  This  compound  is 
much  more  fusible  than  copper  alone,  and 
less  liable  to  be  covered  with  verdigrise. 

From  the  properties  here  enumerated 
it  appears,  lliat  bronze  is  well  calculated 
for  the  casting  of  bells,  cannons,  statues, 
and  other  works  exposed  to  the  air  and 
Weather. 

Bronze-colottr,  in  imitation  of  the  metal, 
is  much  used  by  the  colourmen  of  Paris, 
who  prepare  two  sorts  of  it,  namely,  tiie 
led  bronze,  and  the  } ellow  or  golden  :  the 
latter  is  made  solely  of  the  very  finest  and 
brightest  copper-dust ;  the  former  is"  pi-e- 
pared  of  tlie  same  material,  by  adding  a 
small  proportion  of  well  jiulvcrised  red 
ochre  Both  are  ajjplied,  with  varnishes, 
to  the  putside  of  substances,  as  gold 
leaves  are  in  gilding.  But,  to  prevent  it 
from  turning  green,  the  bronzed  work 
should,  as  soon  as  laid  on,  be  carefully 
dried  over  a  chafing-disli. 

BUUNSWICK-G REEN.  See  Co  i.o  un- 
Makixo. 

BUILDING  is  the  art  of  constructing 
and  raising  .an  edifice  :  in  which  sense  it 
compreliends  as  well  the  expenses,  as  the 
invendon  and  execution  of  the  design. 

In  the  practice  of  this  iiseful  art,  there 
are  five  particulars  to  be  principally  at- 
tended to  :  1,  Situation  ;  2.  Contrivance,  pj- 


Bm 


BUI 


design;  3.  Strength  and  solidity  ;  4.  Cen- 
\  enience  and  uulity  ;  and  5.  Elegance.  As 
our  aim  is  not  to  impart  elemeniary  in- 
structions in  the  art  of  building',  we  shall 
only  sketch  the  most  essential  rules,  by 
an  attention  to  which,  the  reader  may  be 
enabled  to  discriminate  between  good  and 
bad  building,  and  to  guard  against  many 
common  errors. 

In  laying  the  foundation  of  a  buildings 
proper  care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  either  by  a  crow  or 
rammer ;  or,  which  is  still  better,  witli  a 
miner's  or  well-digger's  borer,  in  order  to 
discover  whether  it  is  thoroughly  sound, 
and  fit  to  be  laid  upon  it.  If  the  founda- 
tion be  not  very  louse  it  may  be  improved 
by  ramming  in  large  stones. 

With  regard  to  situutinn,  a  dwelling- 
house  ought  never  to  be  erected  near 
marshes,  fens,  or  a  boggy  soil,  nor  too 
close  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  unless  it 
stand  on  a  rising  ground,  at  tlie  north  or 
west  side  of  the  bank. 

Contrhance  u?  design,  is  of  the  first  im- 
portance in  biiiidiiig,  as  a  skiifid  architect 
will  not  only  make  the  structure  liaiul- 
some  and  convenient,  but  often  save  great 
expences ;  which  canrtot  be  avoided  wlien, 
by  hasty  and  injudicious  management,  any 
futuie  alteratioKS  become  nei:essary.  A 
model  is  the  most  certain  way  to  prevent 
mistakes,  and  is  SAiperior  to  tlie  best 
draughts.  But  if  tlie  latter  be  adopted, 
they  should  be  of  the  largest  s\/.q,  so  that 
the  delineation  of  all  the  chimneys, 
heanlis,  bed-places,  stairs,  and  the  lati- 
tude of  all  doors  and  wiridows,  in  each 
floor,  may  be  distinctly  represented  :  and 
if  the  workmansliip  be  agreed  upon  by 
the  bulk,  it  will  be  useful  (for  obviating 
differences  and  disputes)  to  insert  tlie 
length  and  thickness  ofthegTound-plalcs, 
breast-siunmers,  girders,  trimmers, joists, 
raisings,  and  wall-plates ;  as  also  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls,  jjaiiitions,  &,c.  In  tim- 
ber buildings,  the  several  sizes  of  tlie 
ground-plates,  interduces,  breast-sum- 
mers, beams,  principal  port-braces,  quai"- 
ters,  window-pDsts,  door-posts,  cellar- 
beams,  principal  raiiers,  &c.  Sic.  should 
also  be  minuteiy  ascertained. 

During  the  l8th  centuiy,  and  particu- 
larly wiiiun  the  last  forty  jears,  great  im- 
provemeiu.s  have  been  nsade  in  tlie  art  of 
building ;  as  L)ur  modern  edifices  ure  more 
convenient,  and  elegant,  than, those  oi'ihr- 
mer  times.  Oiu*  ancestors  generally  ir.ha- 
bited  houses  wiih  a  blind  staii-case,  low 
ceilings,  and  dark  windows ;  tlie  rooms 
were  built  at  random,  without  contrivance 
or  symmetry,  and  often  with  steps  leading 
from  one  to  the  other ;  so  that  wc  might 
be  induced  to  imagine,  they  purposeh- 


guarded  against  the  influence  of  light  and 
fresh  air.  The  more  happy  genius  of  our 
age  is  for  light  stair-cases,  fine  sash  win- 
dows, and  lofty  apartments.  Thus,  % 
house  buiit  according  to  the  prevaifingf 
taste,  excels  both  in  point  of  compactness 
and  uniformity;  insomuch  thut  on  the 
same  extent  of  ground,  it  affords  nearly 
double  the  conveniences  that  could  be 
procured  on  the  old  plan.  The  modem 
rage  for  building,  however,  is  apparently 
attended  with  this  unfavourable  effect, 
tliat  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  qtialitj-  of 
the  materials,  and  the  strength  of  the  edi- 
fice, if  speculative  monied  men  attain  their 
object,  in  erecting  houses  that  may  be  let 
at  a  certain  rent.  We  believe  tliere  are 
few,  perha}is  no  instances  recorded  in  an- 
cient history,  that  dwelUng-houses  have 
tumbled  down  before  they  were  finished 
or  inhabited ;  such'  events,  however,  have 
occasionally  happened,  especiidly  in  this 
metropolis.  Instead  of  that  variegated  tin- 
sel ornament  bestowed  on  almost  every 
chimney-piece,  and  other  immaterial  parts 
of  a  mansion,  it  wotild  be  more  judicious 
and  economical,  to  attend  to  the  quality 
and  durability  of  bricks,  mortar,  and  tim- 
ber. Nor  do  our  modern  builders,  in  the 
erection  of  their  walls,  observe  that  uni- 
formity, which  rendered  the  buildings  of 
tlie  Romans  almost  indestructible.  From 
t!ie  description  given  in  the  493d  number 
of  the  FhiloscphiC'U  Trwisuctions,  by  Mr. 
Arderon,  it  appears  that  tlie  ruins  of  two 
old  towers,  belonging  to  the  Roman  camp 
at  Castor,  in  Norfolk,  were  built  ia  the 
following-  ingenious  manner :  They  began 
first  with  a  layer  of  bricks,  laid  flat  as  in 
pavements  ;  on  that  they  placed  a  Li3er  of 
clay  and  marl  mixed  together,  and  of  the 
same  thickness  with  tlie  bricks ;  then  a 
layer  of  bricks,  afterwards'  of  clay  and 
marl,  then  of  bricks  again;  making  in  the 
whole  three  layers  of  bricks,  and  two  of 
clay.  Over  tliis  were  placed  bricks  and 
lime  twenty -nine  inches,  ilie  outside  being 
faced  with  bricks  cut  in  squares ;  then 
brick  and  clay  alternately,  as  high  as 
the  old  ruins  now  standing.  He  adds 
some  remarks  on  the  hardness  of  the  mor- 
tar, and  durableness  of  the  bricks,  the 
length  of  which  last  is  found  to  be 
17,4-tendis  inches,  or  a  Roman  foot  and  a 
half;  their  breadth  11,6-tentlis  inches,  or 
precisely  a  Roman  foot ;  and  their  thick- 
ness only  1,3-tenths  of  an  inch.  This  last 
circumstance  deserves  particular  notice, 
and  we  therefore  refer  the  reader  to  tlie  ar- 
ticle Brick. 

Many  compositions  have,  with  more  or 
less  success,  been  devised  for  making 
mortar  impenetrable  to  moisture.  The 
following  we  believe  is  one  of  the  most 


Bill 


BLI 


6im|jle  and  effectual :  Mix  thoroughly  one- 
fourth  of  fresh  uiislacked  lime  with  three- 
fourths  of  sand ;  and  let  five  labourers 
make  mortar  in  these  ingredients,  bj- 
pouring  on  water,  with  trowels,  to  sujiply 
one  mason,  who  must,  wlien  the  materials 
are  sufficiently  mixed,  apply  it  instantly 
as  cement  or  plaster,  and  it  will  become 
hard  as  stone.  Tliis  recipe  is  given  by  Mr. 
R.  Dossie,  in  his  second  volume  of  Me- 
moirs of  Agriculture  and  other  Economical 
.9rts,  1771.  The  author,  on  this  occasion, 
observes  that  the  lime  used  should  be 
stone-lime;  that  previous  to  its  use,  it 
should  be  preserved  from  the ,  access  of 
air  or  wet,  and  the  plaster  screened  for 
some  time  from  the  sun  and  wind,  lie 
justly  remarks,  that  its  excellence  arises 
from  tiie  particular  attraction  between 
lime  and  sand,  which  would  be  destroyed 
by  slacking  the  lime.  Skimmed  milk,  (says 
he)  is  preferable  to  water  ;  and  for  the  si- 
milarity of  tliis  mortar  to  tliat  of  the  an- 
cients, lie  refers  us  to  the  celebrated  Pliny, 
Yitruvius,  &c. 

Another  very  durable  and  cheap  ce- 
ment in  building,  which  is  particularly  de- 
iigned  as  a  handsome  coping  of  walls,  is 
that  of  the  late  P.  ^Vynah,  Esq.  Take 
four  or  five  bushels  of  such  plaster  as  is 
commonly  burnt  for  floors  about  NottiTig- 
ham,  (or,  according  to  Mr.  IJossie,  a  siini- 
lar  quantity  of  any  turras,  plaster,  or  calci- 
ne<}  gypsum)  ;  beat  it  to  fine  powder,  then 
«iftand  put  it  into  a  trough,  and  mix  with 
it  one  bushel  of  pure  coal  ashes,  well  cal- 
tjned.  Pour  on  the  w  ater,  till  the  whole 
becomes  good  mortar.  Lay  this  in  wood- 
en frames  of  twelve  feet  in  length  on  the 
walls,  well  smoodied  with  common  mor- 
tar and  dry,  the  tliickncss  of  two  inches  at 
each  side,  and  three  inches  in  tlie  middle. 
When  the  frame  is  moved  to  proceed  with 
the  work,  leave  an  interval  of  two  inches 
for  this  coping  to  extend  itself^  so  as  to 
meet  the  lastframe-woik. 

Li  December  1789,  Dr.  R.  Williams  ob- 
tahi'id  a  patent  f  )r  the  invention  of  amcr- 
tar  or  stucco  for  the  ])urpose  of  buildings, 
of  which  we  shall  give  the  following  par- 
ticulars :  Take  of  sharp,  rough,  bi-ge- 
grained  sand,  sifted,  washed,  dried,  and 
freed  fron»  all  impurities  ;  of  well  burnt 
lime,  slaked,  and  finely  sifled  ;  of  curd, 
or  cheese  produced  from  milk  ;  (the  first 
fresh  made,  anil  strongly  jires^ed,  to  di- 
vest it  of  its  whey;  the  second,  whilst 
perfectly  sound,  raspt.-d  into  jjowder  with 
a  gi-atcr,  or  brought  into  a  very  light  sub- 
stance with  scraper.s.or  fine-toothc-d  plane 


Irons,  in  a  turner's  latlie)  ;  and  lastly,  of 
Mater  in  ils  natural  state,  in  the  following 
)jroportions,  viz.  of  the  cheese,  or  curd, 
i''U\r  pounds;  tJ><;  liuie  twelve   pounds; 


the  sand  eighty-four  pounds ;  the  watet 
ten  pounds.  It  the  sand  i  i  not  thorough- 
ly dried,  or  the  lime  has  got  damp  from 
the  air,  the  quantity  of  water  must  be  less 
than  the  above  proportion ;  and,  on- the 
contrary,  when  the  lime  is  used  as  soon  as 
slaked,  it  may  require  more  ;  so  that  the 
proper  stiffness  of  the  mortar,  under 
those  circumstances,  will  regulate  the  ma- 
king of  the  composition. 

As  the  goodness  of  this  mortar  depends 
on  the  preservation  of  the  natural  pnjper- 
ties  of  the  cheese,  or  curd,  made  use  oY,  all 
those  parts  the  least  tainted  or  rotten  must 
be  rejected  ;  and  as  the  cheese,  like  the 
curd  produced  from  skim  milk,  is  divested 
of  its  buttery  and  oily  par'.icles,  and  on 
that  account  possesses  a  powe;*fid  cohe- 
sive quahty,  which  makes  it  better  tor 
this  work  than  that  made  of  milk  in  its 
rich  and  pure  state ;  it  is  at  all  times  to 
be  bought  of  the  wliolesale  cheesemongers 
at  a  lower  price  than  any  other;  and 
being  more  convenient  than  the  curd,  as 
that  will  require  frequent  making,  is  to  be 
prefcrred  to  it,  as  well  as  to  e\ery  other 
sort  of  cheese  ;  t<)r  less  of  it  is  sufficient, 
only  four  poiinds  being  allowed  to  the  net 
hundred  weight  of  all  the  solid  ingredi- 
ents ;  more  than  wliich,  might  make  the 
mortar  too  lively  to  keep  in  its  place  with- 
out bagging,  but  less  should  not  be  used  ; 
as  that,  on  the  other  hand,  would  endan- 
.ger  its  drying  loose  and  gritty,  within  its 
surface,  hinder  it  from  adhering  properly 
to  the  walls,  and  thus  reduce  it  to  the 
level  of  common  mortar.  Many  tedious 
and  trivial  rules  are  stated  by  the  paten- 
tee, relative  to  the  manner  of  applying 
this  cement,  and  its  preservation  in  boxes 
for  ready  use.  Those  who  wish  to  acquire 
additional  inform.ation  concerning  this 
subject,  may  find  the  specification  of  the 
patent  at  full  length,  in  the  tlurd  volume 
of  the  "  Repertory  (f  Arts  and  J\IanuJac- 
turesV  See  Mort.\r,  Cemext. 

In  July,  1796,  Mr  H.  \\'alker,  of  Thur- 
maston,  Leiceslershi;'e,  procured  a  patent 
for  his  in\  enlion  of  a  mctliod,  by  which  ' 
houses  and  other  buildings,  of  any  de- 
scription or  dimensions,  might  be  erected 
In  one  entire  mass  or  body,  at  a  much 
easier  expense,  especially  in  the  articles 
of  timber,  lime,  and  workmanship,  and 
which  would  be  equally  as  durable  in 
themselves,  and  less  liable  to  accidents 
by  fire,  than  buildings  erected  upon  the 
common  construction.  His  process  is  as 
fcjllows  : 

1.  The  patentee  takes  an  argillaceous 
earth  or  natural  clay,  which  hepui'ities  by 
the  usual  well-known  methods,  and  rom- 
{)ounds  it  with  sand  or  broken  pfuii.dtd 
pottery  or  brick,  coid-;i»hes,  cU,arcoalj  or. 


BLI 


BUI 


in  short,  with  any  other  of  those  substan- 
ces which  are  adapted  to  form  a  gx)od, 
firm,  and  durable  brick,  when  properly 
baked  :  and  he  varies  the  composition  ac- 
cording' to  the  nature  of  tlie  component 
parts  tliemselves,  and  the  ])u:ix)ses  which 
tliey  aic  inlc-iided  to  answer;  but,  for 
common  construcilons,  he  uses  the  same 
proportions  as  brick-maktrs  in  general. 
He  then  proceeds  lo  mix,  kne:.d,  and  in- 
corporate the  materials,  till  ihey  are 
brought  to  the  requisite  firmness  and  te- 
nacity for  building  ;  which  is  nearly  such, 
that  the  p;u-ts  of  an}-  lump  or  mass  of  the 
same  may  be  readily  incorporated  with,  or 
joined,  to  any  otlier  similar  mass,  by  mo- 
derate blows  with  a  wooden  maiiet,  and 
the  occasional  addition  of  a  very  small 
portion  of  water :  this  composition  he  calls 
the  prepared  material. 

2.  ye  constructs  iinors,  walls  and  all 
other  buildiiigs,  according  to  this  inven- 
tion, iasucii  a  manner  that  the  power  of 
fire,  from  v.ood,  coal,  charcoal,  coak,  or 
other  combusiible  matters  may  be  applied 
to  the  external  and  interioi-  surfaces  of  tlie 
floors,  walls  and  oiher  parts,  by  means  of 
fires  maintained  in  caviuc:s  left  within, 
which  he  calls  by  the  name  of  furnaces. 

3.  With  i-espect  to  the  particular  lorm.'s, 
dimensions  and  relative  positions  of  the 
floors,  walls  and  furniices  left  or  form- 
ed within  tlie  same,  together  with  tlie 
apertures  or  communications,  for  tlje  ptu-- 
poses  of  ventilating  tlie  fires,  of  suiTering- 
the  volatile  matters  to  escape-,  and  of  con- 
vening the  wiiolc  into  on.e  cntii'e  mass  of 
brick,  by  a  due  commimication  and  con- 
tinuance of  heat,  Mr.  Walker  says,  the 
ground  must  be  rendered  solid  :*nd  the 
foundation  Ir.id  in  the  usur.l  i^ianiier ;  af- 
ter which  he  applies  a  quantity  of  the  pre- 
pared material  before  ailiuied  to,  and 
beats,  rams  or  presses  it  down  to  tlie 
thickness  of  about  six  inches  ;  ai:d  in 
width,  coiTesponding  witJi  the  ruieiidcd 
tlimcnsions  of  tlie  wall,  regulated  by 
boards  or.fi-aming.  He  then  plant*,  up- 
right, ut  the  distance  of  about  vhu'vV  in- 
thes  asunder,  in  the  layer  or  i)ed  of 
prepared  niuLeri.tl,  a  r.umber  of  cylindri- 
cal pieces  of  wood,  of  about  nine  incites 
in  diameter  euc'n,  and  eighteen  or  more 
inches  in  length,  to  serve  as  moulds  for 
the  cavities  nt  the  furnaces ;  and  between 
each  of  sucii  moulds  he  places,  in  the 

,  longitudhial  direction  of  the  wall,  a  num- 
ber of  pipes  of  wood  oi  otlier  miiteriuh, 
or  rods,  i)f  combustible  or  incombusiible 
matter,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  com- 
mur.icaiions  between  all  the  several  furna- 
ces, or  as  many  of  them  as  he  thinks  pro- 
per. 'I'hen  he  proceeds  to  form  anotlie? 
layer  or  bed  of  tlte  material,  to  the  same 
VOL.    I. 


height, namely,  about  six  inches,  and  d.s- 
poscs  a  number  of  such  pipes  or  rods,  for 
the  purpose  of  fornxing  shnilar  communi- 
cations. In  this  jnanner  he  constructs  the 
whole,  or  so  much  of  the  wall  as  he  ap- 
prehends at  the  time  may  be  conveniently 
formed,  in  tlie  raw  or  unhumt  state  :  ta- 
king care,  as  tlie  work  lidvancts,  to  raise 
the  wooden  cylinders  or  moulds,  that  a 
sufficient  portion  of  them  may  remain 
abo\e  the  surface  of  the  work,  to  :.dmit 
of  the  reception  and  proper  fashioning  of 
each  subsequent  layer ;  or  he  forms  the 
communications  between  the  furnaces,  by 
perforating  the  wooden  moulds,  in  various 
places,  at  right  angles  to  tlieir  respective 
axes ;  and  dirouj^h  tlie  said  perforations 
he  passes  a  bar  of  iron  or  other  material, 
which  serves  to  connect  three  or  more  of 
the  said  lurnace-moulds  ;  and,  being  after- 
wards withdi-awn,  as  the  work  proceeds, 
leaves  cavities  of  communication,  similar 
to  those  formed  b}-  pipes,  rods,  etc-  in  tlie 
manner  before  described.  Farther,  he 
opens  such  a  number  of  horizontal  or  ob- 
lique apertures,  or  flues,  into  all  the  fur- 
naces, and  likewise  into  iJl  thecaviti.s,  as 
may  be  requisite  for  admitting,  on  all 
sides,  the  access  of  atmospheric  air.  In 
some  instances  he  forms  the  horizontal  or 
oblique  apertures,  or  flues,  by  disposing, 
along  with  the  pipes,  a  suitable  number  of 
taper-rods,  which  are  afterwards  extrac- 
ted. 

4.  Wlien  the  wall  is  built,  he  either 
suffers  it  spontaneouslv  to  dry,  or  pro- 
motes tjjis  cftect  by  moderate  tiies  in  the 
furnsces.  Sometimes  by  increasing  tne 
heat  within,  and  at  others,  bv  suitable  ap- 
p;icatio:iS  of  fire  externally,  he  converts 
the  whole  into  one  entu'e  mass  of  bricks. 
By  occasional  closing  or  opening  of  the 
furnaces  at  top,  or  any  of  the  other  aper- 
tures, in  various  parts,  the  intelligent  ope- 
rator will  easily  understand  how  to  regu- 
late the  progress,  commimication  and  ef- 
fect of  the  heat,  that  the  conversion  into 
biick  may  be  uniform  tlirough  the  entire 
mass. 

5.  The  dimensions  of  the  furnaces,  the 
positions  and  relative  distatices  of  the 
pipes  of  communication  luid  lateral  aper- 
tures, and  the  thickness  of  tlie  layers  of 
tlie  prepared  mateiial  are  each  susceptible 
of  great  variations,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  this  preparation,  the  activity  of 
the  fuel,  tlie  proposed  solidity  or  figure  of 
the  work,  Sec. 

6.  He  then  forms  the  remaining  parts 
of  the  wall  or  edifice,  by  applying  addi- 
tional portions  of  the  prepared  material  in 
contact  with  that  aheady  baked  ;  while 
he  :J.so  av;Uls  himself  of  suitable  ex- 
ten^.al    and  ijiteraal    moulds,    supports, 

Z 


BUI 


i3ur 


frames,  and  other  occasional  contri- 
vances, well  known  to  builders,  for  sus- 
taining works,  or  forminij  arches,  or  de- 
termining the  figure  and  positions  of  soft 
plastic  substances. 

7.  The  ground-floor  is  likewise  formed 
of  tlie  prepai-ed  material,  leaving  hollow 
spaces  between  the  supports  beneath  for 
making  fii-es,  ventilated  by  side  apertures, 
which  are  provided  with  numerous  holes. 
When  the  floor  is  of  considerable  thick- 
ness, it  will  require  the  construction  of 
furnaces,  in  every  respect  similar  to  those 
before  described. 

8.  The  iirst  above  the  ground-floor  is 
made  upon  .  uitable  temporary  framing, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  upper  surface 
siiall  be  plane,  and  the  lower  concave,  so 
that  it  may,  when  baked,  support  itself, 
upon  the  principle  of  a  low  arch. 

9  and  10.  The  patentee  constructs, 
bakes,  or  burns  olher  floors  above  the  first, 
and  also  the  roof,  &c.  he  closes  the  aper- 
tures, fills  up  the  furnaces,  amends  the  de- 
ficiencies, adorns  the  walls,  floors,  ciel- 
ings,  or  other  parts,  with  his  prepared  ma- 
terial, according  to  the  taste  and  direc- 
tion of  the  proprietor. 

Various  plans  have  lately  been  devised 
for  securing  buildings  and  ships  against 
fire.  We  shall,  however,  only  mention 
that  of  David  Hartley,  Esq.  who,  in  April, 
1773,  obtained  a  patent  for  iiis  invention  of 
applying  plates  of  metal  and  w  ire,  varnisli- 
ed  or  unvarnished,  to  tlie  several  parts  of 
buildings  or  ships,  so  a.s  to  prevent  tlie  ac- 
cess of  fire,  and  tlie  current  of  air;  secu- 
ring the  several  joints  by  doubling  in, 
over-lapping,  soldering,  livctting,  or  any 
otlier  manner  of  closing  them  up  ;  nailing, 
screwing,  sewing,  or  otherwise  fastening, 
the  said  plates  of  metal  in  to,  and  about 
the  several  parts  of  buildings  and  siiips, 
as  the  case  may  require.  Convinced  that 
this  method  would  be  too  expensive  for 
common  buildings,  and  that  it  does  not  af- 
ford sufficient  security  against  violent 
fl.imes,  when  the  contiguous  buildings  arc 
actually  burning,  we  shall  suggest  other 
and  more  eflcclual  means  of  protection 
under  the  article  Fiue. 

BUTTEH,  a  preparation  of  cow's 
milk ;  which,  either  in  its  entire  state, 
or  in  that  of  cream,  is  agitated  for  a 
considerable  time,  till  ail  its  unctuous 
particles  are  separated  from  the  whey,  and 
a  sol't  consistent  mass  is  formed. 

As  butter  is  at  jnesent,  used  in  our 
daily  food,  chiefly  on  account  of  its  agree- 
able taste,  we  sliall  first  speak  of  its  phy- 
sical propei-ties— To  render  it  whole- 
some it  ought  to  be  perfectly  fresh,  and 
free  fiom  rancidity ;  which  it  easily  ar- 
'l^iircs,  if  the  Gutter -iiiiik   Jias  not   been 


completely  separated.  Fried,  or  burnt 
butter,  is  still  more  detrimental  to  hcaltli; 
as  it  is  thus  converted  into  an  acrid,  and 
even  caustic  fluid,  which  cannot  fail  to 
disorder  the  stomach,  to  render  digestion 
difficult  and  painful,  to  excite  rancid  eruc- 
taiions,and  ultimately  to  taint  all  the  fluids 
wi.h  a  peculiar  acrimony.  Hence  toast 
and  butter  should  never  be  eaten  by  per- 
sons who  value  their  health  ;  as  there  are 
many  who,  even  by  fresh  butter,  are  af- 
fected with  those  inconveniences.  Nor 
can  we  recommend  the  prevaihng  custom 
of  melting  butter  with  flour  and  water  ; 
for  in  this  manner,  it  forms  a  compound 
more  indigestible  than  sweet  butter  is  in 
its  natural  state- 

With  respect  to  the  various  methods  of 
making  butter,  we  shall  state  only  those 
practised  in  Essex,  England ;  the  farmer 
should  never  keep  any  cows  but  such  as 
afford  an  abundance  of  milk.  No  milk  must 
I  be  sufTifred  to  remain  in  the  udder,  as  by 
this  neglect  the  cow  will  give  less  every 
meal,  till  at  length  she  becomes  dry  be- 
fore her  proper  time;  and,  the  next  season, 
will  scarcely  give  sufficient  to  repay  the 
expenses  of  keeping  her. 

If  a  cow's  teats  are  scratched,  or  wound- 
ed, her  milk  will  be  foul,  and  should  not 
be  mixed  with  that  of  other  cows,  but 
j  given  to  pigs.  In  warm  weather,  the  milk 
should  remain  in  the  pail  till  it  is  nearly 
cool,  before  it  is  strained ;  but,  in  frosty 
weather,  this  should  be  done  immediately, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water 
mixed  with  it ;  which  will  produce  cream 
in  abundance,  especially  hi  pans,  or  vats, 
of  a  large  surface. 

During  the  hot  summer-months,  the 
milk  should  stand  only  24  hours,  and  the 
cream  be  skimmed  from  it,  either  early  in 
the  morning,  before  tlie  dairy  becomes 
warm  ;  or  in  the  evening,  after  sunset. 
In  winter,  the  milk  may  remain  unskim- 
med for 36, or  even  48  hours;  the  cream 
ought  to  be  preserved  in  a  deep  pan,ke])t, 
duihig  summer,  in  the  coolest  part  of  the 
dairy,  or  in  a  cool  cellar  where  a  free  air 
is  admitted. 

Those,  who  have  not  an  opportunity  of 
churning  every  other  day,  should  shift  the 
cream  daily  into  clean  pans,  in  order  to 
keep  it  cool ;  but  they  should  regularly 
churn  twice  a  week  in  liot  weaUicr,  and 
this  in  the  mornhig  before  sun-rise,  taking 
care  to  fix  the  churn  in  a  free  draught  of 
air.  Nor  should  this  vessel  be  exposed 
to  a  fire  so  near  as  to  iieat  the  wood  in 
cold  seasons,  as  by  this  means  the  butter 
will  acquire  a  strong  rancidity 

A  correspondent  in  the  Pajiers  of  the 
Diitli  and  West  of-E'ig/atid  Society  ob- 
.servc?,  tliattlieopei'atiun  of  chuniingmav 


BUT 


BUT 


be  innch  facilitated,  by  adding  a  table- 
spocnful  or  two  of  distilled  vinegar  to  a 
gallon  of  ci'eam,  but  not  till  after  the  lat- 
ter has  undergone  considerable  agitaticui. 
When  the  butter  is  churned,  it  should 
immediately  be  washed  in  several  waters, 
till  it  be  perfectly  cleansed  from  tlie  milk; 
but  a  tvarm  hand  will  soften  it,  and  make 
it  appear  greasy.  Hence  it  is  advisable 
to  employ  two  pieces  of  wood,  such  as  are 
used  by  cheese-mongers ;  an  expedient  by 
which  those  who  have  naturally  a  very 
warm  hand,  might  render  their  butter 
more  saleable.     See  Churning. 

In  man}'  parts  of  England,  butter  is  ar- 
tificially coloured  in  winter  ;  though  tl\is 
jjrocess  adds  nothing  to  its  goodness.  The 
farmers  in  and  near  Epping,  take  sound 
carrots,  the  juice  of  which  the  express 
tlu'ough  a  sieve,  and  mix  with  tlie  cream, 
•when  it  enters  the  churn ;  which  makes 
it  appear  like  May^butter.  There  is  very 
little  salt  used  in  the  best  Epping  butter ; 
but  it  is  a  fact,  that  a  certain  proportion  of 
acid,  either  natural  or  artificial,  must  be 
used  in  the  cream,  in  order  to  ensure  a 
successful  churning.  Some  keep  a  small 
quantity  of  the  old  cream  for  tliat  purpose; 
some  use  a  little  reimet,  and  others  a  i'tw 
tea-spoonsful  of  lemon  juice.  Cleanliness 
in  the  daily  is,  at  all  times,  an  essential 
requisite. 

The  Lancashire  method  of  preparing 
milk  for  butter,  is  as  follows  :  The  whole 
milk  is  divided  into  two  pai-ts ;  the  first 
drawn  being  set  apart  for  family  use,  af- 
ter being  skimmed ;  the  cream  of  which 
is  put  into  proper  vessels;  as  also  the  whole 
of  the  second,  or  last  drawn  milk,  provln- 
cially  called  afterings.  These  two,  being 
mixed  together,  are  stirred,  but  not  to  a 
great  depth,  to  prevent  the  bad  effects  of 
foul  air  accumulating  on  the  surface,  and 
kept,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year, 
exposed  to  the  fire,  for  promoting  the  ace- 
tous fermentation,  which  is  accelerated  b\- 
tiie  acid  remaining  in  the  pores  of  the  ves- 
sels. For  this  reason  they  are  not  scalded, 
except  after  having  contracted  some  taint ; 
find  in  this  case,  they  are  sometimes  very 
expeditiously  rinsed  out  with  soiu'  butter- 
roilk  :  during  this  preparation  ^ov souring, 
the  milk  is  kept  ready  fortiie  churn  ;  and, 
in  consequence  of  such  judicious  treat- 
ment, more  butter  is  obtained,  and  of  a 
better  quality,  tlian  If  the  milk  were  churn- 
ed in  a  sweet  state. 

Decisive  experiments  have  been  made, 
in  order  to  ascei-tain  whether  it  be  more 
profitable  to  ciiurn  the  wliole  milk,  or  only 
the  cream  which  tJie  milk  produces  y  it 
was  fotmd  that  one  day's  milk  of  a  parti- 
cular cow,  churned  by  itself,  }ielded  only 
12oz.  of  butter ;  find  the   c!-cam  of  two 


days  milk  produced  3lb.  2oz.  Hence  it 
appears  to  be  more  profitable  to  collect  the 
cream,  and  churn  it,  than  to  chtirn  the 
whole  milk.  Cream-butter  is,  likewise, 
the  richer  of  the  two,  thotigh  it  will  not 
keep  so  long  sweet. 

In  justice  to  Dr.  James  Anderson,  who 
has  favoured  the  public  with  an  excellent 
Essay  "  On  the  Managtvient  of  a  Dairy" 
inserted  in  the  correspondence  of  the  Bath 
and  West-of-England  Society,  we  shall 
communicate  a  tew  of  his  aphorisms  :  1. 
The  first  milk  drawn  from  a  cow  is  always 
thinner,  and  of  an  inferior  quality  to  that 
which  is  afterwards  obtained ;  and  this 
richness  increases  progressively,  to  the 
very  last  drop  that  can  be  drawn  from  tlie 
udder.  2.  The  portion  of  cream  rising 
first  to  the  surface,  is  richer  in  quality,  ana 
greater  in  quantity,  than  what  rises  in  the 
second  equal  space  of  time,  and  so  forth : 
the  cream  continually  decreasing,  and 
growing  worse  than  the  preceding.  3. 
Thick  milk  produces  a  smaller  proportion 
of  cream  than  that  whicJi  is  thinner  ,though 
the  cream  of  the  former  is  of  a  richer  qua- 
hty.  If,  therefore,  the  thick  milk  he  di- 
luted with  water,  it  will  afibid  more  cream 
than  it  would  have  done  in  its  pure  state ; 
but  its  quality  will  at  the  same  time  be 
inferior.  4.  Miik  carried  about  in  pails, 
or  other  vessels,  agitated,  and  partly  cool- 
ed, before  it  be  poured  into  the  milk-pans, 
never  throws  up  such  a  good  and  plenti- 
ful cream  as  if  it  had  been  put  into  proper 
vessels  immediately  after  it  came  from  the 
cow. 

From  these  fundamental  fiicts,  .says  Dr. 
Anderson,respecting  the  dairy,  many  very 
important  corollaries,  serving  to  direct 
the  practice,  may  be  deduced ;  among 
which  we  shall  oiily  take  notice  of  the  fol- 
lowing : 

First.  It  is  evidently  of  iptu;h  impor- 
tance, that  the  cows  should  be  always 
milked  as  near  the  dairy  as  possible,  to 
prevent  the  necessity  of  carrying  and  cool- 
ing the  miik  before  it  be  put  into  the  dish- 
es ;  and  as  cows  are  much  iiuil  by  far 
driving,  it  must  be  a  great  advantrige  in  a 
dairy  farm  to  have  the  principal  g-rass- 
fields  as  near  the  dairy  or  homestead  as 
possible.  In  this  point  of  view  also,  the 
practice  of  feeding  cows  in  the  house  ra- 
ther than  turning  thein  out  to  pasture  in 
the  field,  must,  appear  to  be  obviously 
beneficial. 

Second.  The  practice  of  putting  the  miik 
of  all  the  cows  of  a  large  dairy  into  one 
vessel,  as  it  is  i,Tiilked,  there  to  remain  till 
the  whole  milking  is  finished,  before  any 
part  is  put  into  the  milk-pans,  seems  to 
be  highly  injudicious,  not  only  on  account 
of  the  loss  sustained  by  tlie  agitation  a^id 


BUT 


BUT 


cooling;  but  also,  and  more  espec'uiUy,  I  \ery  detiimentiil  to  pour  cold  \^atcr  on 
because  it  prevents  the  owner  of  the  dniry  I  the  butter  dining' tliis  opcralioiv  If  the 
from  distinguishing  the  good  from  the  .  heat  should  be  so  great,  as  to  render  it 
bad  cow's  milk,  so  as  to  enHghten  his  '  loo  soft  to  receive  the  impression  of  the 
judgment  respecting  tlie  profit  that  he  !  mould,  it  may  be  put  into  small  vessels, 
may  derive  from  each.  Without  this  |  allowed  to  swim  in  the  trough  of  cold 
precaution,  he  may  have  the  whole  of  iiis  ■  water  under  the  table  ;  pieventing,  how- 
dairy  produce  greatly   debased  by    the  |  ever,  the  water  from  touching  the  butter  : 


milk  of  one  bad  cow,  for  years  together, 
wjtiiout  being  able  to  discover  it.  A  bet- 
ter practice  therelbre  v  ould  be,  to  have 
the  milk  drawn  from  each  cow  separately, 
put  into  the  creaming-pans  as  soon  as 
milked,  without  being  ever   mixed  with 


thus  it  will,  in  a  short  time,  acquire  the 
necessary  degree  of  firmness,  especially 
if  a  small  piece  of  ice  be  put  into  the  ves- 
sel. The  Doctor,  on  this  occasion,  severe- 
ly censures  the  practice  that  prevails  in 
many  private  families,  of  keeping  fresh 


anyothcr:  and  if  tliese  pans  were  all  made   bulter  in  water,  and  thus  bringing  it  to 


of  such  a  size  as  to  be  able  to  contain  th 
whole  of  one  cow's  milk,  each  in  a  sepa- 
rate pan,  so  that  the  careful  dai  (an  ex- 
-ellent  provincial  word  denoting  the  per- 
son wlio  has  the  chief  concern  in  a  dairy) 
would  thus  be  able  to  remurk,  without  any 
trouble,  the  c|uantity  of  milk  afforded  In- 
each  cow  every  day,  as  well  as  the  pecu- 
liar qualities  of  the  cow's  milk.  And  if 
the  same  cow's  milk  were  always  to  be 
placed  on  the  same  part  of  ihe  slielf,  liav- 
ing  the  cow's  name  written  beneath,  there 
never  could  be  the  smallest  ditiiculty  in 
ascertaining  w-h.ich  of  the  cows  it  would 
be  the  owner's  interest  to  dispose  of,  and 
which  he  oug'ht  to  keep  and  breed  fiom. 
Tliinl.  If  it  be  intended  to  make  butler 
of  a  verjjine  quality,  it  will  be  ad\isable, 
not  only  to  reject  entirely  the  milk  of  all 
those  cows  which  }ieid  cream  of  a  bad 
quality  ;  but  also,  in  every  case,  to  keej) 
tlie  milk  that  is  first  drawn  from  the  cow 
at  eacli   milking,  entirely  separate  from 


table  in  a  glass  vessel.  If  coolness  only 
is  wanted,  he  advises  to  put  the  butter 
into  a  dry  glass,  and  immerse  this  ir.to 
cold  water  :  and  if  it  be  taken  out  imme- 
diately before  it  is  used,  such  butter  will, 
in  our  climate,  always  have  suilicient  firm- 
ness. 

After  the  butter  has  been  beaten  and 
cleared  from  the  milk,  it  is  ready  for  being 
salted.  The  vessels  intended  for  this  pur- 
pose, being  rendered  perfectly  clean, 
should  be  rubbed  uithe  whole  inside  with 
common  salt;  and  a  little  melted  butter 
should  be  poured  into  the  cavity,  between 
the  bottom  and  the  sides ;  thus  prepared, 
they  are  fit  to  receive  the  butler. 

ThefoUowhig  method  of  preparing  but- 
ter is  advantageously  practised  m  Holland. 
AVhen  the  cow  s  are  milked,  the  fluid  is 
not  poured  iiito  pans,  till  it  becomes  per- 
fectl}'  cold  ;  it  is  then  stirred  two  or  three' 
times  in  the  day,  so  that  the  cream  and 
milk  may  more  intimately  combine  ;  and 


that  which  is  got  last ;  as  it  is  obvious,  if  |  if  it  be  agitated  till  a  s])oon  will  nearly 
this  be  not  done,  tlie  quality  of  the  butter  '  .stand  uprighl,  the  butter  thus  obtained  i;j 
must  be  greatly  deliased,  Avithoiit  much  :  iield  in  higli  esteem.  As  soon  as  the 
augmenting  its  quantity  I'hose  who  wish  |  milk  acquires  a  proper  consistency,  it  is 
to  be  singulai'ly  nice,  keep  tor  their  best  i  poured  into  a  churn,  worked  for  an  houi-, 
b'r:ter  a  rtry  small  proportion  only  of  the    and  when  the  butter  begins  to  form,  one 


last  drawn  milk. 

Dr.  Ancki  son,  in  the  same  pi'.pcr,  im 


or  two  pints  of  cold  water  jire  added,  in 
proportion  to  the  capacity  of  the  vessel ; 


par'-s  the  follov.ing  judicious   hints :  'I'iie  '  ^^idi  a  view  to  separate  the  milk  with 
milk  should  be  f)rced  out  of  the  cavities  ;  greater  facility. 

of  the  butter  with  a  flat,  wooden  ladle,  or  j  After  the  butter  is  taken  out  of  the 
skimming  dish,  provided  with  a  short  i  churn,  it  is  repeatedly  washed  and 
handle;  and  this  sliould  be  dexterously;  kneaded,  in  pure  water,  till  the  last  aff'u- 
performcd,  with  as  little  working  of  the!  si""  be  clear  and  free  from  milk.  In  this 
butter  as  possible;  foi'  if  it  be  too  much'  simple  manner,  a  larger  portion  of  butter 
beat  and  turned,  it  vvill  become  tough  and  ,  is  gained  from  an  equal  {Ti-oportion  of  miij;, 
gluey,  which  greatly  debases  its  qiialiiv.' anti  which  is  not  only  niore  firm  and  sweet. 
To  beat  it  u;i  by  the  hand, is  an  indelicate  '  l>i't  also  remains  iiesh  tor  a  longer  time, 
practice.  '\Vhen  butter  is  first  made,  and  '  than  that  usually  made  in  Kngland,  -w  bile 
just  taken  out  of  the  butter-milk,  get  out  I  the  butter-milk  is  more  palatable, 
of  it  as  mucli  of  the  butter-milk  as  you  |  Dr.  Anderson  observes  that  woodeh 
can  ;  then  spread  it  thin  over  a  marble- !  vessels  are  most  ])ioper  for  containing 
stone,  or  plate  of  clean  iron,  and  soak  u])  \  salted  butter.  They  should  be  made  of 
the  remaining  moisUire  by  patting  it  with  ■  cooper-work,  and  joined  with  -wcoden 
dry  towels.  This  will  tend  to  keep  it ,  hooj)s.  It  will  be  iidvisable  to  make  them 
sw'eet  longer  than  otlieru  lae^     it  is  also  i  strong  where  they  are  to  be  returned  to 


BUT 


BUT 


lite  dairy;  ibr  as  it  is  a  matter  of  consi- 
derable diifliculty  to  season  new  vessels 
so  well,  as  that  they  shall  not  affect  the 
taste  of  the  batter,  it  is  always  advisable 
to  employ  the  old  sound  vessels,  rather 
than  make  new  ones.  Iron  hoops  should 
be  rejected  ;  as  the  rust  from  them  will  in 
time  sink  through  the  wood,  though  it  be 
very  thick,  and  injure  the  colour  of  the 
butter  :  one  iron  hoop  may  be  put  at  the 
top,  and  another  below  and  beyond  the 
bottom  ;  the  pj-ojection  below  the- bottom 
being  made  deep  for  the  purpose. 

An  old  vessel  may  be  prepared  for  again 
receiving  butter  by  the  ordinai'y  process 
of  scalding,  rinsing  and  drying;  but  to 
season  a  new  vessel  requires  greater  care. 
This  is  to  be  done  by  tilling-  it  frequently 
with  scalding  water,  and  allowing  it  to  re- 
main till  it  slowly  cools.  If  hay,  or  other 
sweet  vegetables,  are  put  into  the  vessel 
with  the  water,  it  is  sometinit-s  thought  to 
facilitate  the  process.  A  cotisiderable  time 
is  requu'ed  before  they  can  be  rendered 
fit  for  use. 

Althoug'li  common  salt  is  generally  em- 
ployed fur  preserving  buttei',  yet  Dr.  An- 
derson has  found  by  experience,  that  the 
following  composition  not  only  preserves 
the  butter  more  eifectually  from  any  taint 
of  rancidity,  but  makes  it  also  look  better, 
taste  sweeter,  richer,  and  more  marrowy, 
than  if  it  had  been  cured  vviih  common 
salt  alone.  Ikst  common  salt,  two  parts ; 
saltpetre,  one  part ;  sugar,  one  part :  beat 
them  up  together,  so  that  they  may  be 
completely  blended.  To  every  pound,  or 
sixteen  ounces  of  butter,  add  ohe  ounce 
of  this  composition.  Mix  it  well  in  the 
mass,  and  close  it  up  for  use.  Butter 
l)repared  in  this  manner,  will  keep  good 
li)r  three  years,  and  cannot  be  distinguish- 
ed from  that  recently  salted.  It  should, 
Lowevei',  be  remarked,  that  butter,  tlius 
cured,  does  not  taste  well  till  it  lias  stood 
a  fortnight,  or  three  weeks.  In  the  opi- 
nion of  Dr.  Anderson,  such  butter  woiild 
keep  sweet  during  t)ie  longest  voyages, 
if  it  were  so  stowed,  that  it  could  not  melt 
by  the  heat  of  the  climate,  and  occasion 
the  salts  to  separate  from  it  Hence  the 
butter  ought  to  be  previously  freed  from 
its  mucilage,  which  is  more  putrescible 
than  the  oily  parts.  In  order  to  prepare 
it  for  a  distant  voyage,  let  it  be  put  into  a 
vessel  of  a  proper  shape,  which  should  be 
immersed  into  another,  containing  water. 
I>et  tills  be  gradually  heated,  till  the  but- 
ter be  thoroughly  melted  ;  in  which  state 
it  may  remain  for  some  time,  and  then  be 
allowed  to  settle.  Thus,  tlie  mucilagi- 
nous part  will  fall  entirely  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  piue  oil  will  swim  uppermost, 
perfectly  transpaveiit,  w  bile  hoit ;  but,  on 


cooling,  it  becomes  opaque,  assumes  a 
colour  somewhat  paler  than  the  original 
butter,  before  it  was  melted,  and  acquires 
a  firmer  consistence ;  by  wliich  it  is  bet- 
ter enabled  to  resist  the  heat  of  tropical 
climates.  When  this  refined  butter  is  be- 
come somewhat  firm,  yet  soft  enough  to 
be  handled,  the  pure  part  should  be  se- 
parated from  the  dregs,  then  salted,  and 
packed  in  the  usual  manner. 

There  is  another,  still  more  curious 
way  of  preserving  this  refined  butter, 
stated  by  Dr.  Anderson.  After  it  is  purified, 
add  to  the  butter  a  certain  portion  of  firm 
honey,  mix  them  well,  and  they  will  tho- 
roughly incorporate  ;  this  mixture,  when 
spread  on  bread,  has  a  very  pleasant  taste, 
and  may  be  given  to  aged  persons,  if  they 
relisli  it,  instead  of  marrow  ;  and  to  others, 
as  being  useful  for  coughs  and  colds.  The 
proportion  of  honey  employed  was  consi- 
derable; and  the  Doctor  remarks,  that  this 
mixture  has  been  kept  for  years,  without 
acquiring  the  least  degree  of  x-ancidity  ;  so 
that  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  butter 
might  tlms  be  preserved  durhig  long  voy- 
ages. 

Besides  the  different  modes  of  curing 
butter  already  described,  it  may  be  easily 
preserved  in  a  sweet  state,  by  melting  it 
down  in  large  vessels  over  a  slow  fire ; 
care  being  taken  to  remove  the  scum  that 
rises  to  the  surface.  This  method  being 
adopted  by  the  Tartars,  we  have  inserted 
it  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Eton,  who  states, 
in  his  late  interesting  Survey  of  the  Tur- 
klsk  Empire"  See.  8vo.  that  he  has  used 
butter,  thus  boiled,  and  then  salted,  as  is 
usual  in  Britain;  in  which  state  it  remained 
perfectly  sweet  for  the  space  of  two  years. 

Butter  has  been  sent  from  Philadelphia 
to  the  Wesc  Indies  in  summer,  and  kept 
well,  by  packing  it  in  a  stone  jar,  and 
pouring  a  strong  pickle  on  the  top,  about 
two  inches  deep.  The  cover  of  the  jar  was 
secured  by  a  cloth,  and  over  this  tliere  was 
a  covering  of  Plaister  of  Paris.  (Gypsum.) 

Tlie  food  of  cows  very  often  afi'ects  the 
taste  of  butter.  Thus,  if  wild  garlic,  char- 
loc,  or  May-weed,  be  found  in  a  pasture 
ground,  cows  should  not  be  suffered  to 
feed  there,  before  the  first  grass  has  been 
mown  ;  when  such  pernicious  plants  will 
not  ag-ain  appear  till  the  succeeding 
spring ;  but  milch-cows  must  not  partake 
of  the  hay  made  of  those  plants,  as  it  will 
likewise  communicate  their  pernicious  in- 
fluence. 

Cows  should  never  be  suffered  to  drink 
water  from  stagnant  pools,  in  which 
there  are  frogs,  spawn,  &c- ;  or  from  com- 
mon sewers,  or  ])onds  that  receive  the 
drainings  of  stables — all  which  are  ex- 
ceedingly improper. 


BUT 


BUT 


For  removing,  or  rather  prcrenling-,  tiic 
bitter  taste  of  barley-straw  butter,  as  well 
as  tlie  rancidity  of  turnip-butter,  JNIr.  Alai 
shall  suggests  the  followinsy  simple,  and 
rational  means.  Instead  of  putting'  the 
cream,  immediately  aflor  it  is  skimmed  oil' 
the  milk,  into  the  jai-,  or  other  retaining 
vessel,  it  is  first  poured  upon  hot  ivater, 
and  having-  stood  till  cool,  it  is  again 
skimmed  otF  the  water. 

According  to  experiments  accurately 
made  by  Mr.  Joseph  Wimpey,  to  deter 
mine  the  com])arative  value  of  butter  and 
cheese,  lOJi  gallons  of  milk,  propei-ly  dis 
posed  in  pans  for  skimming  ofl' the  cream, 
produced  361b.  of  butter,  and  601b.  of 
skimmed  cheese,  from  a  like  quantity  of 
milk  were  made  106lb.  of  raw-milk  cheese, 
and  61b.  of  whey  butter.  After  selling  the 
cream-butter  at  8^d.  and  the  skimmed- 
cheese  at  2d.  the  pound,  when  the  raw- 
milk  cheese,  two  months  old,  was  worth 
Sid.  the  pound,  and  the  wliey-lmtter  7d. 
it  appears  that  a  small  advantug-e  of  about 
three  per  cent,  lies  on  the  side  of  butter 
and  skimmed  cheese. 

Many  abuses  are  practised  in  tlie  pack- 
ing and  salting  of  butter,  to  increase  its 
bulk  and  weight,  against  which  we  have 
an  express  statute.  Lumps  of  good  but- 
ter ai'c  frequently  laid,  for  a  little  depth, 
at  the  top,  witii  an  inferior  quality 
under  it ;  sometimes  the  butter  is  set  in 
rolls,  touching"  only  at  top,  and  standing- 
hollow  at  bottom.'  l"o  prevent  such  de- 
ceptions, the  factors  employ  a  surveyor, 
■who,  in  case  of  suspicion,  tries  the  cask, 
m*  jar,  with  an  iron  instrument,  made  not 
nnlike  a  cheese  ta.ster,  and  which  he 
''brusts  in  obliquely  to  the  bottom. 

Lastly,  we  cannot  omit  to  animadvert 
wipon  the  ))ernicir>us  practice  of  keeping 
milk  in  leaden  vesseU,  and  salting  butter  in 
tCone  jars,  which  begins  to  prevail,  from 
a  mistaken  idea  of  cleanliness.  But,  in 
the  hands  of  a  cleanly  person,  there  sure- 
ly can  be  nothing  more  wholesome  than 
wooden  dishes.  We  fully  agree  with  Dr. 
Anderson,  that  vessels  made  either  of  so- 
lid lead,  or  badly  glazed,  are  alike  dcs- 
ti-iictive  to  the  human  constitution  ;  that 
we  may  doubtless  attribute  to  this  cause 
the  frequency-  of  paralytic  complaints 
which  occur  m  all  ranks  of  society ;  and 
that  the  well  known  effects  of  the  poison 
cf  lead,  are,  bodily  debility,  palsy,  and 
death. 

Milk-Butter  is  principally  made  in 
Chcsliire;  where,  contrary  to  tlie  usual 
•;i:-actic.e  in  other  parts  of  the  king-dom. 
i-.e  whole  of  the  milk  is  ciuu-ned,  without 
'.ing  skimmed;  preparat(jry  to  which 
o;ieration,  in  summer,  immediately  after 
"Jijlkinf,  the  milk  is  put  tp  cool  in  earthen 


jars,  till  it  becomes  sufficiently  coagulat- 
cd,  and  has  acquired  a  shght  degree  of 
acidity,  sufficient  to  undergo  the  opera- 
lion  of  chiuning.  This  is  usually  per- 
formed during  the  summer,  in  the  course 
of  one  or  Iv/o  days.  In  winter,  in  order  to 
forward  coagulation,  the  milk  is  phiced 
near  a  fire  ;  but,  in  summer,  if  it  has  not 
been  sufficiently  cooled,  before  it  is  added 
to  the  former  milk,  or,  if  it  has  been  kept 
too  close,  and  be  not  churned  shortly  af- 
ter it  has  acquired  the  necessary  degree: 
of  coagulation  and  acidity,  a  fermentation 
will  ensue  ;  in  which  case,  the  butter  be- 
comes rancid,  and  the  milk  does  not  yield 
that  quantity,  which  it  woidd,  if  it  had 
been  cliurned  in  proper  time.  I'his  is  also 
the  case,  when,  in  winter,  the  jars,  or 
mugs,  have  been  placed  too  near  the  fire, 
and  the  milk  runs  entirely  to  wlicy.  No 
othei- peculiar  process  attends  the  mak- 
ing of  this  kind  of  butter. 

Whey-B UTTER  is  so  Called,  from  its 
being  made  of  whey,  which  is  eitlier  green 
or  white.  The  former  is  taken  from  the 
curd,  out  of  the  cheese-tub ;  the  white 
whey  is  pressed  out  of  the  curd,  by  the 
liand  or  otherwise,  after  having  been  put 
into  the  cheese-vat.  This  kind  of  butter 
is  made  as  follows  :  Sometimes  the  white 
whey,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  Cheshire,  the 
thrustings,  is  set  in  cream  mugs,  to  acquire 
a  sulRcient  degree  of  coagulation,  and  aci- 
dity, for  chm-ning,  either  by  the  warmth  of 
the  season  or  of  a  room,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  above  described,  for  making  milk- 
butter.  IrTother  instances,  the  green  and 
the  white  whey  are  boiled  together,  and 
turned  by  a  little  sour  ale,  or  other  aciii, 
which  produces  fieetinj^s.  In  this  case, 
when  the  green  whey  is  boiled  alone,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  up  such  a  fire  as  will 
make  the  whey  as  hot  as  possible,  without 
boiling  it ;  and,  when  it  has  acquired  that 
degree  of  heat,  the  bulyraceous  particles, 
which  it  contains,  will  break  and  separate, 
and  rise  to  the  surface;  which  eft<:ct  usu- 
ally takes  j)lace  in  the  space  of  an  hour. 
Care  shoidd  be  taken  to  rub  the  boiler,  if 
of  iron,  with  butter,  to  prevent  the  whi-y 
from  acquiring  a  rancid  taste.  In  other 
resjiects,  the  process  (<f  making  whey-but- 
ter .differs  little  from  that  of  milk-butter. 
But  the  former  will  keep  only  a  fiiw  days, 
lias  a  marbled  aj)pearance,  and  does  not. 
cut  so  firm,  or  clear,  as  butter  made  of 
cream.  One  of  our  correspondents  ol)- 
sei'ves,  that,  in  the  year  1794,  whey-butter 
was  sold  by  contract,  for  the  whole  year, 
at  10(1.  per  jiound,  and  carried  20  miles  to 
Manchester:  he  further  remarks,  that  tlie 
fectiiigs  arc  "nice  eating,"  with  sugar, 
thougli  some  epicures  add  wine  or  brandy. 

BuTTER-MiLK  is  thftt  part  oftUemiljc 


BUT 


BUT 


which  remains  after  the  butter  is  extract- 
ed. Curds  of  butter-millc  are  made  bj' 
poui'ing  into  it  a  quantity  of  hot  new  milk. 
The  quality  of  butter-milk  greatly  de- 
pends on  tlie  manner  of  managing  the  pro- 
cess of  churning.  If  it  be  obtained  ac- 
cording to  the  Lancashu'e  mode,  above 
described,  it  becomes  an  excellent  foodfor 
jnan,  being  both  wholesome  and  pleasant ; 
though  it  is  in  many,  English  counties, 
given  to  hogs. 

Good   butter-milk    is    refreshing   and 
coulina: :  hence  it  is  often  recommended 


in  hectic  fevers,  for  abating  preternatural 
heat  and  flusliings  of  the  face.  In  spiing, 
ifdiank  freely,  it  is  said  to  produce  a  fa- 
vourable change  on  the  fluids,  when  they 
are  in  a  state  of  acrimony  ;  and,  though 
modern  physicians  smile  at  the  idea  of 
sweetening,  or  purifying  the  blood,  yet  tlie 
good  effects  of  butter -milk,  as  well  as 
sweet  whey,  in  proper  cases  and  constitu- 
tions, have  too  often  been  experienced,  to 
admit  of  any  duubt,  in  consequence  of  a» 
•unsettled  theorv. 


c. 


CAL.\MIXE,an  oreofzink.  See  Zink. 

CALCINATION  is  the  reduction  of  so- 
lid bodies  by  lire,  to  a  state  of  powder,  or 
ashes  :  a  process  wliich  is  attended  with 
a  change  of  their  quality,  and  is  essentially 
different  from  commmution,  or  mechan- 
ical tvitiu'ation. 

Having,  imder  the  article  Ashes,  treat- 
ed of  the  burning  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal mattcis,  we  shall  confine  oiu* account, 
in  this  place,  to  metals. 

To  calcine  such  metals  as  melt  before 
ignition,  they  must  be  kept  in  fusion  for 
some  time  ;  nor  will  this  operation  suc- 
ceed, without  a  free  admission  of  air : 
the  surface  of  the  metal  must  therefore 
he  kept  clear  of  the  cal.\-  Should  any 
part  be  excluded  from  the  air,  no  such 
change  of  quality  will  take  place  :  and  if 
any  coal,  or  unctuous,  inflammable  mat- 
ter, be  suffered  to  fall  into  the  vessel,  it 
would  reduce  even  the  quanlilj.,  already 
calcined,  to  its  former  metallic  state. 
Calcination  in  this  sense,  is  notiiing  more 
than  oxydation  Thus  lead,  by  calcina- 
tion, is  changedintoredlcad,  which  takes 
place  by  the  obsorplion,  and  of  course  the 
combination  of  oxygen  wilii  the  metal. 
Calcination  has  tlie  property  of  precluding 
different  calcined  calxts  or  o.vydes,  owing 
to  the  affinity  of  tlie  metal  for  oxygen, 
oxygen  for  caloric,  &,c.  so  tliat  a  given 
quantity  of  o.\vgen  is  absorbed.  This  is 
tlie  reason  also  that  some  metals  in  calci- 
nation, will  unite  with  different  doses  of 
oxj-gen.  This,  however,  will  be  noticed 
hereafter.     See  Reduction. 

CALICO-PRINTING.  See  Priktivg. 

CALX.     See  Lime. 

CA.MPHOU.  This  singular  vegetable 
substance  comes  to  us  from  China.  There 
are  two  kinds  grow  in  the  East,  the  one 
produced  in  the  islands  of  Sumatra  and 
(iorneo,  and  the  other  produced  in  Japan 
•i\r\    China.     The    Sumatran    camphor. 


which  the  Europeans  obtain,  is  can-ied  to 
the  China  market,  where  it  bears  a  better 
price  than  the  Japanese.  This  has  given 
rise  to  an  opinion,  that  the  Chinese  buy  it, 
to  convert  it,  by  some  manipulation,  into 
the  other.  The  properties  of  the  cam- 
phor we  receive  render  this  in  the  high- 
est degree  improbable- 
Camphor  is  extracted  from  tlie  roots, 
wood,  and  leaves  of  two  species  of  laurus, 
the  roots  affording  by  far  tlie  greatest 
abundance.  Tiie  method  consists  in  dis* 
tilling  with  water  in  large  iron  pots,  ser- 
ving as  tlie  body  of  a  still,  with  earthea 
heads  adapted,  stuffed  with  straw,  and 
provided  with  receivers.  Most  of  the 
camphor  becomes  condensed  in  the  solid 
form  among  the  straw,  and  part  comes 
over  with  the  water.  It  is  said  by  some 
to  be  sublimed  without  water  ;  but  Neu- 
mann thinks,  perhaps  without  foundation, 
that  such  treatment  would  give  an  empy- 
reumatic  smell  to  the  camphor.  The 
rough  camphor,  as  imported,  resembles 
crude  nitre  or  bay  salt  It  is  imported  m 
canisters. 

The  refining  of  camphor  was  long  a  se- 
cret in  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  at  the 
time  when  most  of  the  commodities  of  tlie 
East  were  brought  into  Europe  by  that 
people.  The  Hollanders  have  since  appro- 
priated to  themselves  this,  with  various 
other  manufactures  dependent  on  che- 
mistry ;  and  we  do  not  find  that  it  is  pu- 
rified in  large  quantities  elsewhere.  Neu- 
mann mentions  one  of  the  largest  refine- 
ries at  Amsterdam,  hi  which  were  fifty 
fm-naces  all  managed  by  women.  He 
was  permitted  to  see  the  whole  operation, 
except  the  charging  of  the  vessels.  The 
sublimation  wiis  performed  in  low  Hat-bot- 
tomed glass  vessels  placed  i:i  sand  ;  and 
th.e  camphor  became  concrete  in  a  pure 
state  against  the  upper  part,  whence  it 
I  was  afterwards  sopai-ated  with  aknife,  af- 


CAM 


CAN 


tcr  breakiiifj  Uic  glass.  Lewis,  in  u  ncte 
on  Uiis  passage,  asserts,  that  no  addition 
is  requisite  in  tlie  purification  of  camphor ; 
but  tliat  the  chief  point  consists  in  mana- 
ging the  fire  so  that  the  upper  part  of  the 
vessel  may  be  hot  enough  to  hake  the  siib- 
liniate  together  into  a  kind  of  cake.  He 
lliinks  it  more  commodious  to  dissolve  the 
crude  camphor  in  alcohol,  and,  after  de- 
cantation  or  filtration,  to  distil  off  the 
spirit,  and  fuse  the  camphor  into  a  cake 
in  a  glass  vessel.  This  is  practised  to 
advantage.  Chaptal  says,  the  Hollanders 
mix  an  ounce  of  quicklime  with  every 
pound  of  camphor  jjrevious  to  the  distilla- 
tion. The  refining  of  camplior  has  been 
attended  with  success  m  this  city,  on  the 
same  plan  which  the  Hollanders  practise, 
as  stated  above. 

Purified  camplior  is  a  white  concrete 
crystalline  substance,  not  brittle,  but  easi- 
ly crumbled,  having  a  peculiar  consistence 
resembling  tiiat  ofspermaceti,  but  harder. 
It  has  a  strong  lively  smell,  and  an  acrid 
taste ;  is  so  volatile  as  totally  to  exiiaie 
when  left  exposed  in  a  warm  air  ;  is  light 
enough  to  swim  on  water ;  and  is  very 
inflammable,  burning  with  a  very  white- 
flame  and   smoke,  without  any    residue. 

The  roots  of  zedoary,  thyme,  rosemary, 
sage,  the  inula  helenium,  the  aneinony, 
the  pasque  flower  or  Pulsatilla,  andotiier 
vegetables,  afford  camphor  by  distillation. 
It  is  observable,  that  all  these  phmts  af- 
ford a  much  larger  quantity  of  camphor, 
when  the  sap  has  been  suffered  to  pass  to 
the  concrete  state  by  several  montiis  dry- 
ing. Thyme  and  peppermint,  slowly 
dried,  ahord  much  camphor;  and  Mr. 
Achard  has  observed,  that  a  smell  of 
camphor  is  disengaged  when  vohaile  oil 
of  fennel  is  treated  wilh  acids.  The  com- 
binalion  of  diluted  nitric  acid  with  the 
volatile  oil  of  anise  afforded  him  a  large 
quantity  of  crystals,  that  possessed  must 
of  the  properties  of  camplior  ;  and  he  ob- 
tained a  similar  precipitate  by  pouring 
the  vegetable  alkali  upon  vinegar  satura- 
ted wilh  the  volatile  oil  of  angelica. 

A  small  quantity  of  camphor  may  be  ob- 
tained from  oil  of  turpentine  by  simple 
distillation  at  a  very  gentle  heat  Oilier 
essential  oils  however  afford  more  15y 
evaporation  in  sIkiUow  vessels  at  a  heat 
not  exceeding  ^7'-'  F.  -Mr.  Proust  obtahied 
from  oil  of  lavender  -25,  of  sage  •Jl,  of 
uiarjoi'am -1014,  of  rosemary '0625.  He 
conducted  the  operation  on  a  pretty  large 
scale. 

Camphor  is  not  soluble  in  water  in  any 
percepiible  degree,  though  it  communj- 
cates  iis  smell  to  that  fluid,  and  may  be 
bii.-ned  as  it  floats  on  its  surf icc. 

It  has  been  observed  'oy  Eoniiei!,.  that 


sn-:all  pieces  of  camphor  floaliiig  on  watet" 
have  a  rotatory  motion,  wliich  he  ascribes 
to  electricity. 

Alcohol,  ethers  and  oils,  dissolve  cam- 
phor very  ])lentifully.  The  former  of 
these  dissolves  much  more  by  heat, 
though  when  cold  it  takes  up  three 
fourlhs  of  its  own  weigiit.  The  sur])lus 
taken  up  by  hea,  is  sej^arated,  in  crystals 
of  a  ])luniose  foi-m,  by  cooling. 

Nitric  acid,  which  nets  so  violently  on 
essentiiil  oils  as  to  cause  in  Hammation,  dis- 
solves camphqr  without  producing  heat  or 
agitation.  I'he  camphor  becomes  fiuid, 
and  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  acid  like 
oil,  and  lias  been  called  oil  of  camphor, 
Neumann  says,  it  combines  vvjiththe  most 
concenl rated  part  of  the  acid.  Other 
acids  also  dissolve  it.  Alkalies  precipitate 
it  heavier,  harder,  and  much  less  com- 
bustible. 

Camplior  is  much  used  in  medicine, 
particularly  e.xternally  as  a  discutienl.  it 
i-emarkably  promotes  the  solution  of  co- 
j)al,  and  hence  is  of  great  utility  in  the 
preparation  of  varnishes.  Its  effluvia  are 
very  no.\ious  to  insects, on  which  account 
it  is  employed  in  cabinets  of  natural 
histoi-y  to  deti;ind  subjects  from  their  rava- 
ges. 

CANNEL  COAL.     See  Ampelites. 

C.\NAL,  an  artificial  cut  in  the  groiiiid, 
which  is  supphed  with  water  from  rivei-s, 
spi  ings,  &c.  in  order  to  make  a  navigable 
communication  between  different  places. 
There  are  various  circumstances,  upon 
wliich  the  particular  operations,  neces.saiy 
for  constructing  navigations,  depend  ;  and 
wliich  consequently  increase,  or  diminish, 
the  labour  and  expence  of  executing 
ihem  :  such  as  the  situation  of  the  ground; 
the  vicinity  to,  or  connection  with  rivers  ; 
the  facility  or  difiicully  whh  which  the  ne- 
cess.ary  quantity  of  water  can  be  procur- 
ed ;  and  many  other  requisites.  I'he  uti- 
lity of  canals  to  a  trading  nation  are  too 
well  known;  we  shall  therefore, only  refer 
to  the  following,  among  the  many  works 
that  have  lately  been  i)ublished  onthis-im- 
poriant  subject,  in  wliicli  the  .'itructuiv, 
economy,  and  advantages  of  canals  arc 
amply  and  perspicuously  treated,  viz.  1. 
.Mr.  l-'ulton's  Treatise  on  Canal  JYuiiga- 
fion  ;  4to.  Taylor,  1796.  Tiie  author  dis- 
[ilays  an  ingenuous  disposition,  and  a  s  n- 
eere  wish  to  promote  useful  improvement. 
Uis  work  is  well  wiitlen,  tlie  engraving 
beautifully  executed,  and  the  whole  is  re- 
plete with  useful  intorni:'.tion.  >'.  Mr. 
tJhupnian's  Observations i;n  t/ie various  sjs- 
tons  of  Ccinui  N.,vigalio)!,  4to.  TaUor. 
I'his  performance  al.sy  abounds  with  useiul 
in.struction,  and  forms  a  valuable  and  ne- 
( CI.  ;,"v  addition  to  Mr.  Fu!to)t'-=  work.  S 


CAN 


CAN 


Mr.  Tatham's  On  the  Political  Economy  of 
Inland  JVavigation,  Irrigation,  and  Drain- 
age, 4to.  Faulder,  1799.  This  work  like- 
wise contains  some  valuable  hints,  and  is 
not  destitute  of  utility. 

CANDLE.  A  Ught  made  of  tallow,  wax, 
or  spermaceti,  the  wick  of  which  is  usu- 
ally composed  of  several  threads  of  cot- 
ton. 

There  are  two  species  of  tallow  candles, 
the  one  dipped,  and  the  other  moulded ; 
the  first  are  those  in  most  common  use ;  the 
invention  of  the  second  is  attributed  to  Le 
Brege,  of  Paris.  Good  tallow  candles 
ought  to  be  made  with  equal  parts  of 
sheep  and  ox-tallow ;  care  being-  taken  to 
avoid  any  mixture  of  hog's-lard,  which 
occasions  a  thick  black  smoke,  attended 
with  a  disagreeable  smell,  and  also  causes 
the  candles  to  run. 

When  the  tallow  has  been  weighed  and 
mixed  in  due  proportions,  it  is  cut  very 
small,  that  it  may  be  more  speedily  dis- 
solved ;  for  otherwise  it  would  be  liable  to 
burn,  or  become  black,  if  left  too  long 
over  the  fire.  As  soon  as  it  is  completely 
melted  and  skimmed,  a  certain  quantity  of 
water,  proportionate  to  that  of  the  tallow, 
is  poured  in  for  precipitating  the  impure 
particles  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  This, 
however,  should  not  be  done  till  after  the 
three  first  dips  ;  as  the  water,  by  penetra- 
ting the  wicks,  would  make  the  candles 
crackle  in  burning,  and  thereby  render 
them  useless.  To  purify  the  tallow  still 
more,  it  is  sti'ained  through  a  coarse 
horse-hair  sieve  into  a  tub ;  where,  after 
having  remained  three  hours,  it  becomes 
fit  for  use. 

JVax  Candles  are  of  vai-ious  kinds  and 
forms ;  they  are  made  of  cotton  or  flaxen 
wicks,  slightly  twisted  and  covered  with 
white  or  coloured  wax.  This  operation  is 
performed  either  by  the  hand  or  with  a  la- 
dle. In  order  to  soften  the  wax,  it  is  first 
worked  repeatedly  in  a  deep  narrow  caul- 
dron of  hot  water  :  then  taken  out  in  small 
pieces,  and  gradually  disposed  round  the 
wick,  which  is  fixed  on  a  hook  in  the 
wall,  beginning  with  the  larger  end,  and 
diminishing  in  proportion  as  the  neck  ap- 
proaches. To  prevent  the  wax  from  adher- 
ing to  the  hands,  they  are  rubbed  with  oil 
of  olives,  lard,  or  other  unctuous  sub- 
stance. When  it  is  intended  to  make  wax 
candles  with  a  ladle,  the  wicks  being  pre- 
pared as  above-mentioned,  a  dozen  of 
them  arc  fixed  at  equal  distances  round 
an  iron  circle,  wliich  is  suspended  over  a 
tinned  copper  vessel  containing  melted 
wax  ;  a  large  ladleful  of  which  is  poui-ed 
gently  and  repeatedly  on  the  tops  of  the 
wicks,  till  the  candles  have  acquired  a  pro- 
per size,  when  they  are  taken  down,  kept 

VOL.    I. 


warm,  and  smoothed  upon  a  walnut-tree 
table  with  a  long  square  instrument  of 
box,  which  is  continually  moistened  with 
hot  water,  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the 
wax.  In  other  respects,  this  mode  of  mak- 
ing wax  candles  corresponds  with  that  of 
manufacturing  them  with  the  hand. 

Prom  the  increasing  demand  and  price 
of  wax,  various  experiments  have  been 
tried,  in  order  to  discover  proper  substi- 
tutes, which  might  possess  similar  solidi- 
ty.  We  are  informed  by  a  foreign  jour- 
nal,  that  this  desirable  object  has  been  sa- 
tisfactorily attained,  by  melting  down  an 
equal  quantity  of  tallow  and  resin.  In  or- 
der to  ascertain  the  truth  of  this  assertion, 
we  were  induced  to  repeat  the  experi- 
ment, but  without  success :  for,  though 
the  two  substances  incorporated,  they  had 
not  a  sufficient  degree  of  cohesion  ;  and, 
when  moulded  into  a  proper  form,  the  tal- 
low burned,  but  the  resin  dissolved,  and 
separated  from  it. 

In  September,  1799,  Mr.  William  Bolts, 
of  London,  obtained  a  patent  for  new 
modes  of  improving  the  form,  quality,  and 
use  of  candles,  and  other  hghts,  made  of 
tallow,  wax,  spermaceti,  &c.  This  inven- 
tion the  patentee  founds  on  four  princi- 
ples :  1.  On  the  fabrication  of  the  body  of 
such  lights,  prior  to,  and  independently 
of,  the  wicks,  which  may  be  subsequently 
applied  to  them.  2.  On  the  application  of 
moveable  wicks,  which  may  be  appUed  to, 
or  extracted  from  the  candles,  or  lights, 
any  time  after  they  have  been  made.  3. 
On  the  using  of  fixed,  or  ordinai'y  wicks, 
for  those  lights  or  candles,  at  any  period 
subsequent  to  the  making  of  either  ;  and 
4.  On  placing  the  inflammable  substance 
while  in  fusion,  in  a  close  vessel,  and  sub- 
mitting it  there  to  the  action  of  a  vacuum, 
and  of  a  pressure  superior  to  that  of  the 
atmosphere.  This  was  effected  with  a 
view  to  extract,  by  the  vacuum,  whatever 
elastic  fluid  may  remain  in  it,  under  the 
ordinary  pressure ;  and  also  to  increase 
the  solidity  and  whiteness  of  the  sub- 
stance, by  the  superior  weight  appUed  to 
it,  when  cooling. 

Although  candles  are  preferable  to 
lamps,  as  their  light  is  less  injurious  both 
to  the  eyes  and  lungs,  and  as  they  do  not 
pi'oduce  so  great  a  volume  of  smoke,  yet 
a  clean  chamber-lamp,  which  emits  as 
little  smoke  and  smell  as  possible,  is  far 
superior  even  to  wax  candles.  For,  1.  As 
all  candles  burn  downwards,  the  eye  ne- 
cessarily becomes  more  fatigued  and 
strained  during  the  later  hoiu's  of  candle- 
light ;  2.  Because  they  yield  an  irregular 
light,  which  occasions  the  additional  trou- 
ble of  snuffing  them  ;  and  lastly,  because, 
if  the  air  be  agitated  ever  so  little,  or  if  the 
A  a 


CAN 


CAO 


candles  are  made  of  bad  materials,  they 
injure  the  eye  by  their  flaring  light. 

A  method  of  making  this  useful  article 
with  wooden  -wicks,  is  practised  at  Munich, 
in  Bavaria :  and,  as  it  promises  to  be  of 
jjrcat  utility,  we  lay  the  following  account 
before  our  economical  readers. 

The  wood  generally  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, is  that  of  the  fir-tree,  when  one  year 
old  ;  though  pine,  willow,  or  other  kinds 
are  frequently  employed ;  the  young 
shoots  must  first  be  deprived  of  their  bark 
by  scraping ;  which  operation  ought  to  be 
repeated  after  they  become  dry,  till  they 
be  reduced  to  the  size  of  a  small  straw. 
These  rods  are  next  to  be  rubbed  over 
with  tallow,  or  wax,  so  as  to  be  covered 
with  a  thin  coating  of  either  of  these  sub- 
stances ;  after  wluch  they  should  be  rolled 
on  a  smooth  table,  in  fine  carded  cotton,  of 
the  same  length  as  the  rod  or  candle- 
mould  ;  care  being  taken  that  the  cotton 
be  of  an  uniform  thickness  around  the 
wick,  excepting  at  the  ujjper  extremity, 
where  it  may  be  made  somewhat  tliicker. 
By  this  preparation,  the  wicks  will  acquire 
the  size  of  a  small  quill,  when  they  must 
be  placed  in  moulds,  in  the  usual  manner ; 
and  good,  fresh  tallo'uj,  that  has  previously 
been  melted  with  a  little  water,  be  poured 
around  them. 

The  candles  tluis  manufactured,  emit 
nearly  the  same  volume  of  light  as  tliose 
made  of  wax :  they  burn  considerably  lon- 
ger than  the  common  tallow  candles; 
never  crackle  or  run  ;  and,  as  they  do  not 
flare,  are  less  pi-ejudicial  to  the  eyes  of 
those  persons  who  are  accustomed  to 
long  continued  lucubrations.  It  ought, 
however,  to  be  observed,  that  a  pair  of 
sharp  scissars  must  be  employed  for  snuf- 
fing such  candles  ;  because,  in  perfoi-ming 
that  operation,  great  precaution  is  requir- 
ed, that  the  wick  be  neither  broken  nor 
deranged. 

Prof.  Hermbstadt,  of  BerUn,  finds  by  ex- 
periment, that  pure  white -wax  candles, 
are,  with  regard  to  the  time  they  last,  the 
most  economical :  that  tallow  candles, 
provided  the  wicks  be  in  proportion  to  the 
tallow,  burn  the  slower  the  smaller  they 
are,  because  in  larger  ones  a  greater  cjuan- 
tity  of  tile  substance  is  wasted  in  burn- 
ing ;  the  oxygen  (pure  air)  cannot  act 
upon  the  whole  flame,  and  the  increased 
heat  disperses  the  combustible  matter  in 
vapour,  without  decomposing  tlic  air, 
which  would  augment  the  light.  He  also 
finds  that  spermaceti  candles  are  subject 
to  the  greatest  waste  of  any,  and  emit 
more  smoke  than  lallow  candles,  although 
their  vapour  causes  no  disagreeable  siinell 
like  them. — He  thinks  that  those  candles 
v.ould  be  the  brightest,  and  afford  the 


most  pleasant  light,  which,  instead  of  ii, 
round,  were  made  with  a  broad  flat  wick, 
or  rather  inthe  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder, 
that  the  air  might  act  upon  the  flame  both 
internally  and  externally, 

CAOUTCHOUC.  This  substance, 
which  has  been  impi-operly  termed  elastic 
gum,  and  vulgarly,  from  its  common  ap- 
plication to  rub  out  pencil  marks  on  pa- 
per, India  rubber,  is  obtained  from  the 
milky  juice  of  difterent  plants  in  hot  coun- 
tries. The  chief  of  these  are  the  Jatro. 
pha  elastica,  and  Urceola  elastica.  It  is 
also  obtained  from  the  milkyjuicesof  the 
Indian  fig,  the  berries  of  the  misleto,  and 
probably  from  all  the  vegetable  barks  that 
yield  bird  lime.  The  juice  is  applied  in 
successive  coatings  on  a  mould  of  clay, 
and  dried  by  the  fii'e  or  in  the  sun  ;  and 
when  of  a  sufficient  thickness  the  mould 
is  crushed,  and  the  pieces  shaken  out. 
Acids  separate  the  caoutchouc  from  the 
thinner  part  of  the  juice,  at  once  coagulat- 
ing it.  The  juice  of  old  plants  yields 
nearly  two  thirds  of  its  weight ;  that  of 
younger  plants  less.  Its  colour,  when 
fresh,  is  yellowish  white,  but  it  grow* 
darker  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

The  elasticity  of  this  substance  is  its 
most  remarkable  property:  when  warmed, 
as  by  immersion  in  hot  water,  slips  of  it 
may  be  drawn  out  to  seven  or  eight  times 
their  original  length,  and  will  return  to 
their  former  dimensions  nearly.  In  Ca- 
yenne it  is  used  to  give  light  as  a  candle. 
Its  solvents  are  ether,  volatile  oils,  and  pe- 
troleum. The  ether,  however,  requires 
to  be  washed  with  water  repeatedly,  and 
in  this  state  it  dissolves  it  completely.  Pel- 
letier  recommends  to  boil  the  caoutchouc 
in  water  for  an  hour  ;  then  to  cut  it  into 
slender  threads  ;  to  boil  it  again  about  an 
hour  ;  and  then  to  put  it  into  rectified 
sulphuric  ether  in  a  vessel  close  stopped. 
In  tliis  w  ay  he  says  it  will  be  totally  dis- 
solved in  a  few  days,  without  heat,  except 
the  impurities,  which  will  fall  to  the  bot- 
tom, if  ether  enough  be  employed.  Ber- 
niiu'd  says  the  nitrous  ether  dissolves  it 
better  than  the  sidphuric.  If  this  solution 
be  spread  on  any  substance,  the  ether 
evaporates  very  quickly,  and  leaves  a 
coating  of  caoutchouc  unaltered  in  its 
properties.  Oil  of  turpentine  softens  it, 
and  forms  a  pasty  mass,that  may  be  spread 
as  a  varnish,  but  is  very  long  in  drying.  A 
mixture  of  volatile  oil  and  alcohol  dis- 
solves it  better,  and  dries  more  speedily. 
A  solution  of  caoutchouc  in  five  times  its 
weigiit  of  oil  of  turjientine,  and  this  so- 
lution dissolved  in  eight  times  its  weight 
of  drying  linseed  oil  by  boiling,  is  said 
to  form  the  varnish  of  air-balloons. 

Cacutchouc  may  be  formed  into  vari- 


CAR 


CAS 


ous  articles  without  undergoing  the  pro- 
cess of  solution.  If  it  be  cut  into  an  uni- 
form slip  of  a  proper  thickness,  and  wound 
spirally  round  a  glass  or  metal  rod,  so 
that  the  edges  shall  ^e.  in  close  contact, 
and  in  this  state  be  boiled  for  some  time, 
the  edges  will  adhere  so  as  to  form  a  tube. 
Pieces  of  it  may  be  readilyjoined  by  touch- 
ing the  edges  with  the  solution  in  ether  • 
but  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  for, 
if  they  be  merely  softened  by  heat,  and 
then  pressed  together,  they  will  unite  very 
firmly. 

If  linseed  oil  be  rendered  verj'  drying 
by  digesting  it  upon  an  oxide  of  lead,  and 
afterward  apphed  with  a  small  brush  on 
any  surface,  and  dried  by  the  sun  or  in 
the  smoke,  it  will  afford  a  pellicle  of  con- 
siderable firmness,  transparent,  burning 
like  caoutchouc,  and  wonderfully  elastic. 
A  pound  of  this  oil,  spread  upon  a  stone, 
and  exposed  to  the  air  for  six  or  seven 
months,  acquired  almost  all  the  proper- 
ties of  caoutchouc :  it  was  used  to  make 
catheters  and  bougies,  to  varnish  balloons, 
and  for  other  purposes. 

CARMINE.  See  Cochin  eai.  and 
Colour  ^Making. 

CARPET  MAKING.     See  Weaving. 

C-\RROT.  SeeHoiiTicuLTURE.  See 
alsoBRAXDV. 

CARTHAMUS,  Saftlower,  or  Bas- 
tard Saffrox.  In  some  of  the  deep 
reddish,  yellow,  or  orange-coloured  flow- 
ers, the  yellow  matter  seems  to  be  of  the 
same  kind  with  that  of  the  pure  yellow 
flowers ;  but  the  red  to  be  of  a  different  kind 
from  the  pure  red  ones.  Watery  menstrua 
take  up  only  the  yellow,  and  leave  the 
red  ;  which  may  afterward  he  extracted 
by  alcohol,  or  by  a  weak  solution  of  alka- 
li. Such  particularly  are  the  saffron-co- 
loured flowers  of  carlhamus.  These,  af- 
ter the  yellow  matter  has  been  extracted 
by  water,  are  said  to  give  a  tincture  to 
ley;  from  which,  on  standing  at  rest  for 
some  time,  a  deep  red  fecula  subsides, 
called  safflower,  and,  from  tlie  countries 
whence  it  is  commonly  brought  to  us, 
Spanish  red  and  China  lake.  This  pig- 
ment impregnates  alcohol  with  a  beauti- 
ful red  tincture;  but  communicates  no  co- 
lour to  water. 

Rouge  is  prepared  from  carthamus. 
For  this  purpose  the  red  colour  is  ex- 
tracted by  a  solution  of  the  subcarbonat 
of  soda,  and  precipitated  by  lemon  juice, 
previously  depurated  by  standing.  This 
pi'ecipitate  is  dried  on  earthen  plates, 
mixed  with  talc,  or  French  chalk,  reduced 
to  a  powder  by  means  of  the  leaves  of 
shave-grass,  triturated  with  it  till  they 
are  both  very  fine,  and  then  sifted.  The 
fineness  of  the  powder  and  proportion  of 


the  precipitate  constitute  the  dlfleren«e 
between  the  finer  and  cheaper  rouge.  It 
is  likewise  spread  very  thin  on  saucers, 
and  sold  in  this  state  for  dyeing. 

Carthamus  is  used  for  dyeing  silk  of  a 
poppy,  cherry,  rose,  or  bright  orange  red. 
After  the  yellow  matter  is  extracted  as 
above,  and  the  cakes  opened,  it  is  put  into 
a  deal  trough,  and  sprinkled  at  different 
times  with  pearl  ashes,  or  rather  soda  well 
powdered  and  sifted,  in  the  proportion  of 
six  pounds  to  a  hundred,  mixing  the  alka- 
li well  as  it  is  put  in.  The  alkali  should 
be  saturated  with  carbonic  acid.  The 
carthamus  is  then  put  on  a  cloth  in  a 
trough  w  ith  a  grated  bottom,  placed  on  a 
larger  trough,  and  cold  w.iter  poured  on, 
till  the  large  trough  is  filled.  And  tlus  is 
repeated,  witli  the  addition  of  a  little  more 
alkali  toward  the  end,  till  the  carthamus 
is  exhausted  and  become  yellow.  Lemon 
juice  is  then  poui-ed  into  the  bath,  till  it  is 
turned  of  a  fine  cherry  colour,  and  after  it 
is  well  stirred  the  silk  is  immersed  in  it. 
The  silk  is  wrung-,  drained,  and  passed 
through  fresh  baths,  washing  and  drying 
after  every  operation,  till  it  is  of  a  proper 
colour;  when  it  is  brightened  in  hot  water 
and  lemon  juice.  For  a  poppy  or  fire  co- 
lour a  sliglit  annotta  ground  is  first  given ; 
but  the  silk  should  not  be  alumed.  For 
a  pale  carnation  a  little  soap  should  be 
piit  into  the  bath.  All  these  baths  must 
be  used  as  soon  as  they  are  made ;  and 
cold,  because  heat  destroys  the  colour  of 
the  red  fcculx. 

CASE-HARDENING.  Steel  when  har- 
dened is  brittle,  and  iron  alone  is  not  ca- 
pable of  receiving  tlie  hardness  steel  may- 
be brought  to  possess.  There  is  never- 
theless a  variety  of  articles  in  which  it  is 
desirable  to  possess  all  the  hardness  of 
steel,  together  with  the  firmness  of  iron. 
Tliese  requisites  are  united  in  the  art  of 
case-hardening,  which  does  not  differ 
from  the  making  of  steel,  except  in  the 
shorter  duration  of  the  process.  Tools, 
utensils,  or  ornaments  intended  to  be  po- 
lished, are  first  manufactured  in  iron  and 
nearly  finished,  after  which  they  are  put 
into  an  iron  box,  together  with  vegetable 
or  animal  coals  in  powder,  and  cemented 
for  a  certain  time.  This  treatment  con- 
verts the  external  part  into  a  coating  of 
steel,  which  is  usually  very  thin,  because 
the  time  allovred  for  the  cementation  is 
much  shorter,  than  when  the  whole  is  in- 
tended to  be  made  into  steel.  Immersion 
of  the  heated  pieces  into  water  hardens 
the  smface,  which  is  afterward  polished 
by  the  usual  methods.  ]Moxon's  Jfecha- 
nic  Exercises,  p.  56,  gives  the  following  re- 
ceipt : — Cow's  horn  or  hoof  is  to  be  baked 
or  tlioroughly  dried,  and  pulverized.     To 


CED 


CED 


this  add  an  equal  quantity  of  bay  salt :  mix 
them  with  stale  chamberley,  or  white  wine 
vinegar :  cover  Uie  iron  with  this  mixture, 
and  Ded  it  in  the  same  in  loam,  or  enclose 
kin  an  iron  box :  lay  it  then  on  the  hearth 
of  the  forge  to  dry  and  harden:  then  put  it 
into  the  fii-e,  and  blow  till  the  lump  have  a 
blood  red  heat,  and  no  higher,  lest  the 
mixture  be  burned  too  much.  Take 
the  iron  out,  and  immerse  it  in  water  to 
harden. 

CASTOR-OIL.  Castor-oil  is  extracted 
from  the  kernel  of  the  fruit,  produced  by 
the  ricinus  Americanus,  or  oil-nut  tree, 
which  grows  in  many  parts  of  America, 
and  is  now  much  cultivated  in  Jamaica, 
and  in  the  United  States.  It  is  raised  from 
the  nut  or  seed,  grows  with  a  surprising 
rapidity  to  the  height  of  fifteen  or  sixteen 
feet,  and  seems  to  flourish  most  in  gullies, 
or  near  running  water,  in  cool  shady  spots. 
The  seeds  being  freed  from  the  husks  or 
pods,  which  are  gathered  upon  their  turn- 
ing brown,  and  when  beginning  to  burst 
open ;  are  first  bruised  in  a  mortar,  after- 
wards tied  up  in  a  Unen  bag,  and  then 
thrown  into  a  large  pot,  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  cold  water  (about  eight  gallons 
to  one  gallon  of  seeds),and  boiled  till  their 
oil  is  risen  to  the  sui-face ;  this  is  care- 
fully skimmed,  strained,  and  kept  in  tight 
bottles  for  use.  One  gallon  of  nuts,  will 
yield  about  one  quart  of  oil.  Thus  pre- 
pared, it  is  entirely  free  from  all  acri- 
mony, and  will  freely  stay  upon  the  sto- 
mach, when  most  other  medicines  are 
rejected. 

But  when  intended  for  medicinal  use, 
the  oil  is  more  frequently  cold  drawn,  or 
extracted  from  the  bruised  seeds,  by 
means  of  a  hand-press  ;  though  this  is 
thought  more  acrimonious  than  what  is 
prepared  by  coction.  The  cold  drawn 
oil,  at  first  is  perfectly  limpid  ;  but  after 
being  kept  for  some  time,  acquires  the 
appearance  of  a  pale  tincture,  resembling 
Lisbon  wine,  probably  caused  by  the  mem 
ferane,  which  covers  the  kernels. 

This  plant  thrives  in  almost  every  soil, 
and  should  be  cultivated  in  every  garden, 
on  account  of  its  great  importance  in  me- 
dicine, it  being  used  internally,  as  a  gentle 
purgative,  and  externally  for  removing 
spasms,  cramps,  8ic.  the  plant  is  cuUi- 
rated  largely,  as  an  article  of  profit,  in 
Kentucky,  New-York,  and  some  of  the 
New-England  states.  In  the  sandy  soils 
of  Georgia,  South  Carolina  and  the  Flo- 
ridas,  it  gi'ows  to  a  great  size  and  is  very 
prolific. 

CATECHU,  see  Tannin. 
CATTLE,  see  Animals  Domestic, 
dee  also  Breeding  of  Cattle. 
CEDAK,  or  the  Pir.us  Cediiis,  is  of  a 


coniferous  evergreen  of  the  bigger  sort, 
bearing  large  roundish  cones  of  smootli 
scales,  standing  erect,  the  leaves  being 
small,  narrow,  and  thick  set. 

Cedar-wood  is  reputed  almost  immor- 
tal, and  incorruptible:  aprerogative  which 
it  owes  chiefly  to  its  bitter  taste,  which 
the  worms  cannot  endure. 

As  this  tree  abounds  with  us,  it  might 
and  ought  to  have  a  principal  share  in  our 
most  superb  edifices.  The  aromatic  efflu- 
via, constantly  emitted  from  its  wood,  is 
said  to  purity  the  air  and  make  rooms 
wholesome.  On  account  of  the  great  du- 
rability of  cedar  wood  it  was,  that  the 
ancients  used  cedar  tablets  to  write 
upon,  especially  for  things  of  importance. 
A  juice  was  also  drawn  from  cedar,  with 
which  they  smeared  their  books  and  wri- 
tings, or  other  matters,  to  preserve  them 
from  rotting,  and  the  destruction  caused  by 
the  worms.  Plantations  of  this  beautiful 
tree  might  conduce  to  the  ornament  as  well 
as  convenience  of  domestic  life  :  for  the 
wood  of  cedar  is  not  subject  to  the  depre- 
dations of  insects,  and  is  admirably  cal- 
culated to  withstand  the  effects  of  mois- 
ture :  hence  attempts  have  been  made 
to  imitate  it,  by  dyeing  inferior  wood  of  a 
red  colour  :  but  the  fraud  may  be  ea- 
sily detected  by  the  smell,  as  that  of  tlie 
cedar  is  very  aromatic.  Besides  the  nu- 
merous articles  of  the  cabinet-maker  and 
joiner,  the  wood  of  cedar  is  also  made 
into  moulds  for  black  lead  pencils. 

Cedar,  Red  and  White.  These  two  ce- 
lebrated  trees  are  of  different  genera. 
The  first  is  the  Juniperus  Virginiatia,  and 
the  latter,  Cupressus  Thy  aides.  The  red 
cedar  is  famous  in  America  for  affording 
the  most  durable  fence  posts,  and  in  Ber- 
muda for  its  duraljle  and  light  timber,  in 
the  constiHiction  of  fast  sailing  vessels. 
h\  Virginia  and  Carolina  the  berries  of  this 
treee  are  distilled  jnto  brandy.  The 
wood  is  said  to  preserve  furs  or  woollens 
enclosed  in  boxes  of  it  from  being  touch- 
ed by  motlis.  The  white  cedar  affords 
one  of  the  most  useful  woods  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  particularly  for  covering 
houses,  and  other  buildhigs  :  most  of  the 
houses  of  Philadelphia  are  roofed  with 
shingles  made  of  this  wood.  It  is  prefer- 
red to  all  other  wood  for  the  purpose  be- 
fore mentioned,  as  well  as  for  fence  rails, 
boarding  frame  buildings,  and  all  sorts  of 
inside  work  of  houses,  particularly,  where 
paint,  varnishing,  or  paper  hangings  are 
intended  ;  it  is  preferred  to  all  other  wood, 
for  coopers-ware,  such  as  wooden  cis- 
terns, tubs,  p:iils,  chums,  &c. 

This  celebrated  tree  possesses  an  ex- 
tensive range  on  the  Atlantic  coasts 
from  New  England  souths  ard  as  far  asv, 


CEM 


CEM 


East  and  West  Florida.  Its  natural  situ- 
ation and  soil  is  the  flat  country  near  the 
sea  shore  and  fifty  or  sixty  miles  back, 
where  swamps,  or  a  wet  morassy  soil 
abounds,  but  will  grow  very  well  if  plant- 
ed in  higher  land,  provided  tlie  soil  be 
sandy  and  moist. 

CIELING,  in  architecture,  is  the  top,  or 
roof,  and  sides  of  a  room,  made  of  plaster, 
laid  over  laths  nailed  on  the  bottom  of  the 
joist  of  the  upper  room  ;  or,  where  there 
is  no  upper  room,  on  joists  made  for  that 
purpose,  which  are  therefore  called  deling 
foists. 

Plastered  cielings  are  in  much  greater 
use  in  America  than  in  any  other  country  ; 
they  are  preferable  to  papered,  or  other 
cielings,  as  they  make  a  room  not  only 
lighter,  but  also  prevent  the  dust  from 
penetrating  through  crevices  ;  lessen  the 
noise  from  above  ;  check  the  progress  of 
accidental  fires ;  and,  during  summer, 
contribute  to  cool  the  air.    See  Cement. 

CEMENT.  Whatever  is  employed  to 
unite  or  cement  together  things  of  the 
same  or  different  kinds  may  be  called  a 
cement.  In  this  sense  it  includes  lutes, 
GLUES,  and  solders  of  every  kind,  but 
it  is  more  commonly  emplo}'ed  to  signify 
those  of  which  the  basis  is  an  earth  or 
earthy  salt.  We  shall  here  enumerate 
some  cements  that  are  used  for  particu- 
lar purposes,  and  in  the  following  article 
mention  calcareous  cements,  such  as  mor- 
tar, tarras  and  other  substances,  used  to 
close  the  joinings  of  bricks  or  stones,  in 
buildings 

Seven  or  eight  parts  of  resin,  and  one 
of  wax,  melted  together,  and  inixed  with 
a  small  quantity  of  plaister  of  Paris,  is  a 
very  good  cement  to  unite  pieces  of  Der- 
byshire spar,  or  other  stone.  The  stone 
should  be  made  hot  enough  to  melt  the 
cement,  and  the  pieces  sliould  be  pressed 
together  as  closelyas  possible  so  as  to  leave 
as  little  as  may -be  of  the  cement  between 
them.  This  is  a  general  rule  in  cement- 
ing, as  the  thinner  the  stratum  of  cement 
interposed,  the  firmer  it  will  liold. 

Melted- brim  stone  used  in  the  same  way 
will  answer  sufficiently  well,  if  the  joining 
be  not  required  to  be  very  strong. 

It  sometimes  happens,  that  jewellers, 
in  setting  precious  stones,  break  of!"  pieces 
by  accident :  in  this  case  they  join  them 
so  tliat  it  cannot  easily  be  seen,  witli  gum 
mastic,  the  stone  being  previously  made 
hot  enough  to  melt  it.  By  the  same  me- 
dium cameos  of  white  enamel  or  coloured 
glass  are  often  joined  to  a  real  stone  as  a 
ground,  to  produce  the  appearance  of  an 
onyx.  Mastic  is  likewise  used  fo  cement 
false  backs,  or  doublets,  to  stones,  to  alter 
their,  hue. 


Tlie  jewellers  in  Turkey,  who  are  ge- 
nerally Armenians,  ornament  watch-cases 
and  other  trinkets  with  gems  by  glueing 
them  on.  The  stone  is  set  in  silver  or 
gold,  and  the  back  of  the  setting  made 
flat  to  correspond  with  the  part  to  which 
it  is  to  be  applied.  It  is  then  fixed  on  with 
the  following  cement.  Isinglass,  soaked 
in  water  till  it  swells  up  and  becomes  soft, 
is  dissolved  in  French  brandy,  or  in  rum, 
so  as  to  form  a  strong  glue.  Two  small 
bits  of  gum  galbanum,  or  gum  ammonia- 
cum,  are  dissolved  in  two  ounces  of  this 
by  trituration  :  and  five  or  six  bits  of  mas- 
tic, as  big  as  pease,  being  dissolved  in  as 
much  alcohol  as  will  render  them  fluid, 
are  to  be  mixed  with  this  by  means  of  a 
gentle  heat.  This  cement  is  to  be  kept 
in  a  phial  closely  stopped ;  and  when  used, 
it  is  to  be  liquefied  by  immersing  the  phial 
in  hot  water.  Tliis  cement  resists  mois- 
ture. 

A  solution  of  shell  lac  in  alcohol  add- 
ed  to  a  solution  of  isinglass  in  proof  spi- 
rit makes  another  cement  that  will  resist 
moisture. 

So  does  common  glue  melted  without 
water  with  half  its  weight  of  resin,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  red  ochre  to  give 
it  a  body.  This  is  particularly  useful  for 
cementing  hones  to  theu*  frames. 

If  clay  and  oxide  of  iron  be  mixed  with 
oil,  according  to  Mr.  Gad  of  Stockholm, 
they  will  form  a  cement,  that  will  harden 
under  water. 

A  strong  cement,  insoluble  in  water, 
may  be  made  from  cheese.  The  cheese 
should  be  that  of  skimmed  milk,  cut  into 
slices,  throwing  away  the  rind,  and  boiled 
till  it  becomes  a  strong  glue,  which  how- 
ever does  not  dissolve  in  the  water.  This 
water  being  poured  off,  it  is  to  be  washed 
in  cold  water,  and  then  kneaded  in  warm 
water.  This  process  is  to  be  i-epeated 
several  times.  The  glue  is  then  to  be 
put  warm  on  a  levigating  stone,and  knead- 
ed with  quicklime.  This  cement  may 
be  used  cold,  but  it  is  better  to  Avarm  it ; 
and  it  will  join  marble,  stone,  or  earthen- 
ware, so  that  the  joining  is  scarcely  to  be 
discovered. 

Boiled  linseed  oil,  litharge,  red  lead, 
and  white  lead,  mixed  together  to  a  pro- 
per consistence,  and  applied  on  each  side 
of  a  piece  of  flannel,  or  even  linen  or  pa- 
per, and  put  between  two  pieces  of  metal 
before  they  are  brought  home,  or  close 
together,  will  make  a  close  and  durable 
joint,  that  will  i-esist  boiling  water,  or  even 
a  considerable  pressure  of  steam.  The 
proportions  of  the  ingi'edients  is  not  ma- 
terial, but  the  more  the  red  lead  predomi- 
nates the  sooner  the  cement  will  drj',  and 
[the  more  the  white  lead  the  contrary. 


CEM 


CEM 


This  cement  answers  well  for  joining 
stones  of  any  dimensions. 

The  following  is  an  excellent  cement 
for  iron,  as  in  time  it  unites  with  it  into 
one  mass.  Take  2  ounces  of  muriat  of 
ammonia,  1  of  flour  of  sulphur,  and  16  of 
cast  iron  filings  or  borings.  Mix  them 
well  in  a  mortar,  and  keep  the  powder 
dry.  When  the  cement  is  wanted  for  use, 
take  one  part  of  this  mixture,  twenty 
parts  of  clear  iron  borings  or  filings,  grind 
them  together  in  a  mortar,  mix  them  with 
water  to  a  proper  consistence,  and  apply 
them  between  the  joints. 

Powdered  quicklime  mixed  with  bul- 
lock's blood  is  often  used  by  copper- 
smiths, to  lay  over  the  rivets  and  edges 
of  the  sheets  of  copper  in  large  boilers,  as 
a  security  to  the  junctures,  and  also  to 
prevent  cocks  from  leaking. 

Six  parts  of  clay,  one  of  iron  filings,  and 
linseed  oil  sufficient  to  form  a  tough  paste, 
make  a  good  cement  for  stopping  cracks 
in  iron  boilers. 

Temporary  cements  are  wanted  in  cut- 
ting, grinding,  or  polishing  optical  glass- 
es, stones,  and  various  small  articles  of 
jewellery,  which  it  is  necessary  to  fix  on 
blocks  or  handles,  for  the  purpose.  Four 
ounces  of  resin,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
wax,  and  four  ounces  of  whiting  made 
previously  red  hot,  is  a  good  cement  of 
this  kind  ;  as  any  of  the  above  articles 
may  be  fastened  to  it  by  heating  them, 
and  removed  at  pleasure  in  tlie  same 
manner,  though  they  adhere  very  firmly 
to  it  when  cold.  Pitch,  resin,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  tallow,  thickened  with  bi-ick- 
dust,  is  nivich  used  at  Birmingham  for 
these  purposes.  Four  parts  of  resin,  one 
ot  bee*  wax,  and  one  of  brick-dust,  like- 
wise make  a  good  cement  This  answers 
extremely  well  tor  fixing  knives  and  forks 
in  their  hafts ;  but  the  manufacturers  of 
cheap  ai'ticles  of  this  kind  too  commonly 
use  resin  and  brick  dust  alone.  On  some 
occasions,  on  whicli  a  very  tough  cement 
is  requisite,  that  will  not  crack  though 
exposed  to  repeated  blows  ;  as  in  fasten- 
ing to  a  block  metallic  articles,  that  are 
to  be  cut  with  a  hammer  and  punch ; 
workmen  usually  mix  some  tow  with  the 
eenicnt,  the  fibres  of  which  hold  its  parts 
together. 

From  the  vast  variety  of  receipts  fi)r 
lutes  and  cements  of  different  kinds  the 
following  may  be  selected,  which  will  an- 
swer most  of  the  purposes  of  the  experi- 
mental chemist. 

To  prevent  the  escape  of  the  vapors  of 
water,  spirit,  and  liquors  not  corrasive, 
the  simple  application  of  slips  of  moisten- 
ed bladder  will  answer  very  well  for  glass, 
ajid  paper  with  good  paste  for  met^l.  lilad- 


der  to  be  very  adhesive  should  be  soaked 
some  time  in  water,  moderately  warm, 
till  it  feels  clammy,  it  then  sticks  very 
well.  If  smeared  with  white  of  egg  in- 
stead of  water,  it  adheres  still  closer. 

Another  very  convenient  lute  is  linseed 
meal  moistened  with  water  to  a  proper 
consistence,  well  beaten,'and  applied  pret- 
ty thick  over  the  joinings  of  the  vessels. 
This  immediately  renders  them  tight,  and 
the  lute  in  some  hours  dries  to  a  hard 
mass.  Almond  paste  will  answer  the 
same  purpose. 

The  use  of  the  above  lute  is  so  exten- 
sive,  that  no  other  is  required  in  closing 
glass  vessels,  in  preparing  all  common 
distilled  liquors,  and  it  will  even  keep  in 
ammonia  and  acid  gasses  for  a  longer 
time  than  is  reqviired  for  most  experimen- 
tal purposes.  It  begins  to  scorch  and 
spoil  at  a  heat  much  above  boiling,  and 
therefore  will  not  do  as  a^rc  lute.  '  It  is 
still  firmer  and  dries  sooner  when  n>ade 
up  with  milk,  or  lime  water,  or  weak 
glue. 

A  number  of  very  cohesive  cements  im- 
pervious  to  water,  and  most  liquids,  and 
vapors,  and  extremely  hard  when  once 
solidified,  are  made  by  the  union  of  quick- 
lime  with  many  of  the  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal  mucilaginous  liquors.  The  variety 
of  these  is  endless.  We  may  first  men- 
tion the  following,  as  it  has  been  exten- 
sively employed  by  chemists  for  centuries. 
Take  some  whites  of  eggs  with  as  much 
water,  beat  them  well  together,  and  sprin- 
kle in  sufficient  slacked  lime  to  make  up 
the  wliole  to  the  consistence  of  thin  paste. 
The  lime  should  be  slacked  by  being  once 
dipped  in  water,  and  then  suffered  to  fall 
into  powder,  which  it  will  do  speedily  with 
great  emission  of  heat,  if  well  burnt.  This 
cement  should  be  spread  on  slips  of  cloth 
and  applied  immediately,  as  it  hardens  or 
sets  very  speedily.  While  hardening,  it 
may  be  of  use  to  sprinkle  over  it  some  of 
the  lime  in  fine  powder.  This  cement  is 
often  more  simply,  and  as  conveniently,, 
managed,  by  smearing  slips  of  linen  on 
both  sides  with  white  of  ^^^,  and,  when 
a])plied  to  the  joining  of  the  vessel, shaking 
some  powdered  lime  over  it.  It  then  dries 
very  speedil}'. 

Another  lute  of  the  same  kind,  and 
equally  good,  is  made  by  using  a  strong 
solution  of  glue  to  the  lime,  instead  of  the 
white  of  egg".  It  sets  equally  soon,  and 
becomes  very  hard.  A  mixture  of  liquid 
glue,  white  of  c^^,  and  hme,  makes  the 
iut  (ffine,  which  is  so  firm  that  broken 
vessels  united  with  it  are  almost  as  strong- 
as  when  sound.  None  of  these  lutes  how- 
ever will  enable  these  vessels  to  hold  li- 
quids for  any  great  length  of  time.    JVIilk 


CEM 


CEM 


or  staVch  with  lime  make  a  good  but  less 
firm  lute. 

A  very  firm  and  singular  lute  of  this 
kind  is  made  by  rubbing  down  some  of 
the  poorest  skimmed-milk  cheese  with 
water  to  the  consistence  of  tliick  soup, 
and  then  adding  lime  and  applying  as 
above.  It  answers  extremely  well.  Lime 
and  blood,  with  a  small  quantity  of  brick- 
dust  or  broken  pottery  stirred  in,  is  used 
in  some  places  as  a  very  good  water  ce- 
ment for  cellars  and  places  liable  to 
damp. 

Plaster  of  Paris  mixed  with  egg,  milk, 
glue,  starch,  or  any  mucilaginous  liquor, 
also  makes  a  good  lute. 

Some  artists  mix  other  earths  with  the 
above  materials.  Thus,  a  very  good  ce- 
ment is  made  with  equal  parts  of  clay  and 
lime,  about  one-third  of  flour  and  white 
of  egg ;  or,  as  is  used  by  many  of  the 
aqua-fortis  makers,  a  mixture  of  colco- 
thar,  lime,  and  white  of  egg. 

All  the  above-mentioned  cements  with 
lime  become  very  hard  by  drying,  inso- 
much that  they  cannot  be  separated  from 
glass  vessels  without  the  help  of  a  sharp 
knife  and  some  violence,  and  hence  deli- 
cate vessels  and  long  thin  tubes  cemented 
with  it  are  apt  to  break  when  the  appara- 
tus is  taken  down,  and  sometimes  even  by 
the  mere  force  of  contraction  in  setting. 
It  is  a  great  advantage  however,  that  they 
may  be  applied  immediately  to  any  acci- 
dental crack  or  failure  of  the  lute  already 
on,  notwithstanding  a  stream  of  vapour  is 
bursting  through,  and  in  large  distilla- 
tions it  is  of  advantage  always  to  have 
some  of  the  materials  at  hand. 

These  lutes  will  not  confine  very  cor- 
rosive acid  vapours  perfectly  for  a  great 
length  of  time,  but  will  answer  for  other 
purposes,  particularly  where  a  compli- 
cated apparatus  is  to  be  kept  steadily  unit- 
ed and  air-tight.  They  will  bear  nearly 
a  red-heat  without  material  alteration. 

Another  kind  of  lute  whicli  is  the  most 
perfect  for  confining  acid  vapours  for  any 
length  of  time,  and  which  never  hardens 
to  an  inconvenient  degree^s  ihe^fat  lu  te  as 
it  is_  called.  This  is  made  by  taking  any 
quantity  of  good  clay,  tobacco-pipe  clay 
for  example,  thoroughly  dry,  but  not 
burnt,  powdering  it  in  an  iron  mortar, 
mixing  it  gradually  with  drying  linseed 
oil,  and  beating  them  for  a  long  time  to 
the  consistence  of  thin  paste.  Much 
manual  labour  is  required,  and  it  should 
be  continued  till  the  mass  no  longer  ad- 
heres to  the  pestle.  Then,  make  the  ed- 
ges of  the  glass  or  other  vessels  where  it 
is  to  be  used,  perfectly  dry,  and  apply  the 
lute  carefully,  and  it  will  stand  the  long- 
est process  without  failing.    This  grows 


firm  enough  to  retain  its  place  and  to  hold 
the  vessels  together,  but  may  readily  be 
separated  by  a  knife.  This  lute  much 
improves  in  adhesiveness  by  long  keeping, 
which  should  be  in  a  covered  pan  in  a 
cool  cellar.  When  wanted,  it  regains 
sufficient  ductility  merely  by  being  beat- 
en for  a  minute  or  two,  or  by  the  help  of 
a  few  drops  more  of  the  oil.  Good  gla- 
ziers putty,  which  is  made  of  chalk  beat 
up  with  drying  linseed  oil,  much  resem- 
bles the  fat  lute  in  quality. 

Often  a  fire  lute  is  required  to  join  the 
covers  to  crucibles,  or  for  similai-  purpo- 
ses,  so  as  to  keep  them  air-tight  when 
hot.  A  very  valuable  composition  of  the 
kind  is  made  of  glass  of  borax,  brick-dust, 
and  clay,  finely  powdered  together  and 
mixed  with  a  little  water  when  used.  No 
very  great  nicety  is  required  in  the  pro- 
portions, but  about  a  tenth  of  borax  is 
quite  sufficient  to  bring  the  earths  to  that 
state  of  semi-vitrification  which  is  desired. 
Litharge  may  also  be  used  instead  of  bo- 
rax, but  the  latter  is  by  far  the  best,  as  it 
promotes  that  thin  spreading  fusion  which 
is  best  calculated  to  be  equally  applied 
over  an  uneven  surface,  and  besides,  if  a 
portion  of  the  htharge-lute  were  to  drop 
into  the  crucible  it  might  possibly  be  re- 
duced, and  lead  introduced  into  the  re- 
sults of  the  experiment. 

A  cement  said  to  be  useful  to  stop 
cracks  of  iron  vessels  intended  to  be 
strongly  heated,  is  made  of  6  parts  of  clay, 
1  of  iron  filings,  and  linseed  oil  enough 
for  mixtui-e. 

Another  species  of  cement  is  what  is 
termed  by  the  French  Mastich  chaud,  a.nd. 
consists  of  difl'erent  kinds  of  oily  and  re- 
sinous substances,  liquid  when  hot,  and 
which  become  more  or  less  solid  by  cool- 
ing. They  are  useful  for  a  variety  of  mis- 
cellaneous purposes,  for  experiments  w  ith 
gasses  over  water  or  mercury,  and  others 
where  only  a  very  moderate  warmth  is 
used,  and  v/here  it  is  of  importance  to 
keep  out  air  and  water.  I'hese  will  also 
confine  acid  vapours,  but  not  the  vapoiu-s 
of  alcohol,  turpentine,  or  essential  oils, 
which  dissolve  most  resinous  substances. 
Most  of  them  will  stick  very  well  to  glass. 
Common  sealing-wax  is  o'lc  of  the  most 
useful  of  tliese  cements.  A  cheaper  and 
less  brittle  cement  is  made  simply  by  melt- 
ing bees  wax  with  about  one-eighth  of 
common  turpentine.  This  may  be  made 
up  into  sticks  to  be  used  when  wanted, 
being  first  melted  or  spread  evenly  with 
a  hot  iron.  A  greater  portion  of  turpen- 
tine renders  this  lute  softer,  and  more  fu- 
sible, but  somewhat  pliable. 

Chaptal,found  after  many  trials,lhat,the 
penetrating  vapours  of  sulphureous  acid 


CEM 


CEM 


ill  the  manufacture  of  alum  were  com- 
pletely confined  in  a  wooden  chamber, 
lined  very  carefully  with  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  pitch,  turpentine,  and  wax, 
boiled  till  all  the  essential  oil  was  dissi- 
pated (which  was  known  by  the  cessa- 
tion of  tlie  bubbles)  applied  melted  to  the 
wood,  and  spread  with  a  hot  trowel  over 
the  joints.  Vintners  stojj  leaks  in  their 
casks  with  melted  suet  I'ubbedover,  when 
cooling,  with  sifted  wood-ashes,  or  i)rc- 
viously  mixed  with  the   ashes   in  melt- 

The  use  of  gum  arable  dissolved  m  wa- 
ter for  cementing-  paper  tables  to  bottles, 
and  a  great  variety  of  miscellaneous  pur- 
poses is  known  to  every  one.  A  still  bet- 
ter cement  for  the  same  uses  is  ishiglass 
dissolved  in  vinegar  to  a  pretty  thick  con- 
sistence when  warm.  This  congeals  on 
cooling,  and  before  it  is  used  it  should  be 
g-ently  warmed. 

Many  of  the  varnishes  and  oil  paints  are 
employed  in  rendering  vessels  air  and 
water  tight. 

The  following  cement  is  said  to  be  very 
useful  in  joining  together  glass  or  steel. 
Take  of  mastich  five  or  six  bits  as  big  as 
peas,  dissolve  in  as  much  alcohol  as  will 
render  them  liquid.  In  another  vessel  dis- 
solve as  much  isiuglass  (previously  soak- 
ed in  water)  in  brandy  or  rum,  as  will 
make  two  ounces  by  measure  of  a  sti-ong 
glue  ;  warm  it,  and  incorporate  with  it, 
by  rubbing-,  two  or  three  small  bits  of  gal- 
banum  or  ammoniacum,  and  then  the 
mastich  solution.  Keep  the  cement  in  a 
bottle  well  stopped,  and  gently  warm  it 
before  use. 

Those  fusible  metallic  compounds  uijed 
to  unite  pieces  of  metal,  form  another  to- 
tally distinct  species  of  cements.  Tjjcse 
lire  termed  Solders,  under  which  they 
will  be  described. 

Some  inconveniences  occasionally  at- 
tend the  use  of  these  lutes  in  chemical 
operations.  The  application  of  them  takes 
uj)  time  and  requires  a  little  manual  dex- 
terity, which  can  only  be  learned  by  prac- 
tice. 

It  may  be  added,  that  the  modern  use 
of  Woulfe's  apparatus,  or  simihu-  contri- 
vances, so  completely  takes  away  tiie 
pressure  of  expansive  vapours  in  all  dis- 
tillations, that  in  many  instances  very 
simple  lutes  will  answer  now,  where  for- 
merly it  was  necessary  to  render  the  join- 
ings of  vessels  as  firm  as  the  vessels  them- 
selves. But  the  pi-oper  application  of  all 
these  kinds  of  cements  is  of  great  impor- 
tance to  the  practical  chemist  to  prevent 
continual  losses  and  disapuointments. 

CKMKNTS,  CALCAREOUS.  In  this 
Ju  tide  it  is  proposed  to  give  an  accotmt 


of  the  various  cements  used  in  building, 
into  which  lime  enters  as  an  essential  con- 
slituent  part;  and  in  order  to  treat  the 
subject  with  a  degree  of  clearness  in 
some  nrieasure  corresponding  to  its  impor- 
tance, it  will  be  advisable  to  arrange  eve- 
ry kind  of  calcareous  cement  under  one  or 
otherof the  foUowingthree divisions:  First, 
simple  calcareous  cement:  secondly,  wa- 
ter cements:  thirdlj-,  mastichs  or.  mal- 
tha. 

1.  Simple  Calcareous  Cements. — This 
section  includes  tliose  kinds  of  mortar 
which  are  employed  in  buildings  on  land; 
and  generally  consist  of  lime,  sand,  and 
fresh  water. 

The  various  kinds  of  marble,  chalk,  and 
lime  stone,  as  far  as  regards  their  use  iii 
cements,  may  be  divided  into  two  species ; 
the  first  being  pure,  or  nearly  pure  carbo- 
nat  of  lime,  the  second  containing  besides 
from  -^^  to  -L.  of  clay  and  oxyd  of  ii-on. 
Previous  to  burning  or  calcination,  there 
are  no  external  characters  by  which  the 
simple  limestones  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  argillo-ferruginous  ones ;  but  tlie 
former,  whatever  may  have  been  their 
colour  in  the  crude  state,  become,  when 
calcined,  of  a  white  colour,  while  the  lat- 
ter possess  more  or  less  of  a  light  ochery 
tinge.  The  brown  lime  is  by  far  the  best 
for  all  kinds  of  cements,  but  the  white  va- 
rieties being  more  abundant,  and  allowing 
of  a  larger  proportion  of  sand,  are  gene- 
rally HKide  use  of.  It  was  an  opinion  of 
the  ancients,  and  is  still  commonly  re- 
ceived among  architects,  that  the  hardest 
lime  stone,  ceteris  paribus,  furnishes  the 
best  lime;  hence  marble  was  considered 
as  superior  to  common  limestone,  and 
this  latter  to  chalk.  The  experiments  of 
Mr.  Smeaton,  however,  show  that  this  is 
entirely  a  mistake ;  common  chalk  and 
the  hardest  Plymouth  marble,  when  simi- 
larly treated,  affording  cements  of  equal 
firmness. 

When  carbonated  lime  has  been  tho- 
roughly burnt,  it  is  dcprivctl  of  its  water, 
and  of  all,  or  nearly  :ill  of  its  carbonic 
acid;  if  in  this  state  it  is  plunged  into  wa- 
ter, and  immediately  taken  out  again,  the 
water  which  it  has  absorbed  will  occasion- 
the  mass  to  crack  and  become  excessive- 
ly hot,  and  at  length  to  fall  into  an  impal- 
pable powder,  much  of  the  water  being 
carried  off  in  the  form  of  steam  during- 
the  process.  When  lime  luis  been  tlius 
slacked,  if  it  is  beaten  up  with  a  little  wa. 
ter  into  a  very  stiff  paste  and  allowed  to 
dry,  it  will  be  found  that  the  while  limes, 
will  liier  from  chalk  or  marble,  never  ac- 
fjuire  any  degree  of  hardness,  that  the 
brown  limes  become  considerably  indu- 
rated, though  yot  so  much  so  as  when 


CEM 


CEM 


mixed  with  sand,  and  that  shell  lime 
(procured  by  calcining-  sea-shells)  con- 
cretes into  a  lirm  hard  cement,  well  quali- 
fied for  dry  building-,  aitliough  it  falls  to 
pieces  in  water. 

A  proper  selection  of  sand  is  of  great 
importance  m  the  composition  of  mortar; 
the  sliarper  and  coarser  it  is,  the  better, 
both  because  it  requires  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  lime,  which  is  the  most  costly 
ingredient,  and  because  the  mortar  thus 
prepared  is  stronger  than  v\hen  fine 
grained  and  round  sand  is  made  use  of 
Se;i  sand  requires  to  be  well  washed  in 
fi-esh  water  to  dissolve  out  the  salt  with 
which  it  is  mixed,  otherwise  the  cement, 
into  which  it  enters,  never  becomes  tho- 
roughly dry  and  hard.  The  Roman 
builders  were  accustomed  to  allow  four 
parts  of  coarse  sharp  pit  sand,  and  only 
three  parts  of  river  or  sea  sand  to  one  of 
lime.  If,  however,  the  cement  was  re- 
quired to  be  very  compact,  the  propor- 
tion of  lime  was  increased:  thus  the  mor- 
tar used  in  constructing  reservoirs  for  wa- 
ter, consisted  of  two  parts  of  the  strongest 
lime  and  five  parts  of  pure  and  sharp  sand. 

The  weakness  of  modern  mortar  com- 
pai-ed  to  the  ancient  is  a  common  subject, 
of  regret,  and  many  ingenious  men,  taking 
for  granted  that  the  process  used  by  the 
Roman  architects  in  preparing  their  mor- 
tal* is  one  of  those  arts  which  are  now 
lost,  have  employed  themselves  in  mak- 
ing experiments  to  recover  it,  instead  of 
attending  to  the  directions  left  us  in  Pliny 
andother  authors,  which  when  illusti-ated 
by  the  actual  practice  of  builders  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Europe,  seem  to  leave  ht- 
tle  or  no  doubt  on  the  subject. 

The  characteristic  of  all  modern  artists, 
builders  among  the  rest,  seems  to  be  to 
spare  their  time  and  labour  as  much  as 
possible,  and  to  increase  the  quantity  of 
tlie  articles  they  produce  without  much 
regard  to  their  goodness;  and  perhaps 
there  is  no  manufacture  in  wliich  this  is 
so  remarkably  exemplified  as  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  common  mortar. 

One  radical  fault  is  the  use  of  chalk  in- 
stead of  stone  lime,  for  although  chalk 
when  pei-fectly  burnt  is  equally  good  as 
the  hardest  lime,  yet  it  possesses  two  ca- 
pital disadvantages ;  first,  it  will  fall  into  a 
coarse  powder  on  tlie  application  of  wa- 
ter, wlieii  it  is  only  partially  calcined, 
wliicli  stone  liuie  will  not ;  and  secondly, 
the  cores  or  unburnt  lumps  may  be  bro- 
ken down  by  a  blow  with  the  spade,  and 
are  therefore  very  seldom  rejected  as 
they  ought  to  be. 

The    metliod    of   preparing    common 
mortar  is  extremely  imperfect.     The  lime 
being  slacked  by  the   addition  of  water, 
VOL.  J, 


and  the  unburnt  lime  being  broken  down 
and  mixed  with  the  rest,  a  large  quantity 
of  dirty  sand  is  added,  and  the  whole  be- 
ing  incorporated  by  means  of  a  spade  is 
reckoned  to  be  fit  for  use ;  thus  the  princi- 
pal point  in  the  making  of  mortar,  namely, 
beating  the  ingredients  together  so  as  to 
mix  them  thoroughly,  is  sluned  over  in  a 
liasty  careless  manner,  and  the  result,  as 
might  be  expected,  is  a  crumbling  mass 
scarcely  fit  for  use.  I'he  Roman  build- 
ers, on  the  other  hand,  after  they  had 
mixed  together  the  materials,  employing" 
for  this  pur-pose  a  smaller  proportion  of 
water  than  is  customary  at  present,  put 
the  mass  into  a  large  wooden  mortal-,  and 
beat  it,  till  it  ceased  to  adhere  to  the  hea- 
vy wooden  or  iron  pestle  which  was  used 
on  the  occasion.  A  practice  this  wliich 
has  been  followed  by  the  Dutch  with 
complete  success,  as  will  be  shown  in  the 
next  section,  and  the  high  utility  of  which 
is  also  proved  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  in  his  his- 
tory of  Eddystone  light-house. 

Fresh   made   mortar,   if   kept   under 
ground  in  considerable  masses,  may  be 
preserved  for  many  months  without  inju- 
ry ;  and  the  older  it  is  before  it  is  used  the 
better,  the  builder  taking  the  precaution 
to  beat  it  up  afresh  previously  to  using  it; 
for  it  not  only  sets  sooner,  but  acquires  a 
greater  degree  of  hardness,  and  is  less 
apt  to  crack.     Pliny  informs  us,  that  the 
ancient  Roman  laws  prohibited  builders 
from   using  mortar  that  was   less   than 
three  years  old,  and  to  this  circumstance 
he  expressly  attributes   the   remarkable 
firmness  of  the  oldest  buildings  in  the 
city.     A   similar  law  prevailed,  and,  we 
believe,  still  prevails  in  Vienna,  requiring 
the  mortar  to  be  a  year  old  before  it  is 
employed.     But  there   is  nothing  which 
shows  in  so  striking  a  point  of  view  the 
advantage  and  necessity  of  beating  mor- 
tar,  and  that  the  effect  produced  is  owing 
to  something  more  than  a  mere  mechani- 
cal  mixture  of  the  ingredients,  as  the  pre- 
paration of  grout  or  liquid  mortar.     This 
differs  from  common  mortar  only  in  con- 
taining a  larger  quantity  of  water,  so  as 
to  be  sufficiently  fluid  to  penetrate  the 
narrow  irregular  cracks  and  interstices  of 
rough  stone  walls,  and  is  generally  made 
by  diluting  common  mortar  witli  water 
either  cold  or  hot.     It  not  unfrequently 
happens   tliat  this  grout  refuses  to    set, 
and  at  all  times  it  is  a  long  while  in  ac- 
quiring the  proper  hardness:  but  if  in- 
stead of  common  mor  I  ar,  that  which  has 
been  long  and  thoroughly  beaten  is  em- 
ployed, the  grout  will  set  in  the  space  of 
a  day,  and  soon  after  acquire  a  degree  of 
hardness  much  superior  to  what  is  made 
in  t!ie  common  manner. 


CEM 


CEM 


2.  Water  Cejnents. — Although  a  well 
made  mortar,  C(;mpo»ed  merely  of  sand 
and  iimc,  if  allowed  to  dry,  becomes  im- 
pel vious  to  water,  so  as  to  sei  ve  for  the 
lining-  of  reservoirs  and  aqueducts,  yet  if 
the  circumstances  of  the  building  are 
sue))  as  to  render  it  impr;icticable  to  keep 
out  the  water  whether  fresh  or  salt  a  suf- 
ficient leiigtli  of  lime,  the  use  of  common 
mortar  must  be  abandoned;  for  lime  and 
sand  if  mixed  together  in  any  proportions, 
and  put  wJiilc  soft  into  water,  will  in  a 
short  time  fall  to  pieces. 

Among  the  nations  of  antiquity  the  Ro- 
mans appear  to  have  been  the  only  people 
vvlio  practised  building  in  water,  and  es 
pecially  in  the  sea,  to  any  great  extent. 
The  bay  of  Bai?e,  like  our  fashionable 
watering  places,  was  tlie  summer  resort 
of  all  the  wealthy  in  Rome,  who  not  con- 
tent with  erecting  tlieir  villas  as  near  the 
shore  as  possible,  were  accustomed  to 
construct  moles,  and  form  small  islands  in 
the  more  sheltered  parts  of  the  bay,  on 
which,  for  the  sake  oftiie  g-rateful  cool- 
ness, they  built  their  summer  houses  and 
pavilions.  They  were  enabled  to  build 
thus  securely  in  the  water,  by  the  fortti- 
nate  discovery,  at  the  neighbouring  town 
of  Puteoli  of  an  earthy  substance,  wliicii, 
from  this  circumstance,  was  cnWed  pulvis 
Puteolavus  (powder  of  ruleoii).  Puteolan 
powder,  or  as  it  is  now  denoir.inatcd  Puz- 
zolana,  is  a  light,  porous,  friable  mineral 
of  a  red  colour,  and  is  generally  supposed 
to  deri^'e  its  origin  Irom  concreted  volca- 
nic ashes  thrown  out  from  A'esuvius,  near 
to  which  moimtain  the  town  of  Puleoh  is 
situated:  it  SL-eins  to  consist  of  a  feriugi- 
nous  clay  baked  and  calcined  by  the  force 
of  volcanic  hre,  and  when  mixed  with 
common  mortar,  not  only  enables  it  to  ac- 
quire a  remarkable  hardness  in  tiie  ai)-, 
but  to  become  sjp  h.m  as  stone,  even  un- 
der water.  The  only  preparation  which 
puzzolana  imderg-oes  is  that  of  pounding 
and  sifting,  by  whicii  it  is  reduced  to  a 
coarse  pov.cler :  in  this  state,  being  tho- 
rouglily  bea  en  up  witli  lime,  either  with 
or  witliout  sand,  it  forms  a  mass  of  re- 
iTiarkaOle  tenacity,  which  speedily  sets 
under  water,  and  becomes  at  least  as 
strong-  as  good  freestone.  In  the  compo- 
sition of  walei-  cemeiVis  it  is  that  the  supe- 
rior efficacy  of  argiilo  ferruginous  Iuik, 
compared  with  the  pu.'er  kl;  ds,  is  most 
strikingly  manifest ;  and  as  building  in 
water  is  generally  ^  ery  ex]x-nsive  and  dif- 
ficult to  repair,  every  precaution  should 
be  taken  to  sectire  the  goodness  of  the 
cement.  In  situations  exposed  to  the 
violent  shocks  of  the  sea,tiie  diflerence  of 
expense  between  the  best  and  inferior 
kinds  of  mortar  is  so  little,  compared  to 


I  the  whole  cost  and  the  satisfaction  of  per- 
1  feet  security  that  the  cement  ought  to  be 
I  of  the  very  best  quality.  That  which 
was  used  by  Mr.  Smtaton,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  Eddystone  liglit-house,  was  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  by  measure  of  slack- 
ed Abertiiaw  lime  and  puzzolana;  but 
for  works  that  are  less  exposed,  such  as 
locks  and  basons  for  canals,  &c.  the  pro- 
portions of  puz/.olana  may  be  considera- 
bly diminished.  A  composition  ot  this 
kind,  whicli  has  been  found  very  eflectual, 
is  two  bushels  of  slacked  Aberthaw  lime, 
one  bushel  of  puzzolana,  and  three  of 
clean  sand;  the  whole  being  beaten  well 
together  with  the  proper  quantity  of  wa- 
ter, will  yield  4-6r  cubic  teet  of  cement. 

The  Dutch  have  practised  building  in 
water  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
nation  of  modern  Europe  ;  and  to  tiiem  is 
due  the  discovery  of  a  cement  admirably 
well  qualified  for  this  purpose,  and  called 
tarras  or  trass.  This  is  nothing  more 
than  wakke  or  cellular  basalt;  and  is  pro- 
cured chiefly  from  Bockenheim,  Frank- 
fort on  tile  Maine,  and  Andernach,  whence 
it  is  transported  down  the  Rhine  in  large 
quantities  to  Holland.  It  undergoes  no 
further  preparation  than  grinding  and 
sifting,  and  being  thus  reduced  to  the 
consistence  of  coarse  sand  it  is  beaten  up 
with  the  blue  argillaceous  lime  from  the 
banks  of  the  Scheld,  and  thus  composes 
the  celebrated  tan-as  mortar  with  which 
tlie  mounds  and  other  constructions  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  lowlands  of 
Holland  against  the  sea  are  cemented. 
The  strongest  tarras  mortar  is  composed 
of  two  measures  of  slacked  lime,  and  one 
of  tarras ;  ai. other  kind  almost  equally 
good  and  considerably  cheaper,  is  made 
of  two  measures  (jf  slacked  lime,  one  of 
tarras,  and  thiee  of  coarse  clean  sand;  it 
reqiiires  to  be  beaten  a  longer  time  tlian 
the  foregoing,  and  produces  three  and  aii 
half  measures  of  excellent  mortar.  When 
the  building  is  constructed  of  rough  ir- 
regular stone."-;,  where  cavities  and  large 
joints  are  to  be  filed  up  with  cement,  the 
jiebble  mortar  may  be  most  advantage- 
ously ^apphed :  tills  was  a  favourite  mode 
of  construction  among  the  Romans,  and 
has  been  used  ever  since  their  time  in 
those  Avorks  in  wliich  a  large  quantity  of 
mortar  is  required.  Pebble  mortar  will 
be  found  of  siifiicient  compactness,  if  com- 
posed of  two  measures  of  slacked  argil- 
laccous  lime,  lialf  a  measure  of  tarras  or 
puzzolana,  one  measuie  of  coarse  sand, 
one  of  fine  sand,  and  four  of  small  peb- 
bles, screened  and  washed.  Although 
the  cellular  basalt  is  the  only  kind  ad- 
mitted into  the  preparation  of  Dutch  tar- 
ras, yet  it  appears  fi-om  some  good  expc 


CEM 


CEM 


riments  of  Morveau  on  the  subject,  that  j  mixing'  it  accurately  with  three  bushels  of 
the  common  compact  basult,  if  previously  i  wood  ashes:  the  mass  is  to  lie  till  it  is 
calcined,  will  answer  ne;u'ly  tlie  same  pur- j  cold,  and  is  then  to  be  well  beaten:  in 
pose.  Tlie  compact  basalt  abounds  in  |  this  state  it  will  kt-ep  a  considei  »ble  time 
all  the  districts  where  coal  is  raised,  and  i  without  injury,  and  even  \\i\\:  advantage, 
may  theieture   be   procured  easily,    and  •'  provided  it  is  thoroughly  beaten  twice  or 


calcined  with  the  refuse  coal,  so  as  to  be 
sold  at  a  ciieap  rate. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Low  Countiies  coal 


tlirice  befbi  e  it  is  used. 

The  scales  of  black  oxyd  which  are  de- 
tached by  hauimering  red-hot  iron,   and 


ashes  are  substituted  for  tarras  with  very  |  are  theiefore  to  be  procured  at  the  forges 


good  effect,  of  which  the  valuable  cendree 
de  Tournay  is  a  striking  instance.  Ihe 
deep  blue  argillo  fenuginous  lime-stone 
of  tiie  Scheld  is  burnt  in  kilns   with    a 


and  blacksmiths'  shops,  have  been  long 
known  as  an  excellent  material  in  water 
cements,  but  we  believe  that  Mr.  Smea- 
ton  was  the  first  person  who  made  any  ac- 


sla.y  kind  of  pit  coal  that  is  found  in  the  '  curate  expeiiments  on  their  efficacy  com- 
neiglibourhood:  when  the  calcination  of  1  pared  with  other  sub.stances  The  scales 
the  lime  is  completed,  the  pieces  are  ta- ;  being  puherizc-d  and  sifted,  and  incorpo- 
ken  out,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  j  rated  with  the  lime  in  the  same  manner  as 
dust  and  small  fragments  remain  at  the  i  puz/.olana,  are  found  to  produce  a  cement 
bottom  of  he  kiln.  This  refuse  consists  'equally  powerful  with  pu^zolana  mortar, 
of  coal  ash  mixed  with  about  one  quarter  I  if  employed  in  the  same  quantity.  In- 
of  lime  dust,  Iroin  which  the  cendree  is  '  duced  by  the  success  of  these  cxperi- 
thus  prepared.  About  a  bushel  of  the  ments,  Mr.  Smeaton  substituted  loasted 
materials  is  ptit  in  any  suitable  vessel,  j  iron  ore  for  the  scales,  and  found  that  this 
andsprinkled  with  water,  just  sufficient  to  I  also  gave  to  inorur  thf;  property  ot  .set- 
slack  the  lime  ;  another  bushel  is  then  |  ting  under  i'  ater :  k  requires  howt  ver  to 
treated  in  the  same  way  and  so  on  till  tl it  j  be  used  in  gi-eater  proportions  than  ei- 
vessel  is  filled:  in  this  stale  it  rtrmains  j  ther  tanas  or  puz^olana;  twobushils  of 
some  weeks,  and  may  be  kept  for  a  much  '  argillaceous  lime,  .wo  of  iron  ore,  and  one 
longer  time  if  covered  wi.h  moist  earth,  i  of  sand,  being  mixed  with  the  s.ame  care 
A  strong  open  trough,  containing  about  ■  as  we  have  aircad;.-  mentioned,  j.roduce 
two  cubic  feet,  is  filled  about  two-thirds  j  3-22  cubic  leet  of  cement  fully  equal  to 
full  with  the  cement  in  the  above  state,  I  tarras  mortar  Ifthe  common  white  lime 
and  by  means  :  f  a  heavy  iron  pestle,  sus-  :  is  made  use  of,  it  will  beadviscable  toem- 
pended  a' the  end  of  an  elastic  pole,  is  well  ;-i)loy  equal  qtiantities  of  all  the  thi'ee  in- 
beaten  for  about  half  an  hour ;  at  tiie  end  j  gredients. 

of  this  time  it  becomes  of  the  consistence  Nothing  more  remains  to  be  said  on 
of  soft  mortar,  and  is  then  laid  in  the  shade  !  this  part  of  the  subject  but  a  few  words 
from  three  to  six  days,  according  to  the 'concerning  the  choice  of  the  watir  by 
dryness  of  the  air;  when  sufficiently  dry,  j  which  the  several  ingredients  of  the  ce- 
it  is  beaten  again  for  half  an  hour  as  be-  '  ment  are  to  be  mingled  together.  River 
fore,  and  the  oftener  it  is  beaten,  the  bet- !  or  pond  water,  where  it  can  be  had  easily, 
ter  will  be  the  cement;  three  or  four  :  is  to  be  preferred  to  spring  water ;  but  for 
times  however  are  sufficient  to  reduce  ■  works  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sea, 
the  cement  to  the  consistence  of  an  uni-  \  such  as  piers,  light-houses,  &,c.  it  is  usu- 
form  smooth  paste;  after  this  period  it  is  ially  more  convenient,  and  equally  advan- 
apt  to  become  refractory  on  .icconnt  of  jtageous  in  other  respects  to  use  salt  wa- 
the  evaporation  of  its  water,  as  no  more  ter.  The  great  point,  and  which  is  too 
of  this  fluid  is  allowed  to  enter  the  com-  {often  neglected,  is  not  to  put  in  too  much 

of  either  one  or  the  other :   it  is  infinitely 


position  than  what  was  at  first  employed 
to  slack  the  lime.  The  cement  thus  pre- 
pared is  found  to  possess  the  singular  ad- 
vantage of  uniting,  in  a  few  minutes,  so 
firmly  to  brick  or  stone,  that  still  water 
ma)  be  innnediately  let  in  upon  the  work 
without  any  inconvenience;  and  by  keep- 
ing it  dry  for  twenty-four  hours,  it  h:is 
afterwards  nothing  to  fear  from  tlie  most 
rapid  c  u'rent. 

Somewhat  analogous  to  the  preceding 
is  a  Cement  used  in  certain  parts  of  Kng- 
land    with    advantage,    and  called    ash 


better  to  employ  no  more  than  is  requi- 
site to  slack  the  lime,  and  so  hicoi-porate 
the  materials  at  the  expense  of  a  little 
more  labour,  than  by  a  superfluity  of  wa- 
ter to  bi'ing  the  whole  to  the  proper  con- 
sistence without  beating. 

3.  Maltha  or  JMastich. — Under  this 
term  we  include  those  calcareous  cements 
of  a  more  complicated  kind,  whose  hard- 
ness appears  to  depend  on  the  oily  and 
mucilaginous  subi^tances  that  enter  into 
their  composition.     The  use  of  these  is  at 


mortar.     It  is  pi epan  d  b\'  slacking  two  :  present  very  limited,  at  kast  in  Europe  ; 
bushels  of  fresh  burnt  meagre  lime,  and  j  but  they  were  highly  esteemed  by  the 


CEM 


CER 


ancients,  especially  for  stucco.    The  mal- 
tha of  the  Greeks  seems  to  have  been 
more  simple  than  that  employed,  by  the 
Roman  architects ;  at  least,  we  are  inform- 
ed that  Panjenus,  the  brother  of  Thidias, 
lined  the  inside  of  the  temple  of  Minerva 
at  Elis,  with  a  stucco,  in  which  the  usual 
materials  (sand  and  lime)  were  mixed  up 
with  milk  instead  of  water,  some  safi'ron 
being  also  added  to  give  it  a  yellow  tinge. 
The  Roman  maltha,  according  to  Pliny, 
was  prepai'ed  in   the  following  manner. 
Take  fresh  burnt  lime,  slack  it  with  wine, 
and  beat  it  up  very  well  in  a  mortar  witli 
hogs'-lard  and  figs :  this  cement,  if  well 
made,  is  excessively  tenacious,  and  in  a 
short  time  becomes  harder  than  stone : 
the  surface  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  is 
to  be  previously  oiled  in  order  to  make  it 
adhei-e.     Another    kind    almost  equally 
strong,  and  considerably  cheaper,  was  pre- 
pared by  beating  up  together  fine  slacked 
lime,  pulverized  iron  scales,  and  bullock's 
blood.    In  the  preparation  of  mastichs,  as 
well  as  of  every  other  kind  of  mortar,  so 
much  depends  on  the  manipulation,  and 
especially  on  the  care  which  is  taken  to  in- 
corporate the  ingi'edients  by  long  beating, 
that  those  countries  in  which  labour  is  of 
the  least  value,  possess  in  general  the  best 
mortar.     Hence,    no    doubt,   principally 
arises  the   unrivalled  excellence   of  the 
mortar  made  by  the  Tunisians  and  other 
inhabitants  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
which,  according  to  Dr.  Shaw,  is  prepared 
in  the  following  manner.     One  measure 
of  sand,  two  of  wood  ashes,  and  three  of 
lime,  being  previously  sifted,  are  mixed 
together,  and  sprinkled  with  a  little  wa- 
ter; after  the  mass  has  been  beaten  for 
some  time,  a  little  oil  is  added :  the  beating 
is  carried  on  for  tln-ee  days  successively  ; 
and  as  the  evaporation  in  that  hot  climate 
is  considerable,  the  cement  is  kept  at  the 
proper  degree  of  softness  by  the  alternate 
addition  of  very  small  quantities  of  water 
and  oil.    The  cement  being  completed,  is 
applied  in  the  usual  manner,  and  speedily 
acquires  a  stony  hardness.     The  last  spe- 
cies of  maltha  that  wc  shall  mention  is  tlie 
celebrated  chunam  of  India,  v.here  it  has 
been  used  from  time  immemorial.     The 
method  in  wliich  it  is  prepared  at  Madras 
is  as  follows. 

Take  15  bu.shels  of  pit  sand,  and  1.5 
bushels  of  stone  lime,  slack  the  latter 
with  water,  and  when  it  has  fallen  to  pow- 
der, mix  the  two  ingredients  togetlicr,  and 
let  them  remain  untouched  for  three 
days.  In  the  mean  time  dissolve  20  lbs. 
of  molasses  in  water,  boil  a  peck  of  gramm 
(a  kind  of  pea)  to  a  jelly;  boil  a  peck  of 
jniraboliuis  also  to  a  jelly,  mi.x  the  three  li- 
quors and  incorporate  part  of  tlic  mixture 


very  accui'ately  with  the  lime  and  sand, 
so  as  to  make  a  very  fluid  cement :  some 
short  tow  is  now  to  be  well  beaten  into 
it,  and  it  is  then  fit  for  use.  The  bricks 
are  to  be  bedded  in  as  thin  a  layer  as  pos- 
sible of  this  mortar,  and  when  the  work- 
men leave  oft',  though  but  for  an  hour, 
the  part  where  they  recommence  work- 
ing is  to  be  well  moistened  with  some  of 
the  above  liquor  before  the  .-ipplication  of 
any  fresh  mortar.  "When  this  is  used  ibr 
stucco,  the  whites  of  four  or  five  eggs,  4 
oz.  of  butter,  or  sesamum  oil,  and  a  pint  of 
buttermilk,  are  to  be  ground  up  with  eve- 
ry half  bushel  of  cement,  and  the  mixture 
is  to  be  applied  immediately. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  experiments 
have  as  yet  been  instituted,  to  ascertain 
the  cause  of  the  induration  of  calcareous 
cements:  it  is  obviously  not  owing  to  the 
absorption  of  carbonic  acid,  because  in 
numerous  instances  the  cement  hardens 
long  before  the  lime  is  saturated :  in  the 
different  kinds  of  maltha  the  lime  com- 
bines with  the  albumen,  mucilage,  and 
oil,  Avith  which  it  is  in  contact,  and  in  all 
probability  takes  up  little  or  no  carbonic 
acid  ;  and  if  it  is  true  that  the  lime  in  old 
mortar  cannot,  by  burning,  be  reconverted 
into  quicklime,  it  may  reasonably  be  ques- 
tioned whethei",  even  in  the  simple  calca- 
reous  cements,  carbonic  acid  acts  so  im- 
portant a  part  as  is  usually  attributed  to 
it. 

CERUSE,  or  White  Lead,  is  a  white 
oxyd  of  this  metal  prepared  by  the  vapour 
of  vinegar.     See  Lead. 

CHALCEDONY.  Of  this  mineral  there 
are  two  subspecies. 

1.  Subspecies.  Common  Chalcedonj'. 
The  colour  of  chalcedony  is  bluish 
grey,  passing  into  milk-white  and  smalt- 
blue  ;  greenish  grey,  passing  into  apple 
and  olive  green  ;  and  yellowish  grey,  pass- 
ing into  wax  and  ochre-yellow,  yellowish 
and  blackish  brown,  and  brownish  black. 
Two  or  more  of  these  colours  are  not  ini- 
frequently  found  in  the  same  specimen,  of 
which  one  generally  forms  the  basis, 
while  the  others  are  distributed  over  its 
surlace  in  dots,  clouds,  or  stripes. 

It  occurs  in  geodcs  and  veins  in  Amyg- 
daloid ;  also  in  veins  accompanied  by 
quartz,  pyrites,  o:c-  in  porphyry.  It  was 
anciently  procured  from  Clialcedon  in  les- 
ser  Asia,  whence  its  name,  Init  at  present 
it  is  lovnid  principally  in  Scotland  and  the 
adjoining  islands,  in  Cornwall,  Iceland, 
Saxony,  llniigary,  Piedmont,  and  various 
parts  of  Asiatic  liussia. 
2d  Subspecies,  Carnelian. 
The  usual  coloiu"  of  this  mineral  is 
blood-red,  whence  it  passes  into  flesh-rod, 
rcddish-wliite,   milk-white,    orange,    and 


CHA 


CIIA 


honey-yellow :  two  or  more  colours  often 
occur  in  the  same  specimen,  disposed  in 
zones,  stripes,  and  arborizations. 

It  is  customary  among  modern  minera- 
logists to  p\sice  agates  as  an  appendage  to 
the  species  of  chalcedony,  since  it  is  to 
this  mineral  that  tiie  former  is  indebted 
for  its  most  striking  characters,  and  be- 
cause tlie  coloured  chalcedonies  pass  im- 
perceptibly into  agate 


the  process,  for  those  who  employ  them- 
selves in  the  preparation  of  this  article. 

Charcoal  may  be  preserved  to  an  inde- 
finite length  of  time,  and  in  the  ancient 
tombs  of  nortliern  nations,  entire  pieces 
are  frequently  discovered.  It  is,  therefore, 
jdeserving  the  attention  of  those,  who 
wish  to  preserve  valuable  records  from 
the  "destructive  tooth  of  time;"  for  there 
yet  exists,  according  to  Uodart,  charcoal 


Agate  is  a  mixture  of  chalcedony,  car-  made  of  corn  (probably  in  the  days  of 
neUan,  jasper,  hornstone,  quartz,  helio-  :  Cxsar)  which  is  in  so  complete  a  state, 
trope,  amethyst,  and  indiu-ated  lithomar- '  that  the  wheat  may  be  distinguished  from 
ga,  aggregated  into  binary  or  more  com- ;  the  rye. 

plex  combinations.  i      This  stib.stance  is  not  soluble  in  any  of 

Agates  are  found  for  the  most  part  in  the  acids,  but  may  be  dissolved  in  consi- 
nodules  m  Amygdaloid,  and  sometimes  in  derable  quantities,  by  plunging  it  into  a  so- 
Gj-psum  :  near  the  river  Wolga  they  oc-  lution  of  the  liver  of  sulphur,  to  which  it 
ciir  between  strata  of  secondary  lime-  imparts  a  green  colour.  Melted  with  co- 
stone  :  and  in  Siberia  certain  rocky  tracts  lorn-less  frits,  or  glasses,  it  gives  a  pale, 
consist  of  banks  ofpudding-stone,  of  which  dark,  yellow,  reddish,  brownish,  or  black- 
agate  and  chalcedony  form  the  principal  ish  colour,  accordingly  as  the  inflammable 
part.  "  matter  is  in  greater   or  less  proportion- 

The  most  beautiful  agates  that  Europe  Fresh  charcoal  made  of  wood  strongly  at- 
produces,  are  those  of  Oberstein  in  the  tracts  the  air,  and  will  absorb  it  for  a  con- 
Duchy  of  Deuxponts.  Those  of  Siberia  siderable  time  ;  but  Dr.  Priestley  unitorm- 
are  eminently  beautiful,  but  the  most  es-  ly  observed,  that,  after  submitting  it  to 
teemed  of  all  come  from  Ceylon  and  other  distillation,  the  expelled  air  was  less  ptire 
parts  of  India.  than  that  of  the  atm.ospliere,  and  part  of 

Agate  is  cut  into  cameos  or  seal -stones,  it  wnsfxed  tiir.  Hence  it  may  occasion- 
is  hollowed  into  snuff-boxes,  or  sawn  into  ally  be  employed  in  a  dry  and  po'on'.ered 
thin  plates  for  inlaying  tables,  and  is  ap-  state,  for  damp  and  foul  habitations. 
pUed  to  other  ornamental  purjwses.  The  Lastly,  Dr.  Priestley  has  discovered  that 
commoner  kinds  are  made  into  mortars  severalof  the  metals,  such  as  copper,  iron, 
for  the  enameller  and  chemist,  as  from  '  silver,  &c.  may  be  converted  into  charcoal, 
their  hardness  they  are  not  liable  to  be  i  by  passing  the  steam  of  either  spirit  of 
materially  abraded  by  pulverizing  the  '■  wine  or  turpentine,  over  them  when  red 
hardest  glass  and  stones  in  them.  The  :  hot ;  and  this,  by  way  of  distinction,  he 
coarsest  fi-agments  that  are  applicable  to  calls  the  charcodnj  metals.  As  charcoal 
no  other  use  are  formed  into  the  white  i  has  been  separated  from  the  purest  spirit 
gunflints,  which  are  harder  than  common  '  of  wine  in  tlie  process  of  making-  ether, 
flint,  and  not  so  brittle.  j  M.  Lavoisier  is  of  opinion,  that  it  is  one  of 

CHALK.     See  Lime.  |  the  constituent  parts,  or  elements,  of  that 

CILVIiCOAL,  or  Carbon  of  the  French  j  volatile  liquid, 
chemists,  a  sort  of  artificial  coal,  or  fuel.        Uses. — Besides     the    great    advantage 
consistingof  half-burnt  wood.  It  is  chiefly  .;  which  charcoal  affords  to  tlie  artist  and 
used,  where  a  clear  an^l  strong  fire  with-  ]  manufacturer,  it  has  lately  been  employed 


out  smoke  is  required ;  for  the  humidity  of 
the  wood  is  dissipated  by  tlie  fire  in  which 
it  was  prepared. 

The  art  of  making  charcoal  is  very  an- 
cient ;  for  even  Solo  mo  x  (I'ro  verbs  xxvi. 
21.),  distmguishes  that  kind  of  fuel  fi-om 
common  fire-wood.  Among  the  Romans, 
it  was  held  in  gi-eat  estimation,  and  JEmi- 
lius  Scaurus,  the  conqueror  of  tlie  Ligu- 
rians,  was  a  charcoal-merchant.  Pliny 
describes  the  piles  of  wood  erected  bv  the 
manufacturers  of  this  article,  and  observes 
that  the  blocks  ought  to  be  placed  in  a 
pyramidal  form,  coated  with  clay,  and  a 
hole  left  on  the  top  for  conducting  the 
smoke,  when  the  wood  is  set  on  fire. 
Thus,  it  would  be  unnecessaiw  to  describe 


with  consider.able  success,  1.  In  correct- 
ing the  biu-nt  or  empyreumatic  taste  of  ar- 
dent spirits  ;  2.  In  depriving  rancid  oil  of 
its  disagreeable  flavour ;  and  3.  In  restor- 
ing  putrid  meat.  For  these  useful  pur- 
poses, however,  it  is  fit  only  when  kept  in 
close  vessels  immediately  after  it  has  been 
prepared,  so  that  it  may  absorb  no  acidi- 
ty, or  fixed  air,  from  tlie  common  atmos- 
phere. When  employed  in  the  two  first- 
mentioned  cases,  it  should  be  previously 
reduced  to  powder,  a  very  large  quantity 
of  which  is  required  for  the  rectification  of 
distilled  liquor  ;  but  a  smaller  proportion, 
for  purifying  animal  or  vegetable  oil,  so 
that  even  the  common  train-oil  may  be 
rendered  fit  for  being  burnt  in  chamber- 


CHA 


CHA 


lamps.     Several  manufactories  of  this  des- 1  the  coals  of  various  vfg-etables,  with  res- 


cription  liave  lately  been  estibiished  in 
the  vicinity  of  London,  of  which  we  sliall 
only  mention  tliat  carried  on  by  Mr.  Joshua 
Collier,  of  Southwai-k. 

F."oni  the  great  attraction  which  char- 
coal possesses  for  any  kind  of  oily  matter, 
or  fit    that  invisible  something,  formerly 


])ect  to  their  habitude  to  fire  :  tlie  very 
light  coals  of  linen,  couon,  sone  lungi, 
Sic.  quickly  catch  fire  tVoni  a  spark,  and 
soon  consume :  tlie  more  dense  ones  of 
wouds,  and  roots,  are  set  on  fiie  with 
greater  difficulty,  and  burn  more  sl(<wly; 
the  coals  of  the  black  berry-be-ring  alder. 


caWiid  phi'og.'st  in,  it  is  excellently  adapted  j  of  the  hazel,  willow,  iime-tiee,  and  ma 
to  become  an  extensively  useful  agent  in  pie,  are  the  most  proper  foj  making  gun- 
varioiis  b,  .tnclies  of  the  arts.  We  sliall' powder,  and  other  pyrotcchnical  composi- 
therefjic  conununicate  the  following  ab- '  tions.  For  ihe  reduction  of  metallic  cal- 
stract  of  the  late  discoveries  made  on  this  •  ces,  those  of  heaviei-  wood,  as  oak  and 
subject,  ciiiefly  by  T'rot  LoA'itz,  of  St.  Pe- 1  beech,  are  preferable  ;  becmse  these  ap- 
tcrsbuigh,  [in  1786.]  Tliis  philosopher  'pear  to  contain  a  larger  piopoition  of  'he 
found,  that  charco.ll  rendered  the  crystals  inflammable  principle,  and  |erhaps  in  a 
of  tartar  very  white  and  pure,  when  em-  ,  niore  fix<  d  s'.ate  Qonsiderc  d  as  common 
ployed  in  preparing  them  ;  that  the  ma- ;  fuel,  those  of  the  heavy  woods  afford  the 
riiie  and  nitrous  acids  are  decomposed  by  ,  greatest  heat,  and  i  tquire  a  most  abundant 
being  distilled  upon  it ;  that  the  red  juices  '  supply  of  au%  in  order  to  keep  them  burn- 
of  vegetable  fruits  are  deprived  of  their  :  ing;  on  the  contrary, 'he  coals  of  the  light 
colour,  without  losing  part  of  their  acidi-  woods  letain  a  glowing  heat,  till  they  are 
ty ;  that  brown,  rancid  oils  are  rendered  j  consumed,  without  a  stiong  diaugiit  of 
sweet  and  clear,  by  agitating  them  for  [  jtir  :  the  bark  usually  crackles  while  burn- 
some  days  with  charcoal  in  powder  ;  that  i  ing,  which  is  seldom  the  case  with  the  coal 


it  changes  the  smell  of  putrid  vegetables 
to  that  of  a  pure  volatile  alkali,  and  produ- 
ces the  same  effect  on  fresh  meat.  By  boil- 
ing coals  in  powder,  with  honey,  the  pure 
saccharine  parts  of  the  latter  are  said  to  be 
separated,  and  the  hone\  to  become  a  vvell- 


of  the  wood  itself. 

Charcoal  is  likewise  of  considerable  ser- 
vice to  different  artists,  for  polishing  brass 
and  copper-plates,  after  they  have  been 
rubbed  clean  with  powdered  pumice 
stone.     Horn  plates  may  be  polished  in  a 


tasted  sugar.     Vinegar  concentrated  by  I  similar  manner,    and  a  gloss  afterwards 
freezing,  and  distilled  from  a  large  portion  J  given  them  with  tripoli.  Coals  of  diflerent 


of  powdered  coal,  is  extremely  strong, 
pure,  and  fragrant.  Corn-spirit,  merely 
shaken  with  coal,  loses  its  bad  flavour; 
and,  if  honey  be  added,  it  becomes  a  sweet 
and  pleasant  liquor.  Kven  the  tainted  fla- 
vour of  ardent  spirits,  when  impregnated 
with  any  vegetable  oils,  may  in  a  similar 
manner  be  destroyed ;  and,  if  the  spirit  be 
distilled,  the  residuum  is  said  not  to  be 
brown  ;  so  that  no  inconvenience  will  arise 
from  carrying  the  distillation  too  far 
'J'hese  effects  were  produced  by  every 
kind  of  coal,  whether  fossil  or  charred  ve- 
getable substances;  though  the  latter  ap- 
pear to  us,  in  many  respects,  preferable  to 
coke. 

Charcoal  is  of  the  greatest  utility  in  pu- 
rifying water  on  ship-board.  The  most 
oflensivc  water  maybe  rendered peifectly 
sweet  by  merely  filtering  it  tlnougli 
sponge,  maple,  hickory,  or  oak  charcoal, 
and  sand.  A  simple  apparatus  for  per- 
forming this  operation,  shall  be  described 
under  the  article  Kilter.  Casks  charr- 
ed on  the  inside  will  jireserve  water  a  long 
time  sweet ;  but  it  would  seem  to  be  a 
preferable  mode  (where  practicable),  to 
permit  the  water  to  undergo  the  usual  fer- 
mentation, and  then  draw  it  off  into  the 
charred  casks. 

There  are  considerable  differences  in 


substances  are  also  used  as  pigments ; 
hence  the  bone  and  ivcn-y-black  of  the 
shops.  Most  paints  of  this  kind  are  not 
onl}-  incorruptible,  but  also  possess  the 
advantage  of  full  colour,  and  work  freely 
in  all  the  forms,  where  powderypigments 
are  employed  ;  but  they  ought  U)  be  care- 
fiilly  prepared,  by  thoroughly  burnuig  the 
substance  in  aclose  vessel,  and  afterwards 
reducing  the  coal  to  a  fine  powder.  In 
drawing  outlines,  the  artist  avails  himself 
of  pieces  of  charcoal,  the  marks  of  which 
may  be  easilv  rubbed  out  Tor  this  pur- 
pose, the  smaller  .'iranches  of  a  tree,  such 
as  the  willow  and  vine,  are  usually  pre- 
ferred ;  and  which,  after  being  freed  from 
the  bark  and  pith,  afford  the  best  drawing 
pencils.  1)1-  Lewis  remarks,  that  the 
shells  and  stones  of  fruit  yielded  coals,  so 
hard  that  they  would  with  difficulty  m.irk 
on  jjaper,  while  those  of  the  kernels  of 
fruit  were  very  soft  and  mellow.  All  these 
experiments  must  be  conducted  in  proper 
vessels,  closely  covered  (the  barrels  of 
old  guns,  or  pistols,  may  occasionally 
serve  as  substitutes).  The  Doctor  levi- 
gated various  coals  into  fine  powder,  mix- 
ed them  with  gum-water  and  oil,  laid  ap- 
plied Ihem  as  paints,  diluted  with  differ- 
ent degiees  of  white.  When  laid  on  thick, 
they  all  appeared  of  a  strong,  full  black  5, 


CHA 


CHA 


nor  could  it  be  discerned,  that  one  was  of 
a  finer  colour  than  another ;  but  those  di- 
luted wiih  white,  or  spread  thin,  had  a 
blueish  cast  — Horns,  and  the  bones,  both 
of  fisli  and  land  animals,  produced  coals 
more  glossy,  and  of  a  deeper  colour,  than 
vegetables ;  and  which  in  general  were  so 
hard  that  paper  could  scarcely  be  stained 
with  them  ;  but  silk,  wool,  leather,  blood, 
and  the  fleshy  parts  of  animals,  jielded 
soft  coals  Some  of  these  remarkably  dif- 
fered from  others,  in  colour  ;  that  of  ivory 
being  superior  to  all,  and  doubtless  the 
finest  of  black  produced  by  fire. 

In  agriculture,  charcoal  has,  in  many 
parts  of  France  and  the  Netherlands, 
been  substituted  for  turf-ashes,  as  a  ma- 
nure. 

The  utility  of  charcoal  (oxyd  of  carbon) 
as  a  manure,  has  often  been  mentioned  by 
practical  writers,  but  was  not  much  re- 
garded until  Mr.  Kirwan  called  the  atten- 
tion of  chemists  to  the  subject.  Mr.  Deane 
says,  that  he  had  long  observed  the  great 
fertility  of  lands  near  to  where  coal  kilns 
were  burnt,  and  quotes  tl.e  Complete  Far- 
mer tor  a  confirmation  of  the  facts.  Car- 
bon is  now  known  to  be  one  of  the  most 
universal  materials  of  nature.  The  whole 
atmosphere  contains  always  a  quantity  of 
it  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid.  It  also  ex- 
ists in  limestone  in  the  same  form,  and  in 
the  black  earth  left  by  the  decomposition 
of  vegetable  and  animal  bodies.  .Morasses 
too,  consist  principally  of  tlie  carbonic  re- 
crements of  vegetable  matter. 

By  what  means  tliis  solid  substance  is 
rendered  fluid,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  en- 
tering the  fine  mouths  of  vegetable  ab- 
sorbents, is  not  yet  decided  by  ciiemists. 
It  is,  however,  sufficient  for  the  practical 
man  to  be  assured  of  the  fact,  tliat  he  will 
derive  much  benefit  from  strewing  char- 
coal on  his  land. 

Charcoal  prepared  from  maple  wood, 
and  finely  powdered,  makes  a  simple,  effi- 
cacious, and  safe  tooth-powder,  and  ought 
to  be  preferred  to  any  other.  The  way  to 
prepare  charcoal  in  the  nicest  manner,  is 
to  cut  the  wood  in  small  billets,  and  distil 
them  in  an  iron  cylinder,  having  a  tube  fix- 
ed to  one  end,  to  permit  the  free  exit  of 
the  smoke  and  water,  which  are  retained 
in  the  common  process  of  charring-  wood, 
and  tend  to  render  the  product  impure, 
and  of  a  disagreeable  taste-  When  no 
more  smoke  or  water  escape  from  the 
tube,  put  out  the  fire,  and  close  tlie  mouth 
with  clay  until  the  cylinder  cools,  or  the 
pieces  of  wood  may  be  put  in  a  pot  not 
closely  covered,  and  sunounded  with  live 
coals,  until  all  smoke  from  the  pot  shall 
cease.    Then  remove  the  coals,  and  close- 


ly lute  the  cover  with  clay  until  the  pot 
cools — then  powder  the  charcoal. 

Meat  which  has  been  kept  too  long  in 
summer,  may  be  deprived  of  its  bad  smell 
j  by  putting  it  in  water,  and  throwing  into 
j  the  pot,  when  beginning  to  boil,  a  shovel 
j  full  of  live  coals,  destitute  of  smoke  ;  after 
I  a  few  minutes  have  elapsed,  the  water 
!  must  be  changed,  when  the  operation,  if 
necessary,  may  be  repeated. 

It  is  probable  that  meat  surrounded  by 
fresh  charcoal  would  keej)  for  months. 

Mr.  Mushet  of  the  Carron  Iron  works, 
observes,  that  charcoal  is  preferable  to 
coke  for  the  manufactory  of  iron,  owing  to 
the  superior  quantity  of  unalloyed  carboa 
it  affitrds  to  the  iron.  A  determinate  quan- 
tity of  charcoal  by  measure,  will  smelt  and 
convey  principle  to  three  times  the  quan- 
tity of  iron,  that  can  be  done  by  the  same 
measure  of  pit  coal.  In  the  refinery  way, 
it  is  peculiarly  preferable. 

An  engineer  of  considerable  merit 
states,  that  in  this  respect  it  is  superior  to 
coke  in  the  proportion  of  7  to  12 

Charco.ql  is  one  of  the  greatest  non-con- 
ductors of  heat.  This  quality  renders  it  ap- 
plicable to  a  variety  of  economical  purposes. 

Finally,  the  uses  of  charcoal  are  very 
extensive  and  important.  Its  greatest  con- 
sumption is  as  an  article  of  fuel  both  for 
domestic  purposes  and  in  the  working  of 
metals.  It  is  of  indispensable  necessity  in 
the  laboratory  both  as  a  fuel  and  an  ingre- 
dient hi  all  kinds  of  reducing  fluxes.  Itis 
employed  to  convert  iron  into  steel  by  ce- 
mentation. It  is  an  essential  constituent 
part  of  gunpowder,  and  is  the  basis  of  al- 
most all  black  paints  and  varnishes.  It  is 
employed  by  mathematical  instrument- 
makers  and  others  in  polisliing  brass  and 
copper,  and  is  used  in  many  cases  with 
great  advantage  as  a  simple  and  effica- 
cious clarifier  and  purifier. 

From  a  late  account  given  by  Dr.  Metz- 
ler,  an  eminent  pliysician  in  Germany,  we 
learn  tlie  following  extraordinary  fact: 
The  corpse  of  a  person  that  had  been  mur- 
dered twelve  days,  was  brought  before  a 
coroner's  ^inquest ;  and,  contrary  to  the 
expectation  of  the  court,  there  was  not 
the  least  mark  of  putrefaction,  nor  any- 
offensive  smell  perceptible.  On  opening' 
the  intestines  of  the  abdomen,  they  were 
found  in  an  unusually  dry  state.  The  cause 
of  this  phenomenon  was  soon  discovered  ; 
for  it  appeared  in  the  course  of  examina- 
tion, that  the  body  had  been  kept  for  the 
whole  time  buried  in  dry  coals,  coarsely 
pounded,  at  least  twelve  uiclies  deep.  It 
was  still  more  remarkable,  "  that  the  car- 
tilaginous parts,  especially  those  of  the 
breast,  had  acquired  a  degree  of  softness. 


CHE 


CHE 


resembling-  that  ot'  butter."— We  submit 
the  application  of  this  singular  property  to 
the  discernment  of  our  readers. 

With  regard  to  the  treatment  of  per- 
sons suffocated  by  the  deleterious  vapour 
of  charcoal,  we  shall  in  this  place  only 
observe,  that  a  body  in  that  unfortunate 
situation,  ought  to  be  widiout  delay  ex- 
posed to  the  strongest  d:-aught  of  cold 
air ;  all  the  garments  loosened ;  volatile  spi- 
rits held  to  tile  nostrils;  the  body  well  rub- 
bed  either  with  vinegar,  or  with  a  diluted 
spirit  of  sal  ammoniac  ;  the  face  should  be 
turned  towai-ds  the  ground,  and  the  head, 
breast,  back,  &.c.  either  washed  with,  or 
the  whole  body  suddenly  plunged  into 
cold  water  ;  theii  drie<l,  and  again  washed 
with  vinegar ;  stimulating  c'ysters  re- 
peatedly administered,  and  venesection 
performed  at  the  jugular  vein,  or,  for  want 
of  medical  assistance,  anumber  of  leeches 
applied  to  the  neck,  and  temples.  If  tlie 
pulse  is  high,  but  not  otherwise. 

CHEKSE,  a  species  of  solid  food,  pre- 
pared from  curdled  milk  cleared  of  tlie 
whey,  and  afterwards  dried  for  use.  As 
this  article  constitutes  a  material  part  of 
domestic  consumption,  wc  iind  in  almost 
every  country,  one  or  more  places  cele- 
brated for  the  superior  quality  of  their 
cheese.  Hence,  wc  propose  to  enumerate 
the  principal  sorts  of  manufacture,  both  at 
home  and  abroad  ;  introducing  also  an 
account  of  the  mode  in  which  they  are 
prepared. 

1.  Stilton  Cheese  is  produced  in  the 
town  of  that  name,  in  the  county  of  Hunt- 
ingdon ;  and  from  its  peculiar  richness, 
and  flavour,  is  sometimes  called  English 
Farrtvesan.  The  process  of  making  it  is 
as  follows  :  the  night's  cream  is  put  to 
the  morning's  milk,  with  the  rennet ; 
■when  the  curd  /"*  come,  it  is  not  broken, 
as  is  usually  done  with  other  cheese,  but 
taken  out  whole,  and  put  into  a  sieve,  ui 
order  to  drain  gradually.  Wliile  draining, 
it  is  pressed  till  it  becomes  firm  and  dry ; 
when  it  is  placed  in  a  wooden  hoop,  or 
box,  made  to  fit  it,  as  it  is  so  extremely 
rich,  that  without  this  precaution,  it  would 
be  apt  to  separate.  Tt  is  afterwards  kept 
on  dry  boards,  and  turned  daily,  witii 
cloth  binders  round  it,  which  ai-e  tighten- 
ed as  occasion  requires-  After  being  ta- 
ken out  of  the  hoop,  the  cheese  is  closely 
botmd  with  cloths,  which  jire  changed 
every  day,  till  it  acquires;  sufficient  firm- 
ness to  support  itself:  vihen  these  cloths 
are  removed,  each  cheese  is  rubbed  over 
daily,  for  two  or  three  months,  with  a 
brush  ;  and,  if  the  weather  be  damp,  or 
moist,  twice  a  day  :  the  tops  and  bottoms 
are  treated  in  a  similar  manner  every  day, 
even  before  the  cloths  are  taken  oil'. 


Stilton  cheese  is  sometimes  made  in 
nets,  resembling  cabba^'e  nets;  but  these 
are  neither  so  good,  nor  sD  richly  flavour- 
ed, as  those  prepared  in  the  manner  be- 
fore described. 

Although  the  Stilton  farmers  are  in 
much  repute  for  their  cleanliness,  they 
take  but  little  jiains  with  the  rennet ;  as 
they,  in  general,  cut  small  pieces  from 
tlie  "jell  or  inavi,  that  are  put  into  tiie 
milk  ;  and,  being  gently  agitated  with  the 
hand,  bleak,  or  turn  it,  so  that  the  curd 
is  easily  obtained.  We  venture,  however, 
to  say,  that  their  valuable  cheese  might 
be  improved,  and  few  broken  ones  occur, 
if  they  would  prepare  the  rennet  in  the 
maimer  adopted  in  the  west  of  England  ; 
naniely,  by  keeping  the  veil,  maiv,  or  rcn- 
7iftJ>i7g  (as'  it  is  diiVerently  called),  perfect- 
ly sweet  and  fresh  ;  lor,  if  it  be  in  the 
least  degree  tainted,  the  cheese  will  never 
acquire  a  fine  flavour.  When  the  veil,  or 
maw,  is  fit' for  the  purpose,  a  strong  so- 
lution of  salt  should  be  made,  with  two 
quarts  of  soft,  sweet  water,  into  which 
aie  to  be  introduced  sweet-briar,  rose 
leaves  and  flowers,  cinnamon,  mace, 
cloves,  and,  in  short,  almost  every  kind  of 
spice  and  aromatics,  that  can  beprocured. 
The  whole  must  boil  gently,  till  the  li- 
quor is  reduced  to  llu'ee  pints,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  it  be  not  smoked. 
Tlie  spices  should  next  be  strained  clean, 
and  the  liquid,  when  milk  warm,  poured 
upon  the  veil,  or  maw.  A  lemon  may 
then  be  sliced  into  it,  and  the  whole 
stand  at  rest  for  a  day  or  two  ;  after 
which  it  should  be  again  strained,  and 
bottled.  Thus,  if  Mell  corked,  it  will 
keep  good  for  twelve  months,  or  longer, 
possess  a  fine  aromatic  odour,  and  impart 
an  agreeable  flavour  to  the  cheese. 

n.  Cheshire  Cheese,  is  prepared  in  the 
following  way  :  The  evening's  milk  is  not 
touched  till  the  next  morning,  when  the 
cream  is  taken  oft",  and  put  to  warm  in  a 
brass  pan,  heated  with  boiling  water : 
one -third  part  of  that  milk  is  heated  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  cows  beingmilked 
early  in  the  morning,  the  new  milk,  and 
that  of  the  preceding  nlglu,  thus  prepar- 
ed, are  poured  into  a  large  tub,  together 
with  the  cream.  A  piece  of  i-ennet,  kept 
in  lukc-wann  water,  since  the  preceding 
evening,  is  put  into  the  tub,  in  order  to 
coagulate  the  milk ;  with  which,  if  the 
cheese  is  intended  to  be  coloured,  a  small 
quantitv  of  armtto  (or  an  infusion  of  ma- 
rigoklsj  or  cai-rots),  is  rubbed  fine  and 
nii.Kcd;  the  whole  is  stii-red  together, 
and,  being  covered  up  warm,  allowed  to 
stand  about  half  aji  hour,  or  till  it  is  co- 
agulated ;  when  it  is  first  turned  over  with 
a'bowl,  to  separate  the  whey  from  the 


CUE 


CHE 


cdicls,  and  broken  soon  after  into  verj' 
Ki nail  particles  :  the  whey  being  separated, 
by  standing'  some  time,  is  taken  from  the 
curd,  wliich  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  is 
llien  collected  into  a  part  of  the  tub,  pro- 
vided with  a  slip,  or  loose  board,  to  cross 
the  diameter  of  the  bottonv,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  effecting  this  separation  :  on 
which  a  board  is  placed  weighing  from 
60,  to  120  pounds,  in  oi'der  to  press  out 
the  whey.  As  soon  as  it  acquires  a 
R-reater  degree  of  solidity,  it  is  cut  into 
slices,  and  turned  over  several  times,  to 
extract  all  tlie  whey,  and  again  pressed 
witli  weiglits  :  tliese  operations  may  con- 
sume about  an  hour  and  a  half  It  is  then 
taken  from  the  tub,  and  broken  veiy 
sniidl  by  the  hand,  salted,  and  put  into 
a  cheese  vat,  the  deptli  of  which  is  en- 
larged by  a  tin  hoop  fitted  to  the  top. 
Tlie  side  is  then  strongly  pressed,  both 
by  hand,  and  with  a  board  at  tlie  top, 
Well  weighted ;  and  wooden  skewers  are 
placed  round  the  cheese,  at  the  centre, 
which  are  frequently  drawn  out.  It  is 
then  shifted  out  of  the  vat,  a  clotli  being 
previously  put  on  the  top  of  it,  and  rever- 
sed on  the  cloth  into  another  vat,  or  again 
into  the  same,  if  wAl  scalded,  before  the 
cheese  be  returned  to  it.  The  top  or  up- 
per part,  is  next  broken  by  the  hand, 
down  to  the  middle,  salted,  pressed, 
weigiied,  and  skewered,  as  before,  till 
all  the  whey  is  exti'acted.  This  being 
done,  the  cheese  is  again  reversed  into 
another  vat,  likewise  warmed,  with  a  cloth 
under  it,  and  a  tin  hoop,  or  binder,  put 
round  the  upper  edge  of  tiie  cheese,  and 
within  the  sides  of  the  vat ;  the  former 
being  previously  inclosed  in  a  cloth,  and 
its  edges  put  within  the  vessel.  These 
various  operations  are  performed  from 
about  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  till  one 
at  noon.  The  pressing  of  the  cheese  re- 
quires about  eight  hours  more,  as  it  must 
be  twice  turned  in  the  val,  round  which 
thin  wii'e  skewers  are  passed  and  shifted 
occasionally.  The  next  morning  it  ought 
to  be  turned,  and  pressed  again,  as  like- 
wise at  night,  and  on  ihe  succeeding  day ; 
about  the  middle  of  which  it  is  removed 
to  die  salting  room,  where  the  outside  is 
salted,  and  a  cloth  binder  tied  round  it. 
After  this  process,  the  cheese  is  turned 
twice  daily,  for  six  or  seven  days  ;  then 
left  two  or  tlueedays  to  diy,  during  which 
time,  it  is  once  turned,  and  cleaned  every 
day  ;  and  at  length  deposited  in  the  com- 
mon cheese-room,  on  a  boai'ded  floor,  co- 
vered with  stravv^  where  it  is  turned  daily, 
till  it  acquires  sufficient  hardness.  The 
room  should  be  of  a  moderate  warmth, 
but  no  wind,  or  di-aught  of  air,  must  be 
permitted,  to  enter,  as  this  generally 
VOL.    I. 


cracks  tlie  cheese.  The  outsides,  ot  rinds 
of  them,  are  sometimes  rubbed  with  but- 
ter, or  oil,  in  order  to  give  them  a  coat. 

HI.  Gloucester  Cheese,  is  made  of  milk 
immediately  from  the  cow ;  but  which, 
in  summer,  is  thought  too  hot,  and  is, 
therefore,  lowered  to  the  requisite  degree 
of  heat,  before  the  rennet  is  added ;  by 
pouring  in  skim-milk,  or,  if  that  wiU  not 
answer,  by  the  addition  of  water.  As 
soon  as  the  curd  "  is  come,"  it  is  broken 
with  a  double  cheese  knife,  and  also  with 
the  hand,  ill  order  to  clear  it  from  the 
whey,  which  is  laded  ofl".  The  curd, 
being  thus  freed  from  the  principal  part 
of  the  whey,  is  put  into  vats,  wliich  are 
set  in  tlie  press  for  ten  or  fifteen  mmutes, 
in  order  to  extract  all  tlie  remaining  li- 
quid. It  is  then  turned  out  of  the  vats 
iiito  the  cheese  tubs  again ;  broken  small, 
and  scalded  witli  a  pailful  of  water,  lower- 
ed with  whey,  about  three  parts  of  watef 
to  one  of  whey  ;  and  the  whole  is  briskly 
agitated,  the  curd  and  water  being  equal- 
ly  mixed  together.  After  having  stood 
a  few  minutes,  to  let  the  curd  subside, 
tlie  liquor  is  poured  off;  and  the  former 
collected  into  a  vat,  the  surface  of  which 
is,  when  about  half  full,  sprinkled  with  a 
little  salt,  that  is  worked  in  among  the 
curd.  The  vat  is  then  filled  up,  and  the 
whole  mass  turned  two  or  three  times  in 
it,  the  edges  being  pared,  and  the  middle 
rounded  up  at  each  turning.  At  length, 
the  curd  is  put  into  a  cloth,  and  placed  in 
the  press,  whence  it  is  carried  to  the 
shelves,  and  turned,  generally,  once  a  dav, 
till  it  has  acquired  a  sufficient  degree  of 
compactness,  to  enable  it  to  undergo  the 
operation  of  washing. 

ly.  Wilts/lire  Cheese.  The  milk  which 
produces  this  cheese  is  ru.i,  as  it  comes 
from  the  cow,  or  as  it  happens  to  be 
loitered,  by  the  small  quantity  of  skim- 
milk  mLxed  v.ith  it.  The  curd  is  first 
broken  witii  thehandanddish,  care  being 
taken,  in  first  crushhig  the  curd,  to  let 
the  whey  run  off  gradually,  to  prevent 
its  earning  away  with  it  tlie  "fat"  of  the 
cowl.  For  thin  cheese,  the  curd  is  not 
broken  so  fine  as  in  Gloucestershire  ;  for 
thick  cheese,  it  is  crushed  still  finer  ;  and, 
for  what  is  called  iowses,  it  is,  in  a  man- 
ner, reduced  to  atoms.  The  whey  is 
poured  oft'  as  it  rises,'  and  the  curd  pres- 
sed down.  The  mass  of  curd  is  {hen  pa- 
red dou-?i,  three  or  four  times  over,  in 
slices  about  an  mch  thick,  in  order  to  ex- 
tract all  tlie  whey  from  it,  pressed,  and 
scalded  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  Glou- 
cester cheese.  After  sepai-ating  the  whey, 
the  curd  is,  in  some  dairies,  rebroken, 
and  saited  in  the  co-al ;  while,  in  others, 
it  is  taken  warm  out  of  tlie  liquo]-,  aiid 

c  c 


CHE 


CHE 


salted  in  the  vat :  thin  cheese  bein^  pla- 
ced, with  a  small  handful  of  salt,  in  one 
layer  ;  thick  ones,  with  two  small  hand- 
fills,  in  two  layers  ;  loaves,  with  two  liand- 
fuls,  in  three  or  four  lajers  ;  the  salt  being 
spread,  and  rubbed  uniformly  among'  the 
curd.  Wiltshire  cheese  is  commonly 
salted  twice  in  tJie  press,  where  it  remains 
in  proportion  to  its  thickness  ;  thin  cheese 
three  or  four  meals  ;  thick  ones,  four  or 
five  ;  and  loaves,  five  or  six. 

Wiltshire  cheese  is  esteemed  among  the 
best  kinds  that  are  made  in  England4 

Y.  Cottenham  Cheese.  The  superiority 
of  this  cheese,  both  in  delicacy  and  fla- 
vour, is  not  ascribed  to  any  particular 
management  of  the  dairies,  but  solely  to 
the  fragrant  nature  of  the  herbage  on  the 
commons. 

VI.  Suffolk,  or  Skim-Cheese.  The  curd 
used  in  making  this  cheese,  is  "  broken 
up,"  in  the  whey,  which  is  poured  off,  as 
soon  as  the  former  has  subsided  ;  the  re- 
mainder, witli  the  curd,  being  thrown  in- 
to a  coarse  strainer,  and  exposed  for 
cooling,  is  then  pressed  as  tightly  as  pos- 
sible ;  after  which,  it  is  put  into  a  vat, 
and  set  in  a  press,  for  a  few  minutes,  to 
dischai'ge  the  remaining  whey.  When  all 
the  liquid  part  is  drained  ofl,  the  curd  is 
taken  out,  again  broken  as  finely  as  pos- 
sible, salted,  and  returned  to  the  press. 
In  some  large  dahies,  mills  are  employed 
for  breaking  the  curd.  This  kind  of 
cheese  is  much  used  at  sea,  as  being  less 
liable  to  be  afiected  by  the  heat  of  warm 
climates,  than  the  others. 

Dr.  Anderson  remarks,  that  these 
cheeses  are  remarkable  for  **a  horny 
hai'dness  and  indigestible  quality." 

VII.  Chedder  Cheese,  is  held  in  high  es- 
timation ;  but  its  goodness  is  attributed 
chiefly  to  the  land  on  which  the  cows  feed ; 
as  the  method  of  making  it  is  similar  to 
that  pursued  throughout  Somersetshire, 
and  the  adjoining  counties. 

ATil.  Lincolnshire  Cheese.  By  adding 
the  cream  of  one  meal's  milk,  to  that 
which  comes  immediately  from  the  cow, 
excellent  cream  cheese  is  made  in  that 
county.  It  is  gently  pressed  two  or  three 
times,and  turned  for  a  few  days,previously 
to  its  being  sent  to  market.  This  cheese 
is  usually  eaten  whilst  new, 

Jiath  Cheese — Take  6  quai'ts  of  luke- 
warm new  milk,  to  which  should  be  add- 
ed two  quarts  of  spring  watei*,  and  one 
large  table-spoonful  of  rennet:  when  the 
coagulation  is  completed,  which  general- 
ly takes  place  in  half  an  hour,  the  curd 
must  be  broken  to  pieces  ;  then  suffered 
to  settle  ;  and,  after  straining  the  whey, 
it  should  be  put  into  square  vats.    In  tlie 


course  of  an  hour,  it  will  be  requisite  it 
turn  the  curd  ;  which  operation  must  be 
repeated  after  some  hours,  or  at  night ; 
and  continued  twice  every  day,  till  the 
cheese  be  fit  for  the  table. 

Hafod  Cheese — Let  30  gallons  of  new 
milk,  and  3  gallons  of  sweet  cream,  be 
mixed  with  tlie  juice  expressed  from  one 
peck  of  picked  marigold  flowers.  One- 
fourth  of  a  pint  of  sack  or  canary  wine  and 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  rennet  contained  in 
a  bag,  together  with  cloves  and  mace, 
in  order  to  coagulate  the  milk.  When 
the  curd  is  formed,  it  must  be  broken  very 
small;  and  after  carefully  expressing  the 
whey,  it  ought  to  be  put  into  a  cheese  vat, 
covered  with  a  wet  cloth,  and  pressed  by 
the  hands.  A  pound  of  newly  made  but- 
ter is  then  to  be  incorporated  with  such  :i 
quantity  of  salt  as  may  be  required  to 
season  the  cheese ;  and  after  combining 
these  ingredients  with  the  curd,  the  whole 
must  again  be  put  into  the  vat,  and  treat- 
ed in  the  manner  above  described.  Now, 
the  cheese  must  be  submitted  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  press ;  the  wet  cloths  be 
changed  for  dry  ones,  every  foui"  hoiu-s  -, 
and,  after  having  been  thus  squeezed  for 
24  hours,  it  should  be  placed  beneatli  a 
smaller  weight,  and  pressed  for  one  week; 
during  which  it  ought  to  be  turned  every 
day  :  at  the  expiration  of  that  period,  it 
must  be  removed  to  a  dry  place,  and 
shifted  every  other  day,  till  it  be  ready 
for  use. 

Hafod  Toasted  Cheese,  is  prepared  by 
warming  new  milk  above  the  natural  tem- 
perature ;  after  which  the  rennet  is  add- 
ed. As  soon  as  the  curd  is  come,  it  must 
be  completely  drained  of  the  whey,  and 
afterwards  scalded  with  this  liquor.  The 
curd  is  now  to  be  pressed  in  the  cheese 
mould,in  order  to  render  it  as  dry  as  its  na- 
ture will  admit;  when  it  is  to  be  broken  into 
small  pieces  by  the  hand,  and  seasoned 
with  a  proper  c[uantlty  of  salt.  Now  it  is 
again  submitted  to  tlie  press,  and  treated 
ui  the  usual  manner.  This  process, though 
more  simple  than  that  pursued  in  Glou- 
cestershire, produces  a  toasting  cheese, 
little  inferior  to  that  prepared  in  the  latter 
county. 

Having  thus  given  an  account  of  the 
principal  sorts  of  cheese  produced  in  En- 
gland, we  sliall  likewise  enumerate  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  kinds  prepai'ed  on 
the  continent. 

1.  The  JParmesan  Cheese  is  made  of  the 
evening's  milk,  after  having  been  skim- 
med in  the  morning,  and  at  noon,  and 
mi.ved  with  that  of  the  morning,  which 
has  likewise  been  previously  skimmed  at 
noon.  The  whole  is  poured  into  a  copper 


CHE 


CHE 


cauldron,  resembling  an  inverted  bell, 
and  suspended  on  the  arm  of  a  lever,  so 
as  to  be  moved  off  and  on  the  fire  at  plea- 
sure. In  this  the  milk  is  gradually  heat- 
ed to  the  temperature  of  about  120  de- 
grees, when  it  is  removed  from  the  fire. 
As  soon  as  it  has  subsided,  the  rennet,  in 
a  small  bag,  is  steeped  in  it;  and,  being 
occasionally  squeezed,  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  it  soon  passes  into  the  milk,  which 
is  then  well  stirred,  and  left  to  coagulate. 
In  the  course  of  an  hour,  the  coagulation 
is  completed,  when  the  milk  is  again  put 
over  the  fire,  and  raised  to  a  temperature 
of  about  145  degrees:  and,  while  it  is 
heating,  the  whole  mass  is  briskly  agitat 
ed,  till  the  curd  separates  in  small  lumps 
Part  of  the  whey  is  then  taken  out,  and  a 
little  saffron  added  to  the  remainder,  in 
order  to  colour  it.  When  the  curd  is  thus 
broken  sufl!iciently  small,  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  whey  is  taken  out,  and  two  pail- 
fuls  of  water  poured  in,  by  which  the  tem 
perature  is  lowered,  so  as  to  enable  the 
dairy-man  to  collect  the  former,  by  pass- 
ing a  cloth  beneath  it,  and  gathering  it 
up  at  the  corners.  The  curd  is  then 
pressed  into  a  fi-ame  of  wood,  resembling 
a  peck-measure  without  a  bottom,  placed 
on  a  solid  table,  and  covered  by  a  round 
piece  of  wood,  with  a  great  stone  at  the 
lop.  In  the  course  of  the  night,  it  cools, 
assumes  a  firm  consistence,  and  the  whey 
drains  off.  The  next  day,  one  side  is 
salted,  and  on  the  succeeding  day  the 
cheese  is  turned,  and  the  other  side  rub- 
bed in  a  similar  manner.  This  operation 
is  continued  for  about  forty  days,  when 
the  outer  crust  of  the  cheese  is  pared  off, 
the  fresh  surface  is  varnished  with  linseed 
oil,  the  convex  side  coloured  red,  and  the 
cheese  is  fit  for  use. 

The  climate  of  Pennsylvania  is  similar 
to  that  of  Placentia  and  Milan,  where  the 
cheeses  called  Parmesan  are  made  :  and 
it  is  highly  probable,  if  we  fail  in  making 
cheeses  of  equal  flavour  and  excellence 
with  the  EJnglish,  tliat  we  may  rival  those 
of  Italy,  which  have  a  superior  advantage 
in  being  found  to  keep  in  warm  climates, 
much  better  than  most  other  cheese. 

2.  Green  Swiss  Cheese,  appears  to  pos- 
sess no  other  peculiarity  than  that  derived 
from  the  fragrant  powder  of  the  common 
INIellot,  or  the  TrifoUutn  Melilotus  officin. 
L.  [a  native  plant  of  the  United  States,] 
which,  however,  imparts  to  it  a  strong  fla- 
vour, rather  offensive  tlian  agreeable  to 
most  persons  :  hence  it  is  not  calculat- 
ed to  become  a  favourite  article  in  this 
country. 

3.  Dutch  Cheese  is  likewise  prepared 
in  the  manner  generally  adopted  in  Che- 
shire, with  this  difference,  that  the  Dutcli, 


instead  of  rennet,  make  use  of  spirit  of 
salt.  Hence  theu*  cheese  not  only  acquires 
a  sharp  saline  taste,  but  is  also  said  to  be 
exempt  fi-om  the  depredations  of  mites  : 
its  rich  buttery  quaUty  must  be  ascribed 
to  the  luxuriant  vegetation  in  the  low 
countries. 

4.  Westphalia  Cheese.  M.  Hochheimeir, 
a  German  author,  asserts  "  that  it  is  pre- 
ferred in  England  to  the  Dutch,  Swiss, 
and  even  Parmesan  cheese.'*  Having  had 
no  experience  of  its  taste,  we  can  only 
give  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  prepared. 

After  the  cream  Is  removed  from  the 
milk,  when  in  a  sub-acid  state,  the  latter 
is  placed  near  a  fire,  spontaneously  to  co- 
agulate. The  curd  is  tlien  put  into  a 
coarse  bag,  and  loaded  with  ponderous 
stones  to  express  the  whey :  in  this  dry 
state,  it  is  rubbed  between  the  hands,  and 
crumbled  into  an  empty,  clean  milk-vat, 
where  it  is  suffered  to  remain  from  three 
to  eight  days,  accordingly  as  the  cheese  is 
intended  to  be  strong,  or  mild.  This 
part  of  the  process  is  called  "  skinning," 
or  more  properly,  m-elloicing ;  because  it 
undergoes  the  putrid  stage  of  fermenta- 
tion, and  acquires  a  coat,  or  skin,  on  the 
top,  before  it  is  taken  out  of  the  vessel, 
and  kneaded  into  balls,  or  cylinders,  with 
the  addition  of  a  considerable  portion  of 
caraway  seed,salt  and  butter;  or  occasion- 
ally, a  small  quantity  of  pounded  pepper, 
and  cloves.  But,  if  it  be  too  far  advanced  in 
the  mellowing  process,  a  third  part  of 
fresh  curds,  likewise  crumbled  into  small 
pieces,  is  superadded,  to  prevent,  or  cor- 
rect its  putrid  tendency.  In  short,  the 
whole  mass  requires  a  powerful  hand  to 
form  a  complete  union  of  parts  ;  for  it  is 
very  apt  to  corrupt,  when  imperfectly 
kneaded.  As  the  pieces,  when  moulded, 
ai'c  of  small  size,  not  exceeding  three  or 
four  ounces  each,  in  weight,  they  soon 
diy  in  the  open  air,  and  are  then  fit  for 
use.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  turn  and 
clean  them,  as  well  as  to  shift  tlieir  places 
every  day  upon  a  board,  in  order  to  pro- 
mote their  maturity.  After  being  nearly 
dry,  they  are  sometimes  (for  the  palate  of 
epicures)  suspended  in  a  wood-fire  chim- 
ney, by  means  of  a  net,  for  several  weeks, 
or  months  :  and  both  their  taste  and  fla- 
vour, are  said  to  be  remakably  improved, 
whether  kept  in  a  dry  air,  or  subjected  to 
the  action  of  smoke. 

5.  Potatoe-Cheese.  There  are  three  va- 
rieties of  this  ciu"ious  article  prepared  in 
Germany :  we  shall,  however,  describe 
only  that  sort  which  appears  to  us  the 
most  plausible.  The  best  mealy  potatoes 
are  selected^  and  half-boiled  in  steam  ;  as, 
by  bursting,  their  flavour  and  efficacy 


CHE 


CUE 


are  diminished.  When  cool,  ihey  are 
peeled,  and  finely  grated,  or  boat  into  a 
pulp  with  a  vvooden  pestle.  Tlirce  parts 
of  this  soft  mass,  and  two  parts  of  sweet 
curd,  after  expressing  ail  its  whey,  are 
kneaded  together,  and  allowed  to  stand 
two  or  three  days  in  warm,  and  four  or 
five  days  in  cold  weather.  l"he  mixture 
is  tlien  formed  into  small  pieces,  like  those 
of  Westpiialia  cheese,  and  dried  in  a  simi- 
lar manner. 

But,  says  M.  Hochheimer,  if  you  wish 
to  procure  a  inure,  delicate  potatoe-ciieese, 
take  only  one  part  of  potatoes,  and  three 
of  the  curd  made  of  sheep's  milk :  let 
the  kneaded  mass  remain  three  or  four 
days  in  a  vat,  to  become  mellow  ;  then 
put  a  stratum  of  it,  one  inch  liigh,  into  a 
small  firkin,  strew  a  few  lilac  fiowers,  or 
caraway  and  mace,  over  it ;  spread  a 
little  fresh  butter,  about  the  size  of  a 
walnut,  over  these  aromatics ;  then  form 
another  layer,  repeat  tlic  same  mode  of 
seasoning  the  cheese,  and  proceed  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  top  of  the  vessel. 
When  this  cheese  has  been  kept  for  some 
days  in  a  dry  airy  place,  without  being 
exposed  to  the  sun,  it  is  said  to  excel  in 
taste  the  best  sort  made  in  Holland  ;  and 
to  possess  the  additional  advantage,  that 
it  improves  with  age,  and  generates  no 
vci'min. 

Dr  Anderson  thinks  that  tlie  goodness 
of  cheese  depends  more  upon  the  parti- 
cular process  adopted  in  the  management, 
than  upon  the  materials  of  which  the 
cheese  consists.  Tlie  taste  of  a  Glouces- 
ter and  that  of  a  Cheshire  cheese  is  very 
difierent  from  each  other,  though  the 
quality  of  the  milk  of  which  they  are  made 
varies  very  little.  Tlie  same  thing  may 
he  said  of  Stilton  and  Parmesan  cheeses, 
though  their  peculiarities  are  attributed 
to  soil,  or  pasture,  or  other  circumstan- 
ces that  seem  to  throw  the  blame  of 
want  of  success  fi'om  off  our  ov%n  shoul- 
ders. 

Tlie  business  of  cheese   making  has 
greatly  improved  within  a  few  ycai-s  past 
in  the  U.  States.  The  state  of  Connecticut, 
and  N.  York,  and  the  islands  ne;ir  N.  Fort, 
Tlhodc-Island,  have  deservedly  obtained  a 
great  character ibr  cheese-m.'iking;  and  an  ' 
English    family   near    Flemington,  New- 1 
Jersey,  has  also  justly  acquired  the  high- ' 
est  reputation  in  the   business.     Indeed  ■ 
they  have  clearly  evinced,  even  to  the  i 
most  ])rcjudiced,  (ui)on  some  of  whom  an  \ 
experiment  has  been  made,)  that  age  is  ' 
only  required  to  render  their  cheese  equal ' 
in  flavour  and  riciiuess  to  those  of  En- 
gland. And  why  sliould  they  not  be  equal, 
if  the  same  care  be  used  in  Qvery  part  of 
the  process  ?  i 


As  no  good  cheese  can  be  made  with- 
out good  rennet,  it  may  be  well  to  add 
the  following  account  of  the  jut])rtralion 
of  that  substance,  to  the  mode  described 
by  Dr.  A\'illich. 

"  Dairy  women  usually  preserve  the 
maw,  and  the  curd  contained  in  it,  alter 
salting  them  ;  and  then  by  steeping  this 
bag  and  curd,  make  a  x'ennet  to  turn  their 
milk  for  making  cheese.  But  a  method 
which  seems  to  be  more  simple,  and  is 
ecpially  guod  in  every  respect,  is,  to  throw- 
away  the  curd,  and  alter  steeping  it  in  pic- 
kle, stretch  out  the  maw  upon  a  slender 
bow  inserted  into  it,  which  will  soon  be 
very  dry,  and  keep  well  for  a  long  time 
Take  an  inch  or  two  of  the  maw  thus 
dried,  and  steep  it  over  niglit  in  a  few 
spoonfuls  of  warm  water ;  which  water 
serves  ftdl  as  well  as  if  tlie  curd  had  been 
])reserved,  for  turning  tiie  milk.  It  is 
suid  that  one  inch  will  serve  for  the  milk 
of  five  cows. 

An  ingenious  writer,  who  has  made 
strict  inquiryinto  tliis  subjectrecommends 
the  following  method  of  preparing  a  ren- 
net,  whicli  he  has  found  to  be  better  than 
any  other. — "  Throw  away  the  natural 
curd,  which  is  apt  to  taint,  and  give  the 
bag  a  bad  smell ;  then  make  an  ai'tihcial 
curd,  or  rather  butter,  of  new  cream,  of 
sufficient  quantity  to  fill  the  bag.  Add 
three  new  laid  eggs  well  beaten,  one  nut- 
meg gi'ated  fine,  or  any  other  good  spice  : 
Mix  them  well  together,  with  thiec  tea- 
cups full  of  fine  salt :  Fill  the  rennet  bag 
with  this  substance  :  Tie  up  the  mouth  : 
Lay  it  under  a  strong  brine  for  three  days, 
turning  it  over  daily.  Tiien  hang  it  uji  in 
a  cool  and  dry  place  for  six  weeks,  and  it 
will  be  fit  for  use.  When  it  is  used,  take, 
with  a  spoon  out  of  the  bag,  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  this  artificial  buiyrous  curd  fur 
the  cheese  you  purpose  to  make  ;  Dissolve 
it  in  a  small  quantity  of  warm  water,  and 
then  use  it  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
rennet  is  mixed  witii  the  milk  for  its- co- 
agulation." ^ 

Whatever  kind  of  rennet  the  dairy  wo- 
man ciiooses  to  prepare,  she  shoidd  kee]i 
it  in  mind,  that  this  animal  acitl  is  extreme- 
ly apt  to  turn  rancid  and  putrify,  and  take 
care  to  apply  a  sufficient  quantity  of  salt 
to  pi-eseivc  it  in  its  best  state.  For  it  is 
probable  tliat  the  rank  and  putrid  taste, 
which  is  so  often  perceived  in  cheeses 
made  in  this  country,  is  owing  to  a  ])utri- 
dity  in  the  rennet."    Ikant^s  J\'.E.Far7ner. 

Preservation  nf  Cheese.  Among  the  va- 
rious productions  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, there  are  perhaps  none  better  calcu- 
lated tor  this  pur]..)£e,  than  the  following: 
1.  The  leaves  of  the  Yellow  Star  of  Hethle- 
luni.     Ornitho^alu»i    lutf.nn,   L.   2.  Tlii; 


CHE 

Tut.?an,  or  Park-leaves,  Hypericum  AnJro- 
sccmatn,  L.  and  3.  The  tender  branches  of 
the  conjir.on  birch  tiee,  Bttula  alba,  L. — 
The  two  first  of  whicli,  in  particular,  have 
from  cxperier.ce,  bten  found  to  possess 
considerable  antiseptic  pi-operties.  They 
ouglit,  however,  to  be  employed  only 
when  moderateiy  dry,  in  which  state  they 
should  be  placed  upon,  or  at  the  sides  of 
the  cheese,  in  an  airy  situation.  The  twigs 
of  the  birch  are  especially  useful,  in  pre- 
venti'.ig  the  ravages  of  mite-s. 

Hard  and  spoiled  cheese  may  be  restored 
in  the  following  manner :  Take  four  oun- 
ces of  pearl-ash,  pour  sweet  white  wine 
over  it,  till  die  mixture  ceases  to  effer- 
vesce. Filti-e  the  solution,  dip  into  it  clean 
linen  cloths,  cover  the  cheese  with  them, 
and  put  the  whole  into  a  cool  place,  or  dry 
cellar.  Kcpeatthis  process  evtry  day,  at 
the  same  time  turning  the  cheese;  and, if 
necessary,  continue  it  for  several  v.eeks : 
thus,  the  hardest  and  most  insiiJid  cheese 
lias  frequently  recovered  its  former  Ua- 
%our. 

C;HESNUT,or  Castanea,  L.  is  a  species 
of  tlie  Fagus  or  beech-tree,  a  genus  of 
plants  comprising  five  species.  It  flourish- 
es on  ]x)or  gravelly  or  sandy  soils,  and 
will  tlirive  in  any  but  moist  or  marshy  si- 
tuations. 

There  is  no  plant  cultivated,  that  is 
more  valuable  J^han  the  chesnut ;  as  it 
grows  to  a  considerable  height,  and  its 
wood,  if  kept  dry,  is  exti'emely  durable. 
It  excels  the  oak  in  two  respects,  namely, 
that  it  g"ows  faster,  and  that  the  "  sap- 
parts"  of  the  timber  are  more  fii  m,  and 
less  liable  to  corruption.  Being  greatly 
superior  to  elm  for  door  jambs,  and  seve- 
ral other  purposes  of  house  carpentry,  it 
is  considered  as  nearly  equal  to  the  oak 
itself;  but,  on  account  of  its  possessing  a 
precarious  brittleness,  which  renders  it  un- 
safe for  beams,  it  ought  not  to  be  em^ 
ployed  in  any  situ.ation,  where  an  uncer- 
tain weight  is  sometimes  to  be  supported. 
All  writers  agree  tiiat  the  wood  of  the 
chesnut  is  peculiarly  excellent  for  casks, 
as  it  neither  shrinks,  nor  changes  the  taste 
or  colour  of  the  liquor.  It  is  also  con- 
verted into  various  articles  of  furniture, 
and  w  hen  stained,  may  be  uiade  to  resem- 
ble in  beauty  and  colour  the  finest  maho- 
gany: this  improvement  'is  effected,  by 
rubbing  it  over,  first  with  alum  water,  then 
laving  on  with  a  brush  a  decoction  of  log- 
wood-chips;  and  lastly,  a  decoction  of 
Llrazil-wood-  Besides  these  various  uses, 
to  wliicli  this  tree  may  be  applied,  its 
fruit  affords  an  agreeable  addition  to  our 
winter  dessert  If  properly  managed,  a 
sweet  and  nutriiious  brTud  may  be  pre- 


CHE 

pared  of  it,  especially  when  mixed  with  » 
small  proportion  of  wheaten  or  other 
flour. 

Chesnuts,  especially  the  small  escident 
sort,  form  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce, in  Italy,  and  in  die  island  of  Corsi- 
ca; which  latter  alone  exports  annually 
such  quantities  as  amount  in  value  to 
100,000  crowns.  The  Germans  roast  diem 
among  embers,  and  eat  them  with  butter 
and  salt ;  the  French,  with  lemon-juice 
and  sugar,  which  agrees  better  with  weak 
stomachs.  This  leguminous  fruit  is  also 
employed  in  several  articles  of  confection- 
ary ;  as  a  substitute  for  coffee,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  chocolate. 

This  tree  is  highly  valuable  for  many 
purposes,  and  ought  to  be  carefully  at- 
tended to  by  the  people  of  this  countn,'. 
The  superiority  of  the  timber  over  most 
others  in  durabi-i'.y,  is  well  known  ;  and 
the  nuts  are  also  very  profitable.  The 
tree  splits  easily,  and  hence  is  used  for 
fence  rails.  An  old  chesnut  tree  is  very 
brittle,  and  apt  to  crack,  and  therefore 
should  never  stand  longer  than  while  it  is 
in  a  groAring  state.  If  cut  when  it  squares 
only  six  inches  it  will  be  most  durable, 
having  very  little  sap  in  proportion  to 
other  trees.  The  nuts  are  the  usual,  and 
in  some  places,  almost  the  only  food  of 
the  common  penple  in  Ital}',  Savoy,  and 
France,  not  only  boiled  and  roasted,  but 
also  in  puddings,  cakes,  and  bread. 

The  tree  may  be  propagated  by  plant- 
ing the  nu:s  vrith  the  burrs,  in  the  spring. 
The  best  nuts  for  planting,  are  such  as  are 
brought  fi-om  Portugal  and  Spain,  or  a 
large  fine  kind  which  are  sometimes  seen 
in  the  Philadelphia  markets.  The  direc- 
tion to  plant  the  nuts  in  the  burrs  is  g-:v- 
en,  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of 
them,  which  a  gentleman  in  Xew-Jersey 
(who  has  wisely  planted  several  acres) 
lately  experienced  fiom  field  mice.  The 
nuts,  if  imported,  must  be  brought  over  in 
boxes  of  earth.  In  setting  the  nuts,  m:dje 
a  drill  with  a  hoe,  about  4  inches  deep, 
and  six  inches  distant,  with  the  eye  upper- 
most :  then  draw  die  earth  over  them 
with  a  rake,  and  make  a  second  drill  at 
about  a  foot  distance  from  the  former,  pro- 
ceeding as  before,  allowing  three  rows  in 
a  bed,  with  an  alley  between  them  three 
feet  broad,  for  conveniently  cleaning  the 
beds.  Keep  die  ground  clear  of  weeds, 
and  in  two  ye.ars  remove  the  tiees  to  a 
nurseiy,  at  a  wider  distance.  In  three 
vears  afterwards,  transplant  them  into  the 
places  where  tliey  are  intended  to  stand. 
Fors_\-th  gives  a  number  of  judicious  di- 
rections respecting  the  propagation  of 
ch- sr.ut  tree.<;,  v»  liich  cannot  be  \>  ell  abri^- 


CHE 


CHll 


gtd,  but  out;^ht  to  be  consulted  by  every 
one  who  may  w  ish  to  propagate  this  valua- 
ble tree. 

2.  Facus,  Castanea  pumila.  Dwarf 
chcsnut  tree,  or  Chinquepin.  This  sel- 
dom rises  above  eight  or  twelve  feet, 
otlierwise  much  resembling  the  cliesimt 
in  the  appearance  of  its  branches  and 
leaves.  Its  fruit  capsules  are  small,  and 
generally  contain  but  one  conical  shaped 
But.  It  grows  naturally  in  a  hght  gravel- 
ly  soil :  when  exported,  the  nuts  should  be 
put  in  sand,  when  ripe,  and  sent  away  ini- 
mediatelj',  otherwise  they  loose  theii"  ve- 
getating quality. 

Horse-Chesnut,  or  ^Esculus,  L.  a  ge- 
nus of  exotic  plants,  natives  of  the  East, 
consisting  of  four  species:  the  principal  of 
these  is  tlie  Wppocastajium,  or  Common 
Horse-Chesnut.  It  thrives  best  in  rich  fat 
lajid,  but  will  also  floiuish  on  clayey  and 
marley  soils. 

This  tree  grows  so  rapidly  tliat,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  it  becomes  large 
enough,  in  groves  and  alleys,  to  afford  a 
good  shade  during  the  heat  of  summer, 
when  it  is  in  full  bloom.  Its  fruit  furnishes 
a  gi-ateful  food  to  horses,  and  has  been 
successfully  employed  for  fattening  cattle, 
the  tallow  of  which  ii  renders  uncommon- 
ly firm,  especially  when  mixed  with 
ground  barley.  The  milk  obtained  from 
cows  fed  with  it,  is  also  said  to  be  richer 
than  that  produced  by  any  other  aliment. 
The  nuts  have  likewise  been  used  with  ad- 
vantage in  feeding  poultry ;  but  tliey  are 
unwholesome  for  hogs.  There  are,  be- 
sides, various  other  purposes  to  which 
horse-ciiesnuts  may  be  rendered  subser- 
\ient  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

Prof.  Beckmann  states,  that  horse- 
chesnuts  yield,  by  distilLition,  a  spirituous 
Hquor,  which,  notwithstanding  its  bitter 
taste,  may  frequently  serve  us  a  substitute 
for  alcohol. 

Prof.  Leonhardi  observes,  in  his  Econo- 
mical Pochet-Book  for  1793  (in  German) 
that  the  prickly  husks  of  the  horse -chesnut 
may  be  advantageously  employed  in  tan- 
ning leather ;  and,  when  burnt  to  coal, 
tliey  are  said  to  produce  an  excellent 
black  w  alcr-colour. — Suckow  has  made 
experiments  with  the  brown  gh  :sy  shell 
of  tills  fruit ;  li-orn  which  it  jipjiearb,  that, 
when,  bruised  and  boiled  in  w.-iter,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  potash,  it  makes  a 
saturated  dark-bn>wn  dye,  which  imparted 
to  cloth  previously  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
green  vitriol,  a  yellow  brown,  and  tc  thiit 
prepared  in  alun)-water,  a  liiint red-brown 
colour.  According  to  Dainbotirney,  both 
the  branches  ard  V  uves  communicate  a 
good  brov;n  in  dyeing. 

The  wood  of  the  horse-chesrut  is,  in 


every  respect,  equal  to  that  of  the  com- 
mon chesnut ;  and,  as  the  former  thrives 
luxu]-iantly  in  coppices,  it  deserves  to  be 
more  generally  cultivated,  with  a  view  of 
raising  timber  for  building. 

In  medicine,  the  bark  has  been  found  of 
eminent  service  in  intermittent  fevers,  and 
is  often  substituted  in  Russia  for  the  Pe- 
ruvian bark. 

CMUOME.  An  acidifiable  metal,  first 
discovered  in  the  red  ore  of  Siberia  by 
Vauquelin  iu  1797,  and  so  named  from 
the  beautiful  colours  it  affords.  In  this 
ore  it  exists  in  the  acid  state,  forming 
chromat  of  lead :  chromat  of  alumine  is 
the  colouring  matter  of  the  spinel  ruby  ; 
as  the  green  oxide  of  chrome  is  of  the  Pe- 
ruvian emerald :  and  its  green  oxide  is 
imited  with  lead  in  the  green  crystals 
commonly  found  with  the  red  lead  ore  of 
Siberia.  Besides  these  it  has  been  found 
in  the  stones  called  meteoric  by  Laugier 
and  'I'henard,  and  combined  with  iron  in 
an  ore  dug  near  Toulon  j  and  also  iu 
some  districts  of  the  United  States. 

If  the  red  lead  ore  be  treated  with  mu- 
riatic acid  it  will  be  totally  dissolved, 
forming  a  fine  deep  red  solution.  On 
evaporating  the  liquor  the  muriat  of  lead 
will  fall  to  the  bottom,  till  the  supernatant 
liquor  cont.ains  only  the  oxide  of  clu'ome, 
which  gives  it  a  fine  green  colour,  and 
may  be  obtained  by  further  evaporation. 

Gmelin  precipitated  the  green  oxide 
from  its  solution  in  muriatic  acid  by  means 
of  zinc,  prussic  acid,  sulphat  of  potash, 
carbonat  of  potash,  and  potash  alone. 
The  latter  threw  it  down  of  a  mountain 
blue  colour;  and  this  precipitate  I'used 
with  saline  substances  into  a  green  mass. 
As  it  is  very  soluble  in  saline  fluxes,  he 
found  it  difficult  to  fuse  into  a  metallic 
button  by  tiieir  means,  witliout  precipita- 
ting it,  while  in  fusion  by  means  of  zinc. 
The  button  thus  obtidned,  when  fused  with 
borax,  rendered  it  grepn.  This  metal  lias 
recently  been  found  in  considerable  quan- 
tities in  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  An- 
nales  de  Clihnie. — Philos.-Mag.-Fourcoy. 

CHKOMIC-ACID.  This  acid  is  but  late- 
ly known,  and  has  only  been  examuied  iu 
small  quantities  by  Vauquelin,  who  first 
discovered  it,  and  by  count  Mussin  Pusch- 
kin  ;  yet  we  are  better  acquainted  with  it, 
than  with  the  metal  that  lorms  its  basis. 
However,  as  the  chromat  of  iron  lias  late- 
ly been  found  in  abundance  in  the  de- 
partment of  Var,  in  France,  we  may  ex- 
pect its  properties  to  be  nu)re  amply  in- 
vestigated, and  ai)plied  with  adv.antage  in 
the  arts,  as  ihc  chromats  of  lead  and  iron 
arc  of  excellent  use  in  painting  and  enam- 
elling. 

it  was  extracted  from  the  red  lead  ore 


CHU 


CIS 


of  Siberia,  by  treating  this  ore  with  car- 
bonat  of  potash,  and  separating  the  al- 
kali by  means  of  a  more  powerful  acid. 
In  this  state  it  is  a  red  or  orange-coloiu-ed 
powder,  of  a  peculiar  rough  metallic  taste, 
which  is  m.ore  sensible  in  it  thari  in  any 
other  metallic  acid. 

It  readily  unites  with  alkalies,  and  is  the 
only  acid  that  has  the  property  of  colour- 
ing its  salts  ;  whence  the  name  of  chromic 
has  been  given  to  it.  If  two  parts  of  the 
red  lead  ore  of  Siberia  in  fine  powder  be 
boiled  with  one  of  an  alkali  saturated  with 
carbonic  acid,  in  forty  parts  of  water,  a 
carbonat  of  lead  will  be  precipitated,  and 
the  chromat remain  dissolved.  The  solu- 
tions are  of  a  lemon  colour,  and  aftorU 
crystals  of  a  somewhat  deeper  hue.  'I'hose 
of  chromat  of  ammonia  are  in  yellow  lami- 
nx,  having  the  metalhc  lustre  of  gold. 

The  chromat  of  barytes  is  very  little  so- 
luble, and  that  of  lime  still  less.  They 
both  afford  a  pale  yellow  ;  and  when  heat- 
ed give  out  oxigen  gas,  as  do  the  alkaline 
chromats. 

If  the  chromic  acid  be  mixed  with  fi- 
lings of  tin  and  the  muriatic  acid,  it  be- 
comes at  first  yellowish  brown,  and  after- 
ward assumes  a  blueish  gTeen  colour, 
which  preserves  the  same  shade  after  de- 
siccation. With  a  solution  of  nltrat  .of 
mercury  it  gives  a  precipitate  of  a  dark 
cinnabar  colour.  With  a  solution  of  ni- 
trat  of  silver  it  gives  a  precipitate,  which, 
the  moment  it  is  formed,  appears  of  a 
beautiful  carmine  colour,  but  becomes 
purple  by  exposure  to  the  light. 

When  melted  with  borax,  or  glass,  or 
acid  of  phosphorus,  it  communicates  to  it 
a  beautiful  emerald  green  colour. 

CHURN  a  vessel  in  which  butter,  by 
long  and  violent  agitation,  is  separated 
from  the  serous  part  of  milk.  The  infe- 
riority of  the  churns  in  common  use,  has 
induced  several  ingenious  mechanics  to 
exert  their  skill  in  contrivhig  others,  tliat 
would  render  the  process  of  making  but- 
ter less  tedious  arid  expensive.  These 
are  very  numerous,  and  the  most  ap- 
proved being  in  general  use,  makes 
a  description  of  them  unnecessary.  We 
shall  therefore  only  observe  th:U,  if  a 
pump-churn  be  employed,  it  may  be  plun- 
ged  a  foot  deep  in  a  'tub  of  cold  vvater, 
and  remain  there  diu-ing  tlic  whole  time 
of  churning ;  which  will  harden  the  butter 
m  a  considerable  degree.  This  operation, 
as  we  have  before  observed,  may  be  much 
faciUtated,  by  pouring  into  the  churn  a 
small  quantity  of  distilled  vinegar,  which 
will  produce  butter  in  the  course  of  one 
hour.  Those  \\  ho  make  use  of  a  pump- 
churn,  should  endeavour  to  keep  up  a  re- 
gular motion  of  the  machine ;  and  by  no 


means  admit  any  person  to  assist  them  un. 
less  from  absolute  necessity :  for,  if  the 
churning  be  irregularly  peribrmed,  the 
butter  will  in  winter  go  back ;  and,  if  the 
agitation  be  more  quick  and  violent  in 
summer,  it  will  cause  the  butter  to  fer- 
ment, and  thus  to  acquire  a  very  disagree- 
able flavour.  Where  there  are  many- 
cows,  a  barrel-churn  is  preferred;  but 
unless  it  is  kept  very  clean,  the  bad  effects 
of  it  will  be  soon  discovered  in  the  butter. 
Particular  care  should  also  be  taken,  to 
place  it,  in  a  proper  temperature,  accord- 
ing to  the  change  of  the  season  ;  that  is, 
to  fix  it  in  a  warmer  situation  in  the  win- 
ter ;  and,  in  the  summer,  to  expose  it  to 
a  fi-ee  current  of  air. 

CiXNABAR,  see  Mercurt. 

CISTERXS  are  vessels  employed  for 
the  reception  of  rain,  or  otlier  water,  ei- 
ther under  ground,  such  as  those  of  na- 
vigable canals,  &,c.  or  above  ground,  for 
domestic  and  other  purposes.  In  this 
place  we  shall  only  treat  of  the  latter. 

As  tlie  water  collected  in  leaden  cis- 
terns is  apt  to  corrupt,  either  by  stagnat- 
ing for  Several  days,  when  the  pipes  hap. 
pen  to  be  obstructed,  or  by  the  deposi- 
tion of  feculent  matter,  as  well  as  the  in- 
crustation formed  in  such  vessels,  it  fol- 
lows ihut  they  ought  to  be  frequently 
cleansed  of  tlie  copious  sediment  they  con- 
tain. Tiiis  attention  is  the  more  necei. 
sary,  as  lead  is  a  metal  liable  to  be  dissolv- 
ed bj-  acids ;  and,  in  tliat  state,  proves  a 
slow,  but  fatal  poison.  Although  the  aci- 
dity contained  in  stagnant  water,  which 
has,  in  its  course,  been  impregnated  with 
animal  and  vegetable  particles,  cannot  be 
very  considerable,  yet  it  will  be  more 
safe,  and  prudent,  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  such  acids,  by  an  early  attention 
to  the  purity  of  the  water.  See  Fil- 
tration. For  an  excellent  water  ce- 
ment, see  Cemext. 

The  deeper  cisterns  are,  the  better  the 
water  will  be  kept.  Where  the  ground 
is  not  so  bad  as  to  require  a  round  form, 
a  cube  is  a  good  figure :  a  double  cube 
m.ust  be  better,  as  it  gains  depth  and  con- 
sequently coolness.  A  cistern  of  6  cubic 
feet,  holds  16  hogsheads  of  100  gallons 
each,  or  26  hogsheads.  A  double  cube 
of  5  feet  would  hold  above  18  rum  hogs- 
her^dsof  100  gallons.  The  pit  should  be 
dug  exactly  by  square  and  plumb.  On 
the  f;ice  of  tlie  pit,  lay  potters-clay,  plas- 
terv.dse,  v,-ith  a  trowel,  coat  over  coat  (as 
it  dries  and  cracks)  two  or  three  inches 
in  all.  Against  this  firm  even  face  of 
plaster  raise  the  brick  or  stone  work.  Bed 
the  bottom,  three  or  four  inches  thick  with 
strong  clay,  beat  to  a  smooth,  even  sur- 
face.    Moisten  the  cla>',  and  beat  it  with 


CIT 


CIT 


switches,  or  small  hoop  poles,  but  with 
uothin.5  heavy.  On  this  clay-floor,  lay  a 
double  bed  of  brick ;  and,  on  the  margin 
of  this,  cany  up  the  side  walls  half  brick 
tiiick,  laying  them  in  tarras.  Cover  the 
cistern  over,  but  leave  room  to  hx  a  small 
pump,  which  must  be  two  feet  from  the 
bottom :  or  a  roller  or  bucket  may  be 
used  to  raise  tlie  water. 

The  above  directions  are  taken  from 
Mr.  Bordley's  Essays,  and  will  answer 
where  lime  cannot  be  had  to  make  Mr. 
Hunn's  cement,  before  noted.  In  many 
places  of  Europe,  rain-water  saved  in  cis- 
terns is  the  only  water  drank.  Stolbcrg 
says,  he  drank  some  in  the  vicinity  of  Na- 
ples, near  three  years  old,  and  found  it 
excellent.  Mr.  Bentham  has  lately  taujjht 
us,  tliat  water  may  be  kept  during  the 
above  period  perfectly  sweet.  On  the  flat 
coasts  of  the  United  States,  these  rain  wa- 
ter cisterns  ought  to  be  generally  built : 
for  the  water  from  the  ground  is  very  bad, 
and  occasions  many  of  the  disorders  attri- 
buted to  other  causes. 

CITRIC  ACID.  Lemon  juice  is  known 
universally  to  be  one  of  the  sourest,  and 
ai  the  same  time  the  most  ag-reeable  of  all 
the  native  vegetable  liquors.  It  is  pre- 
pi.red  simply  by  squeezing  the  fruit,  and 
straining  througii  linen  or  any  othet  loose 
flltci'.  In  Sicily,  Italy,  Majorca,  and  many 
other  parts  of  tiie  .Mediterranea;i,  lemon 
juice  forms  an  im])ortant  arlicleof  cf)m- 
mcrce.  It  is  procured  simjily  by  peeling 
the  fruit,  slicing  it,  and  putting  it  in  a 
large  press  with  a  cloth  or  hair  strainer. 
The  juice,  which  comes  out  very  turbid, 
is  placed  for  a  day  in  cellars  and  then 
strained,  and  ])ut  in  jars  with  narrow  necks 
well  cemented  up,  tlie  top  of  the  juice 
being  generally  covered  with  a  little  oil, 
the  l)etter  to  defend  it  from  the  action  of 
the  air.  Many  of  the  presses  will  squeeze 
six  thousand  lemons  at  once. 

Lemon  juice  is  a  natural  mixtiu'e,  com- 
posed of  much  water,  ofhisipid  vegetable 
nuicilage,  of  extractive  matter,  of  a  slight 
portion  of  something  that  gives  an  astrin- 
gent taste,  of  a  little  malic  acid,  and  last- 
ly of  that  peculiar  acid,  which,  from  its 
being  contained  more  copiously  in  this 
fruit  than  in  any  other,  is  called  the  citric 
acid.  Tiie  jji-oportions  of  tliese  ingredi- 
ents must  of  course  vary  according  to 
the  degree  of  riiieness.the  season,  and  the 
like, but  on  an  average  accoi-dngtofrousi, 
576  grains  of  the  I'ush  juice  lose  by  eva- 
poration 528  grains,  which  is  the  watery 
l)art ;  and  of  the  remaining  48  grains 
ibout  oO  grains  are  the  ]>uie  citric  acid 
iiid  the  remainder  is  chiefly  mucilage  and 
extract.  On  account  of  these  two  latter 
ingredients,  lemon-juice  sooner  or  later, 


according  to  tiie  temperature,  spoils  fiy 
keeping,  becomes  mouldy,  undergoes  an 
impeifect  lt;rmentation,  and  at  last  totally 
loses  its  acidity,  acquii'ing  a  fiat  musty 
taste. 

To  ]jrevent  this  destruction  of  the  acid 
for  which  alone  this  juice  is  valuable, 
many  methods  of  preservation  have  been 
devised,  all  of  wliich  answer  to  a  certain 
degree,  l)ut  none  of  them  perfectly,  ex- 
cept tliat  of  separating  the  acid  in  i:  crys- 
tallized form  by  means  wliich  will  be  pre- 
sently mentioned,  itsliould  be  observed 
that  of  the  mucilage  and  the  extfacti\e 
matter,  (the  two  materials  which  princi- 
oally  contribute  to  spoiling  the  juice)  the 
loriiier  alone  is  separable  by  the  ordinary 
methods  of  clarification,  but  the  extract 
adheres  to  the  acid  with  the  grjpatest  ob- 
stinac}',  and  it  is  this  which  hinders  it 
from  crystallizing  when  evaporated  near- 
ly to  dr}ness. 

Lemon-juice  is  clarified  partly  by  being 
put  for  a  day  or  two  in  a  cold  cellar,  re- 
maining perfectly  at  rest.  Much  of  the 
mucilage  then  subsides,  and  the  clear 
juice  poured  off,  bottled,  and  carefully 
corked,  will  then  keep  for  a  cousiderablu 
time.  It  is  better  if  briskly  boiled  for  a 
minute  or  two  before  it  is  put  aside  to 
clarify,  but  this  somewhat  impairs  the  fla- 
vour, and  gives  one  that  is  not  agreeable, 
hi  some  pl.aces,  oil  is  poured  over  it  to 
prevent  the  action  of  the  air,  wliicli  has  a 
temporary  effect,  but  after  a  wiiile  the 
juice  beneath  becomes  muddy,  bitter, 
mouldy,  and  besides  gets  a  rank  taste 
from  tiie  oil.  Concentration  by  freezing 
is  sometimes  used  with  some  success.  It 
the  mucilage  is  first  separated  as  much 
as  may  be  by  standing  in  a  cool  place, 
and  the  clear  juice  then  exposed  to  a  cold 
of  from  23"^  to  26*^  the  watery  part  alone 
freezes,  and  the  remaining  unfrozen  11- 
c[uor,  of  coui'sc,  contains  the  acid  in  a  con- 
densed state.  By  continuing  to  remove 
the  ice,  till  it  begins  to  grow  sour  from 
the  acid  itself  freezing,  lemon  juice  may 
be  concentrated  to  about  one-eiglnh  of  its 
former  bulk,  and  is  then  clear,  intensely 
sour,  and  will  kee])  in  a  cool  climate  for 
several  years  unaltered.  Still  however 
the  extract  entirely  remains  and  J^art  of 
the  mucilage,  and  therefore  in  ti-opical 
climates  even  this  concentrated  juice 
sjioils  in  no  great  length  of  time,  besides 
the  capital  defect  in  tiie  utility  of  tlie 
process,  that  tlie  cold  which  it-Jcqulrcs 
can  never  be  obtained  naturally  in  the 
countries  where  the  fruit  grows,  and  at 
tlie  season  in  which  it  is  most  likely  to 
spoil. 

Sometimes  certain  mixtures  are  added 
to  lemon-juice   to  prescive  it.     Forstcf 


CIT 


CIT 


found  in  Cook's  Voyage  to  the  South  Pole 
that  the  juice  mixed  willi  a  fifth  part  of 
brandy  or  rum,  in  well  closed  casks,  kept 
very  well  for  tliirty-two  months.  Brug- 
natclli  proposes  to  clarify  the  juice  by  al- 
cohol. Fresh  lemon  juice  was  mixed 
with  some  strong  alcohol  and  bottled. 
In  a  few  days  a  slimy  mucilage  had  sepa- 
rated, and  the  liquor  filtered  through  pa- 
per, contained  the  purified  juice  witJi  al- 
cohol, which  last  may  be  separated  by 
evaporation.  But  it  is  obvious  that  this 
only  very  partially  clarifies  the  juice  ; 
for  the  clear  liquor,  evaporated  slowly  to 
drjniess,  gives  no  crystals,  but  only  a  sour 
extract.  Besides,  tlie  expense  forbids  its 
being  used  in  the  great  way.  Some  per- 
sons add  sulphuric  or  some  other  mineral 
acid  to  the  juice,  partly  to  preserve  and 
partly  to  adulterate  it.  The  juice  is  in- 
deed kept  a  long  time  from  moulding  by 
this  addition,  but  the  adulteration  is  often 
a  serious  inconvenience  and  loss.  Evapo- 
ration is  certainly  the  best  method  of  pre- 
serving the  juice  in  hot  climates  in  its 
natural  state,  that  can  be  practised  in  the 
large  way.  This  juice  cannot  be  purified 
like  vinegar  by  distillatir-n,  for,  being  less 
volatile  than  water,  it  will  not  rise  m  va- 
pour with  a  heat  leas  than  will  decompose 
it;  but  if  the  fresh  juice  simply  strained 
be  exposed  to  a  very  gentle  heat,  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  flies  oiF  without 
carrying  away  any  of  the  acid,  and  when 
the  liquor  has  nearly  a  syrupy  consistence 
(before  it  acquires  a  burnt  taste,)  it  is  then 
intensely  sour,  and  will  keep  in  bottles  for 
many  years,  with  very  little  alteration,  and 
even  retaining  much  of  its  original  fla- 
vour. This  inspissated  juice  or  Rob  of 
Lemons,  as  it  is  called,  if  intended  for  the 
table,  may  be  immediately  mixed  with 
dry  white  sugar,  which  is  known  to  pre- 
serve all  vegetable  matter  from  corrup- 
tion, and  it  will  then  keep  for  almost  any 
length  of  time  unimpaired,andis  excellent 
for  sea  voyages  and  domestic  use.  In  hot 
climates  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  made  to 
assist  considerably  in  the  evaporation. 

But  the  pure  citric  acid  cannot  be  ob- 
tained by  such  simple  methods,  but  a 
double  process  of  chemical  affinity  is  re- 
quired, first,  by  adding  an  intermede  to 
separate  it  from  the  other  parts  of  the 
juice,  and  next  to  obtain  it  free  from  this 
addition  in  its  crystallized  form.  This 
very  ingenious  process  was  discovered 
by  Scheele,  and  has  since  been  followed 
by  all  succeeding  chemists,  with  only  a 
"Slight  variation  in  the  proportions  and 
minutiae  of  the  process.  The  Liter mede 
which  this  admirable  chemist  used  was 
lime  added  in  the  form  of  chalk,  the  same 
tijat  he  had  before  employed  for  a  similar 
VOIi.    I. 


purpose  in  preparing  the  concrete  acid  of 
Tartar. 

The  mode  he  recommends  is  in  a  few 
words  the  following:  Saturate  boiUng 
lemon  juice  with  chalk  in  powder  added 
j;radually,  till  no  more  effervescence  ari- 
ses. The  compound  thence  arising  is  a 
grey  iitsoluble  mass,  the  citrat  of  lime, 
which  readily  settles,  leaving  the  muci- 
lage, extract,  and  other  ingredients  of  the 
juice  in  the  supernatant  liquor,  which  is 
thrown  away,  and  the  calcareous  preci- 
pitate well  washed  with  cold  water  till  it 
is  colourless.  Then  add  to  the  precipi- 
tate a  quantity  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
diluted  with  ten  times  its  bulk  of  water, 
and  equal  in  weight  to  the  chalk  used, 
and  boil  for  a  few  minutes.  This  by 
stronger  affinity  unites  with  the  lime,form- 
hig  a  sulphat  of  lime  equally  insoluble 
with  the  citrat,  whilst  the  citric  acid,  now 
set  free,  remains  dissolved  in  the  clear 
liquor,  and  by  due  evaporation  may  be 
procured  pure,  and  in  large  crystals. 
The  sulphuric  acid  should  be  a  little  in 
excess  to  engage  all  the  lime,  otherwise 
the  acid  will  not  crystallize. 

Such  is  the  process  of  this  excellent 
chemist,  but  as  the  preparation  of  this 
acid  has  lately  become  an  object  of  some 
importance  in  manufacture,  it  may  be  of 
advantage  to  compare  the  particulars  of 
the  process  as  given  by  different  chemists. 

In  preparing  citric  acid  in  the  great 
way,  M.  Dize  mentions  the  following  par- 
ticulars. After  the  citrat  of  lime  has  been 
decomposed  by  the  sulphuric  acid,  cold 
water,  assisted  by  stirring,  is  sufficient  to 
wash  out  all  the  citric  acid  adhering  to 
the  sulphat  of  lime.  This  is  of  use  both 
as  saving  fuel  and  as  less  of  the  calca- 
reous sulphat  is  dissolved.  Much  how- 
ever is  still  contained  in  the  clear  liquor, 
which,  in  fact,  is  a  mixture  of  citric  acid 
with  the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  it 
is  necessary  to  add,  and  sulphat  of  hme 
held  in  solution.  This  liquor  may  be  eva- 
porated at  a  heat  of  boiling  water.  It  is 
of  a  clear  light  yellow.  As  the  bulk  of  li- 
quid diminishes,  the  sulphat  of  lime  falls 
down  ;  and  it  is  of  use  to  suspend  the  eva- 
poration once  or  twice  for  some  hours, 
that,  by  cooling,  the  whole  of  the  sulphav. 
may  be  deposited.  Towards  the  end,  the 
hquor  becomes  blackish,  owing  to  the  sul- 
pliuric  acid  becoming  concentrated,  antl 
acting  partly  perhaps  on  the  acid  itself, 
and  partly,  as  the  author  imagines,  on  a 
portion  of  extracti'.e  matter,  which  sub- 
sides along  with  the  citrat  of  lime,  and 
which  bethinks  it  is  necessary  to  destroy 
in  this  manner  before  the  citric  acid  will 
crystalline.  This  acid  is  so  very  soluble,' 
that  the  evaporation  must  be  pushed  to  a 
B   d 


CIT 


CIT 


very  thick  syrupy  consistence  before  the 
crystals  will  separate.  They  are,  at  first, 
black  aiid  dirty.  By  re-solution  in  cold 
water  (of  which  a  small  quantity  may  suf- 
fice) by  filtration,  and  a  second  evapora- 
tion, they  become  yellow  and  more  regu- 
lar. A  third  crystallisation  seems  neces- 
sary to  make  them  white  and  pure.  As 
there  is  much  waste  in  these  operations, 
the  foul  poilion,  which  will  not  pass  the 
filter,  should  be  evaporated  and  treated  as 
before. 

Scheele  has  well  remarked  (and  all 
other  chemists  have  found  the  same)  that 
an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  is  required. 
M.  Dixe  supposes  the  peculiar  use  of  this 
excess  to  be  to  destroy  the  remaining  ex- 
tractive matter,  the  existence  of  which  he 
endeavours  to  prove  by  the  proportions  of 
ingredients  required,  and  their  products. 
One  hundred  pounds  of  the  lemon  juice 
he  found  to  require  for  saturation  6'23  lb. 
of  chalk,  and  to  produce  as  much  as  20  lb, 
of  citrat  of  lime.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
found  the  crystallized  citric  acid  to  re- 
quire its  own  weight  of  chalk  tor  satin-a- 
tion,  and  to  produce  a  quantity  of  citrat  of 
lime  equal  to  three-fourths  of  the  weight 
of  the  two  ingredients,  tlie  loss  bemg 
chiefly  carbonic  acid.  Hence  he  con- 
cludes that  100  lb.  of  fresh  juice  contains 


6*25  lb.  of  the  pure  acid,  (that  is,  equal  in 
weight  to  the  chalk  required,)  and  that 
the  citi'at  of  lime  thence  resulting,  if  pure, 
ought  to  be  no  more  than  9-378  lb.  (be- 
ing three-fourths  of  the  sums  of  the  weight 
of  the  chalk,  and  the  supposed  quantity  of 
pure  acid.)  But  as  it  is  really  20  lb.  even 
after  washing,  he  supposes  this  enormous 
difference  to  be  made  up  by  extractive 
matter  precipitated  along  with  the  citrat 
of  lime,  and  adliering  to  it.  However,  the 
results  of  the  experiments  of  other  che- 
mists do  not  give  this  difference,  though 
they  agi-ee  tolerably  in  other  particulars. 
M.  Dixe  does  not  specify  the  quantity  of 
crystallized  acid  actually  obtained  from  a 
given  quantity  of  juice. 

Westrumb  saturated  4  lb.  of  fresh  le- 
mon juice,  simply  sti-ained,  with  3  ounces 
of  chalk,  and  obtained  5  ox.  and  1  drachm 
of  citrat  of  lime;  which,  decomposed  with 
23  drams  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  diluted 
with  about  ten  times  its  bulk  of  water,  gave, 
by  due  evaporation,  2^  ounces  of  crystal- 
lized acid  a  little  foul,  which  lost  one 
drachm  by  a  second  crystallization. 

Professor  Proust  has  examined  the 
same  process.  The  ingredients  and  pro- 
ducts given  by  those  thi-ee  chemists,  re- 
duced to  the  same  proportion,  are  as  fol- 
lows : 


Lemon  Juice  Clmlk  Citrat  of  Lime 

100  lb.     requires    4.2«  lb.    and   produces    7.Sllb. 


Cr>'st. 

CitricA. 

6.25 


Citric  Acid  Citric  Acid 

in  crj'stals 
iquires    4.Zf  lb.    ana   produces    v.aiio.       yields      4.38  lb.  and  contains  4.74  lb.    Proutt 
for  ^  by  by  by 

saturation  4.65  —     precipitation     8.0  —   evaporation  3.90  —     estimation     IVestrutnb. 

6.25—  ,  20,  6.25—      Disi. 

9.375  Do. 


To  separate  the  citric  acid  completely 
from  the  lime,  by  the  sulphuric,  in  the  se 
cond  step  of  the  jn-ocess,  Froust  recom- 
mends boiling  the  whole  for  about  five  6r 
ten  miinites.  The  difficulty  of  separating 
all  tl>e  sulphat  of  lime  and  extract  from 
the  disengaged  citric  acid,  and  of  pro- 
curing clear  regular  crystals  has  already 
been  mentioned.  A  little  alcohol  added 
towards  the  end  of  the  first  evaporation, 
and  subsidence,  for  some  liours,  greatly 
assists  this  separation,  and  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  crystals. 

Lemon  juice,  wlien  imported  in  this 
state,  is  not  unfi-equently  adultfcrated  with 
some  sti'ong  and  cheaper  acid.  The  sul- 
phuric is  most  to  be  suspected.  It  is  de- 
tected in  the  following  way ;  put  some  of 
the  juice  in  a  glass,  and  add  a  solution  of 
acetite  of  lead.  This  will  produce  a  co- 
pious white  sediment  in  any  case ;  after 
which  add  some  drops  of  strong  nitric 
acid.    If  the  juice  contained  no  sulphuric 


acid,  the  white  precipitate  will  be  redis- 
solved,  and  the  liquor  become  again  clear, 
the  citrat  of  lead  and  malat  (of  which  a 
small  portion  will  also  be  formed)  being 
readily  soluble  in  nitric  acid ;  but  if  the 
juice  was  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid,  the 
sulphat  of  lead  will  remain  at  the  bottom. 
If  this  is  collected,  washed,  and  dried,  the 
quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  may  be  esti- 
mated from  the  known  proportions  of 
this  salt. 

Vauquelin  asserts,  that  this  acid  may 
be  obtained  by  passing  oxymuriatic  gas 
through  gtun  arable,  in  water,  for  a  consi- 
derable time. 

The  culinary  uses  of  lemon  juice  are 
well  known.  The  concrete  citric  acid 
may  be  often  substituted  for  the  juice 
with  advantage,  where  the  latter  is  not 
conveniently  procurable  ;  but  it  is  to  be 
observed,  that  none  of  the  peculiar  flavour 
of  the  fruit,  so  agreeable  in  the  fresh  le- 
mon, passes  into  the  solid  acid,  which  is 


CLA 


CLA 


merely  sour,  and  without  any  particular 
astringency. 

Tlie  use  to  wliich  this  acid  has  lately 
been  put  in  manufactures  is  as  a  discharger 
of  colour  in  calico-printing:  the  white  fi- 
gured parts  of  coloured  patterns,  prepared 
with  iron  colours,  being  produced  with 
great  clearness  and  effect  by  this  acid 
It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  crystal- 
lize the  acid  for  this  purpose,  but  only  to 
concenti'ate  it.  The  mineral  acids  an- 
swer equally  as  dischargers,  but  when 
sufficiently  strong  to  do  this  effectually, 
the}' injure  the  texture  of  the  cotton. 

CLARIFICATION,  is  the  sej^aration,  by 
chemical  means,  of  any  liquid  fi-om  sub- 
stances suspended  in  it,  and  rendering  it 
turbid  If  a  difference  can  be  made  be- 
tween clarification  a.nd  Jiltratioti,  it  is  that 
the  latter  is  effected  by  mere  mechanical 
means,  but  the  former  either  by  heat  or 
by  certain  additions,  the  action  of  which 
may  be  considered  as  chiefly  chemical. 
A  few  practical  observations  belong  to 
both  these  articles. 

The  liquors  subjected  to  clarification 
are  almost,  without  exception,  those  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  juices,  in  which  the  mat- 
ter that  renders  them  tiu'bid,  is  so  nearly 
of  the  same  specific  gravity  witli  the  li- 
quor itself,  that  mere  rest  will  not  effect  a 
separation.  In  these  too  the  liquid  is  ge- 
nerally rendered  thicker  tlian  usual,  by 
holding  in  solution  much  mucilage,  whiclt 
further  entangles  the  turbid  matter,  and 
prevents  it  from  sinking.  Hence  it  is  that 
vinous  fermentation  has  so  powerful  an 
effect  as  a  clai-ifier,  (wine  being  much 
more  limpid  than  the  grape  or  other  fruit 
juice  of  which  it  is  made)  since  this  pro- 
cess always  implies  the  destruction  of  a 
portion  of  saccharine  mucilage,  and  the 
consequent  production  of  a  thin  limpid 
spirit 

Coagulating  substances  are  great  clari- 
fiers,  when  mixed  with  any  turbid  liquor, 
the  process  of  coagulation  entangling 
with  it  all  matters  merely  suspended  and 
not  dissolved,  and  carrying  them  either  to 
the  top,  in  the  form  of  a  scum,  or  to  the 
bottonit  in  the  form  of  a  thick  sediment, 
according  to  circumstances.  Thus,  to 
clarify  muddy  cyder,  the  liquor  is  beaten 
up  with  a  small  quantity  of  fresh  bullock's 
blood,  or  new  milk,  and  suffered  to  stand 
at  rest  for  some  hours,  after  which  Uie  li- 
quor above  is  as  clear  as  water,  and  al- 
most as  colourless,  and  at  the  bottom  is  a 
thick  tough  cake,  consistingoftlie  coagu- 
lated blood,  or  milk,  which  has  carried 
down  with  it  all  the  opaque  matter  sus- 
pended in  the  liquor.  Many  other  albu- 
minous and  gelatinous  substances  act  in 
the  same  manner.    The  effect  of  white  of 


e^^  in  this  way  is  known  to  every  one. 
It  should  be  first  mixed  with  the  turbid 
liquor  (a  syrup  for  example)  witliout  heat 
and  by  agitation^  vflerwaids,  on  apply- 
ing less  than  a  boiling  heat,  the  albumen 
of  the  egg  coagulates,  and  carries  up  with 
it  all  the  opaque  particles  of  the  syi-up, 
leaving  the  rest  beautifully  clear  and  lim- 
pid. Isinglass  also  produces  a  similar  effect. 

Sometimes  clarification  takes  place  in  a 
very  unaccountable  manner.  Thus  it  is 
well  known  that  a  handful  of  marl  or  clay 
will  clai'ify  a  large  cistern  of  muddy  wa- 
ter, and  marl  is  also  used  with  advantage 
In  clarifying  vinous  liquors. 

Mere  heat  will  often  clarify.  Thus  the 
expressed  juice  of  cabbage  plants  is  a 
strong-smelling,  green,  clammy,  muddy 
liquid.  By  heating,  all  the  turbid  matter 
separates  in  the  form  of  a  green  coagulum, 
and  the  liquor  that  remains  is  almost  as 
hmpid  as  water. 

Clarification  may  often  be  detrimental. 
In  many  liquid  medicines,  such  as  decoc- 
tions of  medicinal  vegetables  and  the  like, 
the  medicinal  portion  resides  chiefly  in 
that  part  which  is  merely  suspended,  and 
therefore,  when  separated  by  any  kind  of 
coagidation,  the  cleai-  liquor  Is  left  nearly 
inert.  See  Filtration.  See  also  Wine. 

CLAY.  Any  natural  earthy  mixture 
which  possesses  plasticity  and  ductility, 
when  kneaded  up  with  watei",  is  in  com- 
mon language  called  a  clay,  which  term 
is  probably  derived  from  the  Latin  glnrea 
through  the  medium  of  the  Yieuch  giaise. 
All  mineralogists  however,  have  compre- 
hended within  the  appellation,  not  only 
clays  properly  so  called,  but  a  few  other 
mineral  substances  nearly  allied  to  some 
of  the  claySi  and  which  become  plastic  by 
decomposition.  Clay,  however,  is  by  no 
means  a  mineral  species  stilctly  speaking, 
being  in  most  cases,  perhaps  in  all,  the 
result  of  the  decomposition  of  other  mi- 
nei'als.  It  seems  advisable,  therefore,  to 
consider  the  property  of  plasticity  as  an 
essential  character,  and  to  exclude  from 
the  class  of  clays  all  earthy  bodies  that 
are  destitute  of  it. 

Mineralogists  have  hitherto  arranged 
all  the  plastic  clays  under  two  species, 
rather  from  the  economical  uses  to  which 
they  are  applied,  than  according  to  their 
external  characters,  composition  or  geo- 
logical situation :  the  first  species  is  the 
white  infusible  porcelain  clay,  and  the  se- 
cond contains  all  the  rest,  confounded  to- 
gether, under  the  general  appellation. 
Patterns  clay  That  this  mode  of  arrange- 
ment is  very  defective,  will  be  readily  al- 
lowed, and  the  readei-,  it  is  hoped,  will  re- 
ceive with  candour  the  following  attempt 
at  a  more  scientific  clas.sification. 


CLA 


CL\ 


Essential  character.  Flattie  by  intimate 
tiiixture  -with  water, 

1.  Porcelain  clay. 

Its  colour  is  generally  reddish-wliitc, 
also  greyisu  and  yellowish-white  :  it  has 
no  lustre  nor  transparency.  It  occurs 
either  friable  or  compact ;  stains  the  fin- 
gers ;  adheres  to  the  tongue  ;  is  soft  but 
meagre  to  the  feel :  is  easily  broken.  Sp. 
gr.  about  2. 3.  It  falls  to  pieces  in  water, 
and  by  kneading  becomes  ductile,  though 
not  in  a  very  great  degree.  The  Cornish 
porcelain  clay  certainly  originates  from 
the  decomposition  of  feltspar,  and  contains 
particles  of  quartz,  mica,  and  talc,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  eluti'iation.  The 
Chinese  kaolin  also  contains  mica,  and  is 
probably  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Cor- 
nish. The  same  remark  may  be  applied 
to  the  French  Stc.  It  is,  however,  by  no 
means  certain,  that  all  porcelain  clay  is  de- 
rived from  feltspar,  as  it  varies  consider- 
ably in  its  composition  and  fusibility ;  all 
tlie  kinds  indeed  are  infusible  at  any  tem- 
perature less  than  a  white  heat,  but  some, 
especially  the  Japanese,  are  refractory  in 
the  most  powerful  furnaces.  The  Cor- 
nish clay,  according  to  Wedgewood,  con- 
sists of  60  per  cent,  alumine,  and  40  silex. 
That  from  Limoges  in  France,  according 
to  Hasseufratz,  contains  62  silex,  19  alu- 
mine, 12  magnesia,  7  sulphat  of  barytes. 
Another  specimen  of  tlie  same,  analysed 
by  Vauquclin,  gave  55  silex,  27  alumine, 
2  lime,  0.  5  iron,  14  water.  A  porcelain 
clay  analysed  by  Rose,  gave  52  silpx,  47 
alumine,  0.33  iron. 

2.  Stctititic  clay, 

Its  colour  is  a  light  flesh  red  passing 
into  cream  colour  ;  its  texture  is  minutely 
foliated  ;  it  has  a  slight,  somewhat  greasy 
lustre,  and  takes  a  polish  from  the  nail. 
It  stains  the  fingers,  is  very  friable,  and 
has  a  smooth  unctuous  ftel.  When  laid 
on  the  tongue,  it  dissolves  into  a  smooth 
pulp,  without  any  gritty  particles  ;  it  is 
very  plastic  and  has  a  strong  argillaceous 
odour.  It  occurs  in  nodules,  in  a  hard 
cellular  horn-stone,  that  fi)rms  large  moun- 
tainous masses  near  Conway  iu  North 
Wales,  and  originates  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  indurated  steatite. 

3.  Clay  from  Slate. 

Its  colour  is  ash-grey  passing  into  ochre- 
yellow  :  its  texture  is  foliated  :  it  has  a 
smooth  unctuous  lc;el,  and  its  .siliceous 
particles  are  ko  small  as  to  occasion 
.scarcely  any  grittinpss  between  the  tcetii. 
It  occurs  in  thin  beds  on  the  tops  of  the 
softer  kinds  of  slate-rock,  and,  from  its 
impervio>isness  to  water,  is  always  found 
lining  the  boUonis  of  the  ]>eat  mosses  whh 
which  this  IchkI  of  mountains  is  generally 
covered;  and  in  these  situations  it  is  of  a 


white  ash  colour,  being  deprived  of  its 
iron  and  carbon  by  the  acid  of  the  peat. 
It  also  occurs,  in  thicker  beds,  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  but  is  of  a  darker  co- 
lour and  less  plastic. 

4.  Clayfrotn  Shale. 

Its  colour  varies  from  greyisli-bluc  to 
bluish  black  :  its  texture  is  foliated  :  it 
has  a  smooth  unctuous  feel,  takes  a  polish 
from  the  nail,  is  excessively  tenacious  and 
ductile,  and  has  but  a  slight  degree  of 
grittincss.  When  burnt,  it  acquires  more 
or  less  of  an  ochre-red  colour  :  those  va- 
rieties which  are  of  the  deepest  red,  usual- 
ly contain,  before  burning,  a  portion  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  It  is  for  the  most  part  difii- 
cult  of  fusion.  It  occurs  abundantly  in 
all  collieries,  and  is  produced  by  the  s|)on. 
tancous  decomposition  of  the  shale  v\ith 
which  the  beds  of  coal  are  covered.  A 
sandy  clay,  of  a  greyer  colour,  and  more 
refractory  nature, is  procured  from  the  de- 
composition of  the  indurated  clay  that 
forms  the  floor  of  the  coal,  and  is  provin- 
cially  called  clunch.  The  Slurbridge  clay, 
from  which  crucibles,  glasshouse-pots, 
&.C.  are  made,  is  of  this  kind. 

5.  Clay  from  Trap. 

At  the  toot  of  the  softer  rocks  of  trap- 
formation,  such  as  wakke,  clay-porphyiy, 
and  some  varieties  of  grunstein  and  horn- 
blende rock,  are  found  beds  of  clay  evi- 
dently originating  from  the  gradual  dis- 
integration of  these  by  the  weather.  The 
colour  of  this  clay  is  g'cnerally  brownish 
grey  verging  to  ochre  yellow  ;  it  occurs 
in  mass,  is  of  a  compact  texture,  unctu- 
ous, tenacious,  gritty,  and  probably  is  not 
very  infusible. 

6.  JMarley  clay. 

The  colour  of  tliis  is  bluish  or  brown- 
ish red  :  it  occurs  either  compact  or  foli- 
ated: it  has  a  soft  unctuous  foel,  takes 
a  polish  by  friction  with  the  nail,  is  very 
plastic,  more  or  less  gritty,  tliough  not  so 
much  so  as  the  common  alluvial  clay.  It 
burns  to  a  brick  of  a  bufl'  or  deep  cream 
colour,  and  at  a  high  heat  readily  enters 
into  fusion.  It  c<lcr\esces  stiongly  with 
acids,  and  contains  lioni  A  to    '   of  carbo- 

l  1 0 

nated  lime.  It  originates  sometimes  from 
the  decomposition  of  compact  argillaceous 
limestone,  but  more  frequently  from  the 
softer  slaty  varieties,  usually  called  stone 
m.irl.  It  is  largely  cm]ii03'ed  as  a  manure, 
and  where  the  calcareous  part  does  not 
exceed  1(1  or  12  percent,  it  is  esteemed 
as  a  material  I'or  bricks. 

7.  Clayfrotn  vietallic  veins. 

Its  colom*  is  gri'v  verging  into  bluish, 
greenish  and  yellowish,  or  red.  It  has  a 
sniodtli  imctuous  feel,  is  very  tenacious, 
ofitn  contains  suljihuric  acid  and  rcrtain 
metallic  o.vmIs,  wliich  are  never  observed 


CLO 


CLO 


in  other  clays,  such  as  lead,  silver,  anti- 
mony, copper,  and  bismuth.  Is  found  in 
metallic  veins. 

8.  Alluvial  clay. 

The  circumstances  which  characterize 
alluvial  ciay  are  tlie  following.  It  con- 
tains a  laiger  propoiftion  of  qiiartzy  sand 
than  the  preceding ;  i-oundcd  pebbles  of 
various  kinds  are  also  imbedded  in  it; 
thus  showing  it  to  have  been  carried  from 
its  native  situation,  and  mingled  in  its  pro- 
gress, with  a  variety  of  extraneous  bodies. 
At  least  three  kinds  of  it  may  be  distin- 
guished, viz.  Pipe  clay.  Potter's  clay,  and 
Chalky  clay. 

Pipe  clay  is  of  a  greyish  or  yellowish 
•white  colour,  an  earthy  fracture  and  a 
smooth  greasy  feel :  it  adheres  pretty 
strongly  to  the  tongue,  is  very  plastic  and 
tenacious  ;  wJsen  burnt,  is  of  a  milk-white 
colour;  is  difficultly  fusible,  much  more 
so  than  porcelain  cla},  from  which  it 
is  further  distinguished  by  its  superior 
plasticity  and  the  sand  which  it  contains. 
It  is  manufactuied  into  tobacco-pipes,  and 
is  the  basis  of  tlie  white  Or  Queen's-ware 
pottery. 

Potter's  clay  is  of  a  reddish,  blueish  or 
greenish  colour,  has  a  somewhat  fine 
earthy  fracture,  and  a  soft,  often  grease- 
feel  :  it  adheres  to  the  tongue  and  is  very 
plastic.  It  burns  to  a  hard  porous  red 
brick,  andin  a  higher  heut  runs  into  a  dark 
coloured  flag.  When  tempered  with 
water,  and  mi.xed  with  sand,  it  is  manufac- 
tured into  bricks:  those  varieties  that  are 
the  most  free  from  pebbles  arc  made  into 
tiles  and  coarse  red  pottery. 

Chalky  clay  is  of  a  leaden  blue  colour, 
an  earthy  fracture  and  a  meagre  feel :  it 
is  plastic,  but  breaks  down  by  exposure  to 
tiie  weather.  It  contains  a  large  propor- 
tion of  sand  and  rounded  pieces  of  chalk 
of  all  sizes  up  to  that  of  a  hazle  nut.  It 
effervesces  stiongly  with  acids,  burns  to 
a  red  ]5orous  brick,  and  is  very  fusible-  It 
is  used  as  a  manure.  The  United  States 
abound  with  a  variety  of  excellent  clays, 
proper  for  even  the  finest  of  wares  ;  and 
before  the  revolutionary  war,  a  chi:«,a 
manufactory  was  established  in  Piiiladel- 
phia,  and  some  excellent  specimens  made 
at  it,  are  still  to  be  found.  This  clay  was 
brought  from  Whiieclay  creek,  Delaware ; 
as  we  have  been  informed.  See  Agri- 
culture.  Brick.  Earths   and  Alu- 

MIN'E. 

CLOTH-MAKING.      See  Manufac 

TURE   OF  Ct.OTH. 

CLOVEli,  a  species  of  trefoil,  or  Trifo- 
iinvi,  \j.  a  genus  of  plants  comprising  55 
species,  of  which  only  16  are  indigenous  in 
England  :  of  these  the  following  are  tlie 
principal. 


1.  Tlie  pratense,  or  common  [red]  clo- 
ver, which  is  frequently  found  in  meadows 
and  pastures.  'I'his  species  thrives  Ijcst 
on  a  firm  heavy  soil,  and  is  raised  from 
seed,  whicii  is  usually  sown  between  tlie 
months  of  February  and  April  in  the 
proportion  of  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  per 
acre  If  it  be  often  sown  on  the  same  land, 
the  crop  will  fail;  it  should  therefore  be 
changed  for  trefoil  or  lucerne. 

Tiie  common  clover  is  in  flower  from 
May  to  Seinembcr,  and  produces  seeds 
which  are  known  to  be  ripe  by  the  stalks 
and  heads  changing  their  colour.  Cattle, 
sheep,  and  pigs  are  exceedingly  fond  of 
this  .species,  and  frequently  eat  of  it  so 
eagerly  as  to  become  Iwcen  or  dloKn.  That 
disorder,  however,  may  be  prevented  by 
constantly  moving  them  about  the  field, 
when  turned  in,  so  that  the  first  ball  may 
sink  into  their  maw  before  the  next  be  de- 
posited. Or,  if  cattle  be  turned  into  clo- 
ver be'!\'-deep,  they  will,  it  is  said,  receive 
no  inju;7  by  eating  too  freely  of  it;  as  it 
is  pernicious  only  in  its  earlier  state. — 
Should  they,  nevertheless,  l>e  attacked 
witli  that  dajigerous  swelling,  they  may  be 
relieved  by  adopting  tiie  remedies  pointed 
out  under  the  article  Cattle. 

In  Sweden,  tlie  heads  are  employed  for 
dyeing  wfwl  of  a  green  toloiu";  and  if 
mixed  with  alum,  they  eield  a  light,  if 
with  copperas,  a  dark  green  colour. 

2.  The  tnediuin,-  or  red  perennial  clo- 
ver, which  is  found  in  pastures,  hedges, 
and  on  the  sides  of  woods.  It  thrives  on 
a  rich  soil,  whether  clay  or  gravel,  and 
will  even  grow  upon  a  moor,  if  properly 
cultivated. 

When  red  clover  is  intended  f  >r  seed, 
the  gfioimd  ought  to  be  carefiilly  cleared 
of  weeds,  thatthe  seed  may  be  preserved 
pm-e.  It  is  collected  both  fi-oni  the  first 
and  second  crop,  but  pi  incipally  from  thR 
former.  When  one  half  of  the  field  lias 
cliangcd  its  colour,  by  the  drying  of  the 
clovtr  heads,  the  reaping  of  them  inaytlien 
be  commenced.  In  America,  this  is  ef- 
fected by  two  implements,  [which  are  des- 
cribed in  the  trans.  ofN.  Y.  Agric.  Soc.by 
Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  and  were  invented  in 
Brookliaven,  Sufiblk  County,  New  York,] 
and  for  ingenuity  and  simplicity  of  con- 
struction, deserve  to  he  greatly  recom- 
mended :  we  have  therefore  subjoined  the 
following  representations : 

DiiTi'-nsions. 
1,  2,  The  shafts,  4  feet  4  inches  long, 
and  3  feel  astmder. 

3.  4,  The  handles,  5  feet  long,  and  20 
inch.cs  apart. 

5,  The  fingers,  or  teeth,  tlditeen  inches 
long. 


CLO 


CLO 


The  vvheels  are  sixteen  inches  in  diame- 
ter 

This  machine  is  di-awn  by  one  horse, 
and  guided  by  a  man  or  boy;  it  simply 
consists  of  aii  open  box,  about  4  feet 
squaie  at  the  bottom,  and  about  three  in 
height,  on  three  sides  ;  to  the  fore  part, 
which  is  open,  fingers  are  fixed,  similar  to 
those  of  a  cradle,  about  3  fee*  in  length, 
and  so  neai  as  to  break  off  the  heiuls  from 
the  clover -stocks  between  them,  which  are 
thrown  back  into  the  box  as  the  horse  ad- 
vances. The  box  is  fixed  on  an  axle-tree, 
supported  by  two  small  wheels,  two  feet 
in  diameter;  two  handles  are  fixed  to  the 
hinder  part,  by  means  of  which  the  driver, 
while  he  manages  the  horse,  raises  or  low 
ers  the  fingers  of  the  machine,  so  as  to 
take  off  all  the  heads  of  the  grass;  and.  as 
often  as  the  box  is  filled  with  them,  they 
are  thrown  out,  and  the  horse  goes  on  as 
before. 


This  Instrument  is  called  a  cradle,  and 
is  made  of  an  oak  board  about  18  inches 
in  length  and  10  in  breadth.  The  fore -part 
of  it,  to  the  length  of  9  inches,  is  sawed  in- 
to fingers ;  a  handle  is  inserted  behind, 
inclining  towai'ds  them,  and  a  cloth  put 
roimd  the  back  part  of  the  board,  which 
is  cut  somewhat  circular,  and  raised  on 
the  handle ;  this  collects  the  heads  or  tops 
of  the  c^rass,  and  prevents  them  from  scat- 
tering, as  they  are  struck  off  by  the  cra- 
dle, which  may  be  made  of  diflferent  sizes; 
being  smaller  in  proportion  for  women  and 


children,  who,  by  means  of  It,  may  like- 
wise  collect  large  quantities.  Mr  L'Hom- 
medieii  says,  as  soon  as  the  clover  is 
mown,  it  should  be  immediately  raked  in- 
to small  heaps,  and  exposed  [about  three 
weeks]  in  the  field,  to  promote  the  decay 
of  the  husk,  as  otherwise  it  will  be  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  the  seed.  These  heaps 
should  be  occasionally  turned,  especially 
during  wet  weather.  It  may,  however,  be 
easily  ascertained,  whether  the  husks  are 
sufficiently  rotten,  or  dry,  by  rubbing  the 
heads  or  tops  between  the  liands  :  when 
that  is  effected,  they  should  be  housed, 
and  the  seed  threshed  out  when  conveni- 
ent,  and  cleared  with  a  wire  riddle.  Last- 
ly, this  species  is  a  valuable  substitute  for 
the  common  clover,  as  it  continues  much 
longer  in  the  land. 

Upon  the  subject  of  collecting  clover 
seed,  .Mr.  L'Hommt.  dieu  observes  further ; 
by  sowing  three  or  fou;  pounds  of  seed  to 
the  acre,  on  light  loamy  soiis,  which  yield 
eight  or  ten  bushels  of  wheat  oi  rye  per 
acre,  the  clover  will  not  be  profitable  to 
mow,  but  standing  thin  on  the  ground,  tho 
heads  will  be  well  filled  with  seed.  The 
fields  are  to  be  kept  up  next  year,  till  the 
seed  is  collected,  by  the  machine  repre- 
sented above.  On  rich  lands,  no  seed 
comes  with  the  first  crop,  but  the  second 
crop  being  shorter  and  thinner,  is  com- 
monly well  seeded.  Sometimes,  indeed, 
considerable  quantities  of  seed  are  gath- 
ered from  the  first  crop,  on  land  where 
wheat  has  been  cut  tlie  same  year,  the 
stubble, preventing  the  clover  from  grow- 
ing too  thick  to  produce  seed.  If  the  land 
be  rich,  and  it  is  intended  to  sow  the  first 
crop,  and  collect  seed  from  the  second, 
eight  lbs.  are  not  too  much  for  one  acre. 

Ked  clover  is  an  essential  article  in  the 
rotation  of  crops  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
immense  riches  which  the  whole  staie  has 
acquired  during  the  last  twenty  years, 
may,  in  part,  justly  be  ascribed  to  this 
grass  aided  by  the  almost  magical  fertili- 
sing power  of  gypsum,  by  which  more 


COA 


COA 


wealth  has  been  introduced  than  would 
have  resulted  from  the  discovery  of  a  gold 
mine. 

3.  The  procumbens  or  hop-clover,  or 
hop  ti-efbil,  whicli  grows  in  dry  mea- 
dows and  pastures.  It  flowers  in  the 
months  of  June  and  July.  When  mixed 
with  common  clover,  on  light  land,  it 
makes  a  most  excellent  fodder.  This  plant 
is  variously  called  back-grass  and  non- 
such. 

4.  The  repens,  or  white-clover,  which 
abounds  in  meadows  and  pastures.  It  al- 
so delights  in  light  land,  where  it  will 
thrive  luxuriantly,  if  frequently  rolled.  It 
is  usually  sown  with  red  clover,  rye-grass, 
or  barley,  and  is  in  blossom  from  May  to 
September.  It  produces  the  sweetest  hay 
on  dry  land,  especially  when  mixed  with 
hop-clover  and  rye-grass  ;  and  possesses 
this  advantage  over  the  common  clover, 
that  it  will  admit  of  being  irj-igated.  Hor- 
ses, cows,  and  goats  eat  it,  but  sheep  are 
not  fond  of  it,  and  hogs  totally  refuse  it 

COAK,  see  Coal. 

COAL.  Mineralogists  are  by  no  means 
agreed  in  their  ai-rangement  of  this  im- 
portant genus  of  mineral  inflammables, 
we  shall  therefore  with  the  less  scruple 
differ  in  some  degree  from  them  all.  It 
appears  to  be  upon  the  whole  the  most 
convenient  as  well  as  more  conformable 
to  nature  to  include  both  the  carbonace- 
ous and  carbono-bituminous  fossils  under 
a  single  genus,  sub-dividing  it  into  the 
families  of  Brown  Coal,  Black  Coal,  and 
Mineral  Carbon. 

1.  Brown  Coal.  Imperfectly  bitumi- 
nous ;  of  a  brown  colour,  and  vegetable 
texture. 

Sp.  I.    Bituminized  wood. 

Its  colour  is  bi'own  approaching  to 
brownish-black.  Its  external  shape  ex- 
actly resembles  that  of  compressed  trunks 
and  branches  of  trees  ;  its  internal  tex- 
ture is  precisely  that  of  wood,  retaining 
not  unfrequently  even  the  bark.  It  burns 
with  a  clear  flame  though  with  but  little 
heat,  and  gives  out  a  bituminous  odour 
often  mixed  with  that  of  sulphur. 

Bituminized  wood  occurs  usually  in 
alluvial  land  among  the  beds  of  common 
brown  coal ;  sometimes  also  forming  beds 
by  itself. 

It  is  found  in  Britain  at  Bovev,  near 
Exeter,  in  the  isles  of  Skye  and  Cannay, 
in  the  coal  strata  of  Mid-Lothian  ;  in  Bo- 
hemia and  various  parts  of  Germany ;  m 
France,  Iceland,  and  Russia. 

It  passes  into  common  brown  coal  and 
pitch  coal,  and  is  occasionally  penetrated 
by  quartz.  It  is  employed  as  a  fuel,  but 
is  greatly  inferior  to  black  coal. 

Sp.  U.    Eartliy  Brown  coal. 


Its  colour  Is  blackish  or  wooden-bro"vm 
or  yellowish-grey  :  it  occurs  in  mass,  of 
a  consistence  between  solid  and  friable. 
It  is  without  lustre  except  when  rubbed 
or  cut,  and  then  it  becomes  somewhat 
shining.  It  soils  the  fingers  a  little :  its 
fracture  is  intermediate  between  uneven 
and  fine  earthy.  It  is  very  soft  and  falls 
easily  to  pieces. 

It  readily  takes  fire  and  burns  with  a 
weak  flame  and  disagreeable  bituminous 
odour. 

It  is  found  in  similar  situations  with 
the  preceding  species  :  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Leipsig  it  occurs  in  beds  fi-om 
twenty  to  forty  feet  thick,  and  of  great 
extent. 

It  is  used  as  an  inferior  kind  of  fuel, 
especially  in  manufactories  where  a  low 
degree  of  heat  is  required ;  for  this  pur- 
pose it  is  moistened  with  water,  well 
beaten  and  made  into  brick-shaped  mas- 
ses. In  the  vicinity  of  Cologne  a  variety 
is  found  of  areddish-bi'own  colour,  which 
is  prepared  as  a  pigment  under  the  name 
of  Cologne  umber. 

Sp.  111.     Common  Brown-coal. 

Its  colour  is  light  brownish  black  pass- 
ing into  blackish  brown.  It  acquires  a 
polish  by  friction ;  is  moderately  hard. 

And  burns  readily  with  a  weak  flame 
like  half-charred  wood  and  a  disagreeable 
bituminous  odour,  when  heated  in  close 
vessels  it  yields  much  charcoal  and  when 
ignited  in  an  open  fire  it  leaves  behind  a 
small  quantity  of  white  ashes. 

Brown  coal  is  found  in  the  territory  of 
Hesse,  and  various  parts  of  Germany,  in 
Denmark,  Greenland,  Italy,  and  in  En- 
gland. 

It  is  used  like  the  preceding  species, 
for  fuel.  It  passes  into  bituminous  wood 
and  moor-coal,  sometimes  into  pitch- 
coal. 

Sp.  IV.     Moor  coal. 

Its  colour  is  dark  blackish  brown.  It 
occurs  in  mass  forming  very  thick  beds, 
and  is  characterized  by  being  always  full 
of  rifts  and  crevices.  Internally  it  dis- 
plays a  considerably  resinous  lustre.  It 
is  tender,  remarkably  frangible,  and  light, 
and  in  its  chemical  characters  it  resem- 
bles  the  preceding  species. 

It  occurs  in  alluvial  land  and  in  the 
newest  floetz-trap-formation.  It  is  met 
with  very  frequently  in  Bohemia,  and  is 
also  found  in  Transylvania  and  otlier  pai'ts 
of  the  Austrian  dominions,  in  Ucnraai-k 
and  the  Faroe  islands. 

2.  Black  Coal.  Perfectly  bituminous ; 
of  a  black  colour. 

Sp.  y.     Slate  coal. 

Its  colour  is  perfectly  black  passing  into 
greyish-black,  and  often  presents  more 


COA 


eoA 


or  less  of  an  imdescent  tarnish*  It  runs 
into  the  two  following  varieties. 

Var.  1 .     Foliated  coal. 

This  differs  from  the  preceding'  in  hav- 
ing a  somewhat  higher  lustre,  and  a  strait 
foliated  longitudinal,  and  slaty  cross  frac- 
ture. It  is  also  softer  and  more  subject 
to  decomposition. 

Var.  2.     Coarse  coal. 

The  cross  fracture  of  this  displays  a 
coarser  granular  texture  than  common 
slate-coal;  its  colour  is  not  so  i>ui'e  a  black, 
it  possesses  less  lustre,  and  is  considera- 
bly harder. 

Most  of  the  common  coals  belong  to 
tliis  species,  and  fi-om  the  difierent  phe- 
nomena wliicli  they  exhibit  dtu'ing  com- 
biisuon,  a  great  number  of  varieties  are 
known  in  the  market,  and  are  sufficiently 
obvious  to  an  experienced  eye,  which  yet 
camiot  be  described. 

The  two  points  which  are  principally 
to  be  attended  to  with  regaid  to  common 
Goals,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  are 
the  intensity  of  the  heat  and  che  durati'^n 
of  the  combustion,  and  these  are  cliiefly 
influenced  by  tiie  proportion  of  asphalt 
which  they  contain.  Coals  i\\  which  the 
bituminous  part  is  chiefly  maltha,  with 
only  a  small  quantity  of  a-^phalt,  kindle 
very  easily,  bum  briskly  and  quickly  with 
a  brigiit  bla'ie,  cake  but  little,  require 
no  stirring,  and  by  a  sing-le  combustion 
are  reduced  to  loose  ashes  such  are  the 
Lancasliire  coals,  he  Scotch  and  most  of 
those  wliicli  are  raised  on  the  western 
side  of  England.  Those  on  the  other 
hand  in  which  asphalt  prev;iils  kindle 
difficultly,  and  after  lying  some  time 
on  the  fire  become  soft  and  in  a  state  of 
almost  semifusion ;  they  then  cohere  or 
cake,  swell  considerablx',  and  throw  out 
on  every  side  tubercular  scoria:  accom- 
panied by  bright  jets  of  flame.  In  eon- 
sequence  of  the  cohesion  and  tumefaction 
of  the  coals,  the  passage  of  the  air  is  in- 
terrupted, tlicfire  burns  hollow  and  would 
be  exlinguislied  if  the  top  were  not  brok- 
en in  from  lime  to  time.  The  produce  of 
ashes  is  smaller  than  in  the  free  burning 
ooals,  the  greater  part  of  them  being  mi.\- 
e.d  with  the  carbonaceous  jxut  of  tlie  coal 
and  forming  grey  scorl;e,conimonly  kncjwn 
by  the  nuip.e  of  cinders,  vvhich  I)clng  burnt 
again  with  fresli  fuel  give  out  an  intense 
heat,  and  arc  slowly  reduced,  partly  U) 
heavy  ashes  and  partly  to  slug.  'I'he  best 
coul  of  Nortluunbcrluntt,  Uurliam  and 
Yorkshire  is  of  lh!;>  kind  :  it  burns  longer 
arid  gives  more  lieat  than  tlie  ])receding, 
.'uul  In  general  bears  a  liiglser  price. 

Siale  coal  is  found  principally  in  the  in- 
tfependent  coal-formation,  as  it  is  the  most 
widely  dinii;>ed  of  any  of  the  species.     It 


is  ofteri  mixed  with  pyrites,  and  penetrat 
ed  by  tliin  veins  of  quartz  or  calcareous 

spar. 

Sp.  VI.    Pitch  coal. 

Its  colour  is  velvet  black  passing  some" 
times  into  brownish  black.  It  occurs  in 
mass,  in  plates,  and  sometimes  in  the 
shape  of  branches  with  a  regular  woody 
structure.  It  has  a  brilliant  resinous  lus- 
tre. 

It  burns  with  a  greenish  flame  and  a 
strong  bituminous  smell,  and  leaves  be- 
hind  a  little  yellowish  coloured  ash.  It 
occurs  principally  m  the  newest  floetz- 
trap  coal-formation.  It  is  used  as  fuel,  but 
the  finer  and  harder  pieces  are  worked 
into  various  trinkets,  and  go  under  the 
name  of  jet.  It  occurs  in  detached  frag- 
ments in  the  Prussian  amber  mines,  and 
is  tliere  called  black  amber. 

Sp.  VII.     Cannel  coal. 

Its  colour  is  dark  greyish  black.  It 
occurs  in  nuiss  :  has  a  glistening  resinous 
lustre.  It  is  very  inflammable,  and  crac- 
kles, and  flies  while  burning,  especially  if 
it  is  not  laid  in  the  direction  of  the  cross 
fracture  ••  it  flames  much  and  burns  quick- 
ly, but  does  not  cake,  and  leaves  behind 
from  3  to  4  per  cent  of  ashes. 

Cannel  coal  occurs  in  the  independent 
coal-formation.  It  is  found  in  great  plen- 
ty and  remarkably  pui'e  in  Wigan  in  Lan- 
cashire, and  occasionally  in  most  of  the 
other  English  collieries. 

Its  chief  use  is  as  a  fuel,  but  the  purest 
Wigan  cannel  will  bear  to  be  worked  in 
the  turning  lathe,  from  which  it  receives 
a  high  polish  :  hence  it  is  shaped  into  va- 
rious ornamental  utensils,  and  when  cut 
into  beads  is  not  to  be  distinguished  from 
jet.     See  Ampetites. 

o.  Jli/ieral  Curbon.  Destitute  of  bitu- 
men ;  consists  of  charcoal,  with  various 
proportions  of  earth  and  iron. 

Sp.  \'iJ.     Mineral  charcoal. 

Its  colour  .".  greyisli  black.  It  occurs 
in  plates  and  irregular  pieces.  It  has  a 
glimmering  silky  lustre,  and  a  fibrous 
fracture  discovering  its  ligneous  texture. 
It  soils  tlie  fingers,  is  soft  and  friable,  li 
is  somewhat  heavier  tlian  common  char- 
coal, and  is  easily  reduced  to  ashes  before 
the  blowpipe  without  flaming. 

It  occurs  in  tiiin  layers  in  brown  coal, 
slate  coal,  slaty  glance  coal,  an<l  pitch 
coal,  but  in  loo  small  quantities  to  be- 
made  any  sejjarate  use  of. 

S|).  \1JI.     (dance  coal. 

Of  tills  tiicic  are  three  varieties. 

Var.  1.     Conchoidal  glance  coal. 

Its  colour  is  iron-black,  inclining  to 
brown.  It  occurs  in  mass  and  vesicular, 
the  inierior  of  the  vesicles  has  a  steel  blue 
tariiisji. 


COA 


COA 


It  is  of  rare  occurrence,  having'  been 
met  with  only  in  the  ileissner  in  Hesse, 
aiul  at  Newcastle. 

Var.  2.  Columnar  glance  coal. 
Its  colour  is  dark  greyish  black,  some- 
limes  verging  to  brownish  black,  the  sides 
ofits  natural  divisions  are  ot'ten  covered 
with  a  yellow  ferruginous  earth.  It  is 
soft,  very  easily  frangible,  light,  and  of  a 
shining  lusti-e. 

It  burns  without  flame  or  smell,  and 
leaves  a  greyish  white  ashes.  It  has  hitherto 
been  only  found  at  the  Meissner  in  Hesse, 
wliere  it  occurs  together  witli  other  coal 
in  ilie  newest  floetz-trap-formatiou. 

Var.  3.     Slaty  glance  coal. 

Its  colour  is  dark  u-on  black,  verging 
on  steel  grey,  it  has  brlglit  metallic 
lustre,  and  breaks  easily  into  indetermi- 
nate angular  fragments. 

This  mineral  occurs  in  imbedded  mas- 
ses, beds  and  veins  in  primitive,  transition, 
and  floetz.  rocks.  It  is  found  in  gneiss, 
in  micaceous  and  argillaceous  schistus,  in 
mineral  veins,  with  calcareous  spar,  na- 
tive silver,  mineral  pitch,  and  red  iron  ore, 
and  has  been  discovered  by  Jameson  in 
tlie  independent  coal-formation  in  the  Isle 
of  Arran. 

Sp.  IX,     Plumbago. 

Its  colour  is  dark  iron  black,  passing 
into  steel-grey.  It  occurs  in  mass,  in  kid- 
ney-shaped lumps,  and  disseminated.  It 
has  a  glistening  metallic  lustre  :  its  fi'ac- 
ture  is  small  somewhat  curved  fohated 
approaching  to  scaly,  or  granular  uneven; 
in  the  great  it  is  slaty.  It  occui's  gene- 
rally in  granulai-  or  scaly  distuict  con- 
cretions: it  takes  apolish  by  cutting  or  rub- 
bing, gives  a  dark  lead-grey  ^u-eak,  is  unc- 
tuous to  the  feel,  soft,  arid  not  very  brittle. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  and  transition 
rocks  in  England,  Scodand,  France,  Spain, 
German}-,  S.c. 

Its  most  important  use  is  a  material  for 
pencils  to  write  or  draw  witii,  for  whicli 
])urpose  none  that  has  yet  been  discover- 
ed is  comparable  to  that  from  Borrowdale 
in  Cumberland :  it  is  sometimes  used  to 
lubricate  machinery  with  instead  of  oil; 
also  to  protect  u-oa  from  rust,  and,  when 
mixed  withclay,asamatenal  forcrucibles. 

Modern  mineralogists  distinguish  three 
different  kinds  of  coal-formation,  or  three 
series  of  rocks  entirely  diflferent  fi-om 
each  other,  which  contain  coal ;  aiKl  as  a 
knowledge  of  these  is  important  in  an  eco- 
nomical point  of  vieWjWe  shall  give  a  short 
account  of  the  jn-incipal  facts  that  are  as- 
certained on  this  subject. 

The  independent  or  true  coal-formation 

consists  essentially  of  extensive  parallel 

strata  of  coal,  covered  by  sti'ata  of  shale, 

which  contain  impressions  of  vegetables, 

VOL.    I. 


and  sometimes  the  remains  of  fresh-watet 
shell-fish-     Beneath  each  stratum  of  coal 
is  generally  a  stratum  of  somewhat  greasy 
indurated  clay,called  by  the  muiers  clunch^ 
which  is  usually,  if  not  always,  destitute 
of  those  organic  remains  that  character- 
ize the  shale.     It  rarely  happens  that  the 
slate  belonging   to  an  inferior  stratum  of 
coal   is  in   immediate  contact   with   the 
clunch  of  a  superior  stratum,  the  coal 
seams  being-    generally    separated  from 
each  other  bj-  beds  of  various  coloured 
sand-stone,  of  clay,  of  bituminous  shale, 
of  ratchil  or  rubble -stone,  of  a  soft  decom- 
posing  clay,  porphyiy,  or  grunstein,  called 
by  the  English  miners  rotten-stone,  of  ar- 
gillaceous iron  ore,  of  marl,  and  of  secon» 
dai-y  limestone.      Sometimes  one,   often 
several  of  these  strata  interpose  between 
the  seams  of  coal  in  irregular  alternation, 
and  there  are  extensive  coUeries  in  which 
some  of  tliem,  especially  the  limestone, 
are  entirely  wanting.      The  number  of 
seams  of  coal  in  any  particular  formation 
or  coal-field  is  extremely  variable ;  it  sel- 
dom however  happens  that  there  are  more 
tlian  three  or  four  worth  tlie  expense  of 
working.     The  uppermost  seam  is  gene- 
rally shattery,  and  very  much  mixed  with 
earth  and   pyrites.     The    parallelism  of 
the  various  strata  is  for   the   most  part 
very  exactly    preserved,   though  where 
a  vei-y   thick   bed  of  sandstone   occurs, 
the  strata   above  and  below  it  have  not 
always   the    same  parallel.      The  gene- 
ral position  of  tlie  beds  in  the  independent 
coal-tbrmation  is  scarcely  ever  horizontal, 
and  never  vertical,  though  occasionally 
forming  an  angle  of  about  75''.     The  re- 
gularity of  the  dip,  however,  is  fi-equent- 
ly  intei'rupted  by  partial  disruptions,  slips 
and  sinkings  of  the  strata,  emphatically 
called  by  the  miners  troubles,  which  appear 
like  great  cracks  and  are  filled  with  sand, 
gravel,  clay,  &.c.  and  afford  a  free  passage 
for  tlie  water.     Sometimes  the  strata  ai'e 
divided  by  vertical  walls  of  basalt,  rising 
from   an  unknown  depth  to  the  sm-face, 
and  of  vast  length  ;  these  are  called  by 
the  miners  dykes,  and  differ  from  the  slips 
in  being  impermeable  to  water,    and  in 
simply  dividing  the  strata  without  altering 
their  direction :  both  the  slips   and  the 
dykes   however  are  observed  to  shatter 
and  pulverize,  and  decompose  the  coal  in 
their  immediate  vicinity.     The  particular 
species  that  are  found  in  the  independent 
formation  are  slate  coal,  witli  its  varieties, 
cannel  coal,  and    sometimes    pitch-coal. 
Almost  all  the  English  coals,  and  those  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Liege,  are  found  in 
this  formation. 

The  second  coal-formation  is  charac- 
terized by  the  newest  floetz-trap.  In  this 
E  e 


COA 


COA 


the  strata  are  not  so  numerous  nor  so  per- 
fectly parallel  as  in  the  foi-mer.  The 
coal  Is  not  covered  with  shale,  but  with 
clay  or  bansalt,  in  which  are  found  neither 
vegetable  impressions  or  animal  remains. 
The  beds  which  compose  this  formation 
are  wakke,  basalt,  both  amorphous  and 
columnar,  grunstein  porphyry,  and  argil- 
laceous iron  ore.  Slips  or  disruptions  of 
the  strata  arc  of  frequent  occurrence. 
The  species  of  coal  which  it  contains  are 
principally  pilcli-coal,  also  moor  and 
glance  coal,  and  sometimes  slate-coal. 
The  chief  collieries  of  Scotland,  those  of 
Auvergne  and  the  central  parts  of  France, 
of  the  Meissner  in  Hesse,  and  the  Mittel- 
gebirge  in  Bohemia  are  examples  of  this 
formation. 

The  third  coal  formation  occurs  m  al- 
luvial land,  and  possesses  many  charac- 
ters that  distinguish  it  from  the  preceding 
ones.  The  only  strata  which  are  found 
in  it,  are  clay,  sand,  and  gravel.  The 
seams  of  coal  do  not  preserve  the  same 
thickness  through  the  whole  of  their  ex- 
tent, nor  is  the  pai-allelism  of  the  earthy 
strata  by  nny  means  regular,  sudden  ele- 
vations and  depressions  in  the  same  stra- 
tum, frequently  taking  place.  There  are 
no  slips  or  dykes  in  this  formation,  and 
every  appearance  concurs  to  prove  its 
very  recent  origin.  The  species  of  coal 
that  it  contains  belong  chiefly  to  the 
brown-coal  family,  namely  bituminized 
wood,  earthy  and  common  brown-coal, 
moor-coal,  and  rarely  pitch-coal. 

The  signs  of  coal  are  very  uncertain 
both  in  the  floetz-trap  and  alluvial  forma- 
.tions.  In  the  first  of  these  no  appearance 
is  to  be  depended  on  except  the  actual  out- 
burst of  coal, or  of  a  bed  of  clay,  coiuainhig 
fi-agments  of  coal.  In  the  second,  the  only 
probable  indication  is  clay,  with  branches 
and  trunks  of  trees  :  petrified  wood  is  of- 
ten found  hi  considerable  quantity  in  sand- 
stone strata,  without  there  being  the 
slightest  probability  of  a  bed  of  coal  be- 
neath. 

The  independent  coal-formation  has 
however  more  numerous  signs,  and  those 
better  to  be  depended  on.  Being  the 
oldest  of  the  three  formations  it  is  situat- 
ed nearer  the  primitive  and  transition 
rocks  than  the  others,  and  in  general  ap- 
pears to  rank  immediately  af\er  secondary 
limestone  :  where  beds  of  this  adjoin,  and 
rest  upon  slate,  as  is  frequently  the  case 
in  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  En- 
gland, the  independent  coal-lbrmation  is 
generally  observed  within  a  little  distance 
of  the  limestone  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  slate  rock,  and  therefore  divided  from 
it  by  the  limestone.  The  extensive  col- 
lieries of  Flint,  Ruaboe  and  Chirk  in  North 


Walc.s,of  Glamorganshire  in  South  Wales, 
of  Coalbrook-dale  in  Shropshire,  and 
Kingswood,  near  Bristol,  are  all  examples 
of  this,  all  of  them  commencing  immedi- 
ately in  the  vicinity  of  secondary  lime- 
stone, which  itself  on  the  opposite  side 
may  be  traced  into  slate  :  in  some  of 
these  instances  the  limestone  does  not  ex- 
ceed a  few  htuidred  yards  in  width,  while 
in  others  it  amounts  to  several  miles. 
Among  the  strata  of  which  the  coal-forma- 
tion itself  is  composed,  limestone,  clay, 
and  marl,  are  the  least  certain  indications, 
as  these  are  met  with  very  frequently  in 
formations  uncoimected  with  coal.  White 
micaceous  sandstone,  especially  when  in 
thin  layer.s  is  a  promising  sign  :  argillace- 
ous iron  is  still  more  so ;  but  shale  with 
vegetable  impressions,  or  the  tenacious 
bltie  clay  into  which  it  decomposes,  is  the 
strongest  hidicadon  of  all :  there  are  few 
situations  in  whicli  this  shale  or  clay  oc- 
curs where  an  accurate  search  will  not 
discover  detached  fragments  of  coal,  and 
often  the  crop  of  outburst  of  the  seam 
itself ;  and  even  should  these  be  wanting, 
it  will  be  well  worth  while  to  employ  the 
borer  and  pierce  through  the  shale,  im- 
mediately beneath  which  a  seam  will  be 
found,  if  it  belongs  to  the  coal-forma- 
tion. 

From  the  vegetable  remains  with  which 
the  shale  that  lies  upon  Coal  is  always 
filled,  from  the  ligneous  texture  which 
may  be  traced  here  and  there,  even  in  the 
most  compact  species  of  coal,  and  from 
the  regular  and  gradual  transition  of  bi- 
tuminized  wood  through  pitch  coal, 
and  slate  coal,  into  glance  coal,  it  is 
now  generally  supposed  that  all  coal 
(plumbago  excepted)  is  of  vegetable  ori- 
gin. As  to  the  precise  mode  and  agent 
by  which  the  process  of  bitumhiization 
has  been  brought  about,  the  manner  in 
which,  and  the  period  when  the  successive 
strata  of  the  coal-formations  have  been 
deposited,  there  exists  and  probably  ever 
will  exist,  various  theories  more  or  less 
ingenious  and  consistent,  which  although 
in  all  likelihood  very  remote  from  the 
truth  are  valuable  as  excithig  to  further 
enquiry,  and  as  convenient  methods  of 
arranging  and  collecting  many  very  cu- 
I'ious  and  im])ortant  facts.  To  enter  into 
tl^e  detail  of  these,  however,  would  be  de- 
viating  too  far  from  the  practical  objects 
of  the  present  work. 

The  great  use  of  coal  is  as  a  material 
for  fuel,  and  it  is  used  either  in  its  crude 
state,  or  after  it  has  been  converted  into 
coak  by  a  process  analogous  to  that  b}- 
which  wood  is  made  into  charcoal. 

Unprepared  coal  is  employed  in  all  ma- 
nufactures m  which  liquids  are  to  be  boiL 


COA 


COA 


«d  by  evaporation,  such  as  brewing',  salt- 
making,  distilling-,  and  dyeing- ;  it  is  used 
also  by  glassmakers,  blacksmiths,  brick, 
and  limeburners,  and  in  all  metallurgical 
processes  in  the  large  way,  where  fusion 
is  performed  in  a  reverberating  fiiinace. 
As  a  domestic  fuel  also  it  is  used  for  the 
most  pai-t  without  any  prepai  ation ;  but  in 
some  places  where  coal  cannot  readily  be 
procui'ed,  it  is  reduced  by  pounding,  to 
the  consistence  of  small  gTavel,  and  work- 
ed up  with  an  equal  weigiit  of  tenacious 
clay,  and  moulded  into  balls  of  the  size  of 
the  fist.  These  being  first  well  dried  in 
the  air  are  made  use  of  as  fuel,  and  ai*e 
found  to  bum  longer  and  give  out  more 
heat  than  the  coal  v.ould  do  without  this 
addition.  The  only  inconvenience  attend- 
ing these  balls  is,  that  they  do  not  readily 
intiame,  and  therefore  it  is  necessan-  at 
the  kindling  tlie  fire  to  employ  common 
coal,  and  not  to  add  the  balls  till  a  suffi- 
cient body  of  fire  has  been  collected. 

In  blastfurnaces,  and  the  upright  smelt- 
ing furnaces  for  iron  and  copper,  coal  can- 
not be  used  in  its  crude  slate,  both  be- 
cause its  sulphureous  vapours  would  in- 
jui'e  the  quality  and  diminish  the  quan- 
tity of  metal,  and  because  by  its  caking 
the  current  of  air  would  be  obstructed, 
and  the  whole  process  thrown  into  disor- 
fler :  neither  can  this  combustible  be  em- 
ployed, except  in  the  state  of  coak,  for 
drying  malt  and  other  similar  processes  in 
which  smoaky  fuel  would  be  extremely 
prejudicial  Coal  is  deprived  of  its  bitu- 
men and  other  volatile  parts,  or  in  other 
words  is  made  into  coak,  in  various  ways. 
The  simplest  mode  is  to  dispose  it  in  beds, 
from  4U  ;o  60  yjxds  long  about  cix  feet 
wide  and  three  feet  high,  in  the  open  air, 
and  kindling  it  in  various  parts,  to  allow 
the  combustion  to  proceed  till  the  mass  is 
of  a  glowing  red  and  ceases  to  smoke : 
being  now  taken  to  pieces  and  spread 
abroad  the  fire  soon  goes  out,  and  the  re- 
.•:idue  is  found  to  be  a  light  spungy  scori- 
form  substance  (technically  called  coak 
or  cinders)  not  so  easily  inflammable  as 
coal,  but  when  once  kindled  gi\ingout  an 
intense  heat  without  either  caking  or 
smoaking.  The  above  is  apparently  a  veiy 
wasteful  process,  not  only  because  the  vo- 
latile matters  are  allowed  to  escape,  but 
by  this  free  exposure  to  the  air  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  carbonaceous  part  is 
also  lost :  it  has  however  this  advantage, 
that  the  suliihur  is  at  the  same  time  en- 
tirely got  rid  of,  which  cannot  be  done  by 
close  clistillation,  and  in  consequence  the 
fuel  is  much  better  fitted  for  those  purpo- 
ses in  which  the  presence  of  sulphur  would 
be  detrimental :  for  this  reason  doubtless 
it  is  tliat  all  the  coak  consumed  ii\  the  nu- 


merous u'on  forges  of  this  country  is  thus 

prepared-     AnoUier  method  of  chaning 

coal  is  to  burn  it  in  large  vaulted  ovens  till 

it  ceases  to  flame  :  this  is  more  economical 

than  the  former,  both  because  the  product 

of  coak  is  greater,  and  because  the  slack 

1  or  small  coal  of  the  caking  kinds  may  be 

j  employed  for  this  purpose ;  all  the  volatile 

!  parts  however  aie  lost,  and  the  coak  is 

•  Dot  entu'el}'  desulphurated. 

In  the  county  of  Saarbruck  on  the 
'  Rhine,  are  some  establishments  for  mak- 
ing coak  and  lamp-black  at  the  same  time, 
which  perhaps  might  be  found  worthy  of 
imitation  in  this  country  The  furnace  is 
a  longcylinder  of  brick- work  placed  some- 
what in  a  slanting  direction,  terminated  at 
tlie  lower  end  by  a  grate  and  register 
door,  and  opening  at  the  other  extremity 
into  a  large  vaulted  chamber :  the  first 
chamber  communicates  with  a  second  si- 
milar to  it,  except  that  it  is  smaller,  and 
,  this  latter  by  means  of  an  apei'ture  in  the 
,  cieling  opens  into  a  chimney,  a  sack  of 
'  loosely  woven  cloth  being  interposed. 
The  process  begins  by  lighting  a  fii'e  in  the 
furnace  and  supplying  it  gradually  with 
coals,  till  the  furnace  is  about  half  full, 
then  by  means  of  the  register  in  the  door, 
a  small  current  of  air  is  admitted  till  the 
coals  cease  to  smoke ;  at  this  period  the 
.  door  is  opened  and  the  contents  of  the  fur- 
nace are  raked  into  a  hole  below  its 
motith,  where  they  are  extinguished, 
leaving  however,  in  the  furnace,  a  suffi- 
cient  quantit}-  of  lighted  coals  to  kindle 
the  next  charge.  While  the  coals  are  thus 
charring  the  smoke  passes  into  the  large 
chamber,  where  it  deposits  the  greatest 
part  of  its  soot,  and  the  rest  is  collected 
in  the  small  chamber,  and  in  the  sack 
which  covers  the  opening  into  the  chim- 
ney. By  a  careful  regulation  of  the  draft 
it  appears  probable  that  the  coal  miglit  be 
as  completely  desulphurated,  and  with  as 
little  loss  as  in  the  open  air,  and  the  lamp- 
black would  be  nearly  a  clear  gain  :  100 
lbs.  of  coal  thus  treated  afibrd  about  33 
lbs.  of  coak,  and  3^  of  lamp-black. 

Coal,  when  heated  in  close  or  nearly  close 
vessels,  aflords  a  vast  quantity  of  a  highly 
inflammable  gas  (already  described  as  a 
variety  of  Carburetted  Hydrogek) 
of  Coal-Tar,  or  Petroleum,  and  of  im- 
pure carbonated  ammonia,  l^-om  a  lau- 
dable  desire  of  saving  the  two  latter  va- 
luable products,  which  had  hitherto  been 
allowed  to  escape  in  the  process  of  coak- 
ing.  Lord  Dundonald  erected,  some  years 
ago  at  Coalbrook-dale,  and  we  believe 
elsewhere,  a  series  of  buildings  to  serve  as 
a  kind  of  distillatory  apparatus,  in  which 
he  prepared  coak,  and  at  the  same  time 
collected  thepeti'oleum  and  ammonia  dis- 


COA 


COB 


eng,aged  in  the  process  :  his  success  was 
complete,  as  far  as  the  clistillulion  was 
concerned,  but  the  undei'taking  was  short- 
ly abandoned  in  consequence,  as  we  un- 
derstand, of  the  sulpliur  contained  in  coak 
thus  made,  which  rendered  it  unfit  to  be 
used  in  the  furnaces.  Indeed  it  is  mani- 
fest, that  in  order  to  decompose  the  py- 
rites with  which  all  coal  more  or  less 
abounds,  it  is  necessar)-  to  expose  it  while 
burning-  to  such  a  stream  of  air  as  sliall 
destroy  both  the  petroleum  and  ammonia, 
and  leave  no  opportunity  for  the  exertion 
of  economical  ingenuity,  except  in  the  col- 
lection of  soot  and  increasing  in  some  de- 
gree the  product  of  coak. 

Tar  distilled  from  coal,  was  thought  by 
Lord  Dundonald,  to  be  far  superior  to  the 
common  vegetable  tar,  in  preserving  tim- 
l)er  froin  the  effects  of  the  weather,  and 
the  bottoms  of  sliips  from  the  destructive 
worm  of  the  West  Indies.  Some  compa- 
rative experiments  were  tried  at  New 
3fork  about  thirty  years  since,  by  which  it 
appeared,  that  boards  covered  with  com- 
mon tar,  and  siink  in  the  river  for  several 
months,  were  much  eaten  by  worms, 
while  a  plank  covered  with  the  coal  tar 
remained  untouclied.  In  consequence  of 
this  apparent  proof  of  superiority,  the  bot- 
toms of  several  vessels  were  coated  with 
the  tar,  bouglit  at  the  rate  of  40  dollars 
per  barrel.  liut  the  result  of  tliese  trials 
lias  not  served  to  extend  and  insure  its 
character. 

Capt.  Truxton  applied  it  to  the  bottom 
of  a  ship,  and  discovered  nothing  in  it  like 
a  safe -guard  from  tlie  worm  ;  and  informs 
us  that  some  years  after  capt.  Sarley, 
of  New-Yovk,  commander  ot  the  ship  Ame- 
rica, payed  all  the  timbers  and  planks  of 
liis  vessel  with  it,  as  a  preservative  of  the 
wood,  and  on  the  ship's  return  from  lier 
ifirst  voyage,  it  had  caused  a  nmndfest  de- 
cay of  the  frame. 

The  United  States  abound  with  various 
kinds  of  excellent  coal.  In  the  western 
counties  of  Pennsylvania,  f)n  the  banks  of 
the  Schuylkill,  and  in  Virginia,  tiicre  ai-e 
immense  beds  ;  it  has  also  been  lately 
found  on  the  river  liariton.  New  Jex'sey, 
and  at  Newport,  II.  I. 

A  few  years  ago,  a  body  of  coal  was 
discovered  inthe  county  of  Northanijiton, 
Pennsylvania,  upon  tlie  river  Lehigh,  of' 
a  bright  black  shining  appearance.  It 
gives  an  intense  heat,  envits  very  little 
smoke,  but  requires  a  strong  blast  to  in- 
flame it.  This  mine  will  one  day  prove  a 
source  of  infinite  convenience  to  Philadel- 
phia: for  it  requires  but  little  i'oresigiit  to 
be  able  to  assert,  tiiat  at  tiic  rate  we  go  on 
in  wasting  wood,  it  will  be  in  a  few  years 
out  of  the  powcv  of  tite  majority  of  the 


people  to  use  it  for  common  fuel.  The  ri- 
ver Lehigh,  at  present,  is  not  sufficiently 
clear  of  obstructions,  to  enable  the  pro- 
prietors  of  the  mine  to  bring  Ihe  coal  down 
to  Philadelphia ;  but  a  lottery  was  on  foot 
to  raise  the  necessary  sum  to  render  the 
river  navigable,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  the 
]>roprietors  wiil  be  enabled  to  accomyjfish 
tlie  important  object. — The  analysis  of  this 
coal  by  the  late  Professor  Woodhouse, 
may  be  seen  in  the  Medical  Museum. 

(JOB  A  LP  is  a  semimetal,  of  a  whitish 
grey  or  steel  colour,  hard  and  brittle;  of 
a  dull,  close-grained  fracture,  and  mode- 
rate specific  gravity.  It  is  rather  more 
difficult  of  fusion  tlian  copper  ;  does  not 
easily  become  calcined ;  and  its  oxide  is 
of  so  deep  a  blue  colour  as  to  appear 
black. 

To  obtain  the  metal  pure,  Tromsdorft' 
recommends  to  mix  eight  parts  of  finely 
pulverized  zaffre  with  two  of  dry  nitrat 
of  potash,  and  one  of  charcoal  powder, 
and  project  them  by  small  quantities  into 
an  ignited  crucible  :  to  repeat  this  pro- 
cess three  times  with  the  detonated  resi- 
duum and  fresh  quantities  of  nitre  and 
charcoal :  to  mix  the  mass  with  an  equal 
weight  of  black  flux,  and  keep  this  mix- 
ture at  a  red  heat  for  an  hour.  The  me- 
tal thus  obtained  is  to  be  pulverised,  mix- 
ed With  three  times  its  weight  of  nitrat  of 
potash,  and  detonated  as  before.  This 
being  powdered  and  washed  to  separate 
the  arseniat  of  potash,  the  filtered  residue 
is  to  be  digested  in  nitric  acid,  which  \\\\l 
dissolve  the  cobalt,  and  leave  the  highly 
oxidized  iron  untouched.  I'hen  evaporate 
the  solution  to  dryness,  re-dissolve  in  ni- 
tric acid,  refilter  lest  some  oxide  of  ii'on 
should  have  been  retained,  decompose  the 
nitrat  of  cobalt  by  potash,  wash  the  pre- 
cipitate, and  reduce  it  by  heat. 

Brugnatelli  supposed  he  had  discovered 
an  acid  in7.affie,  which  he  called  the  co- 
baltic,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  only 
arseniat  of  cobalt. 

It  may  be  observed  on  the  subject  of 
separation  of  iron  from  cobalt  (as  this  is 
of  consequence  for  manufacturing  the 
finest  possible  colour  from  it)  tliat  when 
an  alkali  is  added  gTadually  to  a  mixed 
solution  of  the  two  intt:ils,  much  of  the 
iron  precipitates  bcibre  tlie  cobalt  falls, 
and  lliis  distinction  is  very  obvious  by  the 
colour.  Til  us  if  carbonated  potash  be 
slowly  added  to  nitrat  of  cobalt  and  iron, 
the  first  precipitate  is  a  dull  ochery  slime, 
chiefiy  iron,  afler  which  the  cobalt  shews 
itself  by  azj/o/ef  coloui-ed  preciijitate,  and 
thus  a  judicious  addition  of  alkali  (stop- 
I)ing  when  the  violet  colour  is  ])erceive(J) 
will  alone  purify  the  solution  to  a  consi- 
derable dff!Te. 


COB 


COC 


Cobalt  is  never  empkn  eel  in  the  rogu- 
line  state  for  any  purpose  of  tnajiufactory. 
the  sole  use  oi  this  valuable  metal  being- 
to  give  various  sliades  of  blue  colour  to 
ghiss,  porcelain,  and  otiier  earthy  mix- 
tures, and  when  thus  employed  it  must 
be  ia  the  state  of  oxyd.  But  the  inten- 
'^ity  of  colour  given  by  the  ox\d  in  very 
small  proportion  is  so  great  that  it  is  found 
moie  convenient,  after  a  due  calcination, 
to  mix  and  dilute  it  will i  a  quantity  of  vi- 
(riikible  earth,  and  in  this  s'.ate  it  is  gene- 
rally sold,  that  is,  either  simply  mixed 
with  earth,  when  it  appears  as  a  brown 
critty  powder  called  Zaffrc  or  Azure,  or 
<!se  already  meked  with  a  portion  of  vitri- 
!i;ible  materials  wlicn  it  becomes  a  glass 
of  a  most  intense  blue  colour,  which, 
^^•hen  properly  ground  and  sifted,  tbrms 
llic  Smalt  of  the  shops. 

Preparation  of  Zaffre,  Smalt,  and  Azure 

All  the  zaHre  and  smalt  of  commerce 
is  prepared  in  the  large  way  in  several 
parts  of  Germany,  and  particuhuly  at 
Schneeburg  in  Misnia,  which  affords  a 
very  lucrative  trade  to  Saxony. 

The  cobalt  ore  is  put  on  the  hearth  of 
a  furnace  like  a  baker's  oven,  so  con- 
structed that  the  flame  of  wood  is  I'ever- 
berated  on  all  sides  over  the  furnace,  and 
soon  heats  red-hot.  A  very  dense  arse- 
nical vapour  then  begins  to  be  given  out, 
which  is  conveyed  through  a  very  long 
horizontal  wooden  square  trough  or  chim- 
ney, sometimes  as  much  as  a  hundred 
fatiioms  in  length,  where  the  arsenic  is 
ciiicfly  condensed,  though  Kunckel  re- 
inai"ks  that  notwithstanding  this  enormous 
length  of  chimney,  some  of  the  vapours 
still  escape  through  the  further  opening. 
The  cobalt  ore  is  calcined  for  some  hours 
till  it  scarcely  emits  any  more  vapours, 
after  which  it  is  ground  to  powder,  cal- 
cined a  second  time,  again  ground  and 
passed  through  a  very  tine  sieve.  This 
po\x  der  is  then  mixed  with  two  parts  of 
powdered  flints  or  quartz,  moistened,  and 
jmt  in  barrels,  where  it  grows  excessively 
hard  This  forms  the  Zaffre  in  the  state 
in  wliich  it  is  exported.  The  real  reason 
of  adding  tlie  flints  appears  to  be  for 
some  ptirposes  of  concealment,  the  ex- 
portation of  the  simple  calcined  oxyd 
being  forbidden  under  heavy  penalties. 

Smalt,  sometimes  also  called  zaflft'e, 
and  when  finely  powdered,  azure  blue,  is  a 
very  deep  blue  glass,  made  ofthe  calcined 
ore  of  cobalt  and  some  vitrifiable  ingredi- 
ents, which  is  used  as  a  coloiu-ing  matter 
for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  proportion 
of  the  vitrifiable  basis   to  the  cobalt  de- 

f lends  on  the  estimated  goodness  of  the 
atter  and  the  result  of  small  ti'ials.  On 
ai^  average,  equal  parts  of  the  calcined 


cobalt  ore,  of  potash,  and  of  ground  flints 
are  taken.  These  are  first  fritted  and 
then  made  into  glass,  in  pots  similar  to 
those  of  the  glass-houses,  reqiuring'from 
eight  to  tv.elve  hours  of  fusion.  When 
the  blue  glass  is  perfect,  it  is  taken  out 
witli  u-on  ladles,  and  dropped  into  cold 
water  to  crack  it  in  every  direction,  and 
make  it  more  easily  reducible  to  powdej', 
which  is  afterwards  ])erformed  in  a  mill 
made  of  very  iiard  stone  inclosed  in  a 
wooden  case.  At  the  bottom  ofthe  glass- 
pots  a  quantity  of  regulus  of  bismutli  is 
always  lound,  (the  ores  of  bismuth  and 
cobalt  being  naturally  mixed)  and  above 
it  is  a  mixed  alloy  of  arsenic,  ii"on,  and 
copper. 

The  grinding  the  blue  glass  is  a  work 
of  labour  and  some  difticully.  Several  de- 
grees of  fineness  are  prepared  by  means 
of  grinding  :uid  washing.  These  are  well 
known  by  the  general  term  of  smalt,  or, 
when  in  very  tine  powder,  azure. 

As  a  colouring  matter  smalt  is  verv 
valuable,  both  on  account  of  the  fine  in- 
tense blue  which  it  produces,  and  lor  its 
comparative  cheapness,  and  because  it  is 
not  altered  by  any  heat.  In  tliis  last  re- 
spect it  is  superior  to  lafiis  lazuli,  the  co- 
lour of  which  is  entireh'  and  permanently 
destroyed  in  a  red-heat,  but  smalt  will  not 
mix  witli  oil  colours,  and  therefore  cau 
only  be  very  paitially  used.  Smalt  is 
used,  when  mixed  witii  staich,  to  give  a 
slight  blue  to  linen,  or  rather  to  correct 
the  tendency  to  jellow  wliich  linen  ac- 
quu-es  when  worn. 

Zafire  is  prepared  also  in  Bohemia, 
Wirtemberg,  Silesia,  Lorrain,  and  some 
otlier  parts  of  the  Continent,  but  the  Sax- 
on is  preferred,  and  yields  to  the  pro- 
prietors an  annual  revenue  of  2oO,OOQ 
crowns. 

COCCULUS  INDICUS,  or  Indian  Ber- 
ly,  is  the  poisonous  product  of  an  oi-iental 
plant-  It  approaches  tlie  kidney  bean  in 
shape  and  size,  is  rough  on  the  outside, 
and  of  a  gray -brownish  or  black  colaur. 
This  berry  is  principally  employed  in 
ointments  for  desti-oying  cutaneous  in- 
sects, reduced  to  a  powder,  and  fsirmed 
into  a  paste  with  flour.  It  is  sometimes 
injudiciously  used  to  take  fish  ;  which,  im 
swallowing  it,  become  intoxicated,  lose 
theii-  energy,  rise  to  t!ie  surface  of  the  wa- 
ter, float  with  the  current,  and  thus  {all 
an  easy  prey  to  the  unskilful,  barbarous 
sportsman.  But,  besides  the  indiscrimi- 
nate and  wanton  waste  that  thus  accrues, 
flsh  so  taken  afibrd  an  unwholesome 
diet. 

On  account  of  this  intoxicating  proper- 
ty of  the  cocculus  indicus,  brewers  have 
sGmt:tim«;s  resorted  to  the  nefarious  prac- 


COG 


COC 


tice  of  mixing  it  with  their  liquors,  tiicic- 
by  to  give  them  a  greater  stimulating  ef- 
fect: but  the  bad  consequences  which  re- 
sult from  it,  joined  to  the  vtry  great 
probabiliiy  of  detection,  have  exploded  its 
use,  except  by  the  most  abandoned  and 
depraved  of  mankind. 

COCHINEAL.  The  substance  known 
in  commerce  by  the  name  of  c6chineal,  is 
in  the  form  of"  hemispherical  shrivelled 
grains,  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  of 
a  deep  reddish  purple  colour,  and  covered 
more  or  less  with  a  white  down;  they  are 
very  light,  and  easily  rubbed  to  powder 
between  the  fingers.  The  mercliants 
distinguish  at  least  two  kinds,  called  gra- 
nafina  and  grana  sy/vestra;  of  these  the 
latter  is  not  more  than  halftlie  siie  of  the 
former,  and  covered  with  a  much  longer 
down ;  on  which  account  it  always  bears  a 
much  lower  price  in  tlie  market. 

Cochineal  was  hrst  introduced  into  Eu- 
rope from  Mexico  about  the  year  1523, 
Md  was  for  some  time  supposed  to  be  the 
berry  or  seed  of  a  vegetable.  It  was  at 
length  however  ascertained,  that  these 
grains  were  the  females  of  a  particular 
species  of  insect,  called  by  naturahsts 
Coccus  cacti,  and  of  the  same  genus  as 
theKermes  ("Coccus  Ilicis  Linn. J 

The  cochineal  insect  is  a  native  of 
Mexico,  and  was  in  common  use  among 
the  inhabitants  as  a  dyeing  drug,  when  the 
Spaniards  first  came  into  .  tiie  country; 
since  that  period  its  use  lias  become  nioie 
and  more  general,  not  only  in  Europe,  but 
in  various  parts  of  Asia ;  and  as  almost  the 
Tvhole  of  tills  valuable  commodity  is  still 
raised  in  Mexico,  I'eiu,  and  the  adjoining 
Spanish  settlements,  it ,  becomes  every 
yeiu-  an  object  of  more  sedulous  cultiva- 
tion than  before. 

The  wild  cochineal  (grana  sylvestra) 
feeds  upon  most  of  the  species  of  cacti 
that  are  natives  of  Mexico,  refpiires  no 
particular  care  or  attendance,  and  may  be 
gathered  six  times  in  the  year,  there  be- 
ing so  many  generations  of  this  insect  in 
a  twelvemonth:  the  time  of  collecting  the 
cochineal  is  just  before  the  female  pro- 
duces its  young,  as  the  animal  perishes 
immediately  afterwards.  'I'he  cultivated 
cochineal  (grana  fina)  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  from  the  wild  kind :  but  this 
opinion  appears  very  doubtful.  If  it  be 
granted  tliat  the  superior  size  of  the  for- 
mer, and  its  want  of  those  hmg  white  hairs 
or  down  which  cover  the  latter  m.iy  be 
the  effect  of  domestication,  thei-e  still  re- 
main two  other  distinctive  characters 
which  appear  to  be  original;  these  are, 
its  feeding  only  upon  one  species  of  cac- 
tus, the  cochenillifer,  or  nopal,  and  its 
producing  onlj  three  broods  or  genera- 


tions in  th«  year.  The  management  of 
tlie  cochineal  insect  is  simjile,  but  re- 
quires  incessant  attention.  At  tlie  third 
annual  gathering  of  cochineal,  a  certain 
number  of  females  are  left  adhering  to 
branches  of  the  nopal,  which  are  then 
broken  off  and  kept  carefully  under  cover 
during  the  rainy  season;  when  this  is 
over,  the  stock  of  cochineal  thus  ])re- 
served  by  each  cultivator,  is  distvliniLed 
over  the  whole  plantation  of  nopals, 
where  they  soon  multiply  with  great  ra- 
pidity. Ill  the  space  of  two  months  the 
first  crop  is  gathered  by  detaching  the 
insects  with  a  blunt  knife,  after  which 
they  are  put  into  bags  aiul  dijiped  in  hot 
water  to  kill  them,  and  finally  dried  in  the 
sun,  by  which  they  lose  about  two-thirds 
of  their  weigiit.  The  proportion  of  co- 
touring  matter  contained  in  equal  portions 
of  the  cultivated  cochineal,  the  wild  co- 
chineal of  Mexico  and  an  inferior  kind 
from  St  Domingo,  is  as  eighteen,  eleven, 
and  eight-  The  average  quantity  of  fine 
cochineal  annually  consumed  in  Europe 
amounts,  according  to  Dr.  Bancroft,  to 
600,000  lbs.  When  thoroughly  dry  it  ex- 
periences no  change  from  long  keeping 
in  close  packages :  Hellot  affirms  that  he 
used  some  wliicli  was  loO  years  old,  and 
found  it- as  good  as  if  it  had  been  quite 
fresh. 

The  colouring  matter  of  cochineal  may 
be  extracted  either  by  water  or  alcohol. 
The  alcoholic  solution  is  of  a  deep  crim- 
son colour,  and  on  evaporation  leaves  a 
transparent  residuum  of  a  deep  red, 
which  has  tlie  appearance  of  a  resin.  Th'j 
aqueous  solution  or  decoction  of  c(Khi- 
neal  is  ol'  a  violet  crimson  colour  ;  luid 
this,  if  evaporated  slowly  to  the  consist:- 
ence  of  an  extract,  and  then  digested  in 
xdcoliol, ^communicates  to  the  menstruum 
a  colour  similar  to  the  preceding  spiritu- 
ous solution,  a  residuum  of  the  colour  of 
wine  lees  being  Icit  behind 

The  aqueous  decoction  of  cochineal,  if 
mixed witli  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  as- 
sumes a  red  colour,  inclining  to  yellow- 
ish, and  a  small  quantity  of  a  line  red  pre- 
cipitate is  thrown  down.  IVfuriatic  acid 
produces  nearly  tlie  same  change  of  co- 
lour, but  occasions  no  precipitate.  _  A  so- 
lution of  tartar  changes  the  cochineal  de- 
coction to  a  yellowish  red,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  a  pale-red  precipitate  is  slow^ 
ly  deposited:  the  supernatant  liquor  is 
yellow,  but  on  the  addition  of  a  little  al-, 
kali  it  iiecomes  purple,  the  precipitate  be- 
ing at  the  same  time  redissolvcd.  Alum 
brightens  the  colour  of  the  infusion  and 
gives  it  a  redder  hue;  a  crimson  precipi- 
tate is  deposited,  and  the  supernatant  \u 
quor  retains  %  similar  tinge.    A  uiixliU'e 


coc 


COL 


oF  alum  and  tartar  produces  a  brighter 
and  more  lively  colour,  inclining'  lo  yel- 
low :  a  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  but 
much  paler  and  less  in  quantity  than 
■where  alum  alone  is  used.  Sulphat  of 
copper  changes  the  colour  of  the  de- 
coction to  violet,  and  a  small  sedi- 
ment of  the  same  colour  very  slowly  sub- 
sides. 

Cochineal  is  used  either  as  the  basis  of 
that  fine  pi.a^ment  called  carmine  and  lake- 
red,  or  as  a  dyeing  drug  to  tinge  wool 
and  silk,  eilher  scarlet  or  crimson,  or  the 
finer  kinds  of  violet. 

The  preparation  of  carmine  and  lakc- 
Xed  is  so  valuable  a  pi-ocess,  and  one  so 
easily  kept  secret,  and  its  perfection  de- 
pends so  much  on  nicety  of  manipulation, 
that  none  of  the  published  methods,  in  all 
probability,  will  afford  it  of  the  very  best 
quality.  The  following  is  perhaps  the 
best  of  those  whlcli  have  yet  been  made 
public,  and,  if  carefully  pursued,  will  yield 
a  pigment  gready  superior  to  the  carmine 
tiiat  is  generally  met  with. 

Into  a  14  gallon  boiler  of  well  tinned 
copper,  put  ten  gallons  of  distilled  or 
very  clear  river  or  rain  water  (spring 
water  will  not  answer  tiie  purpose). 
"When  the  water  boils,  sprinkle  in,  by  de- 
grees, a  pound  of  fine  cochineal  previously 
ground  in  a  clean  stone  mortar  to  a  mode- 
rately fine  powder :  keep  up  a  moderate 
ebullition  for  about  lialf  an  hour,  and  then 
add  three  ounces  and  an  half  of  crystallized 
carbonat  of  soda:  in  a  minute  or  two  af- 
terwards draw  the  fire,  and  then  add  to 
the  liquor  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  Roman 
alum  very  finely  pulverized;  stirtlie  mass 
with  a  clean  stick  till  tlie  alum  is  dissolv- 
ed, then  leave  it  to  settle  for  25  minutes: 
draw  off"  the  clear  liquor  with  a  glass  si- 
phon, and  sepai-ate  the  sediment  from  the 
residue  by  straining  it  through  a  clo=e  li- 
nen cloth.  Replace  the  clear  liquor  in 
the  boiler,  and  stir  in  it  the  whites  of  two 
eggs  previously  well  beaten  with  a  quart 
of  warm  water;  then  Ijg-iit  the  fire  again, 
heat  the  liquor  till  it  begins  to  boil,  at 
which  time  the  albumen  of  the  eggs  will 
coagulate  and  combine  with  the  eartli  of 
die  alum  and  the  finest  part  of  tlie  colour- 
ing matter:  this  sediment  is  tise  carmine, 
and  being  separated  by  filtration,  and 
well  washed  on  the  filter  with  distilled 
watei-,  is  to  be  spi-ead  very  tliin  on  an 
earthen  plate  and  slowly  dried  in  a  stove : 
after  which  it  is  ready  for  use.  The 
finest  part  of  tlie  colouring  matter  of  the 
cochineal  being  thus  separated,  the  resi- 
due may  be  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  red-lake  in  the  following  manner.  Add 
two  pounds  of  pearlash  to  the  red  liquor 
from  which  tlie  carmine  was  precipitated, 


and  return  it  into  the  boiler  together  with 
the  dregs  of  the  cochineal,  and  boil  the 
wiiole  gently  for  about  half  an  hour ;  then 
draw  the  fire,  and^  after  die  sediment  has 
subsided,  drain  oft'  all  the  clear  liquor  into 
clean  wooden  or  earthenware  vessels  (the 
latter  however  are  the  best,  as  the  alka- 
line solution  is  apt  to  dissolve  a  little  ex- 
tractive matter  from  the  wood).  Then 
pour  upon  the  sediment  a  second  alka- 
line ley,  prepared  by  dissolving  a  pound  of 
pearlash  in  two  gullonsr  of  water,  and  boil 
this  also  upim  the  dregs  for  half  an  hour, 
by  which  process  the  whole  of  the  colour- 
ing matter  will  be  exhausted.  Separate 
by  filtration  the  liquor  from  the  dregs, 
and  return  both  the  alkaline  solutions 
into  the  copper.  When  this  bath  is  as 
hot  as  the  hand  can  bear,  add,  by  def  rees, 
three  pounds  of  finely  pulverized  Roman 
alum,  observing  not  to  add  a  second  por- 
tion till  the  eflervescence  from  the  first 
has  entirely  subsided.  When  the  whole 
of  the  alum  has  been  put  in,  raise  the  fire 
till  the  liquor  simmers,  and  continue  it  at 
this  temjjerature  for  about  five  minutes  ; 
at  wliicli  time,  if  a  little  Is  taken  out  and 
put  into  a  wine  glass,  it  will  be  found  to 
consist  of  a  coloured  sediment,  diffused 
through  a  clear  liquor.  After  standing 
tjuiet  a  while,  the  greater  part  of  the  clear 
supernatant  liquor  may  be  poured  off, 
and  the  residue  being  placed  on  the  filter, 
will  there  deposit  the  coloured  lake; 
which,  after  being  accurately  washed 
with  clean  rain  water,  may  be  covereti 
with  a  cloth  and  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
few  days  till  it  is  liaif  dry:  it  is  now  to  be 
separated  from  the  filter,  to  be  made  up 
in  small  lumps  and  placed  in  a  stove  to 
dry  By  this  management,  a  pound  of 
good  Mexican  cochineal  will  afford  one 
ounce  and  a  half  of  carmine,  and  about  a 
pound  and  a  quarter  of  red  lake. 

If  the  colour  is  required  to  incline 
somewhat  towards  scarlet,  this  may  be 
effected  by  grinding  along  with  the  co- 
chineal  from  a  quarter  to  half  an  ounce 
of  the  best  annotta. 

For  the  use  of  cochineal  in  Dyeing, 
see  that  ailicle. 

As  cochineal  is  a  native  of  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  its  cultivation,  as  also  that  of  the 
cactus  cocchinelifer  plant,  ought  to  be  en- 
couraged, by  the  Southern  planters,  as  a 
source  of  revenue  in  case  their  other 
crops  should  fail.  For  an  account  of  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  insect,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
an  essay  on  these  subjects,  by  Edward 
Cutbush,  M.  D.  in  the  'jlrchives  of  Useful 
Knowledge,  vol.  i.  p.  257. 

COLOURING  MATTER.  For  the  na- 
ture  of  colouring'  matter  see  the  article 


COL 


COL 


JJyeing.  Some  oftlie  most  important  of 
tliesc,  such  as  cochineal,  indigo,  tnadder, 
l3^c.  have  been  analysed  by  chemists,  and 
are  separately  noticed. 

COLOUR-MAKING.  Colours  may  be 
considered  either  as  certain  matters  used 
in  dyeing,  for  the  purpose  of  communica- 
ting" colour,  or  as'pig-ments  employed  in 
painting.  We  shall  refer  to  the  article 
Dyeing-,  for  the  colours  used  in  that  art, 
and  confine  ourselves  in  this  place,  to  the 
colours  used  as  jjigments. 

Colours  are  either  opaque  or  transpa- 
rent ;  oil,  or  water  colours  ;  simple,  or 
compound;  true  or  false.  We  shall  not 
define  these  different  pigments ;  but  mere- 
ly observe,  that  opaque  colours  are  those 
wiiich  efiace  every  other  painting  or  stain; 
tiT.nspaj'ent  colours  possess  the  property 
of  leaving  the  grovind,  on  which  they  are 
laid,  visible  through  them  ;  water  colours 
are  pigments  miscible,  and  used  with  wa- 
ter, either  with  or  without  size  ;  oil  co- 
lours pigments,  mixed  and  used  with  oil ; 
simple  or  comjiound  colours,  which  are 
eitlier  simple  in  themselves,  such  as  while 
and  red  lead,  or  compound,  as  the  union 
of  two  or  more  colouring  substances, 
such  as' blue  and  yellow,  when  blended 
together,  make  a  green  ;  red  and  yellow, 
an  orange  ;  and,  lastly, true  or  false,  which 
cither  retain  their  pristine  tinge,  as  the 
tbrmei",  or  lose  their  colour  entirely,  or 
cli^nge  into  some  other  shade,  as  the  lat- 
ter. 

§  1.  Black.  There  are  a  variety  of 
pigments,  which  come  under  this  head, 
.such  as  lamp  black,  ivory  black,  blue 
black,  German  or  Fiankfort  biack,  Indian 
ink,  &.C. 

Lamp  black.  There  are  several  pro- 
cesses used  for  preparing  tliis  colour.  The 
following  method,  originally  used  in  Swe- 
den, is  generally  preferred.  The  impure 
juice  collected  from  incisions  made  in 
pine  and  fir  trees,  is  boiled  down  with  a 
small  quantity  of  watei-,  and  strained, 
while  hot,  through  a  bag ;  the  dregs  and 
pieces  of  bark  remaining  in  the  strainer, 
are  biu'iit  in  a  low  oven,  whence  the 
smoke  is  convexed  through  a  long  pas- 
sage into  a  square  chamber,  at  the  top  of 
which  is  an  oi)ening,  with  a  large  sack  af- 
fixed, made  of  thin  woolen  stuff:  tiie  soot 
or  lamp  black,  concretes  ])ai-tly  in  the 
cliamber,  whence  it  is  swept  out  once  in 
two  or  three  days,  and  ))artly  in  the  sack, 
^\  liich  is  occasionally  agitated,  in  order  to 
take  down  the  soot,  and  to  clear  the  inter- 
stices between  the  threads,  so  as  to  admit 
a  free  ctn-rcnt  of  a;i\  Tliere  are  two  spe- 
cies of  lamp  black  in  common  use :  one  is 
tlie  light  soot,  from  burning  wood,  of  the 
fine  and  other  resinous  kinds ;  and  the 
other  is  prepared  by  a  process  called  car- 


bonization, which  is  efiTcclcd  in  close  ves- 
sels. 

Lamp  black  is  made  in  this  city  from 
tar.  The  Carolina  taj-  is  preferred.  A 
barrel  of  tar  by  combustion,  will  afford 
40  lbs.  of  soot,  or  lamp  black.  In  this 
way,  the  black  is  prepared  for  printer's 
ink. 

A  patent  was  granted  in  1798,  to  a  Mr- 
How,  for  a  newly  invented  mineral  lamp 
black.  This  is  obtained  from  pit  coal,  or 
any  other  kind  of  fossil  coal,  by  burning  it, 
and  collecting  the  smoke.  An  account  of 
the  process  may  be  seen  in  the  lOth  vo- 
vohime  of  the  Repertory  of  Arts.  For  the 
manufacture  of  lamp  black  from  coal,  see 
Coal. 

F'or  some  purposes,  it  is  of  considerable 
importance  to  have  the  lamp  black  of  the 
first  quality.  To  purify  it,  it  is  advisable 
to  put  it  into  a  subliming  vessel,  or  to 
])lace  it  on  an  ii'on  plate,  made  red  hot ; 
when  the  smoking  ceases,  the  process  is 
finished.  Very  fine  lamp  black  may  be 
obtained  by  collecting  the  smoke  produ- 
ced i^y  the  combustion  of  oil. 

Spanish  Black.  This  pigment  is  pre- 
pared by  burning  cork. 

Jvory  Black.  This  pigment  is  made  by 
burning  ivory  or  bone,  in  large  cast  iron 
cylinders  ;  when  the  bone  is  brought  to  a 
red  heat,  the  external  air  is  stopped  off,  as 
it  IS  termed,  and  the  vessel  suffered  to 
cool.  The  bone,  thus  charred,  is  perfect- 
ly black,  provided  the  process  be  properly 
conducted;  it  is  then  removed  to  the  mill, 
and  gi-ound  for  use.  As  economy  is  ne- 
cessary, in  order  to  render  the  process 
less  costly,  it  is  the  custom  in  some  ma- 
nufactories to  collect  the  vapour  disen- 
gaged (which  is  done  by  using  bent  pipes 
leading  into  barrels,  ])artly  filled  with  wa-^ 
ter)  which  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
ammonia  or  volatile  alkali  blended  with 
animal  oil.  The  liquor  thus  obtained, 
when  distilled,  is  tolerably  pure,  and  is 
sold  as  spirit  of  hartshorn.  Ivory  black  is 
frequently  adulterated  with  charcoal, 
which  is  very  injurious. 

An  opac|ue  deep  black,  for  the  purpose 
of  water  coloiu-s,  may  be  prepared,  by 
grinding  ivory  black  with  gimi  water,  or 
with  the  albuminous  part  <jf  the  egg". 

The  following  extract  from  the  specifi- 
cation of  a  patent  gr.anted  to  William 
Docksey,  fi>r  considerable  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  ivory  black,  may 
prove  useful  to  the  artist. 

"  First.  To  manufacttire  ivory  black,  I 
take  the  bones  and  sloughs  of  the  horns  of 
animals,  and  calcine  them  to  blackness,  in 
close  or  air-tight  vessels.  1  then  crush 
them  in  their  dry  slate,  between  metal 
rollers,  of  about  two  feet  diameter,  until 
they  are  broken  sufficiently  small  to  pass 


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tlirough  a  hopper  into  the  eye  of  a  mill- 
stone, and  be  reduced  to  powder  between 
mill-stones,  in  a  horizontal  situation,  ex- 
actly similar  to  the  method  of  reducing  or 
grinding  corn  or  grain  to  flour.  By  a  like 
process,  the  pow^der  thus  obtained  is  then 
partly  passed  through  a  di'essing  ma- 
chine, constructed  wiih  brushes  and  fine 
iron  or  brass  wire,  upon  a  circular  frame, 
inclosed  within  a  rim,  which  receives  it. 
Such  part  as  passes  through  the  meshes 
of  the  wire  (which  should  be  about  sixty- 
eight  to  an  inch)  is  sufficiently  fine  for 
use,  and  is  damped  down  by  a  small  quan- 
tity of  water  sprinkled  upon  it,  and  packed 
for  sale ;  the  coarser  part  is  returned  to 
the  hopper,  and  ground  over  again  be- 
tween the  stones." 

Some  advise  the  use  of  linseed  oil, 
when  the  shavings  or  raspings  of  bone  or 
ivory,  are  made  use  of  in  tlie  small  way  ; 
it  is  said,  that  after  the  charring,  the 
black  is  more  perfect  than  that  prepared 
in  the  common  process. 

Ti'Otters  bones,  calcined  in  the  same 
way,  afford  a  pigment  called  also  ivory 
black,  but  more  properly  bone  black.  Any 
osseous  substance,  treated  as  before  men- 
tioned, will  produce  a  black  pigment. 

Gertnan  Black,  or  Frankfort  black. 
This  pigment  is  made  by  charring  the  lees 
of  wine  in  a  close  iron  vessel;  and  after- 
wards reducing  the  matter  to  powder.  It 
has  been  made  in  this  country  by  burning 
certain  vegetable  substances.  The  stalks 
and  husks  of  grapes,  charred  in  the  same 
manner,  i>roduce  a  good  Frankfort  black. 

Blue  Black.  TJiis  is  similar  to  the  for- 
mer :  it  is  made  from  burning  vine  stalks 
in  a  close  vessel-  Colour  makers  substi- 
tute a  mixture  of  ivory  black,  and  the 
oommon  blue  used  tor  dyeing  cloth. 

Indiim  Ink.     This  colour  may  be  made 
I  the  following  manner  : 

Take  dryed  black  horse  beans,  and 
burn  them  to  a  powder;  mix  them  up 
with  gum-arabic  water,  and  bring  them 
to  a  mass  ;  press  it  in  a  mould  made  for 
that  purpose,  and  let  it  dry.     Or, 

Take  one  ounce  of  lamp-black,  two 
ounces  of  indigo,  half  an  ounce  of  fish 
black;  grind  them  with  half  wafer  and 
half  milk,  and  a  little  gum-arabic,  and 
form  tables  thereof.  The  lamp-black 
must  be  cleared  from  all  greasiness,  by 
burning  it  in  a  clean  pan,  on  a  coal  fire. 

The  Indian  Ink,  brought  from  China, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  gall  of  a  species  of 
cuttle  fish.  According  to  Thomson,  (V. 
106,)  a  solution  consisting  of  20  grains  of 
borax,  100  grains  of  lac,  and  four  ounces 
of  water,  mixed  with  lamp  black,  consti- 
tutes Indian  ink. 

To  make  afinelnk-toivckr  totvrkeordraiv 
VOL.  I. 


v)ith.  Take  half  an  ounce  of  lamp-black ; 
plumb  or  cherry-stones,  vitriol,  and  gall- 
nuts  of  each  half  an  ounce;  burn  them  toge- 
ther in  a  crucible ;  add  half  an  ounce  of 
gum-arabic  :  beat  all  in  a  mortar  to  a  fine 
powdei*,  and  sift  it  tlyough  a  fine  sieve ; 
then  put  it  up  in  a  box,  and,  when  you 
want  to  use  it,  dilute  it  with  fair  water. 

§  2.  White.  There  are  a  variety  of 
whites  used  as  pigments,  such  as  flake 
white,  white  lead,  pearl  white,  &c. 

Flake  white.  Some  writers  confound 
this  pigment  with  white  lead,  supposing 
that  they  are  both  produced  from  the 
same  metal.  According  to  1  homson  (I. 
366,)  the  flake  white,  and  the  pearl  white, 
are  the  same  as  the  magistery  of  bismuth, 
made  by  dissolving  bismuth  in  nitric  acid 
or  spirit  of  nitre,  and  precipitating  the  me- 
tal by  the  addition  of  water.  The  metal 
thus  precipitated,  is  in  the  form  of  white 
uxyd,  containing  about  10  per  cent,  of 
oxygen. 

White  lead.  This  is  prepared  by  corro- 
ding lead  by  the  vapour  of  vinegar.  See 
Lead. 

Spaniih  White  is  nothing  but  chalk, 
ground  generally  in  tubs,  the  bottom  of 
which  is  paved  with  small  stones  of  a 
hard  quality,  or  has  one  large  hard  bed- 
stone instead  thereof,  and  a  stone  on  edge 
is  fixed  to  an  upright  axle,  both  which  go 
round  by  the  means  of  a  water-wheel, 
steam-engine,  or  horses. 

The  chalk  is  broke  into  small  lumps 
about  four  ounces  each,  and  thrown  into 
the  tub  in  which  it  is  ground ;  but  the  tub 
is  previously  charged  Xvitii  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water,  and  as  the  grinding  opera- 
tion  commences,  the  chalk  unites  with 
the  water,  its  finer  particles  rise  to  the 
surface,  and,  as  a  small  stream  of  water 
is  'constantly  running  into  the  tub ,  and 
fresh  quantities  of  chalk  are  added,  the 
level  of  the  mixture  rises  to  a  certain 
height,  finds  its  way  through  an  aperturo 
of  the  tub  near  the  top,  and  is  discharged 
into  a  large  reservoir,  by  whicli  the  two 
operations  of  grinding  and  washing  are 
performed  at  the  same  time  with  a  small 
expense.  After  the  ground  chalk  has 
stood  a  sufficient  time  to  subside,  the 
water  is  run  ofl',  and  the  chalk  being  so 
stiff"  as  to  cut  with  a  spade,  is  then  remo- 
ved to  a  place  to  dry,  eitiier  by  the  air  or 
by  stove  heat :  the  former  of  these  is 
termed  stiffening,  the  latter  is  called  dry- 
ing, and  is  the  finisliing  process. 

Chalk,  taken  into  the  north  coasts  of 
England,  at  the  chalk  wharf's  on  the 
Thames,  costs  about  2ff.  61-/.  per  ton,  and 
when  made  into  Whiting  in  the  North, 
sells  from  16*.  to  20s.  per  ton. 

French  Whiting,  or  Paris  White,  has, 


(JUL 


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not  been  made  in  England  above  50  or  60 
years  ;  the  manufacture  of  it  was  brought 
by  a  Dutchman,  who  settled  in  a  sea-poit 
town  in  Yorkshire,  and  who,  by  it,  and  his 
mode  of  refining  aiid  depurating  rapeseed 
oil,  and  linseed  oil,  acquired  a  large  for- 
tune, and  became  a  respectable  banker. 

Egg-shell  white,  and  Oyster-shell  white. 
Tliese  are  only  egg-shells  and  oyster- 
shells  calcined,  by  wliich  the  animal  glu- 
ten is  destroyed. 

JVottinghani  white.  This  pigment  is 
nothing  more  than  white  lead,  prepared 
by  corroding  lead  by  means  of  sour  ale 
instead  of  vinegar. 

Glass  white  Take  crown  glass,  and 
beat  it  to  an  impalpable  powder ;  take 
also  finely  pulverized  sulphur ;  mix  them 
together  in  a  large  crucible  with  a  cover 
to  it ;  lute  it  close,  and  put  it  upon  a  char- 
coal fire,  so  as  to  make  the  crucible  i"ed 
hot  all  over;  when  it  is  thus  heated,  take 
it  off  the  fire,  and  let  it  cool ;  then  take  oft' 
the  cover,  and  grind  the  matter  upon  a 
stone  with  clear  water,  and  temper  it 
either  with  oil  or  gum-water  :  it  will  give 
a  good  white  colour. 

Darcet's  composition  for  ivhite. 

The  following  composition  has  been 
used  with  success  for  painting : 

Take  cheese  or  curd  well  drained,  5oz. 

Slacked  lime  ^  oz. 

Whiting,  10  oz. 

Fine  powdered  charcoal,  1  dram. 

AVater,  3  oz. 

At  the  moment  of  commencing  the  ope- 
ration, a  certain  quantity  of  strong  quick 
lime  must  be  slaked  in  the  least  possible 
quantity  of  water.  This  is  the  surest  and 
most  speedy  method  of  reducing  it  into 
fine  powder.  The  lime  is  to  be  sifted,  in 
order  to  separate  the  pieces  which  do  ijot 
fall  down,  and  of  the  powder  seven 
grammes  are  to  be  weighed.  The  quan- 
tity of  cheese  above  indicated  is  to  be  ta- 
ken and  pounded  till  it  has  the  appearance 
of  salve,  and  with  this  the  seven  grammes 
of  lime  arc  to  be  mixed,  and  the  mixture 
well  agitated,  which  loses  its  consistence, 
and  acquires  that  of  hot  new  made  glue. 

On  the  other  hand,  whltingin  powder  is 
taken,  and  added  to  the  water  and  the 
charcoal,  and  the  whole  accurately  mixed. 
This  mixture  may  be  ])asscd  through  an 
open  sieve,  in  order  that  it  may  be  reduc- 
ed to  a  liquid  homogeneous  paste. 

Tlie  mixture  of  lime  and  cheese  is  then 
to  be  added,  and  carefully  mixed  with  that 
of  the  whiting  and  charcoal  diffused  in 
water.    The  colour  is  then  finished. 

Calcined  Hartshorn.  I'his  preparation 
is  formed  by  calcining  or  otherwise  burn- 
ing, tlie  shavings  of  hartshorn,  until  all  the 
gelatinous  matter  is  destrojcd.     It  is  con- 


sidered the    most  useful  of  the  earthy 
whites. 

§  3.  Red.  Colours,  wliich  come  un- 
der this  head,  are  numerous  ;  of  these, 
cai'mine,  rose  pink,  and  vermilion,  are  the 
principal. 

Carmine.  This  colour  is  produced 
from  cochineal.  There  are  various  modes 
of  preparing  it.  Any  process  will  answer 
for  extracting  the  colour,  so  that  the  co- 
louring matter  of  the  insect  shall  be  dis- 
engaged from  the  extraneous  matter. 
This  is  usually  accomplished  by  making 
an  infusion  in  water,  and  adding  thereto 
a  solution  of  alum,  or  nitro  muriate  of  tin. 
See  Cochineal. 

Red  Lake.  This  colour  is  also  prepar- 
ed from  cochineal,  though  other  substan- 
ces have  been  used.  For  the  preparation 
of  this  pigment  from  cochineal,  see  that 
ai-ticle. 

Florentine  lake.  The  best  sort  may  be 
prepared  from  the  sediment  of  cochineal, 
that  remains  in  the  kettle,  after  making 
carmine,  adding  to  it  a  small  quantity  of 
cochineal,  or  Brazil  wood,  and  precipita- 
ting the  colourmg  matter  with  a  solution 
of  tin. 

Madder  lake.  This  is  formed  nearly  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  foregoing. 

According  to  Merime,  if  madder  be 
steeped  a  certain  time  in  water,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  potash  added  to  the  so- 
lution, a  fine  red  lake  will  be  obtained. 

An  improvement  in  the  method  of  ex- 
tracting the  red  of  madder  for  lakes  has 
been  published  by  Sir  H.  Englefield,  for 
which  the  gold  medal  of  the  Society  for 
the  Encouragement  of  Arts  was  given  to 
the  inventor.  It  is  founded  on  the  disco- 
very that  the  red  colouring  part  is  scarce- 
ly soluble  in  cold  water,  but  in  the  com- 
mon method  of  extraction  is  chiefly  sus- 
pended by  means  of  the  mucilage  of  the 
root.  The  jjrincipal  process  is  the  follow- 
ing :  Inclose  two  ounces  (troy  weight)  of 
the  finest  Dutch  madder,  known  in  com- 
merce by  the  name  of  crop  ^tnadder,  in  a 
bag,  ca]iable  of  containing  three  or  four 
times  that  quantity,  made  of  strong  and 
fine  calico.  Put  it  into  a  large  marble 
mortar,  and  pour  on  it  a  pint  of  soft  river 
water,  pressing  the  bag  in  every  direction, 
and  rubbing  it  as  much  as  may  be  without 
danger  of  bursting.  The  water  will  soon 
become  quite  opake,  and  loaded  with  co- 
louring matter.  Poiu-  oft'  the  watcj-,  and 
add  another  fresh  pint  of  water,  triturating 
it  with  the  madder  as  before  ;  and  repeat 
the  operation  till  the  water,  the  last  add- 
ed, comes  oft' but  slightly  tinged.  About 
five  pints  will  he  recjuired  to  exhaust  the 
colour ;  after  wliich  the  root,  if  taken  out 
and   dried,  will   be   found  to  have  lost 


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11.16ths  of  its  weight,  and  with  it  its  pe- 
culiar smell,  and  the  colour  wUl  be  a  lig-ht 
nankeen  or  cinnamon. 

The  Avater  loaded  with  the  colouring 
matter  must  then  be  put  into  an  earthen 
or  well  tinned  copper  vessel,  (not  iron) 
and  heated  till  it  just  boils.  Then  pour  it 
into  a  large  bason,  and  add  an  oimce  of 
alum  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  hot  soft  water, 
stirring  the  mixture  carefully-  Then  add 
about  1  h  oimce  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
carbonai  of  potash,  wliich  will  excite  an 
immediate  effervescence,  and  a  subse- 
quent precipitation  of  a  coloured  lake. 
After  standing  till  cold  the  lake  is  to  be 
collected,  well  waslied  with  repeated 
quantities  of  warm  water  and  gently  dried 
It  will  be  then  found  to  weigh  about  half 
an  ounce,  ov  a  fourth  part  of  the  madder 
employed. 

The  above  madder  lake,  which  is  verj- 
beautiful,  is  found  by  analysis  to  consist 
of  more  than  40  per  cent,  of  alumine.  The 
rest  is  the  colouring  matter  of  the  mad- 
der.    See  Madder. 

Hose  Lake,  or  Hose  Pink.  This  is  a  de- 
licate colour,  inclining  more  to  purple  than 
scarlet.  It  is  prepared  from  chalk  colour- 
ed with  a  decoction  of  Brazil  wood, 
brightened  by  an  alkah,  which  renders  it 
liable  to  fade.  This  pigment,  therefore, 
is  nothing  more  than  the  colouring  matter 
of  Brazil  wood,  combined  with  chalk. 
The  colour  may  be  improved  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  solution  of  tin  to  the  decoction  of 
the  wood,  previously  to  the  addition  of 
chalk.  A  beautiful  lake  maybe  obtained 
fi'om  the  same  wood,  in  imitation  of  car- 
mine, in  the  following  manner : 

Boil  three  pounds  of  the  raspings  of 
Brazil  wood  with  three  pounds  of  com- 
mon salt  in  three  gallons  of  water ;  filtre 
the  hot  liquor  tlirough  flannel,  and  add  to 
this  a  warm  solution  of  five  pounds  of 
alum  in  four  gallons  of  water.  Now,  dis- 
solve, or  have  ready  dissolved,  three 
pounds  of  the  best  pearl-ash  in  a  gallon 
and  a  half  of  water,  and  filtre  it  also ;  and 
put  the  liquor  to  the  other,  gradually,  till 
the  whole  colour  is  precipitated.  If  it  be 
pui-ple  instead  of  red,  add  a  fresh  quanti- 
ty of  alum  till  a  scarlet  hue  is  produced ; 
and  then  proceed  with  the  sediment  as  in 
the  former  article.  By  the  addition  of  half 
a  pound  of  seed-lac  to  the  solution  of 
pearl-ash  before  it  is  filtered,  a  lake  will 
be  produced,  that  will  stand  well  both  in 
water  and  oil,  but  is  not  so  transparent  in 
oil  as  without  the  seed-lac. 

The  lake  from  Brazil-wood  may  be  also 
made,  by  adding  half  an  ounce  of  Spanish 
anotto  to  each  pound  of  the  wood ;  but  the 
anotto  must  be  dissolved  in  the  solution 
of  pearl-ash. 


The  effects  of  the  solutions  of  tin  and 
alum  on  Brazilwood  are  the  most  import- 
ant to  the  colour-maker.  Alum  added  to 
the  water\-  decoction  of  the  wood  gives  a 
copious  fine  red  precipitate,  inclining  to 
crimson  and  subsiding  slowly.  The  su- 
pernatant liquor  also  retains  the  original 
red  colour  of  the  decoction,  but  if  enough 
of  alkali  is  added  to  decompose  the  alum, 
its  earth  falls  down  and  carries  with  it 
nearly  all  the  remaining  colouring  matter 
of  the  wood.  In  this  way  a  fine  crimson 
lake,  imitating  the  cochineal  carmine,  may 
be  prepared ;  which  therefore  consists  of 
alumine,  intimately  combined  with  the 
colouring  matter  of  the  wood  a  little 
heightened. 

Niti'o-muriat  of  tin  added  to  the  decoc- 
tion, separates  the  whole  of  the  colouring 
matter,  which  falls  down  in  great  abun- 
dance in  union  with  the  0x3d  of  tin,  and 
tlie  liquor  remains  colom-less. 

Vermillion.  This  is  a  bright  scarlet 
pigment,  called  the  red  sulphuret  ofmer- 
cury,  composed,  as  its  name  imports,  of 
sulphur  and  mercurj'.  "When  in  its  crude 
state,  it  is  called  cinnabar.  See  Mercurv. 

Red  Lead.  This  is  an  oxyd  of  lead, 
prepared  by  melting  lead,  and  exposing  it 
to  the  air  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  See 
Lead. 

Indian  Red.  This  is  a  very  useful  co- 
lour, answering  some  of  the  purposes  of 
lake  ;  it  stands  well  both  in  water  and  oil. 

Venetian  Red,  is  a  native  red  ochre,  ra- 
ther inclining  to  the  scarlet  than  crimson 
hue  :  it  is  not  of  so  good  a  colour  as  the 
common  Indian  red,  and  is  chiefly  used  by 
house  painters.  It  is  often  imitated  by 
colcothar. 

Spanish  6roxun,is  also  an  earthy  substance, 
the  base  of  which,  like  many  other  of  the 
eartliy  pigments,  is  alumine,  coloui'ed  with 
oxyd  of  iron. 

Red  Ochre,  as  it  is  usually  found  in  tlie 
shops,  is  yellow  ochre,  heated  red  hot  in 
the  fire,  till  the  colour  changes  from  yel- 
low to  a  red.  In  this  manner,  red  ochre 
is  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 
Ochres,  both  the  red  and  yellow,  have 
been  found  native,  of  an  excellent  quality, 
in  this  countrj*. 

Red  Chalk,  or  Reddle,  This  is  an  ore  of 
iron  in  tlie  state  of  red  oxyd,  usually  com- 
bined with  more  or  less  alumine.  It  is 
used  for  marking  in  the  manner  of  a 
crayon.  It  stands  perfectly  well,  and  may 
be  used  both  in  w.iter  and  oil.  It  is  made 
artificially  in  this  city. 

Burnt  Terra  di  Sienna.  This  colour  Is 
made  by  calcining  the  raw  terra  di  sienna, 
till  it  acquires  a  red  colour.  It  is  of  a  ve- 
ry rich  tint,  and  is  much  used  both  iit  wa- 
ter  and  oil.     It  stands  wel]  in  both. 


COL 


COL 


§  4.  Orange.  The  genuine  orange 
paints,  are  principally  red  orpinient,  and 
orange  lake.  The  first  is  a  sulphuret  of 
urseuic  ;  farmed,  of  course,  of  arsenic  and 
sulphur.  The  other  may  be  prepared 
from  turmeric,  by  infusing  it  in  spirit  of 
vine,  and  adding  a  solution  of  tin. 

Orange  may  be  formed  by  mixing  red 
and  yellow  colours  together,  in  due  pro- 
])ortions.  The  follow  ingformulx  will  al- 
so form  a  good  orange  colour  : 

Boil  four  ounces  of  the  best  Spanish 
iinotto,  and  one  pound  of  pearl-ash,  for 
the  space  of  half  an  hotu",  in  one  gallon  of 
Avater.  Strain  the  tincture,  and  mix  it  gra- 
dually with  a  solution  of  a  pound  and  a 
half  of  alum  to  six  quarts  of  water,  desist- 
ing when  no  ebullition  ensues.  Treat  the 
sediment  as  is  usual  in  preparing  lake, 
and  dr}'  it  in  square bits,or  roundlozenges. 

§  5.  Yellow.  The  principal  colours 
of  this  kind  are.  King's  Yellow,  Naples 
Yellow,  Uutch-pink  and  Turbith  Mineral. 

King's  Ytllow.  This  colour  is  orpi- 
ment  purified,  and  consists  of  arsenic  and 
.sulphur.  It  is  of  a  bright  yellow,  but 
\evy  apt  to  fade,  on  which  account,  as 
well  as  from  its  great  price,  it  is  but  sel- 
dom employed. 

A'aples  Yellow.  The  true  Naples  yel- 
low is  found  near  Naples,  and  consists  of 
a  kind  of  lava,  unchangeable  by  fire  and 
by  acids.  To  prepare  it  artificially,  the 
following  process  may  be  used :  Take 
twelve  ounces  of  white  lead,  one  ounce 
of  alum,  one  ounce  of  sal-ammoniac,  and 
three  ouncesof  diaphoretic  antimony;  put 
them  into  an  unglazed  pipkin,  and  expose 
them  in  a  moderate  heat  for  the  space  of 
eight  hours.  Thus  will  a  beautiful  yel- 
low be  obtained,  such  as  the  artists  of 
Italy,  term  Giallolino. 

If  a  Ijright  golden  colour  be  wanted, 
add  half  an  ounce  more  of  antimony,  and 
H  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  sal  ammoniac. 

Turner's  Patent  Yelloij.  If  two  parts 
of  common  salt  be  dissolved  in  water,  and 
one  part  of  litharge  added,  and  boiled  for 
some  time,  the  soda  of  the  common  salt 
will  be  disengaged  and  held  in  solution, 
whilst  l!ieleH<l  will  unite  with  the  muriatic 
;icid  in!o  a  wliile  powder.  It' this  be  melt- 
«:d  in  a  crucible,  patent  yellow  will  be 
:tbrmed.  Or,  according  to  J)i'.  I'ennjng- 
•lon,  if  two  ounces  of  spii'it  of  salt  (mu- 
jiatic  acid)  be  added  to  one  pound  of  li- 
tharge in  a  mortar  hokling  about  a  pint, 
;md  lined  with  a  nil.\tureof  lour  parts  of 
sand,  ar.d  one  of  clay  mixed  up  with  wa- 
il er,  and  the  mortar  heated  ijhite  in  a  fur- 
nace, the  matter  will  fuse,  and  form  when 
cold  a  beautiful  patent  yellow. 

JMasticot  or  J\fassicot.  Take  any  quan- 
t'ty  of  white  lead  ;  ptit  it  into  a  crucible, 


and  expose  it  to  a  degree  of  heat  that 
will  turn  it  yellow;  which  may  be  exactly 
ascertained  by  inspection  only.  See  Lead. 

Turbitli  Mineral.  If  mercury  be  boiled 
in  sulphuric  acid,  a  compound  of  a  white 
colour,  composed  of  the  acid  and  oxyd  of 
mercury,  will  result ;  which,  when  wash- 
ed with  boihng  water,  will  aflbrd  a  }ellow 
pigment,  or  sub-sulphate  of  mercury, 
known  under  the  name  of  Turbith  mine- 
ral :  this  pigment  is  but  little  used. 

Chromic  Yel/oiv.  This  pigmci'it  is  rare 
and  high.  It  is  made  by  decomposing 
chromate  of  potash  by  nitrate  or  acetate 
of  lead.  The  chromic  acid  passes  to  the 
lead,  forming'  the  chromic  j'ellow,  or  chro- 
mate of  lead,  whilst  the  nitric  or  acetic 
acid  passes  to  the  potash  :  the  former  is 
to  be  collected  on  a  filtre,  washed,  and 
dried.  The  chromate  of  potash  is  pre- 
j)ared  from  the  ore  of  chrome.  See 
Chrome.  This  pigment  has  been  pre- 
pared in  this  country  b}-  several  gentle- 
men.    The  ore  is  found  near  Baltimore. 

Weld  Yelloiu.  This  colour  is  prepared 
of  the  weld  or  dyer's  weed.  It  is  used 
by  paper-hanging  manufacturers.  Messrs. 
Collard  and  Frazer,  have  given  the  fol- 
lowing process  for  preparing  it :  Put  four 
pounds  of  whiting  into  a  copper  boiler, 
and  add  to  it,  four  pounds  of  water.  Ap- 
ply heat,  so  that  the  whiting  may  be  re- 
duced to  an  uniform  paste  or  cream.  Add 
gradually  12  ounces  of  alum,  previously 
pulverised  ;  carbonic  acid  will  be  disen- 
gaged in  effervescence  When  it  ceases, 
the  bases  will  be  formed.  Place  the  weld, 
with  its  roots  uppermost,  in  another  cop- 
per boiler,  and  cover  it  ;  add  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water ;  make  the  liquor  boil 
for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  strain  it  off 
through  a  flannel  filtre.  Add  now  the 
last  mentioned  liquor  to  the  bases ;  apply 
heat;  and  the  colour  w  ill  be  formed.  Col- 
lect it,  and  dry  it  for  use. 

Indian  Yellow.  This  is  tiie  brightest 
of  all  the  yellows,  for  water  colours,  and 
is  perfectly  durable.  It  is  said  to  be  pro- 
cured from  the  uiine  of  the  buffalo.  In 
the  East  Indies,  it  is  a  very  common  and 
cheap  colour;  the  natives  there  use  it  for 
colouring  their  calicoes,  which  tliey  do 
without  any  mordant ;  so  that  the  colour 
is  washed  out  again  when  the  cloth  is 
dirty. 

Yello-iv  Ochre.  Tiiis  is  an  earth,  colour- 
ed by  oxyd  of  iron,  ft  is  a  cheap  colour, 
and  not  very  briglit,  but  is  valuable,  on 
account  of  its  standing  well.  -Oclu'e  has 
been  found  in  abundance  in  tlie  United 
States. 

,1  Yellmv  from  Copperas  may  be  made 
by  adding  to  two  pounds  of  copperas  dis- 
solved in  water,  one  pound  ol"  lime. 


CO. 


COL 


lioman  Ochre.  This  is  a  superior  kind 
cjf  yellow  ochre. 

Butch-pink.  Boil  one  pound  of  turme- 
ric in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  add  whiling 
to  the  clear  liquor  :  the  colour  will  unite 
to  the  whiting,  which  is  then  to  be  collect- 
ed and  dried.  French  berries  may  be 
used  in  the  place  of  turmeric 

Brovin-pink.  This  is  prepared  by  add- 
ing to  a  solution  of  alum,  mixed  with  the 
infusion  of  some  vegetable  substance,  a 
portion  of  potash.  The  colouring  matter, 
along  with  the  earth  of  alum,  is  thus  pre- 
cipitated. 

Besides  these,  there  are  other  colouring 
substances,  which  will  be  noticed  here- 
after, such  as  gall  stones,  French-berries, 
saftVon,  &c. 

§  6.  Green.  There  are  few  colours 
that  are  as  useful  as  greens;  accordingly,  it 
is  the  practice  with  artists,  to  form  their 
greens  by  the  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow 
colours.  By  varying  these  a  vast  variety 
of  green  tints  may  be  obtained- 

VerJigrease.  This  pigment  is  formed 
by  corroding  copperplates.  See  Copper. 
It  is  of  ablueish  green  colour,  but  has  no 
body,  and  Joes  not  stand.  It  is  only  used 
for  veiy  coai-se  purposes.  It  answers  best 
wlien  used  in  varnishes. 

Distilled  Verdigrease  is  an  acetite  of  cop- 
per, for  the  preparation  of  which,  see  Cop- 
per. It  is  of  a  very  light  green,  and  is 
used  chiefly  for  varnishes,  and  in  colour- 
ing maps,  Stc. 

Brunu'wick  Green.  See  Brunswick 
Green. 

Hcheele's  Green.  This  pigment  is 
formed  of  arsenic  and  copper.  It  was 
discovered  by  Scheele  of  Sweden.  It  is 
prei)ared  in  the  following  manner :  Dis- 
solve two  pounds  of  blue  vitriol  in  about 
three  gallons  of  boiling  water,  in  a  vessel 
capable  of  holding  at  least  four  gallons 
more.  In  another  vessel  boil  together  two 
pounds  of  pearl  ash,  and  three  quarters 
of  a  pound  of  white  arsenic,  in  about  two 
and  an  half  gallons  of  water;  boil  it  till  the 
arsenic  is  dissolved  or  nearly  so  ;  then 
pour  this  last  hot  solution  into  the  first 
while  hot.  A  precipitate  will  form,  which 
when  collected,  washed,  and  dried  will  be 
the  Scheele's  green,  and  will  amount  to 
about  one  fourth  of  the  ingi-edients  in  co- 
lour.     See  Copper. 

To  make  a  fine  Green.  Pulverise  in  a 
mortar,  equal  quantities  of  verdigi-is  and 
cream  of  tartar,  to  which  add  eight  times 
its  quantity  of  water  ;  let  it  remain,  thus 
for  eight  days  in  a  bottle,  kept  in  a  mode- 
rate heat.  This  solution  is  then  to  be 
filtered,  adding  thereto  an  eighth  part  of 
the  weight  of  the  verdigris  of  gum-arabic, 
keeping  it  over  a  gentle  stove  heat  until 


the  gum  is  dissolved ;  from  this  will  be 
obtained  a  fine  green,  which  will  be  ren- 
dered  more  clear  and  deep  according  to 
Uie  degree  of  evaporation. 

Green   Pigments.     Cheap    paints  of  a 


green  colour,  with  different  shades,  may  ^|^fl 


be  made  by  precipitating  solutions  of  cop 
per  by  whiting  and  potash. 

Sap  Green  This  colour  is  the  con- 
creted juice  of  the  buck  thorn  berries.  The 
berries  are  expressed,  and  the  juice  boiled 
to  dryness.  It  is  never  used  in  oil.  It  is 
employed  chiefly  in  flower-printing  and 
colouring  prints,  &.c.  The  following  par- 
ticulars of  the  process  for  making  sap 
green,  may  prove  useful : 

About  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  before 
Michaelmas,  take  as  many  sloes  as  you 
please  ;  mash  them  a  little,  and  put  them 
into  a  clean  glazed  pan  ;  sprinkle  them 
well  over  with  powdered  alum,  and  let 
them  stand  in  a  hot  place  for  twenty-four 
hours  ;  then  pour  upon  them  clean  lye, 
and  put  it  upon  a  fij-e,  and  give  it  a  slow 
boiling,  till  a  good  quaniity  is  boiled  away; 
then  take  it  off  the  .  fire  ;  let  it  cool,  and 
pour  it  through  a  cloth  ;  what  comes 
through,  put  up  in  a  bladder,  and  hang 
it  in  the  air  to  dry  ;  afterwards  keep  it 
always  Jianging  in  a  dry  place,  or  in  tlie 
chimney  corner  ;  and  when  you  have  oc- 
casion to  use  h,  take  as  much  as  you  want 
and  dilute  it  with  clear  water :  if  it  should 
turn  too  much  upon  the  yellow,  mix  it  with 
a  little  indigo. 

Another  finer  Sap-Green.  Take  of  blue 
lihes,  that  part  of  the  flower  which  is  of  a 
a  fine  blue  colour  (for  the  rest  is  no  use,) 
and  stamp  tliem  well  in  a  stone  mortar ; 
tlien  put  upon  tliem  a  spoonful,  or  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  the  leaves,  two  or 
more  spoonsful  of  water,  wherein  before 
has  been  dissolved  a  little  alum  and  gum 
arable,  and  work  it  well  together  in  the 
mortar  ;  then  strain  it  through  a  cloth  ; 
put  it  into  muscle-shells,  and  set  them  in 
the  sini  to  dry.     Or, 

After  you  have  proceeded  as  before, 
fling  some  powdered  quick-lime  over  it, 
before  you  strain  it  through  the  cloth,  and 
put  it  in  muscle-shells      Or, 

Beat  the  blue  leaves  of  lilies  in  a  stone 
mortar  ;  strain  them  through  a  fine  cloth 
into  muscle-shells,  and  fling  some  pow- 
dered alum  over ;  to  one  more  than  tlie 
other,  in  order  to  make  the  colours  of 
different  shades. 

To  prepare  a  fine  Green  Colour.  Tem- 
per indigo  and  yellow  orpiment  with  gum- 
water  :  gTind  it  fine,  and  mix  with  it  a  lit- 
tle of  ox  or  fish-gall,  and  you  will  have  a 
pleasant  green.  You  may  shade  it  with 
indigo  or  sap-green,  and  heigJiten  it  v.'ith 
Dutch  pink. 


COL 


COL 


§7.  Blue.  Of  blues,  the  principal  arc 
Prussian  and  Dutch  bkie,  verditer,  smalt, 
bice,  and  indigo. 

Prussian  Blue. — To  make  Prussian 
blue,  four  ounces  of  alkali  are  mixed  with 
an  equal  weight  of  dried  bullock's  blood, 
and  the  mixture  is  exposed  to  ignition  in 
a  covered  crucible.  By  this  treatment  a 
coal  is  obtained,  which  is  afterwards  lixi- 
viated in  water,  filtered,  and  concentrated 
by  evaporation.  The  liquor,  formerly 
known  by  the  name  of  the  phlogisticated 
alkali,  is  now  more  properly  termed  prus- 
siat  of  potash.  On  the  other  hand,  two 
ounces  of  sulphat  of  iron  and  four  ounces 
of  alum  aie  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water. 
The  two  solutions  are  then  mixed,  and  a 
blueish  powder  falls  down,  which  is 
rendered  still  more  intensely  blue  by 
washing  it  with  muriatic  acid. 

This  is  the  process  used  in  chemical 
laboratories;  but  another  method  is  fol- 
lowed in  the  manufactories.  The  rasp- 
ings of  horns,  clippings  of  skins,  or  other 
animal  substances,  are  converted  into 
charcoal,  by  heating  them  in  covered  ves- 
sels. Thirty  pounds  of  potash  are  then 
mixed  with  ten  pounds  of  this  coal,  and 
the  mixture  calcined  in  an  iron  vessel. 
After  twelve  hours  ignition,  the  mixture 
acquires  the  form  of  a  soft  paste,  which  is 
poiu-ed  o\it  into  vessels  of  water.  The 
water  is  tlien  filtered,  and  the  solution 
mixed  with  another,  consisting  of  three 
parts  of  alum,  and  one  of  sulphat  of  iron 
See  IiioN- 

To  make  a  Vegetable  JBltte. — Gather  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  common  field 
blue  bottles  of  the  deepest  colour,  toge- 
ther with  the  cup  of  the  flowers,  which 
are  to  be  di'ied  a  little  upon  a  stove  of  a 
modei'ate  heat.  The  flowers  in  this  state 
(half  dried)  are  to  be  steeped  with  gum 
arable  water,  and  the  whole  kneaded  to- 
gether; this  paste  is  then  to  be  placed 
between  paper,  and  strongly  compressed 
between  boards.  They  are  left  in  this 
state  some  days,  when  it  is  bruised  in  a 
stone  mortar,  adding  thereto  a  small 
quantity  of  alum  dissolved  in  water.  It  is 
then  filtered,  and  the  liquor  thus  filtered, 
is  evaporated  in  a  china  vessel,  and  the  re- 
sidue at  the  bottom  thereof  is  the  finest 
vegetable  blue. 

Ultramarine.— This  preparation  is  form- 
ed from  the  lapis  lawih  in  the  following 
manner : 

Calcine  the  lapis  lazxili  in  a  crucible ; 
then  grind  it  very  fine  on  a  porphyn'. 
Mix  up  the  powder  witli  a  paste  made  of 
wax,  pitch,  mastich,  turpentine,  and  oil ; 
and  lastly,  wash  tlic  paste  well  in, clear 
v.ater,  to  separate  tiic  colouring  part 
from  the  rest,  which  precipitates  to  the 


bottom  in  the  form  of  a  subtile,  beautiful, 
blue  powder. 

To  know  whether  it  be  pure,  if  you  buy 
any  ready  made ;  put  a  little  of  it  in  a 
small  crucible,  and  on  heating  it  i"ed  hot, 
if  the  powder  keeps  its  colour,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly genuine :  on  the  contrary,  if 
any  change  be  perceived,  or  any  black 
spots  ap])ear,  it  is  either  spurious,  or 
adulterated. 

To  prepare  a  bine  Colour^  little  inferior  to 
Ultramarine,  from  Blue  S-malt. — Grind 
your  smalt  very  fine,  and  proceed  in  every 
respect  as  y6u  have  been  taught  above, 
in  preparing  ultramarine. 

To  prepare  a  Blue  Colour  from  Silver. — 
Hammer  silver  tliin ;  neal  it  thoroughly, 
and  rub  it  a  little  over  with  quicksilver ; 
then  put  a  little  of  the  sharpest  distilled 
vinegar,  in  which  you  have  dissolved  some 
sal-ammoniac,  into  a  glass  ;  hang  the  sil- 
ver slips  over  it,  so  as  not  to  touch  the 
vinegar:  cover  it  very  close,  and  put  it 
into  a  warm  place,  that  the  fumes  of  the 
vinegar  may  raise  on  the  silver:  it  will 
form  a  very  beautiful  blue,  adhering  to 
the  slips;  wipe  it  off  into  a  shell,  and  hang 
the  silver  slips  over  the  vinegar  again,  well 
closed;  repeat  this,  until  all  the  silver  is 
con-odcd. 

A  Blue  of  Egg  Shells. — Take  e^^  shells, 
calcine  them  in  a  crucible,  beat  them  to 
a  fine  powder;  put  that  into  a  copper  ves- 
sel, and  pour  vinegar  over  it ;  which  set 
into  horse-dung  for  a  month,  and  you 
will  have  a  delightful  blue. 

To  make  Venetian  Sky-blue. — Take  of 
quicklime  one  pound,  mix  and  work  it 
with  sharp  white-wine  vinegar  into  a 
dough ;  let  it  stand  for  half  an  hour,  and 
when  hard,  pour  more  vinegar  to  it,  in  or- 
der to  make  it  soft;  when  done,  add  to  it 
two  ounces  of  good  pulverized  indigo; 
mix  them  well  together ;  set  it  in  a  glass 
vessel  for  twenty  days  under  horse-dung-, 
after  which  time  see  whether  it  is  of  a 
fine  colour;  if  not,  set  it  again,  as  long  as 
before,  in  the  dung,  and  it  will  then  come 
to  its  perfection.  , 

To  prepare  a  Blue  Colour  from  Verdi, 
grise. — Take  sal-ammoniac  and  verdigrise, 
of  each  six  ounces  ;  mix  them  well  toge- 
ther with  aqua-kali,  into  a  paste,  put  this 
into  a  phial,  and  stop  it  close;  let  it  stand 
for  several  days,  and  you  will  have  a  fine 
blue  colour. 

To  prepare  Blue  Tornisel,  or  Turnsol,  a 
beautiful  Colour — Take  sloes,  before  they 
are  full  ripe,  beat  them  into  a  paste, 
whicii  put  in  a  clean  earthen  pan :  take 
another  earthen  pan,  put  into  it  a  quart  of 
water,  three  ounces  of  quicklime,  and  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  verdigrise,  and  one- 
fifth  of  sal-ammoniac;  let  these  things 


COJ. 


CON 


soak  in  the  water  until  it  is  tinctured  of  a 
gi'een  colour.  In  twenty-four  hours  the 
lime  and  verdigrise  will  be  sunk  to  the 
bottom :  then  decant  off  the  water  through 
a  cloth,  into  another  earthen  vessel,  add 
to  it  the  paste  of  sloes,  and  let  it  gently 
boil  over  a  slow  fire ;  when  cold,  it  will  be 
of  a  fine  sky  blue ;  then  pour  that  liquid 
into  a  clean  pan  through  a  cloth ;  set  it  on 
ashes ;  and  when  it  begins  to  be  of  a  thick- 
ish  substance  then  put  it  up  in  a  bladder, 
and  hang  it  up  to  di-y.  You  may  also  dip 
clean  soft  hnen  rags  into  it ;  di-y  them  in 
the  shade ;  and  when  dry,  repeat  it  again 
for  three  or  four  times  ;  these  preserve  in 
paper ;  and  when  you  have  occasion  to 
use  it,  soak  one  of  these  rags  in  a  little 
fair  water,  and  you  will  have  a  beautiful 
blue  colour. 

Ultramarine  Ashes. — This  is  the  resi- 
duum after  washing  the  lapis  lazuli,  in 
which  a  portion  of  the  ultramarine  still 
remains.  It  is  not  so  bright  as  ultrama- 
rine. 

Verditer. — This  is  a  blue  pigment,  made 
by  adding  lime,  chalk,  or  whiting,  to  the 
solution  of  copper  in  aquafortis.  It  is  also 
made  from  blue  vitriol. 

Smalts  Blue, — Is  glass  coloured  with 
zaftVe,  or  oxyd  of  cobalt.  When  finely 
pulverized,  it  makes  a  good  colour.  See 
Cobalt. 

Bice, — Is  prepared  from  the  lapis  arme-  \ 
nius     It  bears  the  best  body  of  all  the  ! 
bright  blues  in  common  use,  but  it  is  the  j 
palest   in   colour.     It  is  said  to  be  only 
smalt  more  finely  levigated. 

Dutch   Blue.— See  Litmus   and   Ar- 

CHILLA. 

Sanders  Blue. — This  is  the  same  as  ver- 
diter, as  above  noticed. 

Indigo — Is  but  little  employed  in  paint- 
ing, either  in  oil  or  water.  It  requires  no 
other  preparation  than  that  of  being 
washed  over,  before  it  is  used.  See  In- 
digo. 

§  8.  Purple.  The  only  simple  colour 
of  this  kind  is  colcothar  of  vitriol.  If  a  so- 
lution of  tin  be  added  to  a  decoction  of 
logwood,  a  purple  coloured  cake  will  be 
obtained. 

§  9.  Brown.  The  chief  brown  colours 
are,  bister  and  brown  pink.  Bister  is  the 
finer  pai-t  extracted  fi-om  the  soot  of 
burnt  wood.  It  is  much  used  also  for 
sketches  in  water  colours. 

Cologne  Earth. — This  is  a  mineral  sub- 
stance of  a  dark  blackish-brown  colour. 
It  is  a  very  useful  colour ;  though  what  is 
generally  sold  in  the  shopsljfejr  Cologne 
earth,  is  an  ai'tificial  mixture  of  several 
colours.  ' 

i?au'  Umber — Is  a  native  ochrous  earth, 
of  a  light  browTi. 


Burnt  Umber. — This  is  the  last  men- 
tioned  colour,  calcined  in  the  fire. 

Aspkaltum. — This  colour  is  used  in  oil, 
and  is  of  a  very  rich  dark  brown. 

COMPOST,  see  Agriculture  and 
Manure. 

CONDUCTORS,  are  long  rods  made  of 
iron  or  other  metal,  employed  for  protect- 
ing buildings  from  the  effects  of  light- 
ning. 

I'he  utility  of  conductors  is  universally 
acknowledged,  yet  it  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained, till  within  these  few  years,  whether 
pointed  or  blunt  ones  were  the  most 
proper :  the  former,  however,  are  now 
decidedly  preferred,  in  consequence  of 
several  experiments,  made  under  the  in- 
spection of  the  Royal  Society. 

The  experience  of  e\ery  year  convince.s 
us  that  metallic  conductors,  or  lightning 
rods,  ai-e  not  certain  safeguards  against 
lightning:  it  is  of  infinite  impoi-tance, 
therefore,  to  state  a  certain  mode  by 
wliich  a.\\pcssil>le  danger  may  be  avoided ; 
tliis  we  are  enabled  to  do  from  the  direc- 
tions given  bj'  the  late  G.  C  Morgan,  in 
his  lectures  uoon  electricity;  Norwich, 
1794.) 

The  foundation  of  each  partition  wall 
of  the  house  must  be  laid  on  a  strip  of 
lead;  or  the  lead  must  be  fastened  to  the 
sides  of  them.  These  strips  must  be  con- 
nected, and  their  dimensions  not  less  than 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  2  inches 
wide.  A  perpendicular  strip  on  each  side 
of  the  house,  should  rise  from  this  bed  of 
-metallic  conductors  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground:  there  a  strip  should  be  conti- 
nued around  all  the  house,  and  carefully 
connected  with  water  pipes,  &c.  The 
strips  on  the  sides  of  the  house  should 
then  be  continued  to  the  roof,  where  the 
method  of  g'uarding  the  bottom  must  be 
imitated.  The  top  is  to  be  surrounded 
by  a  strip,  whose  connection  should  spread 
over  every  edge  and  prominence,  and 
hence  must  continue  to  the  summit  of 
each  separate  chimney. 

The  chimnies  in  pai'ticular  must  be 
protected  ;  for  ^Ir.  Morgan  was  witness  to 
a  case  in  \vhich  a  house  was  guarded,  in 
most  respects,  according  to  the  method 
just  desci'ibed :  but  from  the  chimnies 
having  been  left  unprotected,  the  light- 
ning  consequently  struck  one  of  them, 
where  its  rage  terminated  ;  but  tlie  turn- 
bUng  of  the  chimney  into  the  roof  was  at- 
tended by  serious  consequences.  By 
guarding  the  house,  we  make  it  of  all  ob- 
jects, that  which  is  the  most  likely  to  be- 
come the  circuit  of  a  cloud ;  and  conse- 
quently should  be  cai-eful  that  no  interrup- 
tion divides  the  conductors,  or  the  havoc 
will  probably  take  place. 


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Tiie  expcnce  of  a  conductor,  erectetl 
according  to  the  plan  described,  may  be 
considerably  lessened,  by  making  a  pro- 
per use  of  the  leaden  pipes  and  copings 
which  belong  to  most  houses  ;  no  other 
skill  being  requisite,  than  that  of  fasten- 
ing the  strips  of  lead,  so  tliat  they  may  be 
secure,  and  at  the  same  time  be  connect- 
ed with  each  other. 

Ships  may  be  also  easily  protected. 
One  strip  of  metal  should  surround  the 
deck ;  another  should  be  fastened  to  the 
bottom,  or  the  side  of  the  keel ;  these 
strips  should  be  connected  with  others 
which  embrace  the  ship  in  different 
parts. 

If  the  vessel  be  copper-bottomed,  no- 
thing more  is  necessary  than  to  connect 
the  metal  wliich  surrounds  the  deck  with 
the  copper  ;  but  in  both  cases,  a  separate 
strip  should  pass  from  the  rest  of  the 
strips  to  each  mast ;  no  injury  can  then 
possibly  happen  below  deck.  This  is  a 
circumstance  of  considerable  importance  ; 
lor  tlie  conductors  wliich  are  usually  de- 
signed for  the  masts,  are  moveable,  and 
injiu'y  has  often  been  the  consequence  of 
neglecting  to  place  them  in  their  proper 
situation. 

The  protection  of  the  masts  must  be 
managed  by  extending  a  metallic  body 
along  the  stays  to  as  great  a  height  as 
possible.  Chains  are  frequently  employ- 
ed for  tiiis  purpose ;  but  strips  of  load  are 
cheaper;  they  are  not  separated  by  any 
interi'uptions  ;  they  are  not  so  liable  to 
injury  from  the  weather  and  salt  water  as 
iron  is,  and,  might  be  fastened  wilhoutan- 
noying  any  necessary  movement.     * 

(JOPAL.  Copal,  iniproperly  called 
gum  copal,  is  a  hard,  shining,  transjiarcnt, 
citron-coloiu'cd,  odoriferous,  concrete 
juice  of  an  American  tree,  procured  from 
natural  extulations,  but  which  lias  jicilher 
the  soUibiiily  in  water  common  to  gums, 
nor  tlie  solubility  in  alcohol  common  to 
resins,  at  least  in  any  considerable  degree. 
Ey  these  pi'ojiertics  it  resembles  anibei". 
It  may  be  dissolved  by  digestion  in  linseed 
oil  with  a  lieat  vory  little  less  than  suffi- 
cient to  boil  or  decompose  the  oil.  This 
solution,  diluted  with  oil  of  tuii)entine, 
forms  a  beautiful  transparent  varnish, 
which,  when  ])ropcrly  apjilied  and  slowly 
dried,  is  vi  ly  hard,  and  very  durable. 
This  vurnisli  is  applied  to  snuff-bo.xes, 
tea-boards,  and  other  utensils.  It  pre- 
serves and  gives  lustre  to  paintings,  and 
greatly  restores  the  decayed  colours  of 
old  pictures,  by  filling  up  tlie  cracks  and 
rendering  thcsurfaccs  capable  of  reflect- 
ing light  more  uniformly.  See   A'arnis'h. 

COl'PEli.     Copper  is  a  malleable  and 


ductile  metal  of  a  pale-red  colour  wiili  a 
tinge  of  yellow. 

The  ores  of  this  metal  arc  very  nume- 
rous, and  may,  with  most  convenience,  be 
arranged  under  the  eight  following  varie- 
ties. 

Var.  1.     Native  copper. 

Its  colour  is  a  clear  copper-red,  often 
tarnished,externally  yellowish,  blackish  or 
greenish.  It  occurs  in  mass,  disseminated, 
in  leaves,  in  rolled  pieces,  in  grains,  capil- 
lary, filiform,  moss-like,  dentritical  and 
crystallized. 

It  occiu's  in  veins  and  beds  in  quartz 
and  granite,  in  slate,  porphyry,  serpen- 
tine, hornstone  and  limestone  ;  accompa- 
nied by  various  other  ores  of  copper,  par- 
ticularly the  red  oxyd,  malachite  and 
copper  pyrites  ;  with  galena,  honi-silver, 
native  silver,  calcareous  spar,  heavy-spar 
and  fluor. 

It  is  very  generally,  though  not  often 
abundantly,  diflused.  The  finest  spe- 
cimens conie  from  the  Tourinski  mines 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Uralian  moun- 
tains, from  Herrngrund  in  Hungary,  from 
Saxony,  the  Hartz,  Fahlun  in  Sweden, 
and  Cornwall.  It  is  said  to  be  remarka- 
bly abundant  in  Japan  and  Brazil,  and  to 
contain  a  considei-able  proportion  of  gold. 
It  is  also  procured  in  quantity  from  the 
Copper-mine  river  within  the  Arctic  circle 
in  America. 

Var.  2.   Oxyd  of  Copper. 

Sp  II.  Rui)y  Copper.  Florid  red  Cop- 
per ore,  Kirw.  Hoth  Kupfererz,  Werner. 
Cuivre  oxyde  rouge,  liauy. 

Of  this  species  there  are  the  following 
varieties. 

Var.  1.  Lamellar  R.  C.  Blattrigcs  R. 
K.  A\'erner. 

Its  colour  is  cochineal-red,  inclining 
sometimes  to  lead-grey  ;  when  crystalliz- 
ed it  is  of  a  full  carmine-red.  It  occurs 
in  mass,  disseminated  and  crystallised. 

It  is  met  with  chiefly  in  veins,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  peculiar  to  primitive  moun- 
tains :  the  substances  with  which  it  is  ac- 
companied are  native  coppcpj  malachite, 
and  brown  iron  ochre  ;  sometimes  moun- 
tain green,  copper  pyrites  and  other  ores 
of  this  metal,  also  cpiartz,  calcareous  and 
heavy  spars. 

It  is  found  in  Cornv.all,  in  Hungary, 
Saxony,  thellartz,  Siberia,Veru  andChili. 

^'ar.  3.     Sulphuret  of  coj^j^er. 

Its  coloia-  IS  dark  lead-gicy  passing  into 
blackish  grey,  it  often  presents  a  super- 
ficial steel-coloured  tarnish.  It  occurs 
in  mass,  djiji^eminated,  or  crystallized. 

It  *occin*S"  in  veins  in  slate  and  some 
other  of  the  newest  primitive  rocks,  and 
iji  beds  in  the  transition  and  floetz-rocks- 


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COP 


It  is  accompanied  by  copper  pyrites,  ga- 
lena, manganese,  spathose  iron,  quartz, 
heavy  spar  and  fluor;  also,  though  rarely, 
with  malachite  and  azure  copper.  When 
it  contains  a  notable  proportion  of  sliver, 
it  is  worked  as  an  ore  of  that  metal,  and 
will  accordingly  be  mentioned  again  under 
silver. 

It  is  found  in  Cornwall  and  Ayrshire, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  continent. 

Var.  4.     Arsenicated  copper. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  between  sil- 
ver-white and  brass  yellow.  It  occurs  in 
mass  or  disseminated.  Internally  it  has 
a  slight  metaUic  lustre.  Its  fracture  is 
small  and  fine-gi'ained,  uneven.  It  yields 
easily  to  the  knife,  is  brittle  and  readily 
frangible. 

It  occurs  in  veins  and  beds  in  primitive 
mountains,  and  is  generally  accompanied 
by  copper  pyrites  and  vitreous  copper.  It 
is  found  in  the  copper  mines  of  Cornwall, 
Saxony,  Hessia,  Silesia,  Hungary,  Siberia, 
and  Chili  in  South  America. 

By  its  colour  and  arsenical  odour  when 
heated,  it  is  distinguished  from  the  sul- 
phurets  of  copper. 

Var.  5.  Cai'bonated  coppei*. 

Its  principal  colour  is  aiure-blue,  which 
passes  into  Prussian-blue,  indigo  blue,  and 
rarely  to  smalt-blue. 

It  is  opake,  slightly  stains  the  fingers, 
and  is  easily  frangible. 

In  borax  it  dissolves  with  vehement  ebul- 
lition forming  a  green  glass. 

Aiure  copper  occurs  in  the  newer  pri- 
mitive rocks,  but  more  commonly  in  floetz 
mountains.  It  accompanies  other  ores  of 
copper,  especially  malachite,  grey  copper 
and  copper  pyrites.  The  most  beautiful 
specimens  come  from  the  Bannat  in  Hun- 
gary and  Siberia.  In  the  Tyrol  it  is  found 
in  sufficient  plenty  to  be  manufactured 
into  the  pigment  called  mountain-blue. 

Var.  6.     Arseniat  of  copper. 

Its  usual  colour  is  deep  sky  blue,  pass- 
ing into  Prussian-blue ;  it  is  also  found  of 
a  bright  grass-green,  passing  into  apple- 
green,  greenish-white,  and  bluish-white. 

It  occurs  in  the  Muttrel  mine,  adjoining 
to  Huel  Gorland,accompanled  by  the  same 
substances  as  the  preceding  species. 

Var.  7.     Phosphat  of  copper. 

Its  colour  externally  is  greyish -black, 
internally  between  emerald  and  verdegrls- 
green. 

It  is  found  loose  in  the  bed  of  a  river  at 
Remolinos  in  Chili,  and  elsewhere,  though 
rarely,  in  Spanish  South  America. 

Reduction  of  the  Ores.  The  reduction 
of  copper  ores  in  the  large  way  is  on  the 
whole  a  very  simple  business,  being  little 
else  than  a  succession  of  roasting  and  re- 
ducing pi'ocesses  of  the  simplestkind,  till 
VOL.    I. 


the  metal  acquires  the  desired  degi-ee  of 
malleability  and  purity  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served, that  both  arsenic  and  sulphur  ad- 
here to  copper  with  gi-eat  obstinacy,  even 
long  after  it  has  assumed  the  appearance 
of  a  pure  regulus,  and  even  in  very  small 
propoition  they  make  the  metal  brittle, 
hard  and  difficult  to  work. 

There  are  scarcely  two  works  in  which 
precisely  the  same  oi'der  is  observed  in 
the  different  I'educing  processes  (suppos- 
ing the  quality  of  the  ore  to  be  the  same) 
and  as  the  manufacturer  is  generally  sa- 
tisfied  with  that  which  has  long  been 
established,  and  is  attended  with  ordinary 
success,  he  seldom  enquires  whether  the 
labour  may  be  shortened  or  the  expence 
diminished. 

The  sulphuret  of  copper  which  is  ob- 
tained in  such  vast  quantities  at  the  Parys 
mine  in  Anglesea,  is  wrought  into  rough 
copper  in  the  following  manner.  The  ore 
is  dug  up  in  large  pieces  (being  mostly 
obtained  by  blasting,)  and  is  first  broke 
into  smallish  lumps  by  the  hammer,  chief- 
ly by  women  and  children,  and  put  into 
a  kiln  from  wliich  proceeds  flues  that 
open  into  a  very  long  closQ  pent-house 
gallery  to  collect  the  sulphur.  The  kiln 
is  covered  close,  and  a  little  fire  is  appli- 
ed to  the  mass  of  ore  in  different  jilaces, 
whereby  the  whole  is  gradually  kindled. 
The  sulphur  then  rises  in  vapour  to  the 
top  of  the  kiln,  and  thence  through  the 
flue  into  the  long  gallery,  where  it  slowly 
condenses,  and  Is  afterwards  brushed  out 
and  further  prepai'ed  for  sale.  The  mass 
of  ore  when  once  kindled  continues  to 
burn  of  itself  with  a  smouldering  heat 
for  about  six  months,  during  wliich  time 
the  sulphur-chamber  is  cleared  out  four 
times,  after  which  the  ore  Is  sufficiently 
roasted.  The  old  sulphur-chambers  are 
on  a  level  with  the  kilns  and  of  the  same 
length  and  height,  or  in  fact  they  are  a 
prolongation  of  the  kilns  :  but  the  more 
modern  and  improved  chambers  are  like 
llme-kllns,  the  ore  being  at  the  bottom, 
and  the  sulphur  subliming  at  the  top,  with 
a  contrivance  to  take  out  the  roasted  ore, 
and  thus  to  keep  up  a  perpetual  fire. 

The  richest  part  of  the  roasted  ore  is 
exported  without  further  preparation,  but 
the  poorest  part  is  smelted  on  the  spot. 
It  still  contains  a  vast  quantity  of  sulphur 
and  other  impurities.  The  smelting  houses 
are  a  range  of  large  reverberatory  fiu'- 
naces,  thirty-one  of  which  are  under  the 
same  roof,  ranged  side  by  side,  in  a  single 
long  row.  They  are  all  air  furnaces,  the 
chimneys  of  which  are  41  feet  high,  which 
causes  a  most  powerful  dranght  tlirougli 
them.  The  fuel  is  coal,  which  is  bumed 
on  a  grate  atthe  anterior  part  of  the  fur. 
Gg 


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jiace,  and  the  flame  in  drawing  up  tlie 
chimney  passes  over  tlie  bed  of  tlie  re- 
verberatory,  into  which  is  put  12  cwt.  ot 
the  roasted  ore,  previously  mixed  with  a 
small  portion  of  coal  dust.  The  ore  is 
liere  melted  and  reduced  into  a  very  im- 
pure regulus,  and  wlien  sufficiently  fused, 
it  is  drawn  off  thi-ough  a  plug--hole  into 
cartlien  moulds.  A  sing'le  c barge  of  the 
furnace,  or  12  cwt.  yields  half  a  hundred 
of  rough  coj)[)cr,  whicli  by  further  purifi- 
cation affoi  ds  about  50  per  cent,  of  pure 
malleublc  metal.  The  furnaces  vvoik 
ofi"  a  single  charge  about  every  five 
Jjours. 

TJic  copper  furnaces  inCornwall  are  also 
of  the  reverbatory  kind.  The  ore  when 
drawn  up  from  tiie  mine  is  first  broken 
into  pieces  no  bigger  than  a  hazel-nut, 
which  operation  is  called  cobbing,  and  the 
Ijetter  sort  is  picked  out  by  hand.  The 
reduction  begins  by  the  process  of  roast- 
ing in  large  I'everberatory  furnaces  14 
feet  by  16,  the  bottom  or  bed  of  which  is 
)iiade  of  fire  bricks,  and  covered  to  the 
thickness  of  about  two  feet  with  silici- 
ous  santl,  wiiich  runs  together  by  the  heat 
into  a  scmi-vitrified  mass.  The  chimney 
is  from  40  to  50  feet  high,  which  causes 
s«ch  a  powerful  draught  that  the  arsenic 
and  sulpbur,  separated  during  the  roast- 
ing, pass  almost  entirely  tlu-ough  the 
chimney  into  the  open  air,  none  of  it  being 
collected  as  at  Anglesea.  The  ore  is 
spread  over  tlic  bottom  of  the  furnace, 
about  afoot  tliick,being  thrown  in  tlirougb 
a  kind  of  funnel  or  hopjjer  just  above. 
The  fuel  is  Welsh  coal ;  which,  as  usual, 
is  burnt  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  fur- 
nace, and  its  flame  draws  over  the  surface 
of  the  ore  in  its  passage  to  the  chimney. 
In  this  furnace,  which  is  called  tlie  cal- 
cining furnace,  and  is  the  largest  of  all, 
the  ore  is  roasted  without  addition  with 
a  dull  red  heat  for  12  hours,  and  is  fi-e- 
quently  in  tiat  time,  stirred  witli  a  long 
iron  rake,  introduced  through  a  hole  at 
the  further  end  of  the  reberveratory,  to 
expose  fresh  surfaces  to  the  action  of  the 
flame.  The  ore  is  not  melted  here,  but, 
■when  roasted  sufficiently,  it  is  carried  to 
another  furnace,  exactly  similar  to  the 
former,  but  smaller,  tliat  is,  about  9  feei 
\)y  6,  and  here  it  receives  a  fusing  heat, 
but  still  without  any  addition,  except  that 
when  the  slag  does  not  rise  freely,  a  little 
calcareous  sand  is  thrown  in.  At  tlie  end 
of  every  four  hours  the  slag  is  raked  out; 
it  is  then  of  the  consistence  of  soft  dougli, 
and  is  ladled  into  oljlo\ig  moulds,  and  a 
little  water  is  !<prinkled  uixm  it  to  make 
it  sink  down,  after  which  the  moulds  are 
quite  filled  with  it,  and  when  cold  it  makes 
iiard  solid  blocks  of  slag,  about  14  inches 


long,  and  12  deep  and  broad,  which  are 
used  for  building.  After  the  slag  is  raked 
oif,  a  fresh  charge  of  calcined  ore  is  let 
down  into  the  reverberatory,  and  the  cop- 
per is  tapped  ofi"  by  a  hole,  in  the  side  of 
the  furnace,  which,  before  the  fusion,  had 
been  stopped  up  with  a  shovel  full  of  wet 
clay,  mixed  with  about  a  fourth  of  new 
coal,  which  prevents  tlie  clay  from  hard- 
ening too  mucji,  so  that  the  whole  may 
readily  be  opened  by  an  iron  pick. 

The  rough  copper  as  it  nms  from  the 
furnace  is  conveyed  by^a  gutter  into  a 
large  kind  of  bucket  suspended  by  chains 
in  a  well,  througli  which  a  stream  of  wa- 
ter is  passing;  and  her-e,  in  falling  into  the 
water,  the  metal  is  granulated,  which 
takes  place  without  explosion  or  danger, 
and  it  is  then  drawn  out  by  raising  the 
bucket. 

The  copper  is  still  liowever  extremely 
impure,  though  apparently  in  the  metallic 
state,  being  grey  and  perfectly  brittle, 
and  still  mixed  with  arsenic  and  sul- 
phur, to  separate  which,  is  the  work  of 
several  subsequent  processes.  It  is  then 
remelted  and  granulated  twice  more  or 
oftener,  each  time,  throwing  up  a  slag  in 
the  furnace,  which  is  removed  before  the 
plug-hole  is  tapped ;  but  as  this  slag  con-  ■ 
tains  some  copper,  it  is  not  cast  into 
moulds  as  the  first,  but  worked  over  and 
over  again  with  the  fresh  charges  of  cal- 
cined ore.  The  number  of  fusions  and 
granulations  is  entirely  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  ore.  The  granulated  mass 
is  then  melted  and  cast  into  pigs,  which 
have  a  blistered  appearance  on  the  sur- 
face,and  are  broken  up  and  roasted  for  one 
or  two  days,  in  a  low  red  lieat,  and  agaiii 
melted  and  roasted  as  before  tor  several 
times  till  the  metal  is  considerably  purer, 
and  at  last  is  cast  in  oblong  iron  moulds 
about  14  inches  in  length,  when  it  is  re- 
moved to  the  Refining  Furnace.  Here  it 
is  again  melted  with  the  addition  of  a 
little  charcoal,  till  it  is  brought  to  a  suffi- 
cient purity  to  bear  the  hanmier,  and  is 
now  good  saleable  copper. 

It  is  observable,  that  in  the  former  pro- 
cess when  the  crude  and  brittle  metal  is 
cast, in  sand  in  the  form  of  hu'ge  pigs  or 
ingots,  the  best  part  of  the  copper  rises  to 
the  surface,  and  when  cold  may  be  knock- 
ed off  with  a  hammer,  forming  a  brittle 
ci'ust  about  three-(piartcrs  of  an  inch 
thick,  of  a  grey  colour  and  of  a  steel-like 
fi'acliirc. 

I'hus,  by  a  series  of  successive  calcina- 
tions and  fusions,  in  the  sim]>lest  manner       - 
possible,  the   common  copper  ores   are       \ 
freed  from  arsenic,  sulphur,  and   earthy 
matters,  and    gradually  brought  to  the 
state  of  mkUcable  copper.    Where  a  va- 


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riety  of  ores  from  different  places  and  of 
different  species  are  brought  to  the  Same 
smelting-house  (wliich  is  the  case  in  many 
of  the  houses  at  Swansea  and  different 
parts  of  the  Bristol  coast)  much  technical 
judgment  is  exercised  in  sorting  the  ores 
and  distributing  the  charges  for  the  fur- 
nace, in  such  a  manner  that  the  more  fu- 
^^ble  will  assist  the  reduction  of  the  re- 
j^B6ctor%',  and   the    poorer  will   be   made 
THpre  worth  working  by  the  addition  of 
«  portion   of  the   richer    ores,  and    the 
like. 

Before  the  copper  is  converted  into 
plates  or  bars,  the  pig  of  metal,  is  made 
red  hot,  when  it  is  closely  beaten  toge- 
ther under  the  hammer,  and  cut  into  pie- 
ces of  the  most  convenient  length,  for  the 
purpose  wanted,  by  shears  moved  by  a 
wheel.  Again,  those  pieces  are  conveyed 
to  the  furnace,  when  they  become  red-hot 
as  at  first.  One  of  the  pieces  is  carried, 
at  a  time,  to  the  flatting  mill ;  a  machine, 
not  much  uidike  the  I'olling  press,  of  a 
copper-plate  printer.  The  two  cylinders 
are  of  steel,  case-hardened  and  secured, 
within  a  frame  of  iron.  A  man  stands  on 
each  side,  and,  wiiile  the  two  c}'linders 
revolve,  each  in  a  contrary  direciion,  one 
of  them  lifts  up  the  piece  of  red  hot  cop- 
per with  a  pair  of  tongs,  and  thrusts  it  be- 
tween the  cylinders,  the  other  man  on  tlie 
opposite  side  securing  it  with  his  tongs, 
as  it  passes  through.  This  he  lifts  back 
again  over  the  upper  roller,  to  the  first 
man,  who,  by  the  assistancL  of  a  strong 
screw,  diminishes  the  distance  between 
the  two  cylinders,  in  order  to  widen  and 
compress  the  plate  still  more  ;  when  it  is 
conveyed  a  second  time  between  them. 
This  screw  is  tiu'ned  for  the  same  reason 
everj'  time  before  the  plate  passes  between 
the  cvlinders,  and  thus,  by  the  most  sim- 
ple process  imaginable,  the  plate  is  gra- 
duitlly  reduced  as  thin  and  broad  as  the 
workmen  desire. 

By  means  of  a  similar  machine,  the 
copper  is  wrought  into  bars  instead  of 
plates,  of  any  form  or  thickness,with  equal 
facility.  For  the  latter  purpose,  the 
smooth  surface  of  both  the  cylinders,  are 
alike  indented  with  eight,  ten,  or  more 
distinct  grooves,  all  which  differ  from 
each  other  in  width  and  deptli.  The  se- 
ries commences  with  the  largest  groove, 
encircling  one  end  of  the  cylinder ;  the 
next  in  point  of  size  succeeds,  and  thus 
they  diminish  gradually  to  the  other  ex- 
tremity of  the  series,  which  terminates 
with  the  smallest  groove.  The  piece  of 
copper  being  heated  as  before,  to  a  fiery 
redness,  the  workmen  force  it  between 
tlie  first  or  largest  groove  of  the  adjusted 
cvlinders,  where  it  receives    eitlier  the 


round  or  angulated  form  of  the  groove, 
fi-om  the  compression  of  both  the  cylin-. 
ders,  as  readily  as  wax  in  a  common 
mould.  Should  it  be  necessary,  the  bar 
is  conveved  in  like  manner,  progressively 
through  the  second,  third  or  fourth 
groove,  or  tiirough  the  whole  series,  till 
it  is  reduced  to  the  thickness  wanted,  the 
length  being  increased,  as  the  bulk  dimi- 
nishes. 

The  copper,  after  receiving  its  proper 
form  in  the  flatting  mills,  and  cooling,  is 
of  a  dusky  black,  or  iron  coloiu",  and  in 
order  to  communicate  to  it  that  lively 
liue  which  is  commonly  understood  to  be 
tlie  true  complexion  of  this  metal,  the 
plate  or  bar  is  heated  again  for  the  last 
time  in  a  furnace,  and  when  red  hot  is 
plunged  into  a  i-ecess  filled  with  a  saline 
liquor,  wliere  it  assumes  that  colour  in  a 
few  moments,  and  being  withdrawn,  the 
copper  is  put  aside  as  being  finished  for 
exportation 

The  subsequent  operations,  whereby 
the  ingots  or  pigs  of  malleable  copper  are 
formed  into  wire,  nails,  bolts,  and  an  infi- 
nite variety  of  maufactured  articles,  will 
be  treated  on  under  tlieir  respective 
heads.  It  may  be  necessai-y  to  observe, 
that  the  working  renders  the  metal  much 
more  uniform,  close,  and  ductile,  but  this 
requires  to  be  ti'cquently  alternated  with 
annealing  at  a  full  red  heat,  to  prevent 
the  metal  from  cracking  under  the  power- 
ful pressure  to  which  it  is  exposed. 

In  the  reduction  of  the  copper  ores  of 
Xeusol  in  Hungary,  lead  is  used  in  the 
refining  part  of  the  process,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  :  the  rough  copper  is  spread 
on  the  bed  of  a  furnace,  and  when  it  has 
been  six  hours  in  fusion,  some  lead,  in  the 
proportion  of  from  6  to  8  per  cent,  of  the 
coppej,  is  thro\vn  in,  which  immediately 
begins  to  vitrify  and  to  form  a  t.hick  sco- 
ria along  with  the  impurities  of  the  cop- 
per, which  is  scummed  oft'  successively 
till  the  whole  is  exhausted  ar.d  the  cop- 
per remains  fine  and  clear.  This  process 
lasts  from  10  to  12  hours,  with  50  quintals 
of  raw  copper.  The  scorix  retain  a  por- 
tion of  copper,  which  makes  it  answer  to 
work  them  again. 

The  power  which  the  vitrified  oxyd  of 
lead  has  to  scorify  all  metals,  except  gold, 
silver  and  platina,  is  amply  shewn  in  the 
process  of  .issaying,  and  hence  it  must 
hapnen  that  in  refining,  some  of  the  cop- 
per becomes  oxidated  together  with  the 
lead ;  but  the  same  process  of  assaying 
shews  that  copper  requires  a  large  por- 
tion of  lead  for  this  purpose,  and  there- 
fore the  latter  metal  in  so  small  a  propor- 
tion as  6  to  8  per  cent-  is  probably  a  most 
useful  addition  where  not   too  expensive. 


COP 


COP 


For  of  all  the  common  imperfect  metals, 
copper  is  that  which  scorifies  and  oxi- 
dates with  most  difficulty  when  in  fusion, 
and  therefore  tlie  same  method,  with  some 
little  variety,  may  be  practised  to  separate 
lead  and  tin  (for  example)  from  copper, 
as  any  or  all  of  tliese  metals  from  silver 
or  gold ;  care  being  taken  in  the  former 
case  not  to  carry  tlie  scorification  beyond 
vvliat  is  necessary  to  separate  the  more  ea- 
sily oxidable  metals  from  the  copper, 
which  tlien  remains  in  the  metallic  state. 
This  will  he  further  noticed  in  the  suc- 
ceeding article  of  Jllloys  of  Copper,  and 
the  puiification  of  bell-metal.  After  the 
greater  part  of  ti>e  lead  has  been  worked 
oft"  as  often  as  is  judged  necessary,  the  re- 
maining copper  must  be  kept  for  a  while 
longer  in  fusion,  to  throw  up  the  last  por- 
tions of  lead  that  may  adhere.  In  assay- 
ing gold  or  silver  the  total  expulsion  of 
the  lead  is  known  by  the  fine  metal  be- 
coming at  once  brilliant  on  the  surface, 
but  in  refining  copper  this  appeai'ance  can 
never  take  place,  as  the  copper  itself  al- 
ways forms  a  thin  oxyd  on  its  melted  sur- 
face ;  and  therefore,  to  judge  whether  it 
is  pure,  the  workman  dips  a  polished  iron 
i"od  in  the  melted  mass,  and  draws  out  a 
portion  of  copper  adliering  to  it;  which,  if 
pure,  immediately  falls  oft"  when  the  rod 
is  dipped  in  water.  The  colour  of  the 
scoria  is  also  another  test.  While  the 
copper  remains  impure  and  alloyed  with 
iron,  sidphur,  &c-  the  vitrified  ox}  d  on  the 
surface  is  black  or  of  a  dirty  brown,  but 
tiie  scoria  of  pure  copper  is  red,  and  also 
is  readily  separated  from  the  iron  when 
cold,  leaving  no  stain  behind. 

The  plates  of  fine  red  copper,  called 
Ronette  Copper  are  made  in  the  following 
way.  When  the  refined  copper  is  found, 
by  the  way  just  mentioned,  to  be  suffici- 
ently pure,  the  surface  of  the  melted  me- 
tal is  well  scummed  and  suffered  to  cool 
till  it  is  ready  to  fix;  at  which  time  a  work- 
man brushes  it  over  with  a  wet  broom, 
which  immediately  fixes  the  surface  and 
causes  a  thin  plate  to  separate  from  the 
still  fluid  metal  below.  Tiiis  plate  is 
taken  off"  and  thrown  into  water,  where  it 
lakes  a  high  red  colour,  and  the  same 
process  of  wetting  the  surface  is  repeated 
with  the  remaining  fluid  metal  succes- 
sively, till  tlie  whole  is  reduced  to  these 
ihin  irregular  plates. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  copper  is  ob- 
tained from  the  springs  of  native  sulphat 
of  copper  or  blue  vitriol,  which  are  found 
in  most  copper  mines  or  flow  from  hills 
containing  this  metal.  To  obtain  it,  the 
vitriol  water  is  pumped  up  into  large 
square  open  pits,  two  or  three  feet  deep, 
made  with  rammed  clay,  into  whioh  is 


thrown  a  quantity  of  refuse  iron  of  any 
kind,  a»d  suffered  to  remain  for  a  consi« 
iderable  time,  during  which  the  iron  is 
dissolved,  displacing,  by  superior  affinity, 
tlie  copper  which  is  precipitated  in  the 
form  of  a  brown  mud.  When  the  water 
is  thus  exhausted  of  its  copper,  the  pits 
are  raked  out,  and  the  oxyd  collected 
from  them  is  simply  dried  in  the  sun.  It 
is  then  fit  for  reduction  in  the  revcrbeMij^ 
tory  furnaces  in  the  usual  manner.  TllHr 
is  by  far  the  richest  material  employed^  • 
for,  though  containing  scire  clay  and  u'on 
mixed  with  the  copper,  it  yields  on  an 
average  full  50  per  cent,  of  pure  metal, 
and  therefore  it  is  seldom  smelted  by  it- 
self, but  mixed  with  the  pooler  ores, 
some  of  which  contain  no  more  than  5 
per  cent,  of  metal. 

Many  of  the  finest  copper  ores  contain  so 
much  silver  as  to  make  it  worth  while  to 
extract  this  last  metal  by  a  separate  ope- 
ration, which  will  be  described  under  the 
article  Silver.  In  all  the  different  roast- 
ings  and  reductions  necessary  to  bring 
the  copper  to  purity,  the  silver  remains 
united  with  it. 

Acetous  acid  acts  upon  copper,  when 
oxydated,  and  dissolves  it  with  ease  into 
a  fine  green  liquor,  readily  crystallizable. 
There  is  with  this,  as  with  many  of  the 
otlier  cupreous  salts,  a  distinct  state  of  sub- 
acid  and  of  saturated  salt.  Both  the  sub- 
acetite  and  the  acetite  of  copper  are 
the  products  of  a  manufacture,  cai-ri- 
ed  on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
South  of  France,  and  therefore  require  a 
fuller  description:  the  sub-acetite  being 
the  common  verdigris  of  the  shops,  and 
the  acetite,  being  the  crystallized,  or  dis- 
stilled  verdigris,  as  it  is  called. 

This  manufacture  in  its  present  some- 
what improved  state,  is  thus  described  by 
Chaptal,  as  carried  on  at  Montpellier. 

The  materials  for  this  manufacture  are, 
1st.  Any  refuse  matter  of  the  I'ipe  grape, 
the  stalks,  seeds,  &c.  but  more  particularly 
llie  marc  or  the  cake  that  remains  in  the 
wine-press  after  the  greater  part  of  the 
juice  has  been  extracted.  This,  when  fer- 
mented, produces  the  acid  requisite  to 
corrode  the  copper.  2d.  Plates  of  cop- 
per of  convenient  size  and  previously 
hammered  well  to  smooth  the  surface,  in 
order  that  the  corroded  portion  may  be 
conveniently  detached,  without  which 
preparation  too  much  of  the  copper  would 
peel  off  in  the  scales,  without  being  tho- 
roughly jienetrated  by  the  acid- 

The  marc  of  the  grape,  which  may  be 
ke[it  tor  a  good  wliile  by  being  close 
packed  in  casks,  is  first  fermented,  sim- 
ply by  being  laid  loosely  in  a  large  bar- 
rel, moistened  with  water  (or  better  w'lW). 


COP 


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wine)  and  set^a  warm  airy  place.  After 
awhile,  sometntfes  in  a  day,  at  other  times 
in  two  or  three  weeks,  it  heats,  swells, 
and  gives  a  strong  smell  of  vinegai-,  and 
when  the  fermentation  subsides  it  is  fit 
for  use.  The  richer  the  grape  juice  of 
course  the  better  is  the  mai'c,  and  the 
more  perfect  will  be  the  subsequent  fer- 
mentation, on  which  much  of  the  quahty 
of  the  verdigris  depends.  Hence  it  should 
not  be  too  closely  pressed,  or,  if  poor,  it 
should  be  moistened  with  a  little  ordinary 
wine.  To  determine  when  the  marc  is 
sufficiently  fermented,  a  small  copper 
plate  is  buried  in  it  for  twenty-four  hours, 
and  if  fit,  the  plate  will  come  out  covered 
uniformly  with  a  green  crust.  The  plates 
are  then  all  heated  scorching  hot  over  a 
pan  of  charcoal,  and  laid  regularly  in  ear- 
then pots  with  a  layer  of  the  fermented 
marc  at  bottom  and  at  top,  and  interposed 
between  each  plate.  The  pot  is  then 
loosely  stopped  with  straw,  and  the 
whole  left  at  rest  from  ten  to  twenty  days. 
These  earthen  pots  (the  same  in  which 
the  marc  is  fermented)  are  about  16 
inches  high,  and  14  in  diameter,  and  the 
mouth  12  inches.  Each  holds  about  30 
or  40  pounds  of  copper  plate,  with  the  re- 
quisite quantity  of  marc.  When  the 
plates  are  used  for  the  first  time,  they  are 
previously  prepared,  by  being  rubbed  with 
a  rag  dipped  in  a  solution  of  verdigris  in 
water,  and  suffered  to  dry.  Without  this 
the  first  produce  of  verdigris  is  apt  to  be 
black.  This  is  not  requu'ed  a  second  time. 

The  earthen  pots  are  emptied  when 
the  marc  begins  to  whiten,  and  if  the  pro- 
cess has  gone  on  well,  the  copper  plates 
are  found  covered  with  a  green  crust  in- 
terspersed with  distinct  sUky  green  cry- 
stals. They  ai-e  then  taken  out  (tlie 
marc  being  thrown  away)  and  set  on  end 
face  to  face  on  wooden  racks  in  a  cellar  : 
an^d  when  dry  they  are  dipped  in  water 
(formerly  in  wine)  and  again  set  to  dry, 
and  this  is  repeated  once  a  week  for  six 
or  eight  times,  which  makes  tliem  swell, 
and  in  eveiy  way  improves  and  enci-eases 
the  crop  of  verdigris,  which  is  finally 
scraped  off  with  a  knife  without  difficulty. 
Every  pot  yields  about  five  or  six  pounds 
of  rough  verdigiis,  and  the  plates,  after 
this  is  separated,  will  serve  again  repeat- 
edly till  they  are  corroded  quite  through. 

The  verdigris  is  sold  by  the  maker  in 
the  rough  stale,  and  is  further  prepared 
by  being  well  ground  in  wooden  mortars 
and  exposed  to  the  air  on  skins  till  suf- 
ficiently dry,  in  which  process  it  loses 
nearly  half  its  weight.  The  whole  of  the 
manufacture  of  the  rough  verdigris  is  a 
part  of  household  business  in  the  wine- 
farms  about  Montpellier,  and  is  generally 


done  by  the  women.  It  requires  little  at- 
tendance, and  no  other  capital  than  the 
expence  of  the  copper  plates  and  earthen 
jars. 

Verdigris  thus  prepared  may  be  con- 
sidered as  copper  osydated  by  the  action 
of  the  acetous  acid  of  the  fermented  ma- 
terials, united  with  water,  and  a  small 
portion  of  undecomposed  acetous  acid, 
together  with  pai-t  of  the  extractive  or 
mucilaginous  matter  of  the  marc.  In  this 
state  it  is  insoluble,  or  nearly  so,  in  wa- 
ter. The  colour  is  a  fine  green,  and  it  is 
used  more  largely  as  a  pigment  than  any 
other  cupreous  preparation. 

Verdigris  is  however  completely  solu- 
ble in  an  additional  portion  of  vinegar,  and 
the  result  is  tlie  perfect  acetite  of  copper, 
a  beautiful  crjstallizable  salt,  sold  at  a 
a  very  high  price  in  the  shops  under  the 
name  of  distilled  verdigris.  It  is  prepa- 
red from  common  verdigris  in  Holland 
and  France,  and  .Montpellier ;  the  process 
which  is  followed  at  the  latter  place  is 
very  simple,  and  is  thus  described  by  tlie 
same  accurate  observer.  Common  \-ine- 
gar  is  first  distilled  in  a  copper  alembic, 
which  seems  to  be  a  process  constantly 
going  on  in  the  small  way  in  most  of  the 
vintage  farms  in  the  neighbourhood. 
This  is  put  witli  common  verdigris  into  a 
copper  boiler,  and,  when  a  hot  saturated 
solution  is  made,  it  is  strained  and  let  oft' 
to  another  copper  evaporating  vessel, 
where  it  is  boiled  down  till  a  crust  ot' 
the  salt  appears  on  the  surface.  A  light 
frame  of  sticks  in  cross-bars  is  then  sunk 
in  the  liquor  and  the  fire  put  out.  On 
cooling,  the  acetite  of  copper  crusts 
around  the  sticks  in  most  beautiful  clus- 
ters of  rhomboidal  crystals  of  a  fine  deep 
blue-green  colour.  When  these  are  dried 
and  finely  powdered,  they  form  a  greeu 
pigment  of  great  beauty  and  value.  It 
requires  about  three  pounds  of  verdigris 
to  make  one  pound  of  the  crystallized 
acetite.  The  part  which  remains  undis- 
solved in  the  nnegar  consists  of  an  im- 
perfect oxjd  or  acetite, which  used  to  be 
throwTi  away,  but  as  Chaptal  has  ob- 
served, when  moistened  occasionally  with 
vinegar,  and  exposed  to  the  ah',  it  yields 
a  Iresh  quantity  of  verdigris,  and  is  then 
readily  soluble  in  vinegar. 

According  to  Chaptal,  two  kinds  of 
verdigris  are  particularly  distinguished  in 
France,  that  of  Montpellier,  and  that  of 
Grenoble.  The  latter  is  prepared  in  a 
different  manner  from  that  already  de- 
scribed, no  fermented  refuse  of  the  \'in- 
tage  being  here  used,  but  the  process  is 
chiefly  to  dispose  plates  of  copper  in  a  pro- 
per room,  and  to  moisten  them  repeat- 
edlv  with  distilled  vL'.eerar  till  the  surface 


COP 


COP 


is  sufficiently  oxydated  and  converted 
into  verdigris.  The  former  is  somewhat 
cheaper,  and  is  preferred  in  painting,  tiie 
latter  is  more  used  in  dyeing. 

The  uses  of  copper,  in  all  its  various 
states,  are  almost  endless,  and  only,  if  at 
all,  inferior  in  number  to  those  of  iron. 
Besides  the  variety  of  uses  for  which  cop- 
per and  its  alloys  are  employed  in  the  me- 
tallic state,  various  pigments  and  dyeing 
materials  are  obtained  from  its  salts,  and 
the  oxvd  is  used  to  give  an  emerald  green 
to  coloured  glasses  and  enamels.  See 
Colour-Making,  Dyeing  and  Glass. 

All  the  salts  of  copper  are  more  or  less 
poisonous,  producing  violent  nausea,  and 
the  severest  pain  and  inflammation  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  Yet  from  the  sudden 
vomiting  which  they  excite,  a  large  dose 
may  be  given  with  safety,  and  this  is  some- 
times used  when  it  is  necessary  imme- 
diately to  empty  the  stomach. 

COPPER,  Mloys  of. 

The  alloys  of  copper  (that  is,  those  In 
which  this  metal  predominates)  are  more 
numerous  and  more  important  in  the  arts, 
than  those  of  any  other  metal.  Many  of 
them  are  perfectly  well  known,  and  have 
been  in  use  from  very  ancient  times ;  of 
many  the  exact  composition,  and  particu- 
larly the  mode  of  jireparing,  are  kept  as 
secret  as  possible  ;  for,  even  when  tlie  pre- 
cise coniposltlon  of  an  alloy  is  foimd  by 
chemical  analysis,  it  may  often  be  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  produce  a  mixture  by 
common  methods,  which  shall  have  ex- 
actly llie  same  shade  of  colour,  the  same 
malleability,  texture,  susceptibility  of  po- 
lish, or  some  othei- excellence,  which, per- 
haps, a  mere  accident  has  discovered  to 
the  possessor.  Another  circumstance  of 
infinite  consequence  to  the  manufacturer, 
is  the  ordinary  state  of  piu'ity  of  the  mate- 
rials he  employs,  and  this  alone  will  ac- 
count f()r  the  great  superiority  of  one  ma- 
nufacture over  anothei' ;  thus,  the  Swe- 
dis!)  cojiper  is  commonly  purer  than  the 
Brilisi),  and  makes  more  malleable  alloys, 
the  English  tin  better  than  most  of  the  "fo- 
reign, and  the  like 

The  princi!)al  objects  of  alloying  copper, 
appc  ar  to  lie  to  render  it  less  liable  to 
tarnish,  and  especially  to  be  acted  on  by 
common  animal  or  vegetable  substances, 
(which,  when  it  is  used  for  culinary  purpo- 
ses, is  of  extreme  importance) :  to  make  it 
more  fusible,  and  harder,  and  able  to  take 
a  higher  polisii ;  and  to  alter  its  colour 
either  to  a  golden  yellow  or  a  silvery 
white.  All  these  objects  are  attainable  by 
tlifVerent  alloys. 

Copper  with  Gold,  Silver,  and  Platina. 

Tiiese  are  seldom  if- ever  used  in  the 


proportions  in  which  they  would  be  al- 
loys of  copper,  being  mucnii  too  costly  for 
any  purpose  of  manufiicture,  considering 
the  great  deterioration  of  the  more  valua- 
ble metals ;  with  this  exception,  however, 
tliat  a  very  small  portion  of  silver  much 
improves  the  composition  of  the  alloy  of 
copper  and  tin,  when  used  as  bell -metal, 
or  speculum-metal.  Copper  is  used  large- 
ly as  an  alloy  of  gold  and  silver,  and  it  is 
often  plated  with  one  or  the  other.  This 
subject  we  shall  refer  to  these  metals  re- 
spectively. 

Copper  ixiith  Arsenic. 

Arsenic  has,  beyond  any.  other  metal, 
the  effect  of  wliitening  copper,  but  as  it  is 
readily  evaporated  in  fumes  at  less  than  a 
red  heat,  and  therefore  at  a  temperature 
much  below  the  melting  point  of  copper, 
some  management  is  required  to  effect  a 
combination  of  the  two.  It  seems,  some 
put  the  arsenic  in  a  small  crucible,  in- 
vetting  it  over  the  smelted  copper  and  for- 
cing it  down  to  the  bottom,  holding  it 
there  till  all  the  arsenic  has  passed 
through.  .  By  repeating  this  several  times, 
the  copper  may  probably  be  more  fully  sa- 
turated with  arsenic,  observing  each  time 
to  give  no  more  heat  than  i  equisite. 

This  alloy  is  quite  white,  of  a  very  close 
texture,  but  perfectly  brittle. 

Vauquelin  has  observed,  >Hhat  when 
equal  parts  of  silver  and  coppcrare  alloy- 
ed (which  by  themselves  make  a  pale  yel- 
low mixtvu'e)  the  addition  of  so  little  as  2 
of  arsenic  to  100  of  the  alloy  gives  a  per- 
fect whiteness,  whilst  the  ductility  and 
malleability  remains.  Beyond  5  per  cent, 
of  arsenic  the  alloy  beghis  to  be  brittle, 
w'ithout  increasing  in  whiteness. 

Arsenic  is  used  in  small  cjuantity  in 
some  of  tlie  more  compotmd  white  alloys 
of  copper,  ])articularly  in  spesulum-metal. 

Copper  ivith  Iron. 

These  only  unite  when  the  iron  is  iu 
small  quantity.  'I'he  alloy  is  grey,  hard, 
and  somewhat  brittle. 

Tutenag  is  a  M'hite  alloy  of  copper,  zinc, 
and  iron,  according  to  Keir,  which  is  very 
iiard,  tough,  and  sufficiently  ductile  to  be 
wrought  into  vaiious  articles  of  furniture, 
sucli  as  candle-sticks,  &,c.  which  take  a 
high  polish,  and  when  made  of  tlie  better 
sort  of  tutenag  are  hardly  distinguishable 
from  silver.  The  inferior  kinds  are  still 
white,  but  with  a  brassy  yellow. 

Tlie  Chinese  Fetong  'is  another  fine, 
while,  malleable  alloy  of  coppei-,  the  com- 
position of  wliich  is  not  exactly  known, 
but  it  contains  a  small  portion  of  silver. 
Neither  of  the  above  metals  are  imitable 
by  the  common  processes. 

Copper  viith  V.ecirf. 


COP 


COP 


Copper  with  about  a  fourth  of  its  weight 
of  lead  forms  pot-metal.  The  ancient  llo- 
man  pot-metal,  according  to  PHny,  was 
composed  of  lOO  of  copper,  2  of  lead,  and 
2  of  tin.  The  same  ingredients,  but  with 
more  of  the  two  latter^  were  the  materials 
of  many  of  tlie  ancient  Greek  and  Sicilian 
coins. 

Copper  Hxith  Zinc. 

Copper  nearly  saturated  with  zinc,  that 
is,  in  which  the  latter  makes  about  a 
fourth  (more  or  less)  of  the  mixture, 
forms  brass,  the  most  important  of  all  the 
alloys  of  this  metal,  and  whieh  has  been 
described  under  that  article.  With  a  much 
less  proportion  of  zinc  the  colour  of  the 
alloy  approaches  very  nearly  to  that  of 
gold,  and  the  malleability  increases.  Mix- 
tures chiefly  of  these  two  metals  are  used 
to  form  a  variety  of  yellower  gold-colour- 
ed alloys,  known  by  the  names  of  Tombac, 
JManhcitn  or  Dutch  Gold,  Tinsel,  Similar, 
Prince  Rupert's  Metal,  Pinchbeck,  &,c.  but 
the  precise  composition  varies  according' 
to  the  fimcy  or  the  experience  of  different 
manufacturers.  The  Dutch  gold  may  be 
beaten  out  into  extremely  fine  leaves, 
which,  when  fresh,  have  nearly  the  bril- 
liancy of  gold-leaf,  and  are  used  as  a  cheap 
imitation  of  it,  but  they  tarnish  very  soon- 
The  mixture  may  be  made  either  by  di- 
rectly melting  copper  and  zinc,  or,  bj- 
,  mixing  brass  and  copper.  In  either  case, 
the  copper  should  be  melted  first,  and  the 
zinc  added  afterwards  ;  the  whole  stirred 
together  with  wood,  covering  it  with  a  lit- 
tle charcoal,  and  poured  out  immediately, 
to  prevent  the  loss,  by  the  burning  ofl'  of 
the  zinc. 

Several  dii'ect  experiments  on  the  union 
of  copper  and  zinc,  in  different  propor- 
tions, were  made  by  Margraaf  In  all, 
the  copper  was  the  purest  Japanese,  and 
the  mixture  was  made  in  the  way  above- 
mentioned.  With  8  drams  of  copper, 
and  as  much  zinc,  much  of  the  latter  una- 
voidably burnt  off,  and  the  alioy,  only 
weighed  12,  instead  of  16  drams — the 
mixture  was  haid,  brittle,  yellow,  and  of  a 
radiated  texture.  With  16  drums  of  cop- 
per, and  8  of  zinc ;  the  loss  by  burning, 
was  only  J^  of  a  dram.  The  alloy  was  soft- 
er  than  the  last,  still  radiated,  yellow,  and 
began  to  be  a  little  malleable.  From  this, 
successively  diminishing  the  proportions 
of  zinc,  the  alloy  became  softer,  more 
malleable,  and  of  a  colour,  more  and  more 
appi-oaching  to  gold  :  and  at  last,  with  1 1 
or  12  of  copper,  and  1  of  zinc,  the  finest 
golden  tombac  was  produced.  Accord- 
ing to  Wiegleb,  theManheim  gold  is  made 
by  melting  separately,  3  parts  of  copper, 
and  1  of  zinc,  mixmg  them,  covwing  with 
charcoal,  stirring  with  a  stick,  and  cool- 


ing immediately.  These  proportions 
scarcely  differ  from  those  of  some  kipds 
of  brass.  Beaume  gives  for  the  same  me- 
tal,  4  of  copper,  and  1  of  zinc,  whence  it 
is  obvious,  that  the  proportions  are  quite 
arbitrary ;  but  it  appears  that  the  alV»v  is 
not  made,  as  brass  i?,  hy  cementation,  but 
by  simple  mixture  of  t''e  metals.  A  %'ery 
small  qiwmtity  of  tin  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed ;  but  this  metal  has  the  disadvan- 
tage of  remarkably  diminishing  the  mal- 
leability of  copper  and  its  alloys.  A  fine 
malleable  tombac  is  made,  however,  with 
16  of  copper,  1  of  zinc,  and  1  of  tin.  An 
alloy  of  12  of  brass,  and  1  of  tin,  is 
scarcely  malleable. 

A  kind  of  tombac,  is  the  material,  of 
which  a  large  proportion  of  the  Roman 
coins  were  composed.  Klaproth,  on  ana- 
lyzing several,  struck  during  the  first  cen- 
tury of  the  emperors,  found  them  all  to 
consist  either  of  pure  copper,  or  of  cop- 
per and  zinc ;  in  which  t])c  latter  metal 
made  generally,  from  a  fifiii  to  a  sixth  of 
the  mass.  A  httle  tin  and  lead  were  found 
in  some,  but  in  such  small  proportion  as  to 
appear  only  an  accidental  impurity. 

Copper  with  Tin.  ' 

The  alloys  of  co])per  and  tisi,  are  ex- 
tremely important  in  the  arts,  and  ciu-ious 
as  chemical  mixtures.  They  form  in  dif- 
ferent proportions,  mixtures,  which  have 
a  distinct  and  appropriate  use  Tin  add- 
cd  to  copper,  makes  it  more  fusible,  much 
less  liable  to  rust  or  corrosion,  by  com- 
mon substances,  harder,  denser,  and  more; 
sonorous.  In  these  respects,  the  alloy  ha.'^. 
a  real  advantage  over  unmi.ved  copper; 
but  tliis  is,  in  many  cases,  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  the  extreme  bi-ittle- 
ness,  which  even  a  moderate  portion  of  tin 
imparts,  and  which  is  a  singular  circum- 
stance, considering  how  very  malleable 
both  metals  are  before  mixture,  and  the 
remarkable  softness  and  ductility  of  tin. 

The  sensible  qualities  of  the  differen*. 
mixtures,  are  the  following :— Copper  al- 
loyed with  from  1  to  about  5  per  cent-  of 
tin,  is  much  harder  than  before,  the  colour 
}ellow,  with  a  cast  of  red,  and  the  fracture 
granular.  It  is  still  con.siderably  mallea- 
ble. An  alloy,  in  which  the  tin  is  from 
one -tenth  to  one-eighth  of  the  whole,  is 
hard,  brittle,  but  still  a  little  malleable, 
ciose-grained,  and  yellow  ish-whiie. — 
Where  the  tin  is  as  much  as  one-fourth 
of  the  mass,  it  is  entirely  brittle,  and 
continues  so  in  every  higlier  proportion. 
The  yellowness  is  not  entirely  lost  till  the 
tin  is  above  seven  twenty-thirds  of  the 
whole. 

Copper,  or  sometimes  copper  with  a  lit- 
tle zinc,  alloyed  with  as  much  tin  as  will 
make  from  about  one-tenth  to  about  one- 


COP 


COT 


fifth  of  the  wliole,  forms  an  alloy  which  is 
tlie  principal,  and  often  the  only  composi- 
tion for  bells,  brass  cannon  (so  called) 
bronze  statues,  and  several  smaller  pur- 
poses ;  and  hence  it  is  called  Bronze,  or 
Bell-Metal,  (always  observing,  that  tliere 
is  no  perfect  unitiirniity  in  the  different  al- 
loys under  these  names,  either  in  the  pro- 
portion or  die  actual  number  of  ingredi- 
ents) and  it  is  excellently  fitted  for  these 
purposes,  by  its  hardness,  density,  sono- 
rousness, and  fusibility,  wliereby  the  mi- 
nute parts  of  iioUow  moulds  may  be  readi- 
ly filled,  before  it  fixes  in  cooling.  For 
cannon,  a  lower  portion  of  tin  seems  to  be 
used.  According  to  Dr.  Watson,  the  me- 
tal used  at  Woolwich,  is  100  parts  of  cop- 
per, and  8  to  12  of  tin.  Hence,  it  still  re- 
tains some  little  malleability,  and  of 
course,  is  tougher  than  with  more  tin. 
Bronze  cannon,  are  much  less  liable  to 
rust  than  those  of  iron  ;  but  in  large  ])ie- 
ces  of  ordnance,  by  very  rapid  firing,  the 
touch-hole  is  apt  to  melt  down,  and  spoil 
the  piece.  On  account  of  the  sonorous- 
ness of  bronze,  these  cannon  give  a  much 
sharper  report  than  those  of  iron,  which, 
for  a  time,  impairs  the  liearing  of  the  peo- 
ple that  work  them.  A  common  alloy  for 
bell-metal,  is  about  10  of  copper  to  20  of 
tin  ;  or,  where  copper,  brass,  and  tin  are 
used,  the  copper  is  from  70  to  80  per  cent, 
including  the  portion  contained  in  the 
brass,  and  the  remainder  is  tin,  and  zinc. 
The  zinc  certainly  makes  it  more  sono- 
rous. Antimony  is  also  often  found  in 
small  quantity  in  bell-metal.  Some  of  the 
finer  kinds,  used  for  small  articles  contain 
also  a  little  silver,  which  much  improves 
the  sound. 

When  the  tin  is  nearly  one-third  of  the 
alloy,  it  is  then  most  beautifully  wliite, 
with  a  lustre  almost  like  that  of  mercury, 
extremely  hard,  very  close-grained,  and 
perfectly  brittle.  In  this  state  it  takes  a 
most  beautiful  polish,  and  is  admirably 
fitted  for  the  reflexion  of  light,  for  all  op- 
tical purposes.  It  is  then  called  sfieculuin 
metal,  which  however,  for  the  extreme 
perfection  required  in  modern  astronomi- 
cal instruments,  is  better  mixed  with  a 
very  small  proportion  of  other  metals,  par- 
ticularly arsenic,  brass,  and  silver.  But, 
the  basis  of  these  compositions  is  coi)per, 
alloyed  with  nearly  half  its  weight  of  tin. 
The  use  of  this  alloy  for  the  same  purpose, 
is  of  great  antiquity,  and  certainly  was  in 
frequent  use  in  the  time  of  Pliny.  Klap- 
roth  analyzed  a  portion  of  an  ancient  spe- 
culum, and  found  it  to  consist  of  62  parts 
of  copper,  32  of  tin,  and  8  of  lead,  which 
last  was  probably  an  adulteration  of  the 
'  in,  and  not  added  designedly. 

When  more  tin  is  added)  the  allov  lo- 


ses its  splendid  whiteness,  for  which  it  Is 
so  valuable  as  a  mirror,  and  becomes 
more  of  a  blue-grey. 

The  speculum  metal  is,  tlierefore,  in 
the  highest  proportion  of  alloy  of  tin,  that 
copper  will  admit  for  any  tiseful  purpose. 
An  alloy,  containing  6  of  copper,  2  of  tin, 
and  1  of  arsenic,  is  nearly  the  proportion 
of  Sir  I.  Newton's  specula,  which  is  very 
good,  but  polishes  somewhat  yellow.  See 
Brass. 

COPPERAS,  a  name  given  to  green  vi- 
triol,  or  sulphatof  iron.  It  is  purified  and 
prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  alum  and 
saltpetre,  being  passed  through  several 
lixivia  till  it  is  wholly  reduced  to  crystal. 
It  is  used  in  dyeing  wool  and  hats  black, 
in  making  ink,  tanning  leather,  and  in 
preparing  a  kind  of  Spanish  brown,  or 
colcothar,  for  painters. 

A  patent  was  granted  in  May,  1791>  to 
Mr.  William  Murdock,  of  Redruth,  Corn- 
wall, for  a  method  of  making  (from  the 
same  materials,  and  from  processes  en- 
tirely new)  copperas,  vitriol,  and  differ- 
ent sorts  of  dye,  or  dyeing  stuff,  paints, 
and  colours. 

The  patentee  directs  any  quantity  of 
what  remains  after  tlie  calcination  of  mun- 
dic,  or  such  other  ores  as  contain  sul- 
phur, arsenic,  and  iron,  to  be  washed 
in  water;  which  is  to  be  placed  on  the 
top,  or  on  any  other  part  of  the  kiln, 
house,  or  oven,  while  the  mundic  or 
other  ores  are  burning ;  the  heat  of  which 
will  cause  the  water  to  evaporate  ;  or  the 
water  may  be  evaporated  to  a  crystallizing 
point,  by  exposing  it  to  the  heat  of  the 
sun  ;  after  wliich  it  should  be  suffered  to 
stand  for  24  hours,  or  longer,  wheji  crys- 
tals of  copperas,  or  green  vitriol,  will  be 
produced.  From  this  process  arises  a 
considerable  saving ;  as  the  ores  remain- 
ing after  fusion  may  be  applied  to  various 
chemical  purposes.    See  Ieon. 

CORN.     See  Agriculture. 

COTTOX  is  a  soft,  downy  substance, 
found  on  the  gossypium  or  cotton  plant, 
which  is  of  tlie  shrubby  kind  ;  and  when 
full  grown,  resembles  the  raspberry 
shrub. 

There  are  different  species  of  gossy- 
pium, all  the  natives  of  warmer  climates. 
1.  The  common  herbaceous  cotton,  which 
creeps  along  the  ground,  lias  yellow  flow- 
ers, succeeded  by  large  oval  i)ods,  fur- 
nished with  seeds  and  cotton.  2.  The 
hairy  American  cotton,  has  hairy  stalks, 
two  or  three  feet  high.  3,  The  Bai-ba- 
does  shrubby  cotton,  has  a  shrubby  stalk, 
branching  four  or  five  feet  high.  4.  The 
tree  cotton,  has  an  upright  woody  stalk, 
brandling* six  or  eight  feet  high.  The 
flowers  and  pods  of  the  thi'ee  latter  spe- 


COT 


CUT 


cies  are  like  those  of  t!ie  first.  The  three  |  ledonss  of  the  comnion  bean,  and  as  soon 
species  first  enuriieraied  are  annual;  but  as  they  appear  above  ground, the  weakest 
the  fourtli  is  pereimiai,  both  in  stalk  and  are  pulled  up,  and  none  left  but  tliose 
root;  and  the  common  herbaceous  cotton  j  which  are  strong  and  vigorous.  In  the 
is  the  plant  most  generally  cultivated.  j  months  of  June  and  July,  great  cave  is 
The  cottoii  shrub  is  propagated  by  the  j  taken  to  hoe  the  eartli  gently  around  them, 
seed,  which  is  sown  in  regular  iines,  i  and  the  crop  is  collected  in  the  montJis  of 
about  five  feet  asunder,  at  the  1  itter  end  j  October  and  November.  As  some  little 
of  September,  or  beginning  of  October;  'time  is  requisite  before  the  seed  can  be 


and  at  first  but  slightly  covered,  but  af- 
ter it  springs  up,  and  becomes  a  plant,  the 
root  is  wed  moulded,  and  the  ground 
hoed  frequently.  When  the  pods  are 
come  to  maturity  they  burst  o|)en  and 
disclose  their  seeds,  iiueimixed  widi  the 
flock  or  wool.  When  grea..  part,  ot  the 
pods  are  thus  expanded  the  crop  begins. 
The  wool  is  picked,  and  afitrwards  clear- 
ed from  the  seeds  by  a  convenient  ma- 
chine, of  very  simple  contrivance,  called  a 
gin,  composed  of  two  or  ti.ree  wooden 
rollers,  ranged  horizontally,  close  and  pa- 
rallel to  eacii  other,  in  a  frame;  at  each 
extremity  they  are  toothed,  or  clianiielled 
longitudinally,  corresponding  0:16  witli  the 
other;  and  the  centriil  roller  being  moved 
witli  a  treadle,  m;Jies  the  other  two  re- 
volve in  a  contrary  direction.  The  cotton 
is  laid,  11  small  quantities  at  a  time,  upon 
these  rollers,  whilst  they  are  in  n).;tion, 
and  readily  passing  between  them,  diops 
into  a  s;xk,  placed  underneath  to  receive 
it,  leaving  tlie  seeds  behind,  which  are 
too  lai'ge  to  pass  with  it.  The  wool  thus 
discharged  from  the  seeds,  comes  after- 
wards to  be  handpicked,  and  cleansed 
thoroughly  from  any  Little  particles  of  the 
pods,  or  other  substances  whicii  may  be 
adiiering  to  it.  It  is  then  stovrtd  in  large 
bags,  where  it  is  well  trod  by  a  negi-o 
whilst  it  is  thrown  in,  that  it  may  Ue  close 
and  compact;  and  the  better  to  answer 
this  purpose,  some  water  is  every  now 
and  then  sprinkled  upon  the  outside  of  the 
bag 

1  he  fiioest  sort  of  cotton  comes  fi-om 
the  island  of  Bourbon;  then  follow  the 
growths  of  the  Brazils,  Berbice,  Surri- 
nam,  Tobago,  Garohna,  Georgia,  Sec.  diat 
of  Surat  in  the  East  Indies,  is  the  most  in- 
ferior kind. 

The  Cyprus  cotton,  on  account  of  its 
whiteness,  softness,  and  the  length  of  its 
filaments,  is  accounted  the  best  of  the  Le- 
vant cotton. 

The  season  for  sowing  the  cotton  plant 
in  the  Southern  States,  is  the  month  of 
April,  or  earlier.     The  ground  for  that 


fi-eed  from  its  cover  or  husk,  the  first  ex- 
porlation  does  not  take  place  till  Feb- 
ruary or  March,  the  year  following. 
See  SpixNiN'G  See  also  Bleach- 
ing. 

CREAM,  the  most  oily  part  of  milk:  it 
is  speclficalh  lightei'  than  the  other  con- 
stituent parts,  collects  aid  floats  on  the 
surface,  whence  h  is  gent; rally  skimmed, in 
order  to  separate  effectually  the  caseous 
and  serous  parts  employed  for  the  mak- 
ing of  But  I  ER  and  Cheese,  to  which 
we  refer. 

Cream  is  an  agreeable  and  verv  nou- 
rishing article  of  food,  when  fresh ;  bi.*  too 
fat  and  difficult  to  be  digested  by  persons 
of  a  sedentary  hfe,  or  possessed  of  a  weak 
stomach;  It  is  nevertheless  of  considera- 
ble service  in  medicine,  as  h  lenient 
(ti-.'jugh  palliative)  application  to  tetters 
and  erysipelas,  which  are  attended  with 
pain,  and  proceed  from  acrid  humours. 

A  JMethod  of  Preserving  Cream.- — Take 
12  ounces  of  white  sugar,  and  dissolve 
them  in  the  smallest  possil)le  quanuty  of 
water,  ove:-  a  moderate  fire  After  the 
soluti-ni  has  taken  place,  tlie  sugar  ought 
to  be  boiled  for  about  two  minutes  in  an 
eartlun  vessel;  when  12  ounces  of  new 
cream  should  be  immediately  added,  and 
the  whole  uniformly  mixed,  while  hot. 
Let  it  then  gradually  cool,  and  pour  it  into 
a  bottle,  which  must  be  carefulh'  corked. 
If  kept  m  a  cool  place,  and  not  exposed  to 
the  air,  it  may  be  preserved  in  a  sweet 
state  for  several  weeks,  and  even 
months. 

CRUCIBLE.     See  Pottery. 

CUTLERY  As  the  cutler's  art  can 
only  be  acquired  by  practice,  a  minute 
theoretical  treatise  on  this  subject,  be- 
comes unnecessary.  Bu'  as  the  temper- 
ing and  setting  of  edge  tool  instruments 
consdtutes  the  great  desideratum  of  the 
art,  (which  however  are  seldom  attended 
to,  farther  than  appearance  favours  the 
disposal  of  the  article,)  we  shall  for  the 
information  of  tl)Ose*who  are  desirous  of 
chrections,   uisert   an  abridgement  of  an 


purpose  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  excellent  paper,  by  Mr.  Nicholson,  w 
as  that  of  corn  fields.  Furrows  being 
formed  in  the  earth,  the  seeds  are  put 
into  them  in  the  same  manner  as  French 
beans.  Ihe  young  plants  come  up  with 
two  yawning  lobes,  exactly  like  the  coty- 
VOI..    1, 


ho 
received  has  information  from  Mr.  Slod- 
dai-t,  a  celebrated  workman  of  the  Strand, 
London. 

"  Cut  steel  is  used  for  all  works  which 
do  not  require  welding,and  particularly  for 
H  h 


CUT 


CUT 


fine  cutlery.  Huntsman's  steel  is  used,  but 
it  is  inferior  to  that  formerly  sold  under 
tliat  name.  The  best  rule  is  to  liarden 
as  little  as  possible  above  the  state  intend- 
ed to  be  produced  by  tempering.  Work 
overheated,  has  a  crumbly  edjje,  and  will 
not  afford  the  wire,  hereafter  to  be  de- 
scribed. The  proper  heat  is  a  cherry  red, 
visible  by  day  liglit.  No  advantage  is 
obtained  from  the  use  of  salt  in  the  water; 
or  cooling  that  fluid,  or  fi'om  using  mercu- 
ry instead  of  water;  but  it  may  be  remarked 
that  questions  respecting  the  fluid,  are, 
properly  speaking,  applicable  only  to  files, 
gravers,  and  such  tools  as  are  intended  to 
tbe  left  at  the  extreme  of  hardness  Yet, 
though,  Mr.  Stoddart,  did  not  seem  to  at- 
tachmuch  value  to  pecuUarities,in  the  pro- 
cess of  hardening,  he  mentioned  it  as  the 
observation  and  practice  of  one  of  his 
workmen,  that  the  charcoal  fire  should  be 
made  up  with  shavings  of  leather:  and 
upon  being  asked  what  good  he  supposed 
the  leather  could  do,  this  workman  re- 
plied, that  he  could  take  upon  himself  to 
say,  that  he  never  had  a  razor  crack  in 
the  hardening  since  he  had  used  this  me- 
thod, though  it  was  a  very  common  acci- 
dent before. 

To  heat  thicker  parts  before  the  slight- 
er arc  burned  away,  plunge  the  piece  in- 
to pure  lead,  containing  little  or  no  tin, 
ignited  to  a  moderate  redness,  for  a  few 
seconds,  that  is  to  say,  until  when  brought 
near  the  surface,  that  part  does  not  ap- 
pear less  luminous  than  the  rest.  The 
piece  is  then  stii'red  about  in  the  bath, 
suddenly  drawn  out,  and  plunged  into  a 
large  mass  of  water.  In  this  manner  a 
plate  of  steel  may  be  hardened,  so  as  to 
be  perfectly  brittle,  and  yet  continue  so 
sound,  as  to  ring  like  a  bell. 

The  letting  down,  or  tempering  of  hard 
ptcel,  is  considered  as  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  a  fine  and  du- 
rable edge.  It  has  been  usual  to  do  this 
by  heating  the  hardened  steel,  till  its 
bright  surface  exhibits  some  known  co- 
lour by  oxidation.  'l"he  first  is  a  very 
faint  straw  colour,  bccomhig  deeper 
und  deeper,  by  increase  of  heat,  to  a  fine 
deep  golden  yellow,  which  cliauges  irre- 
gularly to  puri)lc,  tlien  to  an  uniform  bine, 
succeeded  by  white,  and  several  I'aiut  re- 
petitions of  those  series.  It  is  well  known, 
that  the  hardest  state  of  tempered  instru- 
ments, is  iiidi'^atedlby  this  straw  colour, 
that  a  deeper  colour  is  required  for  lea- 
ther cutters'  knives,  and  other  tools  that 
reqviire  the  edge  to  be  turned  on  one  side; 
that  the  blue  vvliich  indicates  a  good  tem- 
per for  springs,  is  almost  too  soft  for  any 
cutting  instrument  except  saws,  and  such 
tools  as  arc  sharpened  with  a  file,  and  that 


the  lower  states  of  hardness,  are  not  at  all 
adapted  to  this  use.  But  it  is  of  consider- 
able importance,  that  the  letting  down  or 
tempering,  as  well  as  hardening,  should 
be  effected  by  heat  equally  applied,  and 
that  the  temperature,  especially  at  the 
lower  heats,  where  greater  hardness  is  to 
be  left,  should  be  more  precisely  :i!*cer- 
tained,  than  can  be  done,  by  the  difl'erent 
states  of  oxidation.  Mr.  Hartley  first  prac- 
tised the  metliod  of  immersing  hard  .steel 
in  heated  oil,  or,  the  fusible  compovmd  of 
lead  five  parts,  tin  three,  and  bismuth 
eight ;  oil  is  preferable  to  the  fusible  mix- 
ture for  several  reasons.  .  Mr-  Nicholson 
gives  an  account  of  the  temperatures  at 
which  the  colours  make  their  appearance 
upon  hardened  steel,  while  floatnig  in  the  / 
fusible  mixture. 

The  cutting  instrument  being  forged, 
hardened,  and  let  down  or  tempered,  it  • 
is  ground  upon  a  grindstone,  of  a  fine 
close  grit,  called  a  Bilson  grindstone,  and 
sold  at  the  tool  shops  of  l^ondon  at  a  mo- 
derate price.  The  cutlers  use  water;  the 
face  of  the  work  is  rendered  finer  by  sub- 
sequent grinding-  upon  mahogany  cylin- 
ders, witit  emery  of  different  fineness,  or 
upon  cylinders  faced  with  hard  pewter, 
called  laps,  which  are  preferable  to  those 
with  a  wooden  face.  The  last  polish  is 
given  upon  a  cylinder,  faced  with  buff  lea- 
ther, to  which  crocvis,  or  the  red  oxide  of 
iron  is  applied  with  water.  This  last  ope- 
ration is  attended  with  considerable  dan- 
ger of  heating  the  work,  and  almost  in- 
stantly reducing  its  temper  along  the  thii} 
edge,  which  at  the  same  time  acquires 
the  colours  of  oxidation. 

The  setting  now  remains  to  be  perform- 
ed, which  is  a  work  of  mud'  delicacy  and 
skill ;  the  tool  is  first  whetted  upon  a  lione 
with  oil,  by  rubbing  it  backwards  and 
forwards.  In  all  the  processes  of  grind- 
ing or  wearing  down  the  edge,  but  more 
especially  in  the  setting,  the  artist  ap- 
pears to  prefer  that  stroke  which  leads  the 
edge  according  to  the  action  of  cutting, 
instead  of  making  the  back  run  first  along 
the  stone.  This  proceeding  is  very  judi- 
cious ;  for  if  there  be  any  lump  or  parti- 
cle of  stone,  or  other  substance  lying  up- 
on the  face  of  the  grinder,  and  the  back  of 
the  tool  be  first  run  over  it,  it  will  pro- 
ceed beneath  tiie  edge,  and  lift  it  up,  at 
the  sarnc  time  producing  a  notch.  But 
on  the  other  hand,  if  the  edge  be  made  to 
move  foremost,  and  meet  such  a  particle, 
it  will  slide  beneath  it,  and  sufler  no  in- 
jury. Another  condition  in  wliilting  is, 
lliat  the  hand  should  not  bear  heavy ;  be- 
cause it  is  evident,  that  tiic  same  stone, 
must  produce  a  more  uniform  edge  if  the 
steel  be  worn  away  by  many,  tluui   by 


CUT 


CYD 


few  strokes.  It  is  also  of  essential  impor- 
tance,  tliat  the  hone  itself' should  be  of  a 
fine  texture,  or  that  its  siliceous  particles 
should  be  very  minute.  Mr.  Stoddait  in. 
forms  me,  that  there  are  no  certain  crite- 
ria by  which  an  excellent  hone  can  be  dis- 
tin<»uislied,  from  on«  of  ordinary  value, 
excepting  those  derived  from  the  actual 
use  of  both :  that  the  Turkey  stone  cuts 
fast,  but  is  never  found  witli  a  very  fine 
grit :  that  the  yellow  hone  is  most  gene- 
rally useful,  and  that  any  stone  of  this 
kind  requires  to  be  soaked  in  oil,  and 
kept  wet  with,  that  fluid,  or  otherwise  its 
effect  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  a  coai-ser 
stone  under  the  better  treatment :  and 
lastly,  that  there  is  a  green  hone  found  in 
the  old  pavement  of  the  streets  of  London, 
■which  is  the  best  material  yet  inovjn  for 
finishing  a  fine  edge. 

The  grindstone  leaves  a  ragged  edge, 
which  it  is  the  first  effect  of  whetting  to 
reduce  so  thin,  that  it  may  be  bended 
backwards  and  forwards.  This  flexible 
part  is  called  the  wire,  and  if  the  whet- 
ting were  to  be  continued  too  long,it  would 
break  off"  in  pieces  without  regularity, 
leaving  a  finer,  though,  still  very  imper- 
fect edge,  and  tending  to  produce  acci- 
dents, while  laying  on  the  face  of  the 
stone.  The  wire  is  taken  off  by  raising 
tlie  face  of  the  knife,  to  an  angle  of  about 
50  degrees,  with  the  surface  of  the  stone. 
These  strokes  produce  an  edge,  the  faces 
of  which  are  incUned  to  each  otlier,  in  an 
.angle  of  about  100  degrees,  and  to  which 
the  wire  is  so  slightly  adherent,  that  it 
may  often  be  taken  away  entire,  and  is 
easily  removed,  by  lightly  di-awing  the 
edge  along  the  finger  nail.  The  edge 
thus  cleared,  is  generally  very  even  ;  but 
it  is  too  thick,  and  must  again  be  reduced 
by  whetting.  A  fine  wire  is  h\  this  means 
produced,  which  will  require  to  be  again 
taken  off",  if  for  want  of  judgment,  or  of  de- 
licacy of  hand,  the  artist  should  have  car- 
ried it  too  far.  But  we  will  suppose  the 
obtuse  edge  to  be  very  even,  and  the  se- 
cond w'u'e  to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  In 
this  case  the  last  edge  will  be  very  acute, 
but  neither  so  even  nor  so  strong,  as  to 
be  durably  useful. 

The  finish  is  given  by  two  or  more  al- 
ternate light  strokes,  with  tlie  edge  slant- 
ing foremost,  and  the  blade  of  the  knife 
raised,  so  that  its  plane  forms  an  angle  of 
about  28  degrees  with  the  face  of  the 
stone.  This  is  the  angle  which  by  care- 
ful observation  and  measurement,  I  find 
Mr.  Stoddart  habitually  uses  for  the  finest 
surgeons'  instruments,  and  which  he  con- 
siders as  the  best  for  razors,  and  other 
keen  cutting  tools.  The  angle  ofthe  edge, 
is  therefore  about  56  degrees. 


The  excellence  and  uniformity  of  a  fine 
edge  may  be  ascertained,  by  its  mode  of 
operation  when  lightly  drawn  along  the 
surface  of  the  skin,  or  leather,  or  any  or- 
ganized soft  substance.  Lancets  are 
U-ied  by  suffering  the  point  to  drop  gently 
through  a  piece  of  thin  soft  leather.  If 
the  edge  be  exquisite,  it  will  not  only  pass 
\Wth  facility,  but  there  wlU  not  be  the 
least  noise  produced,  any  more,  than  if  it 
had  dropped  in  water.  This  kind  of  edge 
cannot  be  produced,  but  by  performing 
tlie  last  two  or  more  strokes  on  the  green 
hone. 

The  operation  of  strapping  is  similar 
to  tliat  of  grinding  or  whetting,  and  is 
performed  by  means  of  the  angular  parti- 
cles of  fine  crocus,  or  other  material,  bed- 
ded in  the  face  ofthe  strap.  It  requires 
less  skill  than  the  operation  of  setting,  and 
is  very  apt,  from  the  elasticity  ofthe  strap, 
to  enlarge  the  angle  of  the  edge,  or  round  ^ 
it  too  much."  (|| 

CYDER,  or  Cider,  a  sharp,  cool,  and 
vinous  beverage,  made  by  fermenting  the 
juice  of  apples.  Some  connoisseurs  in 
this  liquor  are  of  opuiion,  that  the  juice 
ofthe  more  delicate  table-fruit  is  gene- 
rally more  cordial  and  pleasant  than  that 
of  the  wild  or  harsh  kinds  ;  though  others 
assert  the  latter  to  be  in  many  respects 
preferable. 

The  apples  should  remain  on  the  tree 
till  the\'  are  thoroughly  ripe,  when  they 
ought  to  be  gathered  with  the  hand  in  dry 
weather,  that  they  may  be  protected  both 
fix)ra  bruises  and  fi-om  moisture.  They 
ai'e  then  to  be  sorted,  according  to  their 
various  degrees  of  maturity,  and  laid  in 
separate  heaps,  in  order  to  sweat ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which  they  greatly  improve. 
This  practice,  however,  appears  to  be 
useful  only  for  such  fruit  as  is  not  per- 
fectly ripe,  though  some  recommend  it  as 
being  proper  for  all  apples.  The  duration 
of  the  time  of  sweating  may  be  determined  ' 
by  the  flavour  of  the  fruit,  as  different 
kinds  requu-e  various  lengths  of  time  ; 
namely,  from  eight  or  ten  days  to  six 
weeks.  The  harsher  and moie  crude  the 
apples  are,  the  longer  it  is  necessary  that 
they  should  remain  in  a  sweating  state, 
and  not  only  be  well  dried,  but  the  rotten 
parts  carefully  pared,  before  they  are  ex- 
posed. 

The  utility  of  the  sweating  practice  is 
acknowledged  in  all  the  cyder  countries/ 
though  various  metliods  have  been  adopts 
ed  in  following  it ;  as  the  apples  are  piled 
either  in  the  open  air,  or  under  cover  in 
houses.  In  the  South-hams,  a  middle  way 
has  been  adopted,  to  avoid  the  fermenta- 
tion occasioned  by  pllijig  them  up  in 
rooms,  and  which  we  recornmend  as  tke 


CYD 


CYD 


best  and  most  rational.  Heaps  of  tVuit 
arc  raised  in  an  open  part  of  tlie  orchaid, 
where  by  means  ot  a  free  air  undies:-.  Iteui., 
the  desired  maturity  is  (gradually  eHecled 
with  an  inconsiderable  waste  of  the  juice 
and  decay  of  the  fruit,  which  thus  be- 
comes almost  tt>tatly  divesledof  rancidity. 
And  liioug-li  a  few  :.j)j)ies  will  rot  even  in 
this  manner,  vhey  are  still  fit  for  use :  all 
of  them  continue  iilun.p  a'ld  full  of  juice, 
and  heighten  in  a  considerable  degree  the 
colour  of  the  liquor,  without  imparting  to 
it  any  disagreeable  smell  or  taste.  i 

The  fruit  is  tiicn  to  be  ground  till  the 
rind  and  kernels  are  well  bruised;  a  pro- 
cess which  will  considerably  improve  the 
flavour  and  strength  of  the  liquor  :  when 
it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  a  day  or 
two,  m  a  large  open  vessel.  It  is  next 
pressed  between  several  hair-cloths,  and 
the  liquor  received  in  a  vat,  whence  it  is 
removed  into  casks,  which  ought  to  be 
placed  in  a  cool  situation,  or  in  the  free 
air,  with  their  bung-liolcsopen.  These 
casks  are  to  be  sedulous!}  watched,  till 
the  cyder  drops  Jint,  when  it  is  to  be  im- 
mediately racked  off  ti'om  the  lees  into 
other  vessels.  I  he  first  racking  is  a  most 
important  operation ;  as  cyder,  which  is 
suftcMcdto  become  foul  again,  by  missing 
the  first  opportunity  of  racking  it  wlien 
fine,  will  never  become  what  is  c;lled  a 
prhne  liquor.  After  the  clear  part  has 
been  i-acked  off,  a  quantity  of  lees  or 
di-egs  remains,  which,  when  filiered 
through  coarse  linen  bags,yields  a  bright 
strong,  but  extremely  fiat  liquid  :  if  this 
be  added  to  tlie  former  portion,  it  will 
greatly  contribute  to  pi-c  vent  fermentation, 
an  excess  of  which  will  make  the  cyder 
thin  and  acid.  To  avoid  such  an  acci- 
dent, the  casks  should  neither  be  entirely 
filled,  nor  stopped  down  too  close ;  and, 
if  the  whole  incline  to  ferment,  it  ought 
again  to  be  racked.  This  latter  operation, 
howevet,  should  on  no  account  he  re- 
peated, unless  from  absolute  necessity  ;  as 
every  ruci-ing  diminishes  its  strength. 

When  there  arc  no  signs  of  any  farther 
fermentation,  the  casks  should  be  filled  up 
with  cyder  of  tlic  best  quality,  and  the 
bung-hole  firmly  closed  with  resin. 

Some  farmers,  however,  instead  of 
racking,  _/?««  it  with  isinglass,  steeped 
in  white-wine,  dissolved  over  the  fire, 
ajid  then  boiled  in  a  quaiaity  of  the  li- 
quor intended  to  be  lined:  in  this 
state,  it  is  added  to  that  in  the  cask. 
Others,  instead  of  dissohing  the  Isinglass 
over  the  fire,  digest  it  in  white  wine  for 
the  space  of  four  or  five  weeks,  during 
which  time  it  acquires  the  consistency  of 
u  jelly ;  a  quantity  of  this  being  beaten 


up  with  some  of  the  liquor,  the  whole  is 
worked  into  a  froth,  and  mingled  with  the 
I  est,  As  soon  as  the  cyder  becomes 
clear,  it  is  drawn,  or  bottle  J  off,  as  occa- 
sion may  reqiure. 

Those  who  are  anxbus  to  prepare  good 
cyder,  ought  diligently  to  watch  every 
change  of  the  weather,  however  slight; 
as  the  least  neglect,  at  such  times,  is  of- 
ten detrimental  to  many  hogsheads.  In 
summer,  the  danger  is  much  greater  than 
in  winter.  There  is,  however,  scarcely 
any  distemper  incident  to  this  liquor, 
which  may  not,  by  a  tmielj  application, 
be  easily  remedied  If  it  become  some- 
what tart,  about  half  a  peck  of  good 
wheat,  boiled  and  hulled  in  a  manner  si- 
milar to  rice,  may  be  put  into  each  hogs- 
head, which  will  effectually  restoie  it; 
and  also  coniiibute  to  preserve  it,  when 
drawn  out  of  one  cask  into  another. 
Such  a  remedy  is  doubtless  far  preferable 
to  that  odious  custom  jn-actised  by  too 
niinj  cyder  merchants,  who  put  animal 
substances  into  their  liquors,  namely, 
veal,  pork,  beef,  mutton,  and  even  horse- 
fiesli,  for  the  purpose  of  fining  them. 
This  singular  expedient,  though  sanction- 
ed by  the  usage  of  our  ancestors,  we  think 
it  our  duty  to  reprobate ;  because  it  is 
fraught  with  mischievous  effects  on  the 
constitution  of  those,  who  are  doomed  to 
di  ink  the  c)  tier  thus  adulterated.  By  al- 
lowing a  small  c^uantity  to  stand,  in  an 
'  open  vessel,  lor  two  or  three  days  in  a 
warm  i-oom,  the  fetid  exhalation  of  the 
liquor  will  easily  discover  its  ingredients. 

iVlany  estates  where  the  soil  is  not  pro- 
■  per  tor  coni,  might  be  greatly  improved 
;  in  value,  bj  cultivating  the  different  sorts 
of  apples  that  are  used  in  making  cyder, 
;  which  finds  at  all  times  a  ready  market, 
',  and  requires  no  fuel  in  brewing  it ;  be- 
'  sides  that  the  labour  occurs  only  once 
[every  year.  The  greater  the  quantities 
of  cyder  made  together,  the  better  it  usu- 
ally succeeds;  but  it  will  be  necessary 
I  that  the  vessels  hi  which  the  liquor  is  to 
be  kept,  be  capacious  and  well  seasoned. 
In  ihis  case,  it  will  not  only  r«main  sound 
for  a  great  number  of  years,  but  also  pro- 
gressively imjjrove. 

An  ingenious  Treatise  on  Cyder,  in  4to. 
was  publislied  in  tiie  year  1804,  in 
which  the  reader  will  find  several  perti- 
nent instructions  relative  to  this  sub- 
ject. 

Apples  thrive  well  in  all  the  states  of 
United  America,  except  in  the  low  lands 
of  the  maratime  parts  of  Carolina  and 
Georgia.  In  such  a  variety  of  soils  and 
climates,  apples  of  great  di\ersity  of 
taste  and  flavour  must  necessarily  grow. 


CYD 


CYD 


The  cyder  made  from  these  apples  ac- 
cordingly differs  very  much;  but  in  a  ge- 
neral way  it  may  be  safely  asserted,  that 
the  cyder  of  ihe  United  States  equals  tliat 
of  any  part  of  the  world. 

There  have  been  numerous  recipes 
published  to  make  cyder,  some  of  which 
have  occasioned  considerable  losses.  A 
few  general  and  important  rules  will  be 
given,  for  insuring  good  cyder,  and  after- 
wards some  particular  du-ections  founded 
on  experience. 

1.  The  fi"st  and  indispensible  requisite 
for  making  good  cyder,  is  to  to  choose 
perfectly  ripe  and  sound  fruit.  Farmers, 
in  general,  are  very  inattentive  to  these 
points,  but  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  make 
good  cyder  unless  they  be  attended  to. 

2.  The  apples  ought  to  be  hand  pick- 
ed, or  caught  in  a  sheet,  when  the  tree  is 
shook  When  chey  fall  on  the  ground 
they  become  bruised,  and  as  it  frequently 
happens  that  they  remain  for  some  hours 
before  pressing,  the  apples  are  apt  to 
communicate  a  bad  taste  to  the  liquor 
from  the  bruised  part. 

3.  After  having  sweated,  and  before 
being  gi-ound,  the  apples  should  be  wiped, 
in  order  to  remove  a  clammy  moisture 
which  covers  them,  and  which,  if  permit- 
ted to  remain,  would  impoverish  the  cy- 
der. 

4.  The  practice  above  noted  to  press 
the  pumice  in  hair  cloths  is  certainly  much 
preferable  to  the  common  American  cus- 
tom of  inclosing  it  in  bands  of  straw,  be- 
cause the  straw,  when  heated  in  the 
mow  or  stack,  gives  the  cyder  a  bad 
taste. 

5.  After  cyder  has  run  from  the  press, 
it  has  been  directed  to  strain  it  through 
hair  sieves  into  a  lai-ge  open  vat,  which 
will  contain  a  whole  making,  or  as  much 
as  can  be  pressed  in  one  day.  When  the 
cyder  has  remained  in  this  vat  a  day,  or 
sometimes  less,  according  to  the  ripeness 
of  the  fruit  of  which  it  has  been  made,  and 
the  state  of  the  weather,  the  pumice,  or 
grosser  pai-ts  of  the  pulp,  will  rise  to  the 
top,  and  in  a  few  hours,  or  after  a  day  or 
two  at  furthest,  will  grow  very  thick,  and 
when  little  white  bubbles  break  through 
it,  draw  it  off  through  a  cock  or  faucet 
hole,  within  three  Inches  from  the  bottom, 
that  the  lees  may  quietly  remain  behind. 
This  operation  is  of  great  importance,  as 
the  sinking  of  the  feculent  matter  would 
greatly  injure  the  liquor. 

6.  On  drawing  off  the  cyder  from  the 
vat,  it  must  be  tunned  into  clean  casks, 
and  closely  watched,  to  prevent  the  fer- 
mentation ;  when  therefore  white  bubbles, 
as  mentioned  above,  are  perceived  at  the 


bung  hole,  rack  it  again,  immediately  af- 
ter which  it  will  probably  not  ferment  un- 
til March,  when  it  must  be  racked  off 
as  before,  and  if  possible  in  clear  wea- 
ther. 

7.  It  is  of  gi-eat  consequence  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid,  or  fixed 
au-,  from  cyder,  as  on  this  principle  all  its 
briskness  depends.  To  effect  this,  va- 
rious  expedients  have  been  contrived.  In 
the  state  of  Connecticut,  where  much  cy- 
der is  made,  it  is  a  common  practice  to 
pour  a  tumbler  of  olive  oil  into  ihe  bung- 
hole  of  every  cask.  Upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple we  have  lately  heard  of  a  man,  who 

j  boasted  that  he  had  drank  brisk  beer  out 
of  the  same  cask  for  Jive  years,  and  that 

I  his  secret  was  to  cover  the  surface  of  the 
liquor  with  olive  oil.  Dr.  Darwin  also 
says  he  was  told  by  a  gentleman  who 
made  a  considerable  quantity  of  cyder  on 
his  estate,  that  he  procured  vessels  of 
stronger  construction  than  usual,  and  that 
he  directed  the  apple  juice,  as  soon  as  it 
had  settled,  to  be  bunged  up  close  ;  and 
that  though  he  had  had  one  vessel  or  two 
occasionally  burst  by  the  expansion  of 
the  fermenting  liquor,  yet  that  this  rarely 
occurred,  and  that  his  c)'der  never  failed 
to  be  of  the  most  excellent  quality,  and 
was  sold  at  a  great  price. 

To  prevent  a  succeeding  fermentation, 
put  in  a  handful  of  powdered  clay,  and 
to  preserve  it,  add  one  quart  of  apple 
brandy  to  each  barrel :  every  cask  must 
be  filled  up,  and  closely  bunged. 

8.  When  care  has  been  taken  to  pre- 
vent the  precipitation  of  the  feculent  mat- 
ter  which  rises  in  the  cyder,  good  liquor 
will  generally  fine  without  artificial  means; 
but  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  fine  after 
the  last  racking,  when  the  above  men- 
tioned article  has  been  found  to  answer 
very  effectually  if  used  in  the  following 
way.  For  a  barrel :  cut  one  ounce  of  isin- 
glass  fine,  put  it  into  a  pint  of  water,  stir 
it  frequently,  and  make  a  thick  jelly.  Di- 
lute  this  with  cyder,  strain  and  mix  it  well 
with  the  liquor  in  the  cask,  by  means  of  a 
long  clean  stick. 

An  ounce  of  orris  root,  in  powder,  gives 
a  pleasant  flavour  to  cyder. 

A  friend  directs  cyder  to  be  bottled  in 
July,  to  fill  the  bottles  within  two  inches  of 
the  top,  letting  them  stand  twelve  hours 
open  before  corking.  Use  strong  porter 
bottles,  and  the  best  velvet  corks.  The 
bottling  should  be  done  in  clear  weather. 

The  following  communication  on  the 
making  and  fining  of  cyder,  is  from  the 
pen  of  Joseph  Cooper,  Esquire,  of  New 
Jersey. 

"Cvder  is  an  article  of  domestic  manu- 


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CYD 


facture,  which  is,  in  my  opinion,  Worse  ma- 
naged than  any  in  our  country:  perliaps 
the  better  way  to  correct  errors,  is  to 
point  out  some  of  the  principal  ones,  and 
then  to  recommend  better  plans. 

"Apples  are  commonly  rollected  when 
wet,  and  throwh  in  a  lieap,  exposed  to  sun 
and  rain  ;  until  a  sourness  pervades  the 
whole  mass,  then  ground,  and  for  wai.t  of 
a  trough  or  other  vcsslJs  sufficient  to 
hold  a  cheese  at  a  time,  the  pumice  is  put 
on  the  jjress  as  fast  as  ground ;  and  a 
large  cheese  is  made,  which  requires  so 
much  time  to  finish  and  press  off,  that  a 
fermentation  comes  on  in  the  cheese  be- 
fore all  tile  juice  is  out;  and  certain  it  is, 
that  a  small  quantity  of  the  juice  pressed 
out  after  termentution  comes  on,  will  spoil 
the  product  of  a  whole  cheese,  if  mixed 
therewith.  When  either  of  the  above  er- 
roi-s  will  spoil  cyder,  we  need  not  wonder 
at  the  effect  of  a  combination  of  the  whole, 
as  frequently  happens.  As  1  have  very 
often  exported  cyder  to  the  West  Indies, 
and  to  Euj'ope,  and  also  sold  it  to  others 
for  the  same  purpose,  without  even  hear- 
ing of  any  spoiling ;  and  as  it  is  my  wish 
to  make  the  productions  of  our  country  as 
useful  as  possible,  I  will  give  an  account 
•f  my  method  of  making  this  valuable  li- 
quor. 

"  I  gather  the  apples  when  drj',  put 
them  on  a  floor  untler  covei',  and  have  a 
trough  large  enough  to  hold  a  cheese  at 
once  ;  and  when  the' weather  is  warm,  1 
grind  them  late  in  the  evening,  spread- 
ing the  pumice  over  the  trough  to  ai;*  it, 
as  the  cydei"  will  thereby  be  enriched,  and 
a  fine  amber  colour  in  it  produced  :  and 
here  it  may  be  remarked,  that  tlie 
longer  a  cheese  lies  after  being  ground,  be- 
fore pressing,  the  better  for  the  cyder,  pro- 
vided  it  escapes  fermentation  until  the 
pressing  is  completed.  The  following 
experiment  will  render  this  evident. 
Bruise  a  tart  apple  on  one  side,  and  let  it 
lie  until  brown ;  then  taste  the  juice  of 
each  part,  and  it  will  be  found,  that  the 
juice  of  the  bruised  part  is  sweet  and  rich  : 
so  if  sweet  and  tart  apples  are  groiuid  to- 
gether, and  put  immediately  on  the  press, 
the  liquor  wiiicli  ihey  produce  will  ha\  e 
the  taste  of  both  kinds  of  fruit ;  but  if  per- 
mitted to  lie  iiHlil  the  jiumice  become 
brown,  the  cyder  will  be  greatly  im- 
proved. 

"  1  lake  great  care  to  put  cyder  in  clean 
sweet  casks,  antl  tiie  only  w  ay  to  eflect 
this,  is  to  rinse  oi  scald  them  well,  as  soon 
ab  thecyder  is  out,  and  not  to  permit  them 
to  stand  w  ith  liie  lees,  which  will  certain- 
ly cause  ihcm  to  become  sour,  or  nmsty, 
or  to  snkcU.     When  my  casks  arc  filled,  1 


place  them  in  the  shade,  exposed  to  the 
northern  air ;  and  when  fermentation  takes 
place,  I  fill  them  up  once  or  more,  to 
cause  as  much  of  the  feculent  matter  as 
jjossible,  to  disciiarge  from  the  bung ; 
when  a  clear  white  fi-oth  comes  out,  I  put 
in  the  bung  loo.'?6ly,  or  bore  a  hole  in  it, 
and  put  in  a  sjjill,  thereby  checkhig  the 
fermentation  gradually.  After  this  has 
subsided,  I  take  the  first  opportunity  of 
clear,  cool  weather,  and  rack  it  off  into 
clean  casks  ;  which  I  prepare  thus.  When 
I  draw  cyder  out  of  a  cask  in  which  it  has 
fermented,  I  rinse  It  with  cold  water,  and 
ptit  in  two  or  three  quarts  of  fine  gravel, 
and  tliree  or  four  gallons  of  water;  the 
cask  is  well  shaken,  or  rolled,  to  scour  off 
the  sediment  always  adhering  to  the  cask, 
and  which,  if  not  removed,  will  act  as  a 
ferment  to  the  liquor  when  returned  to 
the  cask,  and  spoil,  or  greatly  injure  tlie 
liquor. 

After  scouring  the  casks,  I  again  rinse 
them  ;  and  I  find  advantage  from  burning 
a  match  of  sulphur  suspended  in  the  cask 
by  a  wire,  after  ptitting  in  two  or  three 
buckets  of  cyder.  A  convenient  way  to 
perform  this  process,  is  to  have  a  long  ta* 
penng  bung,  so  as  that  between  the  two 
ends,  it  will  fit  any  hole  ;  to  the  small  end 
of  this  bung,  drive  in  a  wire  with  a  hooked 
end,  to  hold  the  match.  If  the  cyder 
stands  a  week,  or  more,  after  racking, 
previously  to  being  put  away  in  the  cellar, 
r  rack  it  again,  rinsing  the  casks,  but  not 
with  gi'avel,  and  remove  them  to  the  cel- 
lar. The  late  made  cyder,  I  put  in  the 
cellar  immediately  after,  or  before  the 
first  racking,  according  as  the  weather 
may  happen  to  be.  The  cyder  intended 
to  be  kept  till  summer,  1  rack  in  cool, 
clear  weather,  in  the  latter  end  of  Febru- 
ary, or  begiiming  of  March ;  the  casks 
must  be  kept  full,  and  bunged  as  tight  as 
possible." 

Mr.  Cooper  fines  with  the  isinglass  jel- 
ly, mentioned  above,  but  in  case  the  li- 
quor should  not  fine  in  ten  days,  he  diiects 
to  rack  it  again,  and  rei)cat  the  fining  as 
before  ;  but  says,  it  is  best  to  rack  it,  wiie- 
ther  fine  or  not,  in  ten  or  twelve  days,  lest 
the  sediment  should  rise,  whicii  often  hap- 
pens. Mr.  Ct)oper  adds,  "The  foregoing 
operation  should  be  ]ierfbrmed  previously 
to  the  apples  being  in  bloom,  but  I  have 
succeeded  best  in  the  winter,  during  stea- 
dy cool  weather.  I  have  likewise  had 
good  success  in  fining  cyder,  directly 
from  the  press ;  when  tliis  is  done,  I  set 
tile  casks  with  one  head  up,  but  covered; 
put  in  taps,  and  let  them  remain  in  a  coo! 
place,  properly  fixed  for  drawing.  AVhen 
Un;  fermentation  ceases,  and  the  scum  be- 


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gins  to  crack,  I  take  it  off  carefully  with 
a  skimmer,  and  draw  it  from  the  sedi- 
ment. If  not  sufficiently  fine  before  the 
middle  of  winter,  I  fine  it  again  as  above. 
"  The  settlings  of  ray  improved  cyder 
spirit,  (see  ai'ticle  Brandy)  in  the  pro- 

Kortion  of  two  or  three  gallons  to  a  liogs- 
cad  of  cyder,  answers  as  well  for  fining 
as  tlie  isinglass  jelly." 

Cyder  is  a  cooling,  pleasant,  and  whole- 
some liquor,  during  the  heat  of  summer, 
if  it  has  been  prepared  without  foreign  in- 
gredients, and  properly  fermented.  On 
the  contrary,  when  it  is  too  new,  or  tart, 
or  has,  perhaps,  been  kept  in  leaden  ves- 
sels ;  or  the  apples  and  pears  have,  after 
grinding  tliem,  passed  through  leaden 
tubes,  we  can  by  no  means,  recommend  it 
as  a  salubrious  beverage ;  because,  that 
poisonous  metal  is  easily  dissolved  by  the 
acid,  and  tlius  graduall}-  introduced  into 
the  body.  However  agreeably  such  cyder, 
or  perry,  may  stimulate  the  palate,  it  can- 
not fail,  sooner  or  later,  to  produce  pain- 
ful and  dangerous  coUcs,  as  it  not  unfre- 
quently  generates  the  most  desperate  and 
incurable  obstipations,  among  those  who 
accustom  themselves  to  the  free  ^use  of 
these  liquors. 

Cyderkin,  Purre,  or  Perkin,  is  a 
liquor  made  of  the  murk,  or  lees,  remain- 
ing after  the  cyder  is  pressed :  these  are 
put  into  a  large  vat,  with  half  the  quanti- 
ty of  cold  water,  which  has  been  previ- 
ously boiled  :  if  that  proportion  be  exceed- 
ed, the  cyderkin  will  be  small.  The  whole 
is  left  to  digest  for  48  lionrs,  when  it 
should  be  well  expresed  :  the  liquor  thus 
obtained,  is  to  be  immediately  barrelled, 
and  closely  slopped  ;  it  will  be  fit  for  use 
in  a  few  days. 

Cyderkin  easily  clarifies,  and  is  used  in 
many  families,  instead  of  small  beer :  if 
boiled  after  pressure,  with  a  proper  quan- 
tity of  hops,  it  may  be  kept  for  any  length 
of  time. 

Cyder-Spirit,  an  ardent  liquor, 
drawn  from  cyder  by  distillation,  in  tlie 
same  manner  as  brandy  is  from  wine.  The 
flavour  peculiar  to  this  spirit  is  by  no 
means  agreeable ;  but  it  may,  with  care, 
be  totally  divested  of  it,  (see  Charcoal) 
and  become  an  excellent  substitute  for 
those  deleterious  preparations,  sold  under 
the  name  of  spirituous  compounds  and 
cordialSi    Wholesale-dealers  have  lately 


availed  tbemselves  of  this  liquor ;  and,  af- 
ter imparting  to  it  various  flavours,  they 
vend  it  as  a  substitute  for  otliers,  but  es- 
pecially by  mixing  large  quantities  of  it 
with  foreign  brandy,  rum,  and  arrack, 
without  the  remotest  appreiiension  of  such 
fraud  being  detected.     See  Braxdy. 

Cydeu  Wixe,  is  a  liquor  made  by 
boiling  the  fresh  juice  of  apples  :  after  be- 
ing kept  three  or  four  years,  it  is  said  to 
acquire  the  flavour  and  colour  of  Rhenish 
wine.  The  method  of  preparing  it,  con- 
sists in  evaporating  the  juice  in  a  brewing- 
copper,  till  one  half  be  dissipated ;  the  re- 
mainder is  then  immediately  conveyed  to 
a  wooden  cooler,  whence  it  is  barrelled, 
with  the  addition  of  a  due  proportion  of 
yeast,  and  fermented  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. 

This  American  process,  has,  of  late 
years,  been  imitated  in  the  cyder-countries, 
and  particularly  in  the  West  of  England, 
where  several  hundred  hogsheads  of  cy- 
der-wine, are  annually  prepared ;  and  be- 
ing supposed  to  contain  no  particles  of 
copper  from  the  vessels  in  which  it  is  boil- 
ed, the  country  people  consider  it  as  per- 
fectly wholesome,  and  accordingly  drink 
it  witliout  apprehension.  In  order  to  as- 
certain the  truth,  various  experiments 
were  instituted  by  the  late  Dr.  Fothergill; 
from  the  result  of  which  he  proved,  that 
c}'der-wine  does  contain  a  minute  portion 
of  copper;  which,  though  not  very  consi- 
derable, is  sufficient  to  caution  the  public 
against  a  liquor,  that  "comes  in  so  very 
questionable  a  siiape." 

Independently,  however,  of  the  danger 
arising  from  any  metallic  impregnation, 
we  doubt  whether  the  process  of  prepar- 
ing boiled  wines  be  useful,  or  reconcile- 
able  to  economy.  The  evaporation  of  the 
apple -juice,  by  long  boiling,  not  only  oc- 
casions an  unnecessary  consumption  of 
fuel,  but  also  volatilizes  the  most  essential 
particles,  without  which  the  liquor  can- 
not undergo  a  complete  fermentation,  so 
that  thei-e  can  be  no  perfect  wine.  Hence, 
this  liquor  is,  like  all  other  boiled  wines, 
crude,  heavy,  and  flat :  it  generally  causes 
indigestion,  flatulency,  and  diarrhoea. 
Those  amateurs,  however,  who  are  deter- 
mined to  prepare  it,  ought  at  least  to  ban- 
ish all  brass  and  copper  vessels,  from  this, 
as  well  as  from  even"  other  ciilinary  pro- 
cess. 


D. 


DAI 

DAIRY-HOUSE,  in  rural  economy,  a 
place  a])pr()[j!iatc'l  to  the  nianagcment  of 
milk,  biiuer,  ciieese,  &.c.  See  Milk, 
Bu TIER,  Cheese,  Churn. 

A  dairy  oiig-ht  to  be  so  situated,  that 
the  windows,  or  the  lattices,  m^vy  never 
front  the  soutU,  south-east,  or  south-west ; 
and  it  should  at  all  limes  be  kept  in  the 
neatest  order.  Lattices  are  also  prefer- 
able to  glazed  lights,  as  they  admit  a  free 
circulation  of  the  air.  It  has,  howevei-, 
been  objeced,  ihat  the  former  afl'ofds  ac- 
cess to  the  cold  air  of  winter,  and  to  the 
sun  in  summer ;  but  either  may  be  easily 
remedied,  by  making  the  frame  somewhat 
lai'ger  than  the  lattice,  and  constructing 
it  so  as  to  slide  backward  and  forward  at 
pleasure.  Across  this  fraine,  pack-thread 
may  be  stretched,  and  oiled  pajjer  pasted 
on  it,  which  will  thus  admit  the  liglu,  and 
eflectually  keep  out  the  sun  and  wind. 

During  the  summer,  dairy-houses  can- 
not be  kept  too  cool :  they  ought  tliere- 
fore  to  be  erected,  if  possible,  near  a  cold 
spring,  or  running  water ;  and  where  it 
is  practicable,  to  conduct  a  small  stream 
through  tlie  premises,  it  will  much  con- 
tribute to  the  convenience  and  utility  of 
the  place.  Dr.  Anderson  observes,  in 
his  practical  essay  on  the  management  of 
the  dairy,  (published  in  the  3d  and  4th 
vols,  of  his  ingenious  "/fecrf  anions  iji  -^gri. 
culture,^*  &.C  )  that  if  tile  water  can  be 
introduced  by  means  of  a  pipe,  so  as  to  fall 
from  some  height  on  the  floor,  it  will  be 
productive  of  many  advantages,  particu- 
larly by  preserving  a  continual  freshness, 
and  purity  of  the  air.  Dairy -houses  should 
therefore  be  neatly  paved, either  with  red 
brick,  or  smooth  hard  stone,  and  laid  with 
a  proper  descent,  so  that  no  \^ater  may 
stai^nate.  This  pavement  shoidd  be  well 
washed  every  day,  during  the  summer ; 
and  all  the  utensils,  liere  employed,  be 
kept  with  unremittin;^  attention  to  clean- 
liness. Nor  should  the  churns  be  at  any 
tiine  scalded  in  the  daiiy  ;  as  the  stean) 
arfting  from  hot  water  tends  greatly  to 
iuhu-e  the  milk.    For  similar  reasons,  nei- 


DAI 

ther  tlie  cheese  and  rennet,  nor  the  cheese 
press,  must  be  suffered  to  taint  the  at- 
mos|)here  ;  as  the  wliey  and  curd  will  dif- 
fuse their  acidity  over  the  whole  build- 
ing. 

All  the  utensils  of  the  daily  should  be 
made  of  wood,  in  preference  to  either 
lead,  copper,  or  cast  iron;  for  these  metals 
are  easily  soluble  in  acids  ;  the  solutions 
of  the  two  first  are  in  a  high  degree  poi- 
sonous ;  and,  though  the  latter  is  in  i.self 
harmless,  the  taste  of  it  renders  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  dairy  very  disagreeable. 
Tlie  cream-dishes,  when  perfectly  clean 
and  cool,  ought  to  be  filled  with  tiie  m,ilk, 
as  soon  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  and 
has  been  carefully  strained  through  a 
cloth,  or  cloth-sieve,  made  of  hair  or  sil- 
ver-wire ;  the  latter  of  which,  as  Dr.  An- 
derson justly  remarks,  is  more  vvhoiesome 
than  those  of  otiier  metals.  These  dishes 
should  never  exceed  throe  inches  in  depth, 
but  may  be  so  wide  as  to  contain  a  gal- 
lon, or  a  gaUon  and  a  half  of  milk:  when 
filK-d,  they  ought  to  be  placed  on  shelves, 
to  remain  there  till  the  cream  be  com- 
pletely  separated.  Kow  it  is  to  be  taken 
oW  with  nicety,  by  a  skimming-dish,  (with- 
out lifting  or  removing  the  milk,  or  shed- 
ding any  of  it  on  the  floor,  which  would 
soon  corrupt  the  air  of  the  room,)  and 
then  deposited  in  a  separate  vessel,  till  a 
projjer  quantity  be  collected  for  churning. 
A  firm,  neat  wooden  barrel,  which  is  open 
at  one  end,  and  lias  a  lid  closely  fitted  to 
it,  appears  to  be  well  calculated  for  this 
purpose  ;  a  cock,  or  spigot,  ought  also 
to  be  fixed  near  the  bottoni,  to  draw  olf 
the  thin,  or  serous  part,  tliat  may  drain 
from  the  cream  ;  and  the  inner  side  of  tlie 
opening  should  be  covered  with  a  piece 
of  fine  silver  wire-gause,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  latter  from  escaping,  while  the 
former  is  allowed  to  pass. 

But,  if  notwithstanding  the  fatal  conse- 
quences, arising  from  the  use  of  metallic 
utensils,  or  of  earthen  vessels  glazed  with 
lead,  farmers  still  persist  in  employing 
them,  it  ought  to  be  a  constant  and  indis- 


DIG 


DIS 


pensible  rule,  to  scald  and  scour  them 
properly^  with  salt  and  water,  evei-y  day, 
and  to  dry  them  thoroughly,  before  the 
milk  is  deposited  in  them.  Lastly,  it  is 
sincerely  to  be  wished,  that  all  the  uten- 
sils employed  in  the  dairy,  of  whatever 
materials  they  may  consist,  should  be 
cleaned  with  similar  care,  previously  to 
tlieir  being  used ;  and,  as  long  as  the  least 
acid  smell  is  perceptible,  they  ought  to 
undergo  repeated  scourings,  till  they  are 
completely  sweetened. 

DIGESTER.  The  digester  is  an  in- 
strument invented  by  Mr  Papin  about 
the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  and  usu- 
ally called  Papin's  digester.  It  is  a  strong 
vessel  of  co]jper  or  iron,  with  a  cover 
adapted  to  screv/  on  with  pieces  of  felt 
or  paper  interposed.  In  some  vessels  of 
this  kind  the  cover  is  made  of  an  elliptical 
form,  and  is  inserted  through  an  opening 
of  the  same  figure,  which  it  completely 
closes  by  application  of  its  upper  surface, 
to  the  internal  surfixe  of  the  vessel.  A 
valve,  with  a  small  aperture,  is  made  in 
the  cover,  the  stopper  of  which  valve  may 
be  more  or  less  loaded  either  by  actujil 
weights,  or  by  pressure  from  an  appara- 
tus, on  the  princijile  of  the  steel-yard. 
Instead  of  the  common  valve  sir  A.  N. 
Edelcrantz  employs,  a  cylinder  in  the  co- 
ver, with  a  steam-tight  piston.  This  pis- 
ton ma)  be  loaded  with  any  weight,  and 
the  cylinder  is  perforated  with  small  holes, 
at  different  heights,  and  a  larger  hole  near 
the  top,  to  allow  an  exit  to  the  steam  re- 
ceding to  the  pressure  it  exerts. 

The  purpose  of  this  vessel  is  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  lieat  by  evaporation.  The  sol- 
vent power  of  water,  when  heated  in  this 
vessel,  is  greatly  increased,  chiefly,  no 
doubt,  on  account  of  its  increased  tempe- 
rature, and  likewise  in  all  probability  on 
account  of  tlie  pressuie  exerted  by  the  re- 
action of  the  elastic  water  or  steam, 
which  is  upon  the  point  of  being  gene- 
rated. 

We  do  not  hear  of  many  experiments 
made  by  this  engine.  The  inventor  pro- 
posed it  as  a  culinary  utensil,  by  which 
the  grisly  and  bony  parts  of  animals  might 
be  combined  with  water,  in  the  form  of  a 
jelly,  as  is  in  fact  the  case.  But  whether 
a  food,  so  loaded  with  the  phosphoric  salt 
of  lime,  would  be  wholesome,  may  per- 
haps admit  of  seiuous  doubts  :  it  is  like- 
wise very  liable  to  acquire  an  empyreu- 
ma,  if  the  heat  be  carried  a  little  too 
high. 

Bergmann  thought  that  the  digester 
might  exhibit  a  considerable  solvent  pow- 
er of  welter  upon  the  pure  earths,  and  he 
considered  the  deposition  of  siliceous  earth 
from  the  hot  \^"ater,  of  the  stupendous 

VOL.  r. 


fountain,  of  Geyser,  in  Iceland,  mentioned 
by  Von  Troil,  and  others,  as  a  proof  of 
such  a  solution. 

Cast  iron  digesters  have  recently  been 
manufactured  in  England,  and  successfully 
applied  to  cuUnary  purposes.  They  have 
also  been  found  incomparably  more  eco- 
nomical than  the  various  kinds  of  stew- 
pans  formerly  employed. 

DISTILLING  or  Distillation.  Is 
the  process  of  evaporation  performed  in 
vessels  adapted  to  condense  or  collect  the 
substance  evaporated 

Distillation  in  the  large  way  is  usually 
carried  on  in  an  apparatus  composed  of 
three  parts,  namely,  the  alembic  or  boil- 
er in  which  the  substance  is  heated,  the 
head  or  capital,  a  dome-shaped  continua- 
tion of  the  foi-mer,  in  which  the  vapours 
are  collected,  and  a  tube  or  worm  spi- 
rally disposed  and  passing  through  a  tub 
of  water,  in  which  the  distilled  vapour  is 
condensed  into  a  liquid.  For  smaller 
purposes  this  apparatus  is  often  simpli- 
fied, and  the  capital  is  enclosed  in  a  case 
which  holds  cold  water,  whereby  the  con- 
den  satibn  takes  place  in  the  capital 
itself. 

Another  apparatus  more  usual  in  expe- 
riments is  a  retort,  generally  of  glass, 
which  answers  the  purpose  both  of  boiler 
and  capital,  and  a  globe-shaped  receiver 
fitting  to  tile  retort  in  which  the  conden- 
sation is  completed.  The  greatest  im- 
provement perhajDs  ever  made  to  chemi- 
cal apparatus  is  the  (comparatively)  mo- 
dern addition  of  a  separate  series  of  tubes 
and  vessels  to  convey  and  collect  the  ga- 
seous products,  and  to  avoid  all  the  dan- 
ger from  sudden  expansion' without  in- 
curring the  necessity  (formerly  required) 
of  letting  ofl'  to  waste  a  large  portion  of 
the  difficultly  condensible,  but  often  most 
important,  products  of  the  operation. 

The  practical  uses  of  distillation  are  too 
numerous  to  be  mentioned.  Bj"^  it  the  vo- 
latile part  of  any  substance  is  separated 
from  tiiat  which  is  fixed,  as  in  the  distil- 
lation of  turpentine,  in  which  the  essential 
oil  rises  and  the  resin  is  left  behind  ;  the 
more  evaporable  is  separated  from  the 
less  evaporable,  as  in  the  preparation  or 
rectification  of  ardent  spirit ;  liquids  are 
freed  from  foreign  or  accidental  impuri- 
ties, as  in  the  distillation  of  common  wa- 
ter :  volatile  substances  are  united  in  an 
easy  and  commodious  manner,  as  in-  pre- 
paring the  odorous  distilled  waters  of  aro- 
matic vegetables  :  bodies  are  decomposed 
and  analysed,  new  compounds  are  formed, 
and  a  knowledge  is  gained  of  the  native 
and  chemical  properties  of  natural  sub- 
stances. 

When  the  products  of  distillation  are 
Li 


DIS 


DIS 


solid  and  dry,  the  process  is  usually  term- 
ed sublimation. 

Witli  respect  to  the  practical  pai't  of 
distilling  or  retining',  we  shall  first  observe, 
that  the  heat  should  in  all  cases  be  as  gentle 
and  uniform,  as  possible.  Accidents  may 
be  effectually  prevented  by  employing  a 
worm  of  a  proper  width,  and  by  rectify- 
ing spirits  in  a  ivnter-bath  ;  which,  if  suf- 
ficiently large,  will  pcribrm  the  operation 
with  ^1  the  despatch  requisite  for  tiie 
most  extensive  business.  The  vessel  in 
which  the  rectification  is  efiected,  ought 
to  be  immersed  in  another  filled  with  wa- 
ter up  to  the  nitck,  and  loaded  with  lead 
at  the  bottom,  in  oider  to  keep  it  firm  and 
steady.  The  process  will  thus  be  ma- 
naged as  expeditiously  as  if  the  vessel 
were  placed  over  an  open  tire,  and  with- 
out the  apprehension  of  being  disappoint- 
ed ;  nor  will  it  be  necessary  at  any  time 
to  raise  the  water  in  the  bath  to  a  boiling 
heat. 

To  obtain  spirit  from  fermented  liquor 
is  the  business  of  the  distiller ;  but  to  re- 
fine and  purity  it  belongs  to  the  rectifier. 
The  second  operation  is  so  dependent  on 
the  first,  that  unless  the  distillation  be 
carefully  conducted,  the  rectification 
will  be  rendered  both  tedious  and  dif- 
ficult. 

The  art  of  distilling  malt  spirit,  may  be 
reduced  to  the  following  principles.  1. 
To  obtain  spirit  free  from  the  oil  of  malt. 
2.  To  raise  the  vapours  in  the  most  eco- 
nomical manner.  3.  To  condense  them  as 
speedily  as  possible ;  and  4.  To  prevent 
empyreuma. 

The  first  may  be  done  by  mixing  a 
small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  with  the 
wash ;  and  the  remaining  three  by  a  pro- 
per construction  of  tlie  still,  and  the  ne- 
cessary care  in  distillation. 

The  still  should  be  so  constructed  as 
to  be  capable  of  containing  a  column  of 
ferrr  entable  matter,  considerably  broader 
than  high,  to  prevent  tlie  liquor  at  the 
bottom  from  being  burnt  before  the  upper 
part  is  heated.  Tiie  top  should  be  as 
wide  as  the  bottom,  to  give  the  vapours 
free  and  complete  liberty  to  escape.  U}' 
the  common  construction  of  the  stills, 
they  are  incessantly  returned  into  the 
boiler,  especially  at  the  commencement 
of  the  process. 

Various  contrivances  have  been  adopt- 
ed by  the  distillers  to  prevent  the  wash 
from  burning  in  the  still  Mr.  Anderson's 
apparatus  answeis  this  purpose  effectu- 
ally. 

Rectijication  is  simple  and  easy,  pro- 
vided the  previous  operations  have  been 
well  managed ;  but  it  an  empyreuma  has 
b{ien  contracted  in  the  still,  or  the  foetid 


oil  has  been  combined  with  the  spirit, 
then  it  becomes  more  difficult.  On  the 
contrary,  if  these  have  been  avoided,  no- 
thing more  is  necessary  than  to  mix  the 
spirit  with  an  equal  quantity  of  pure  wa- 
ter, and  recommit  it  to  distillation,  when 
it  will  come  over  pure. 

When  the  liquor  has  been  burnt  in  the 
still,  it  ought  to  be  kept  for  some  weeks, 
in  charred  vessels :  a  quantity  of  char- 
coal should  be  mixed  with  the  spirit  and 
water,  previously  to  the  distillation.  This 
will,  generally,  be  found  a  sufficient  reme- 
dy for  empjTeuma,  but  will  not  correct 
the  disagreeable  flavour  communicated 
from  the  admixture  of  the  foetid  oil. 
Many  substances  have  been  used  tor  this 
purpose,  none  of  which,  I  think  are  fully 
adequate  to  the  end  proposed. 

Filtration  has  been  recommended,  but 
the  oil  is  so  intimately  mixed  with  the 
spirit,  that  a  considerable  quantity  will 
pass  thiough  tlie  filter.  The  operation 
is  also  tedious,  and  some  of  the  spirit  eva- 
porates during  the  process.  Alkaline 
salts  are  frequently  mixed  with  the  spirit, 
previously  to  rectification,  such  as  the 
carbonat  of  pot  ash,  but  more  frequently 
the  carbonat  of  soda  They,  however, 
are  both  liable  to  considerable  objections, 
when  unassisted  by  any  other  substance ; 
for,  although  they  combine  with  the  oil, 
and,  in  some  degree,  prevent  its  rising  in 
vapours,  yet  they  communicate  an  urinous 
flavour  to  the  spirit,  which  is  highly  inju- 
rious. Neutral  salts,  qiiici.lim,e,  calcined 
bones,  and  chalk,  are  equally  liable  to  ob- 
jection, as  they  do  not  effectually  deprive 
the  spirit  of  the  oil  which  it  holds  in  so- 
lution, and  an  improper  flavour  is  also 
contracted  from  them. 
Of  the  accidents  that  too  often   happen  in 

perform.ing  the  processes  of  distillation. 

Among  the  accidents  which  frequently 
happen  in  distilling,  the  least  of  all  is  for 
the  operation  to  miscai-ry,  and  the  ingre- 
dients to  be  lost.  And  this  being  a  sub- 
ject of  the  greatest  importance,  we  shall 
treat  it  with  all  possible  accuracy. 

All  accidents  arc  occasioned  by  fire, 
their  primary  cause  ;  by  want  of  attention 
they  get  too  much  heat,  and  fear  often 
sutiers  them  to  become  irremediable. 

The  first  accident  which  may  happen 
by  the  fire,  is  when  a  distiller,  by  too 
great  a  heat,  causes  the  ingredients  to  be 
burnt  at  the  bottom  of  the  still ;  by  this 
means  his  liquor  is  spoiled  by  an  empy- 
reumatic  taste,  and  the  tin  is  melted  off 
from  the  alembic.  An  empyreuma  re- 
sembles the  smell  of  burnt  tobacco,  and 
is  produced  in  licpiors  by  too  great  a  de- 
gree of  heat  To  illustrate  this,  distil  any 
fruit,  flowers,  or  aromatic  whatever,  but 


DIS 


DIS 


especially  something  the  smell  of  which  is 
very  volatile,  draw  off  only  tlie  best,  unltite 
the  alembic,  and  what  remains  in  the 
still  wiU  be  found  to  have  a  verj'  disagree- 
able smell ;  whence  it  follows,  that  if  a 
little  more  had  been  di-awn  off,  it  would 
have  spoiled  what  was  before  obtained. 

If  tlae  fire  be  too  violent,  the  extraor- 
dinary ebullition  of  the  contents  causes 
them  to  ascend  into  the  head;  and,  if  in  a 
g'lass  alembic,  they  fall  ignited  into  the 
recipient ;  tlie  heat  breaks  it,  the  spiriis 
are  dissipated,  and  often  take  fiie  from 
the  heat  of  the  furnafce. 

If  the  fire  be  too  strong,  the  bottom  of 
the  still  becomes  red  hot,  the  mateiials 
inflamed,  and  consequently  tlie  fire 
reaches  the  recipient. 

When  an  earthen  alembic  is  used,  the 
closest  attention  is  requisite  to  keep  the 
fire  from  burning  the  materials  at  the  bot- 
tom— the  head,  which  is  always  of  glass, 
bursts,  and  the  spiiits  are  spilt,  and  often 
catch  fire.  And  the  remedy  becomes  the 
more  difficult,  as  earth  retains  the  fire 
much  longer  than  a  common  alembic. 

If  the  alembic  be  not  fiimly  fixed,  it  is 
soon  put  out  of  order,  falls  down  and  un- 
lutes  itself;  thus  tlie  liquor  is  spilt,  and 
the  vapour  sets  the  spirits  on  fire. 

If  all  the  joints  be  not  carefiilly  luted, 
the  spiiits  at  their  first  effort  issue  through 
the  least  aperture,  run  into  the  fire,  which 
is  propagated  into  the  alembic  by  the 
vapour. 

In    distillations    where    the    phlegm 


same  time  that  it  renders  it  more  inflam- 
mable, also  causes  the  fire  to  spread  with 
the  gi-eater  rapidity.  Aad,  when  their 
store  houses  are  once  on  fire,  they  are  sel- 
dom or  never  saved. 

To  prevent  a'-.cidents,  two  things  espe- 
cially must  be  Known,  and  adverted  to. 

1.  The  knowledge  of  the  five ;  which 
depends  on  the  fuel,  whether  wood  or  coal. 

2-  The  manner  of  luting,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  vapours  from  escaping  thi-ough 
it,  ai  d  by  tiiat  means  uf  setting  the  whole 
on  fire. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  larger  the  alem- 
bic, the  more  fire  is  necessan.  What  has 
not  been  digested,  also  requires  move  fire 
than  that  which  has  been  prepared  by  that 
operation.  Spices  require  a  stronger  fire 
than  flowers ;  a  distillation  of  simple  wa- 
ters,  more  than  that  of  spirituous  liquors. 

The  surest  way  of  ascertaining  the  ne- 
cessary degree  of  fire  is,  to  regulate  it  by 
the  materials,  as  they  ai-e  more  or  less  dis- 
posed to  yield  theii-  spirits,  &c.  and  this 
is  done  as  follows.  The  operator  must 
not  leave  the  alembic,  but  attentively  list- 
en to  what  passes  within,  when  the  fire  be- 
gms  to  heat  it.  When  the  ebullition  be- 
comes too  vehement,  the  fire  must  be  les- 
sened, either  by  taking  out  some  of  the 
fuel,  or  covering  itwith  ashes  or  sand. 

It  requires  a  long  experience  in  the  se- 
veral cases,  before  a  distiller  can  acquire 
a  competent  knowledge  in  this  important 
point.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  determine  the 
degree  of  fire  from  tlie  quantity  of  fuel; 


ascends  first,  its  humidity  penetrates  the  J  judgment,  assisted  by  experience,  must 
lute,  and  loosens  it,   so  that,  when  the  I  supply  this  defect 


spirituous  vapours  ascend,  they  are  ex- 
posed to  the  same  accident. 

Lastly,  when  the  recipient  is  unluted, 
especially  if  nearly  full,  without  the  great- 
est circumspection,  the  spii'its  will  be 
spilt,  and  so  catch  fire. 

Hitherto,  we  have  only  given  a  simple 
account  of  what  daily  happens  to  distil- 
lers; but  the  consequenceses  of  tliese  ac- 
cidents ai-e  infinitely  more  terrible  than 
the  accidents  tliemselves;  for  an  artist 
to  lose  his  time,  his  labour,  and  goods,  is 
no  small  matter ;  but  it  follows  from  what 
we  have  premised,  that  both  his  life  and 
-fortune  are  in  danger  from  these  confla- 
grations. Instances  of  the  former  are  too 
common,  as  well  as  of  the  latter,  re- 
lating- to  the  danger  to  which  the  operator 
is  exposed. 

The  spui-its  catch,  the  alembic  and  re- 
cipient fly,  and  the  inflamed  vapour  be- 
comes present  death  to  all  who  breathe  it. 

The  rectifiers  who  perform  the  most 
dangerous  operations  of  distillery,  are 
particularly  exposed  to  these  terrible  ac- 
cidents ;  the  fineness  of  the  spirit,  %(  the 


Eveiy  thing  being  determined  with  re- 
gard to  the  degi-ee  of  fire,  we  shall  now 
proceed  to  explain  the  method  of  luting 
alembics. 

By  the  term  luting  an  alembic,  we 
mean,  the  closing  the  joints  through 
which  the  spirits  might  transpire. 

Lute  is  a  composition  of  common  ashes, 
well  sifted,  and  soaked  in  water  ;  clay,  and 
a  kind  of  paste,  made  of  meal  or  starch, 
are  also  used  for  this  purpose  ;  which,  as 
we  have  before  observed,  is  to  close  all  the 
joints,  &c.  in  order  to  confine  the  spirits 
fi'om  transpiring.     See  Cement. 

Good  luting  is  one  of  the  surest  meth- 
ods for  preventing  accidents.  From  an 
alembic,  where  all  transpiration  is  pre- 
vented, nothing  is  to  be  feared,  but  from 
the  too  great  fierceness  of  the  fire; 
and  that  may  be  regulated  by  the  rules 
already  laid  down. 

The  refrigerating  alembic  is  mostly 
used.  The  body  and  the  head  are  joined 
to  each  other;  but  notwitlistandin^  the 
greatest  care  be  taken  in  luting  the  junc- 
ture, there  will  still  be  some  impercepti- 


ms 


1)IS 


ble  Inlcrslicc  for  transpiration  ;  and  the 
least  being  of  the  greatest  conseriuencc,  a 
piece  of  strong  paper  should  be  pasted 
t)ver  the  joint,  andtlie  alembic  never  left, 
till  the  spirits  begin  to  flow  into  the  re- 
ceiver, in  order  to  apply  fresh  paper,  if 
the  former  should  contract  anj'  moisture, 
'iiie  master  himself,  should  careiuUy  at- 
tend to  this  ;  and  whatever  precautions 
may  have  previously  been  used,  the  eye 
must  be  constantly  upon  it. 

The  alembic,  when  vinous  spirits  arc 
distilled,  should  be  luted  with  clay,  care- 
ftdly  s])read  round  the  junctures,  in  order 
to  prevent  all  transpiration;  because  the 
consequences  here  are  terrible  ;  for,  when 
the  fire  catches  a  large  quantity,  it  is  oft 
en  irremediable.  Besides,  as  this  earth 
cracks  in  drying,  it  must  be  often  moist- 
ened, and  fresh  applied.  On  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  any  occasion  for  it. 

The  retort  is  also  luted  v.-lth  clay ;  but 
as  glass  retorts  are  also  used,  they  are  oft- 
en coated  with  the  same  clay,  to  prevent 
their  melting  by  the  intcnsencss  of  the  fire. 
Lastly,  the  earthen  and  glass  alembics 
are  luted  witii  paper  and  jjuste,  as  abT)ve. 
Having  thus  explained  the  great  in)])or- 
tance  of  circumspection  with  regard  to 
luting,  and  the  degree  of  fire,  we  shall 
now  jirocecd  to  the  third  method  of  jn-e- 
ventingthem. 

Of  the  remedies  for  accidents,  %vher.evcr 
they  happen — 

The  most  essential,  are  courage  and 
presence  of  mind ;  fear  only  increasing  the 
misfortune. 

1st.  If  the  fire  be  too  violent  It  must  be 
covered,  but  not  so  as  totally  to  prevent 
its  action,  as  by  that  means  the  process  of 
the  distillation  would  be  interrupted,  and 
render  it  more  difficult  and  less  perfect. 

2d.  When  the  higrcdients  burn,  which 
will  soon  be  discovered  by  the  smell,  the 
fire  must  be  immediately  put  out,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  whole  charge  of  the  still 
from  being  entirely  spoiled,  wliich  would 
otherwise  inevitably  be  the  consequence. 
3d.  If  the  spirits  should  catch  fire,  the 
first  care  is  to  unlute, immediately,  the  re- 
ceiver, and  stop  bulb  the  end  of  the  beak 
and  the  mouth  of  the  receiver  witli  wet 
cloths. 

The  fire  nuist  then  be  put  out ;  and  if 
the  flame  issued  througli  the  luting,  the 
joints  must  be  closed  with  a  wet  cloth, 
which,  together  with  water,  should  never 
be  wanting  in  a  distil-housc. 

4th.  If  llie  alembic  be  of  earth,  and  the 
contents  burn  at  the  bottom,  the  fire  must 
be  inmiediately  put  out,  the  alembic  re- 
moved, and  water  thrown  upon  it,  till  the 
danger  is  over ;  and  for  farther  security 
covered  with  a  wet  cloth. 


5th.  If  after  care  in  closing  the  junc- 
tures, to  prevent  transpiration,  yoxi  per- 
ceive any  thing  amiss,  wliile  the  spirits 
are  ascending,  apply  clay,  oi-  any  other 
composition,  in  order  to  stop  the  aperture, 
and  have  always  a  wet  cloth  ready  to  stifle 
the  flame,  if  the  sj)irits  should  take  fire. 

6lh.  If  the  heat  detaches  the  lute,  or  it 
becomes  moist,  inmiediately  apply  another, 
having  always  ready  what  is  necessary  for 
perf()rming  it.  Should  the  transpiration 
be  so  violent  that  you  cannot  immediaiely 
apply  afresh  lute,  c\ap  a  wet  cloth  round 
the  joint  and  keep  it  on  firm  and  light,  till 
the  siilrits  have  taken  their  course.  But 
if,  notwithstanding  all  your  eftbrts,  the 
ti-anspiralion  shovdd  hicrease,  so  that  )'ou 
fear  a  conflagration,  remove  the  receiver 
as  soon  as  possible  from  the  fire,  and  after- 
wards your  alembic,  if  portable ;  but  if 
otherwise,  put  out  the  fiie  immediately. 

7th.  .The  charge  being  worked  ort",  be 
cautious  in  luting  the  receiver,  that  noth- 
ing be  spilt  on  the  furnace,  and  carry  it  to 
some  distance  from  it,  that  the  spirits  ex- 
haling  may  not  take  fire. 

8th.  Lastly  oliserve,  that  whenever  a 
remedy  is  i-equired,  there  must  l)e  no  can- 
dle used ;  for  the  spirituous  vapours  easily 
take  fire,  and  propagate  the  flame  to  the 
vessels  from  whence  they  issue. 

All  tliat  has  been  hitherto  said,  concerns 
only  the  management  of  the  alembic  ;  but 
what  remains,  is  still  more  interesting-,  and 
relates  to  those  who  work  it,  that  thej' 
may  not,  by  conquering  the  accident,  des- 
troy themselves. 

On  discovering  any  of  the  above  acci- 
dents, when  the  flame  has  not  yet  reach- 
ed the  spirits,  let  the  remedies  already 
mentioned  be  applied,  either  with  regard 
to  the  lute,  or  the  violence  of  the  fire.  But 
if  the  flame  has  reached  the  alembic,  the 
following  precautions  are  to  be  used. 

The  operator  mast  not  approach  the 
alembic  without  a  wet  cloth  over  his 
mouth  and  nostrils,  it  being  immediate 
death  to  inhale  the  inflamed  vapour. 

In  hastening  to  stop  any  accident,  be 
careful  to  approach  on  the  side  opposite  to 
that  whither  the  air  impels  the  flame  ;  for, 
without  this  precaution,  you  would  be  in- 
volved in  it,  and  could  not,  without  the  ut- 
most ditticulty,  extricate  yourself  from 
it. 

If,  notwithstanding  this  precaution,  the 
eddy  of  the  air  should  force  tlie  flame  to 
your  side,  quit  the  place  immediately,  and 
do  not  return  till  its  direction  be  changed, 
always  taking  care  to  have  a  wet  linen 
cloth  before  your  nose  :uid  mouth,  and 
keep  yourself  on  the  side  o])posite  to  the 
direction  of  the  flame:  and  ;dso  to  have 
another  such  cloth,  in  order  to  smother 


Anbek  h  on  'S 

Patent   Condensing    Tub 


DIS 


DIS 


t]ie  flame,  and  close  the  crevice,  through 
which  the  spirits  issue. 

Should  it  be  j'our  misfortune  to  be  co- 
vered with  inflamed  spirits,  wrap  yourself 
in  a  wet  sheet,  which  should  always  be 
ready  for  that  purpose.  Self-preservation 
is  of  so  great  importance,  that  any  of 
these  precautions  should  not  be  omitted  in 
sucli  variety  of  dangers. 

If  tlie  fire  has  acquired  such  a  head  that 
it  cannot  be  stopt,  the  receiver  must  be 
broken,  and  the  alembic,  if  portable,thrown 
down ;  but  no  person  must  be  suffered  to 
go  near  tliem,  especially  those  who  are 
strangers  to  the  business. 

In  a  desperate  case,  like  that  of  a  large 
quantity  of  rectified  spirit  taking  fire,  if 
time  permit,  the  communication  of  the 
beak  of  the  alembic,  with  the  recipient, 
which  is  usually  a  cask,  must  be  cut  off", 
by  closely  stopping  the  bung ;  and  be  sure 
no  candle  come  near  the  receiver,  leaving 
the  rest,  as  the  danger  would  be  too  great 
to  expose  one's  self  to  the  flames  of  a 
large  charge,  and  the  distiller's  safety 
should  be  principally  considered. 

A  patent  was  granted  in  July,  1773,  to 
Mr.  Thomas  Danforth,  of  Charlestown,  in 
Massachusetts,  for  his  invention  of  a  me- 
thod of  condensing  the  vapour  arising  in 
distillation:  as  the  term  of  his  privilege  is 
now  expired,  we  insert  the  following  par- 
ticulars. The  whole  improvement  con- 
sists in  making  the  worm-vessel,  or  that 
containing  the  water  to  cool  the  worm,  or 
vessel  which  receives  the  steam  or  vapour 
to  be  condensed,  (whether  the  steam-ves- 
sel be  a  worm,  strait  tube,  or  of  any  other 
form),  so  that  it  may  act  in  a  manner  simi- 
lar to  a  syphon  or  crane ;  and,  upon  the 
same  principles,  by  making  it  air-tight; 
excepting  a  commimication  by  a  tube,  or 
part  of  the  vessel  itself,  with  tlie  water 
that  supplies  it,  and  an  aperture  from  a 
tube  or  part  of  the  vessel,  below  the  hori- 
2ontal  level  of  the  surface,  in  the  reser- 
Toir,  where  it  first  enters;  in  order  that 
the  water  may  escape  in  the  same  propor- 
tion of  time  and  quantity,  as  it  flows  into 
the  vessel  in  the  reservoir. 

Of  the  many  patents  for  improvements 
in  distilling,  which  have  been  granted  to 
ingenious  men  within  a  few  years,  both  in 
Europe  and  America,  none  have  been 
more  deservedly  obtained  than  that  by 
A.  Anderson,  Esq.  formerly  of  Philadel- 
phia, but  at  present  residing  *at  Laraber- 
ton,  New-Jersey.  Mr.  Anderson's  patent 
is  taken  out  in  general  terms,  "  for  mak- 
ing use  of  steam  arising  in  distillation,  for 
heating  wash  or  any  subject  to  be  distill- 
ed, by  means  of  a  condensing  tub,  in 
which  the  wash  is  so  placed  as  to  receive 
the  whole  heat  of  the  steam,  the  wash  at 


the  same  time,  condensing  the  steam." 
The  process  saves  wood  and  labour,  in 
the  proportion  of  3  to  1  of  the  common 
stills.  At  the  works  of  Messrs.  Anderson 
and  Hall,  Lamberton,  two  stills  are  in 
operation,  of  110  gallons  each,  each  of 
whicli  charged  with  90  gallons,  is  run  off" 
twelve  times  in  24  hours. 

Explanation  of  the  annexed  engraving  of 
..Anderson's  Patent  Condensing  Tub. 

A.  Still  to  contain  110  gallons,  exclusive- 
ly of  the  head,  as  near  this  shape  as 
possible. 

B.  Half  globe  made  of  copper  501b.  to  the 
slieet,  bottom  of  copper,  a  thimble  on 
the  centre  of  the  top,  24  inches  in  the 
bottom,  and  16  high. 

C.  Tub  for  holding  the  charge  of  wash, 
36  inches  wide  in  the  bottom,  33  at  top, 
and  34  deep,  made  of  1 }  cedar  or  white 
pine. 

D.  Small  brass  cock,  to  be  opened  when 
the  charge  is  let  into  the  still  from  the 
tub. 

E.  Stuffing  box  made  of  copper,  to  pre- 
vent the  steam  escaping  by  the  spin- 
dle ;  tlie  box  stuffed  with  tow,  and 
screwed  down  fast. 

F.  Pipe  from  the  head  of  the  still,  4i  in- 
ches wide. 

G.  Pipe :  the  lower  end  fitting  into  the 
pipe  F,  and  receiving  the  pipe  H,  and 
large  enough  to  slip  up  on  the  pipe  H, 
so  as  to  leave  the  head  free  to  be  taken 
off". 

11.  Pipe :  the  lower  end  fits  into  the  pipe 
G,  and  passes  through  the  bottom,  4  in- 
ches, to  prevent  the  condensed  steam 
returning  into  the  still,  and  fastened 
firmly  in  the  bottom  of  the  half  globe. 

I.  Pipe  to  convey  off' the  condensed  steam 
into  the  worm,  fitted  even  in  the  bottom 
of  the  half  globe;  the  other  end  fits  into 
the  mouth  of  the  worm. 

K.  Iron  spindle,  with  its  handle  to  stir  the 
still,  with  the  cross  piece  and  chains. 

L.  Charging  pipe,  3  inches  wide,  with  a 
large  cock  screwed  into  the  bottom  of 
the  tub,  and  the  lower  end  fitting  into 
the  pipe  M,  in  the  breast  of  tlie  still. 

X.  Stuffing  box  made  of  wood. 

O.  Spindles  when  used  by  water, 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS.  Besides 
those  of  Mr.  Anderson's,  already  men- 
tioned,  it  may  be  necessary  to  notice  some 
others  that  are  used  for  common,  as  well 
as  for  chemical,  purposes. 

A,  ("Frg.  1,  I'late  \.J  represents  a  re- 
tort used  for  distillation-  It  is  a  vessel, 
cither  of  glass  or  baked  eai-th,  for  con- 
taining the  liquid  to  be  distilled.     AVhcn 


DIS 


DIS 


it  has  a  small  neck,  a,  •with  a  stopple  fit- 
ted to  it,  tor  introducinj^  the  materials 
through,  it  is  called  a  tubulated  retort.  B 
is  the  receiver  for  condensing'  the  vapour 
which  is  raised,  and  into  which  the  neck 
of  the  retort  is  inserted.  Tlie  joining-,  b, 
is  made  air-tight  by  means  of  a  lute.  Va- 
rious methods  ai-e  used  for  supporting 
both  the  retort  and  receiver,  according  to 
the  degree  of  heat  to  be  emplo3  ed  in  the 
process,  and  several  other  circumstances. 

When  great  heat  is  employed,  earthen 
retorts  are  used,  which  are  placed  on  or 
in  the  fire.  "When  a  less  heat  is  wanted, 
glass  retorts  are  generally  employed, 
which  must  not  be  placed  immediately  on 
the  fire,  unless  the)  are  coated  over  with 
a  composition  of  clay  and  sand,  which  is 
sometimes  done.  Glass  retorts  ai"e  gene- 
rally placed  in  a  sand-bath,  or  suspended 
over  a  lamp,  for  which  Argand's  lamp  is 
the  best.  The  receiver  is  placed  upon 
some  stand  convenient  for  the  purpose, 
with  a  ring  made  of  hay  under  it,  or  some 
such  contrivance,  to  keep  it  steady. 

A,  (Fig  2. J  is  a  vessel  called  a  viat- 
trass,  for  the  same  purpose,  having  a  ves- 
sel, C,  ci.lied  an  alembic,  fitted  to  the  head. 
The  liquid  raised  by  heat  into  the  state  of 
vapour,  is  condensed  in  the  alembic,  and 
falls  into  a  groove  all  roimd  its  inside, 
from  whence  it  runs  out  by  the  spout  C, 
into  the  icceivcr  D. 

Fi^'  3,  are  conical  tubes  that  fit  into  one 
another,  for  lengthening  the  necks  of  re- 
torts, &c.  to  con.nect  them  with  the  re- 
ceivers at  any  distance :  they  are  called 
adopters. 

Fig.  4,  are  phials  with  bent  glass  tubes 
fitted  in  them,  for  disengaging  gases,  and 
similar  experiments:  they  were  used  by 
Priestley,  and  are  hence  called  .  riestley's 
bottles,  and  sometimes  proofs:  they  are  ei- 
ther tubulated  or  ])lain. 

A,  C Fig.  5.  J  represents  a  conitnon  still. 
It  is  a  large  vessel  of  copper,  into  which 
the  njaterials  to  be  distilled  are  put.  The 
still  is  built  uj)  in  brick-work,  which  co- 
vers it  up  to  tiie  neck ;  the  fire  is  ajiplied 
underneath,  and  runs  round  it  in  a  spiral 
manner.  IJ  is  the  Aca(/of  the  still.  This 
head  is  connected  with  the  nuorvi,  which 
is  a  spiral  tub  ;,  immersed  in  a  vessel  of 
cold  water,  called  the  refrigeratory,  or 
cooling  tub,  C.  The  liquor  being  con- 
densed in  its  passage  through  the  worm, 
riuis  out  at  the  cock  U,  into  the  vessel 
placed  there  io  receive  it. 

This  is  the  construction  of  the  common 
still  for  distilling  spirituous  liquors;  but  a 
very  great  im[)rovement  has  been  made 
upon  this  instrument  in  Scotland  within 
these  few  years.  This  improved  appara. 
tus  is  known  bv  the  name  of  the  Scotch 


still,  a  section  of  which  is  represented  by 
Fig.  6.  The  principle  of  the  improvement 
consists  in  exposing  a  great  quantity  of 
the  surface  of  the  liuid  to  the  action  of 
tlie  fire,  and  affording  a  more  ready  means 
for  the  escape  of  the  vapour  or  gas. 

A,  is  the  body  of  the  still,  made  very 
shallow  and  concave  at  the  bottom,  in  or- 
der that  the  fire  may  act  better  upon  it, 
bb,  are  a  number  of  tubes  opening  into  the 
still,  and  communicating  with  the  neck  of 
the  still  B,  in  order  to  convey  the  vapour 
off  as  soon  as  it  is  formed,  cc,  is  a  cover 
that  shuts  down  over  the  pipes  and  top  of 
the  still,  to  keep  it  warm,  by  preventing 
the  loss  of  heat  which  would  be  occa- 
sioned by  the  contact  of  the  cold  air. 
I'his  is  eflJected  by  the  quantity  of  air 
that  is  confined  between  the  cover  and  the 
top  of  the  still ;  for  it  is  a  fact  which  is 
now  well  known,  that  conjined  aii*  is  a  non- 
conductor of  heat.  In  general,  the  heads 
of  stills  are  kept  warm  by  laying  blankets 
upon  them,  at  least  when  this  is  attended 
to,  as  it  ought  always  to  be ;  but  this  me- 
tallic covering,  by  surrounding  the  still 
with  a  quantity  of  confined  air,  answers 
the  pui-po.se  still  better. 

DISTILLED  SPIRITS  Under  the  ar- 
ticles BuANDY  and  Alcohol,  we  have 
already  given  a  description  of  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  ardent  spirit  is  made ;  we 
shall  tlierefore  in  this  place  only  mention 
a  few  circumstances  in  tlie  preparation  of 
corn-spirits  and  rutn. 

The  greater  part  of  the  common  spi- 
rituous liquors  consumed  in  this  and  the 
countries  of  Europe  where  the  vine  does 
not  grow,  is  prepared  from  fermented 
corn  of  one  kind  or  other,  mixed  occa- 
sionally, when  it  suits  the  purpose  of  the 
distiller,  with  molasses,  and  sometimes 
with  carrots  and  other  sub-saccharine 
vegetables.  But  when  there  is  no  scar- 
city of  grain,  this  is  by  far  the  greatest, 
and  often  the  only  ingi-cdient. 

The  spirit  thus  procured  is  rectified  for 
sale  by  being  redistilled  with  juniper  ber- 
ries, turpentine,  and  many  other  sub- 
stances, to  give  it  tlie  desired  flavoui*  and 
appearance. 

The  grain,  if  barley  is  used,  is  gene- 
rally first  malted  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  in  Scotland  is  dried  with  peat,  the 
smoke  of  which  gives  that  peculiar  fla- 
vour which  is  found  in  -whisky,  the  spirit 
distilled  fi'om  it.  It  is  then  grovmd  to 
coarse  powder,  maslied ,  and  the  infusion 
fermented  with  yeast  in  large  tuns.  In 
this  state  it  is  a  strong  ale,  and  only  differs 
from  the  malt  liquors  used  lor  drinking, 
in  containing  no  hops  nor  any  other 
bitter.  I'his  fermented  liquor  is  called 
wrtiA,  and  is  then  fit  for  the  first  distillatioiL 


DISTILLING     APPARATUS 


-V_  Fiq.l. 


-t:-„,.„.,--*™%-„, 


Fiij.  i 


Dis 


BIS 


The  theory  and  practice  of  distillation 
liaving  been  described,  (see  Alcohol,)! 
we  shall  not  here  repeat  it,  except  to 
mention,  that  several  additions  are  made 
to  tlie  wash  with  a  view  either  of  increas- 
ing (as  is  supposed)  the  yield  of  spirit,  or 
of  correcting  and  keeping  down  the  es- 
sential oil  derived  from  the  malt,  which  is 
apt  to  give  it  a  nauseous  flavour ;  or  of  re- 
gulating the  boiling  within  the  still,  and 
preventing  it  from  boihng  over  or  running 
Joul;  or  of  neutralizing  the  acid  generated 
during  the  fermentation,  which  remai-ka- 
bly  lessens  tlie  product  of  spirit  For  all 
these  purposes  soap  is  accounted  the  best 
addition,  and  large  quantities  of  it  are  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  in  distilleries. 
Others  use  alkalies. 

During  the  distillation  the  first  spirit 
that  comes  over  (as  in  the  distillation  of 
wine)  is  oily  and  turbid,  and  often  of  a 
nauseous  flavour,  owing  to  the  oil  of  the 
malt  which  accompanies  it  in  all  these 
changes.  The  spirit  then  runs  clear  and 
continues  so  to  the  last,  but  constantly 
decreasing  in  strength,  becoming  more 
watery,  and  tlierefore  of  less  specific  gra- 
vity. 

The  whole  of  the  spirit  thus  obtained  is 
then  again  distilled  or  rectified,  and  in 
this  process  the  middle  runnings  from  the 
still  are  received  apart  fi-om  the  first  por- 
tion  which  is  too  oily  and  turbid,  and  from 
the  latter  which  is  too  watery  to  come  up 
to  the  established  proof.  It  is  in  the  rec- 
tification also  that  the  additions  which 
give  a  pecuUar  flavour  to  the  spirit,  (such 
as  juniper  berries,  &c.)  are  made. 

The  general  process  of  the  distillery  is 
simple,  and  certainly  not  difficult  of  ma- 
nagement to  ensure  a  certain  degree  of 
success,  since  it  is  cari'ied  on  in  the  small 
way  by  hundreds  of  farmers  and  ig. 
norant  persons,  in  those  remote  parts  of 
the  island  which  offer  the  greatest  facility 
of  eluding  the  excise  duties.  But  in  con- 
ducting vast  and  expensive  works  a  large 
share  of  practical  skill  is  required,  and  al 
most  every  distiller  professes  to  have 
some  peculiar  nicety  of  practice  in  the  ma- 
nagement of  the  process  or  the  construc- 
tion of  the  apparatus. 

The  tbrm  of  tlie  still  in  particular  has 
undergone  many  successive  alterations; 
and  by  gradually  widening  the  bottom  and 
contracting  the  height  of  the  boiler,  dis- 
tillation is  now  carried  on  with  a  rapidit}' 
that  would  almost  exceed  belief  were  it 
not  perfectly  well  authenticated.  After 
successive  improvements  and  a  consider- 
ably complictited  apparatus,  a  still  has 
been  constructed  wiiich  contains  only  40 
gallons  in  the  body  and  3  in  the  head,  in 
which  the  time  of  charging,  boiling  and 


running,  and  letting  off"  the  waste  liquor, 
amounts  only  to  two  minutes  and  three- 
quarters  when  the  charge  of  wash  is  l6 
gallons,  which  is  two-fitths  of  the  whole 
contents.  In  rectification,  which  is  a 
slower  process,  the  chai'ge  is  24  gallons, 
and  the  time  of  distilling  about  ten  mi- 
nutes. This  rate  of  working  however  is 
fai"  beyond  the  ordinary  rate. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  malt  grain  in  or- 
der to  make  it  ferment  sufficiently  to 
yield  a  good  spirit,  and  not  only  bai-ley  but 
any  other  giainwill  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose. In  this  countiy  a  mixture  of  bar- 
ley and  malt  is  generally  preferred;  in 
Holland  the  very  finest  geneva  is  made 
from  wheat  and  malt,  but  more  common- 
ly from  malt  and  rye,  which  latter  yields 
more  spirit  than  wheat.  Very  superior 
care  and  attention  seems  to  be  besiowed 
in  conducting  the  whole  process. 

I'he  gi'eater  number  of  distillers  pro- 
ceed in  the  following  manner.  A  quan- 
tity of  rye  flour  coarsely  ground  is  mixed 
with  a  third  or  fourth  part  of  malt  and 
put  into  the  fermentuig  tub  with  cold 
water,  stirring  it  well  with  the  hands  to 
prevent  the  meal  from  clotting.  Suffi- 
cient water  is  then  added  of  a  blood 
warmth,  after  which  the  ferment  is  mixed 
with  the  whole,  which  is  composed  of  the 
yeast  of  former  operations  dried  and  kept 
for  a  certain  time.  If  the  weather  is  fa- 
vourable and  the  heat  well  regulated,  the 
fermentation  begins  in  six  hours,  and  ter- 
minates on  the  third  day,  and  tlie  liquor 
becomes  transparent  and  assumes  a  hot 
pungent  taste.  The  distillation  is  then 
proceeded  upon  immediately,  before  the 
liquor  turns  sour,  which  is  avoided  as 
much  as  possible.  The  distillation  is  con- 
ducted very  slowly,  that  the  spirit  may  be 
as  little  as  possible  impregnated  witli  the 
oil  of  the  grain,  to  which  much  of  the 
unpleasant  flavour  of  the  ordinary  spii-its 
is  justly  atti'ibuted.  The  first  spirit  is 
then  rectified  by  a  second  distillation  over 
juniper-beri*ies,  or  in  double  Geneva  by  a 
third  process.  In  some  of  the  ordinary 
sorts,  however,  the  juniper-berries  are 
mixed  with  the  fermenting  materials,  and 
one  distillation  suffices  In  the  common 
geneva  or  gin  vulgarly  used  in  this  coun- 
try, the  fine  juniper  flavour  is  coarsely  imi- 
tated by  turpentine. 

Rum  is  prepared  by  distilling  a  fermen- 
ted liquor  made  from  molasses,  and  other 
refuse  saccharine  matter,  whicJi  is  pro- 
cured during  the  manufacture  of  raw  su- 
gar in  the  West  Indies  Tiie  common 
process  in  Jamaica  is  the  following.  The 
materials  for  the  fermentation  are,  molas- 
ses or  the  treacle  which  drains  from  the 
sugar,  scummings  of  the  hot  cane  juice. 


DIS 


DIS 


or  sometimes  raw  cane  liquor,  lees  or 
dunder  as  it  is  called,  and  water.  The 
dundcr  answers  the  purpose  of  yeast,  and 
is  usually  prepared  by  a  separate  fermen- 
tation of  cane  sweets  and  water.  The 
rrtaterials  being  mixed  in  due  proportions, 
(which  are  about  equal  parts  of  scum- 
mings,  dunder,  and  water,)  the  fermenta- 
tion begins  very  soon,  and  in  24  hours  the 
liquor  is  fit  for  tlie  first  charge  of  molas- 
ses, which  is  added  in  the  propoition  of  3 
gallons  for  every  100  gallons  of  the  liquor. 
Another  charge  is  added  in  a  day  or  two 
afterwards.  The  heat  in  fermentation 
should  not  exceed  90^  or  94°,  so  that  in 
this  climate  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
fermenting  tubs  as  cool  as  possible.  The 
fermentation  falls  in  six  or  eight  days,  and 
the  liquor  grows  fine  and  fit  for  distilla- 
tion. In  about  two  hours  after  lighting 
the  fire  the  spirit  begins  to  run  (in  a  still 
of  1200  gallons)  and  it  is  collected  as 
long  as  it  remains  inflammable. 

The  first  y«ju-it  is  called,  in  the  country, 
loiu  -joints,  and  it  is  rectified  in  a  smaller 
still  to  the  Jamaica  proof,  which  is  that  in 
which  olive  oil  will  sink.  About  220  gal- 
lons of  proof  rum  are  obtained  from  530 
gallons  of  low  wines.  See  Fermenta- 
tion- 

DISTILLED  WATERS.  Of  this  large 
class  of  ciieniical  preparations,  but  almost 
entirely  devoted  to  pharmacy,  a  few  ob- 
sei'vations  may  be  made, 

The  object  of  them  :dl  is  to  impregnate 
water,  solely  with  the  iU'oniatic  or  flavour- 
ing principles  of  plants  or  pai-ts  of  plant.?, 
kiiving  behind  all  the  other  soluble  mat- 
ter. There  is  every  reason  to  believe,  that 
the  substance  which  flavours  the  distilled 
waters  of  vegetables  is  essential  oil ;  be- 
cause in  most  instances,  a  portion  of  es- 
sential oil,  actually  scp;u-ates  from  the 
water,  wlicn  recently  distilled,  because 
the  sensible  projierlies  of  the  water  are 
ne:u'ly  the  same,  as  when  a  few  drops  of 
the  essential  oil  of  the  plant  are  mixed 
with  pure  water  by  simple  agitation,  be- 
cause in  the  process  of  distillation  the 
condensed  liquor  becomes  gradually  less 
:uul  less  flavoured,  in  proportion  as  the 
<.ssential  oil  must  esca])e,  and  because 
distilled  waters,  evaporated  to  dryness, 
leave  no  sensible  portion  of  residue. 

Common  distillation  of  aroniutic  vege- 
tables, is  a  simple  jjpoccss,  but  gives  room 
tor  some  nicety  of  management,  particu- 
larly in  tiie  regulation  of  the  heat,  and  the 
quantitv  of  water,  which  can  only  be 
K  arnt  by  experience.  As  an  example, 
common  pejipermint  water  may  be  given, 
and  is  thus  made.  Put  a  jjound  and  a 
half  of  dry  peppermint  in  a  still,  cover  it 
V. ith  v.atcr,  put  on  the  capital,  luting  the 


joints  with  wet  bladder  or  pasted  paper, 
bring  the  liquor  to  boil  quickly,  and  keep 
it  just  boiling  till  about  a  gallon  of  water 
has  run  over.  The  residue  in  the  still  is 
then  thrown  away  as  useless.  The  water 
that  comes  over  first,  is  somewhat  turbid, 
owing  to  the  excess  of  essential  oil  that 
it  contains,  and  in  consequence,  is  by 
much  the  strongest.  By  rest  it  becomes 
clear,  and  a  fine  pellicle  of  oil  rises  to 
the  top. 

As  a  knowledge  and  choice  of  blos- 
soms, fruits,  and  aromatic  plants,  used  in 
distillation  is  imjjortant,  we  shall  make 
some  observations  on  these  subjects,  and 
conclude  with  a  few  directions  for  prepar- 
ing distilled  waters. 

The  distillers  make  use  of  blossoms  on 
two  accounts,  viz.  either  to  press  out  the 
tincture  of  them,  as  of  violets,  damask- 
roses,  corn-flowers,  saffron,  hyacinths, 
pinks,  Scc.orto  extract  from  them  the  vo- 
latile smell,  as  from  the  rose,  carnation, 
jessamine,  violet, jonquil:  the  blossoms 
of  aromatic  plants,  as  thyme,  rosemary, 
basilic,  spike -lavender,  &c.  or  the  blos- 
soms of  sweet-scented  trees,  as  of  lemon, 
orange,  and  otliers,  are  much  used. 

The  distiller  ought  to  know  the  choice 
of  blossoms,  and  to  make  use  of  them 
only  in  their  prime,  and  the  time  in  which 
they  have  their  full  strength.  The  gene- 
ral rule  is  to  gather  them  always  before 
sun-rising,  in  clear,  dry  weatlier,  whilst 
the  cool  of  the  morning  prevents  their 
volatile  scent  from  dispersing. 

The  fruits  made  use  of  by  distillers  are 
of  several  kinds,  lemons,  oranges,  golden- 
rennets,  muscatel-pears,  and  quinces. 
From  the  quinces,  which  are  fit  to  ferment, 
we  may  distil  a  spirituous  water,  which 
is  very  good  to  mix  with  other  liquors,par- 
tukingof  the  fine  flavour  of  that  fruit,  and 
contracting  medicinal  virtues  for  the  slo- 
mach.  This  fruit  is  principally  made  use 
of  for  ratifias  ;  which,  alter  it  has  stood 
for  some  time,  come  to  a  very  great  per- 
fection. 

Cherries,  plumbs,  and  apricots,  are 
made  use  of  in  ratifias  :  these  three  sorts 
are  infused  in  brandy.  Distillers  use  other 
fruits  to  ratifias,  as  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries, mulberries,  8tc. 

Kernels  of  nuls  are  also  used  in  distill- 
ing :  those  for  ratifia  are  infused  in  bran- 
dy ,  when  young.  IJitter  almonds  serve 
the  same  purpose,  as  well  for  extract- 
ing oil  from  them,  as  for  odoriferous  es- 
sences. 

Aromatic  plants,  are  those  whose  stalks 
and  blossoms    have    a  penetrating,  }ct 
pleasing  odour.    These  plants  retain  their  ■ 
scent,  for  a  long  time,  after  they  are  ga- 
thcred,  nay,  even  after  they  are  drictl.  W-^ 


DIS 


DIS 


may  extract  from  tbem  odoriferous  wa- 
ters, and  essences,  which  are  used  in- 
stead of  the  plant,  when  that  cannot  be 
had. 

Spice  is  frequently  made  use  of  by  dis- 
tillers; such  as,  cIoTes,  cinnamon,  nut- 
megs, and  mace.  Out  of  these  four  sorts 
are  extracted,  by  dig^estion,  tinctures  and 
infusion  ;  and  likewise  oil,  by  distillation, 
as  shall  be  specified  hereafter. 

The  seeds  g-enerally  made  use  of  in 
distilling'  ai-e,  anise,  fennel,  angelica,  cori- 
ander, dill,  celery,  parsley  ;  of  these  are 
drawn  the  spirits,  with  brandy  ;  and  are 
well  tasted  liquors. 

We  shall  here  subjoin  a  few  directions, 
for  making  such  compound  waters  as  ai-e 
in  most  general  estimation. 

1st.  CloTe-ivater  .•  Take  4lbs.  of  bruised 
cloves,  half  a  pound  of  piniento,  or  all- 
spice, and  16  gallons  of  proof  spirit.  Di- 
gest the  raistui-e  in  gentle  heat,  and  then 
draw  off  15  gallons,  with  a  somewhat 
brisk  fire.  The  water  may  be  coloured 
red,  either  by  a  strong  tincture  of  cochi- 
neal, or  of  corn-poppy  flowers  ;  and  sweet- 
ened at  pleasure,  with  double-refined  su- 
gar. 

The  preparation  of  cordials  or  spice- 
waters,  is  very  arbitrary ;  though  after  se- 
lecting your  materials,  as  a  general  rule, 
follow  the  direction  in  the  above  article, 
keeping  in  mind  that  the  quality  of  the 
liquor  does  not  so  much  depend  on  the 
quantity  or  variety  of  the  ingredients  as 
on  their  judicious  management. 

2d.  Lemon-\iater  ■•  Take  of  dried  lemon 
peel  41bs.  pure  proof  spirit,  10^  gallons, 
and  one  of  water ;  draw  off  ten  gallons 
by  a  gentle  fire,  and  dulcify  the  compound 
with  fine  sugar. 

3d.  Citron-'jiater  :  Take  of  the  drv-  yel- 
low rinds  of  citrons,  31bs.  of  orange  peel, 
21bs,  bi-uised  nutmegs,  three-fourths  of  a 
pound ;  clean  proof  spirit,  10^  gallons, 
and  one  of  water.  Digest  them  in  a  mo- 
derate heat  ;  then  draw  off  ten  gallons, 
and  add  the  requisite  pixjportion  of  fine 
sugar. 

4th.  Orange-v}atei :  Take  of  the  yellow 
part  of  fresh  orange-peel,  51  bs.  clean  proof 
spirit,  10  gallons  and  a  half;  water,  two 
gallons  ;  and  draw  off  ten,  over  a  slow  fire. 

5th.  Double  distilled  in-ange-viater.  Put 
orange  blossoms  into  the  still  according 
to  the  quantity  of  water  that  is  to  be  made, 
and  having  fire  under  it ;  draw  over  the 
flavour  from  the  blossoms,  re-distil  this 
product  with  fresh  blossoms,  and  you 
will  obtain  the  double  distilled  orange- 
water. 

With  the  double  distilled  orange-wa- 
ter you  will  have  the  essence,  which  is  the 
VOL.  I. 


oily  part  tliat  swims  on  the  siu-face.  The 
essence  is  at  first  of  a  green  colour,  but 
changes  in  a  kw  days  into  a  reddish 
colour. 

In  order  to  part  this  from  the  water, 
turn  it  in  a  bottle  ;  when  the  double  dis- 
tilled water  will  come  out  fiist,  and  the 
essence  remain  to  the  last. 

6th.  Soie-viater.  The  common  white 
roses  are  the  best  for  distilling,  while  the 
red  and  wild  roses  are  fittest  for  phar- 
maceutical purposes. 

For  distilling  of  simple  rose-water,  the 
leaves  of  tlie  rose  while  fresh  are  slightly 
bruised,  and  then  distilled,  and  re -distilled 
(according  to  the  quality  of  the  liquor 
required)  as  noticed  in  the  preceding 
article. 

Rose-water  is  generally  distilled  from 
the  salted  rose-leaves.  The  leaves,  as  they 
are  gathered,  ai'e  salted,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve tliera ;  and  to  every  quart  of  the 
leaves,  thus  salted,  about  four  quarts  of 
water  are  added  ui  the  still.  The  thstil- 
led  water  is  preser>ed  by  adding  to  it  a 
small  quantity  of  spirit:  if  it  contract 
acidity,  which  is  often  the  case  in  sum- 
mer, it  may  be  corrected  by  inti'oducing 
into  it  a  little  potash  or  chalk.  Rose-wa- 
ter may  be  prepared  very  expeditiously, 
by  using  1  he  essential  oil,  commonly  called 
the  otta  of  rosea ,-  for  this  purpose  it  is 
first  mixed  with  alcohol,  and  then  added 
to  distilled  water ;  or  it  is  put  into  the  stil! 
witli  a  small  quantity  of  spirit  and  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  water,  and  distilled. 
One  drop  of  the  oil,  if  the  process  be  pro- 
perly conducted,  will  impregnate  one  pint 
or  e\en  a  quart  or  more  of  water  :  for  it 
is  only  the  impregnation  of  the  water  with 
the  aroma  of  the  rose,  which  resides  in 
an  essential  oil,  that  constitutes  rose-wa- 
ter. The  double  distillation  of  rose-water, 
83  it  is  called,  is  intended  (to  use  a  tech- 
nical plwase)  to  saturate  the  water  witli 
the  essential  oil,  in  order  to  impregnate  it 
the  rnm-e  effectually-  In  order  to  unite 
essential  oils  with  water,  as  may  be  prac- 
tised also  with  the  oil  of  roses,  a  method 
has  been  adopted,  which  answers  in  many 
cases  as  a  substitute  to  distillation.  This 
is  accomplished  in  the  shops  of  the  apo- 
thecaries in  the  following  manner:  A 
piece  of  white  sugar,  about  an  ounce,  is 
put  into  a  mortar,  and,  for  every  quart  of 
water  that  is  to  be  made,  ten  to  sixteen 
drops  of  the  oil  is  added,  with  two 
ounces  of  alcohol ;  these  are  rubbed  to- 
gether ;  and  the  quantity  of  water  gradu- 
ally added.  In  this  way  is  made  the  fol- 
lowuig  waters,  viz  :  of 

Peppermint,  mint,  lavender,  cinnamon, 
pennvroval,  &c.    The  waters  sold  in  Xhv^ 

Kk 


DIS 


ms 


city  as  distilled,  by  the  hucksters,  such  as 
mint,  are  prepared  altogether  of  the  es- 
sential oils.  We  shall  notice,  however, 
some  of  these  waters  as  prepared  by  dis- 
tillation. 

7th.  Llly-xvater.  To  make  lily-water, 
take  good  blossoms,  gathered  in  the 
manner  as  before  observed,  put  tliem  into 
a  still  and  pour  water  on  them. 

Distil  your  ingredients  with  an  open 
and  pretty  strong  fire.  Be  careful  not 
to  bring  over  too  much,  lest  the  flowers 
should  burn  arid  spoil  all;  nor  too  little 
lest  you  wrong  yourself. 

To  three  cjuai-ts  of  water  take  one  pound 
of  lilies,  or  in  proportion,  if  you  intend  to 
distil  a  larger  quantity. 

For  the  double  distilled  lily-water,  fill 
the  still  half  full  with  flowers,  and  put 
water  lo  them.  In  this  manner  you  will 
get  a  fine  lily- water,  and  a  beautifier  to 
the  skin.  If  you  distil  the  lilies  in  a  hot 
season,  you  will  get  an  essence.  When 
you  dtaw  over  the  double  water,  let  it  be 
only  the  fourth  part,  and  the  quintessence 
will  swim  on  the  surface,  which,  by  de- 
canting off"  the  water,  you  will  preserve 
in  the  receiver. 

8th.  Of  Carnations  ■  and  Pinks. — The 
carnations  used  by  distillers  are  tiie 
small  ones,  which  have  only  four  leaves; 
and  to  make  a  good  choice  of  them,  pitch 
upon  such  as  are  of  a  deep  red,  terminat- 
ing into  black,  of  a  velvet  hue,  and  gather 
them  in  warm  weather.  These  pinks  blow 
thrice  in  the  summer ;  the  first  blown  are 
the  best,  for  they  are  of  more  strength, 
a)id  of  a  volatile  smell. 

When  you  have  gathered  your  pinks, 
pluck  off  the  leaves,  and  cut  away  the 
white  end  of  them,  which  has  no  smell, 
and  lessens  the  colour  of  the  water.  This 
done,  put  them  into  a  stone  bottle,  and, 
when  full,  pour  brandy  to  them ;  letting 
them,  thus  .infused,  stand  for  six  weeks  ; 
then  put  some  cloves  to  them,  in  order  to 
extract  the  flavour  from  the  leaves.  In 
case  you  cannot  get  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  ipinks  to  fill  a  large  bottle,  take  less, 
but  be  sure  to  fill  It  to  tlie  top ;  and  then, 
but  not  before,  pour  in  yom*  brandy,  and 
close  it  up,  to  prevent  its  evaporating,  and 
lessening  the  odour  of  tlie  flowers.  After 
six  weeks,  pour  the  infusion  through 
a  sieve,  and  press  the  liquid  gently  from 
the  leaves;  add  a  small  quantity  of  sugar, 
afterwards,  filter  and  bottle  it,  and  you 
have  a  beautiful  tincture  more  valuable 
for  its  deep  crimson  colour. 

9th.  Of  the  Jessamine. — Part  the  blos- 
soms from  the  green  they  arc  enclosed 
in,  and  use  them  soon,  lest  they  lose 
some  of  their  odour :  put  six  ounces  of 
tflem  into  yoQr  still,  pour  three  quarts  of 


brandy  on  them,  and  distil  it  with  a  pretty 
strong  fire,  care  being  taken  to  bring  over 
none  of  the  phlegm. 

The  spirits  bemg  all  drawn  over,  close 
your  receiver  with  a  cork;  then,  having 
dissolved  two  pounds  of  sugar  in  fresh  wa- 
ter, pour  the  syrup  into  the  receiver,  upon 
the  spirits.  This  done,  cork  your  receiver 
directly,  and  do  not  filter  it  till  the  next 
day,  tliat  it  may  have  time  to  cool,  and 
preserve  its  odour. 

Cover  the  funnel  whilst  the  liquor  runs 
through  the  filter,  and  then  carefully  pre- 
serve it  m  bottles. 

10th.  Of  Violets. — The  single-violets  in 
the  spring  are  much  prefefable  to  the  dou- 
ble ones  in  autumn. 

Follow,  in  these,  the  directions  given 
concerning  the  management  of  other 
flowers. 

Having  gathered  your  violets,  part  the 
blossom  from  the  green,  and  put  them  in 
brandy 

The  excellency  of  this  flower  consists 
in  its  beautiful  colour  and  fine  smell.  Its 
colour  both  for  syrup  and  liquid,  is  care- 
fully extracted  by  infusion;  and  the  value 
of  either  the  one  or  the  other  is  according 
to  the  beauty  of  its  colour. 

The  violets  having  been  for  a  month 
kept  in  infusion,  pour  the  same  through  a 
sieve ;  dissolve  sugar  in  watei',  and  put 
the  liquor  of  the  uifusion  into  the  syrup, 
mixing  both  well  together ;  after  which, 
pour  it  through  a  filter  and  your  liquor 
will  be  ready  for  bottling. 

Flowers  should  be  used  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  they  are  gathered,  lest  their 
volatile  odour  should  escape. 

lltli.  Of  the  Jonquil. — Select  the  single 
jonquils  that  have  a  fine  odour,  infuse 
them  in  brandy,  as  has  been  directed  in 
the  foregoing  article ;  keeping  the  infu- 
sion in  a  moderately  warm  place.  Then 
follow  the  du-ections  given  concerning  the 
jessamine.  It  will  be  recollected  that  the 
principal  use  of  the  foregoing  preparations 
is  in  perfumery,  where,  frequently  the  co- 
lour is  of  as  much  importance  as  the  odour ; 
but  as  this  is  generally  destroyed  where 
a  considerable  degree  of  heat  is  used,  dis- 
tillers resort  to  artificial  means  to  supply 
this  defect.  Tiie  most  usual  colours  in 
demand  among  perfumers,  are  crimson, 
cherry,  rose,  orange,  lemon,  purple  and 
blue :  these  colours  are  prepared  from 
turnsole,  cochineal,  and  from  the  infusion 
of  plants.  1.  To  prepare  a  crimson  co- 
lour, take  tliree  drachms  of  cochineal  and 
half  a  draclun  of  alum,  beat  them  to  an 
impalpable  !■  juder,  add  a  wine  glass  of 
boiling  water,  and  when  well  mixed, 
blend  them  with  the  syrup  for  the  filter- 
ing operation.    2.  To  prepare  a  violet  or 


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purple  colour,  turnsole-powder,  treated 
similarly  to  the  foregoing  preparations, 
is  alone  sufficient.  3.  For  other  prepara- 
tions, select  flowers  of  the  colour  you 
wish  to  impart,  separate  them  from  their 
impurities,  put  them  with  a  small  quanti- 
ty of  water  into  a  pan  or  glass  vessel,  place 
the  vessel  in  a  sand-bath  or  over  a  mode- 
rate fire,  and  the  blossoms  will  soon  im- 
part theii"  colour  to  the  water,  which  must 
be  used  like  the  first  preparation. 

12th.  Lavender  and  other  herbs. — For  four 
quarts  of  spirits  of  lavender,  ivith  rectified 
spirits  of  xaine. — Draw  the  spirits  of  seven 
quarts  of  brandy  o^ver  by  itself;  then  add 
four  ounces  of  the  esseri<;e  of  lavender,  in 
the  still,  to  rectify. 

If  you  make  use  of  the  plant,  thf  n  put 
half  a  pound  of  blossoms  In,  and  as  much 
brandy  as  before,  to  bring  over  the  low 
spirits  ;  and  a  gill  of  water,  to  prevent  the 
ingredients  burning  at  the  bottom.  When 
you  have  brought  it  over,  add  half  a  pound 
more  of  lavender  to  the  distilled  spirits, 
and  rectify  them  without  water. 

Of  t lie  essence  of  lavender,  or  other  aro- 
matic herbs. 

A  distiller  may  be  in  a  place  where  he 
cannot  procure  essences  ;  he  should  then 
take  off  the  blossoms  from  the  stalks  of 
such  plants  as  he  intends  to  use,  (whicli 
must  be  cut  fresh  at  sun-rise  in  warm 
weather;)  spread  the  blossoms  on  a  white 
linen  cloth,  and  lay  them  in  the  sliade  for 
twenty -four  hours  ;  after  which,  stamp  or 
bruise  them  ;  then  immerse  them  in  wai-m 
water,  in  the  still,  over  a  well  covered 
fire,  or  hot  ashes,  and  let  them  infuse  for 
the  space  of  five  or  six  hours,  wi.hout  the 
head,  yet  so  covered  that  nothing  may 
exhale  from  it ;  after  which,  take  off  the 
covering  and  quickly  put  on  the  head, 
and  lute  it  carefully.  You  must  in  the 
beginning  draw  over  half  the  quantity  of 
the  water  you  put  in.  Take  away  the  re- 
ceiver and  you  will  see  the  essence  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  which  you  may 
separate  from  it,  as  you  do  that  of  the 
orange.  Then  put  the  distilled  water 
back,  and  distil  it  over  again,  till  no  more 
of  the  essence  appears  on  the  water.  Dis- 
til this  water  four  or  five  times  over,accord- 
ingly  as  you  perceive  the  essence  upon  it. 

The  best  distdling  utensils  for  this  work 
are  those  for  the  sand  bath.  You  may 
also,  after  the"  common  method,  distil  the 
ingredients  on  an  open  fire.  But  if  you 
intend  to  make  essence  for  waters,  use 
common  salt,  in  order  to  extract  more 
from  the  blossoms. 

13th.  Of  tlie  Essence  of  Spices.  To  draw 
the  essence  from  spice,  is  the  most  diffi- 
cult task  in  distilUng  ;  for  if  it  be  extract- 
ed in  the  same  mamier  ^  from  aromatic 


plants,  it  will  produce  but  very  little ;  but 
in  order  to  procure  the  greatest  possible 
quantity,  we  proceed  in  the  following 
manner : 

Instead  of  extracting  an  oil,  you  make, 
for  example,  a  tincture  of  cinnamon, 
(which  approaches  to  the  essence,) 
with  rectified  spuits,  like  the  tincture  of 
amber,  nutmegs,  and  cinnamon:  you  first 
beat  the  cinnamon  in  a  mortar  to  a  fine 
powder,  covering  the  same  with  leather, 
to  prevent  its  escape  :  after  which,  you 
seaixh  it  through  a  fine  hair  sieve  ;  what 
remains,  beat  again  in  the  mortar,  and 
sift  it  as  before.  Then  put  the  powder 
into  a  small  still,  and  pour  on  it  rectified 
spirit ;  stop  it  close  with  a  cork,  and  se- 
cure it  witli  melted  wax.  The  spirits  must 
be  about  two  inches  over  the  cinnamon. 
In  this  state  of  infusion  you  leave  it  for 
the  space  of  foiu-teen  or  fifteen  days,  shak- 
ing it  once  every  day ;  after  which  let 
it  stand  for  some  days  to  settle,  then  pour 
ofl'  tlie  spirits  as  clear  as  possible. 

You  draw  the  essence  from  cloves  after 
the  same  manner. 

.  To  lutike  the  Essence  of  Jiuttnegs.  Take 
one  pound,  and  beat  them  in  a  mortar, 
ajid  they  will  become  a  dough,  which 
spread  on  a  new  linen  cloth,  and  put  into 
a  sieve  ;  then  put  it  over  an  ash  fire,  or 
make  use  of  a  kettle,  or  sauce-pan,  of  the 
size  of  your  sieve,  filling  it  about  half  full 
of  water,  so  that,  upon  occasion,  vou  may 
pour  more  to  it  Your  kettle  must  be 
pretty  deep,  so  that  tlie  steam  of  die 
\^ater  may  play  freely,  and  the  water 
when  boiling,  iray  not  touch  tlie  sieve, 
but  the  steam  may  penetrate  into  the 
nutmegs.  Cover  the  sieve  close  with  an 
earthen  dish  or  plate  ;  then  set  it  over  a 
fire,  till  the  dish  is  too  warm  to  bear  your 
hand  upon  it.  The  nutmeg  is  now  pre- 
pared for  drawing  out  the  essence, 
for  which  take  two  smootli  ii'on  or 
copper  plates,  which  heat  to  the  degree 
usual  for  ironing  of  linen.  Take  the  nut- 
megs, hot  as  they  are,  wrap  the  cloth 
around  them,  tie  it  with  a  strong  cord : 
put  it  between  the  plates,  under  a  press, 
and  the  essence  will  soon  be  discharg-ed 
from  the  nutmegs.  The  water  which 
may  come  along  with  tlie  essence,  sepa- 
rate as  before  du-ected,  and  you  will 
have  an  excellent  oil,  or  essence  of  that 
spice. 

By  the  same  method,  the  essence  may 
be  separated  from  mace  and  cloves;  but  to 
extract  it  thus,  from  cinnamon,  is  imprac- 
ticable. 

To  draw  tlie  essence  from  spices,  as 
from  aromatic  herbs  or  plants,  take  four 
pounds  of  them,  witli  six  quarts  of  water ; 
but  if   vou   extr.act  them   over  an  ash 


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fire,  Of  sand  batli,  then  take  only  two 
pounds. 

Of  Seeds.  Having  under  the  preced- 
ing' arliclcs,  shewn  the  metliod  of  distill- 
insy  blossoms,  aromatic  plants,  &c.  we 
now  come  to  aromatic  seeds. 

l4th.  Of  .Stiseseed.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  anise-seed,  viz.  the  Spanish  which 
is  of  an  excellent  flavour,  and  is  as  larg'e 
as  a  juniper  berry,  but  yields  very  little 
in  distilling' ;  and  the  inland  or  green 
anise-sci'd,  which  if  good  is  heavy,  and 
thougii  dry,  retains  its  colour  for  a  long 
time.  "^I'his  seed  is  best  when  green,  or 
fresh  gathered,  and  if  bruised  with  a  third 
part  of  I'ennel-seed,  its  quality  is  veiy 
much  improved.  To  prepare  anise-seed- 
>vater,  put  two  quarts  of  brandy  diluted 
with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  into  the 
still;  add  one  ounce  of  fennel-seed,  and 
two  ounces  of  anise-seed,  distil  with  a 
gentle  heat,  and  with  what  comes  over, 
combine  three  quarts  of  water,  and  two 
pounds  of  sug^r ;  then  filter  and  bottle  it 
for  use. 

15th.  Of  Fennel,  Coriander,  and  ^nge- 
lica-secd.  To  prepare  water  from  these, 
individually,  lake  two  ounces  of  seed  of 
each  of  the  two  foi-mer,  and  one  ounce 
of  tiie  latter,  and  follow  the  directions  laid 
down  in  the  jircccding  article. 

16th.  Jumper  betries,\\\\i:\\  new  and  fresh 
should  be  lound,  full,  and  of  a  black 
colour.  Ifthcy  arc  tart  or  soiuish,  in  tiie 
flavour,  moulded  and  shrivelled,  they  are 
of  little  or  no  value. 

In  oi'der  to  make  geneva,  or  junipct- 
watcr,  first  bruise  the  berries,  and  put 
them  in  a  vessel  wherein  they  may  fer- 
ment, wliich  they  will  do  in  a  kvf  days, 
and  receive  a  spirituous  and  winy  qua- 
lity. When  the  berries  have  received 
sufficient  strength,  filter  them  and  distil 
juniper-brandy,  called  gcnevu  from  them. 

To  make  a  coi'dial  liquor  from  tliis  fer- 
ment, bring  tlic  berries  under  the  press, 
extract  the  juice  from  them  ;  and  distil 
it  without  apprciiension  of  danger;  but  if 
you  jnit  the  husks  in,  you  run  the  danger 
of  tiieir  rising  up  to  tiie  head,  and  slop- 
ping  the  entry  of  the  pipe,  which  would 
()cc:ision  dangerous  accidents. 

inii.  Unf/iir/jiug/t,  is  prepared  in  the 
follow  manner:  Take  of  cloves,  cinnamon, 
and  nutmegs,  eacli  2oz.  of  caraway,  anise, 
and  coriander-seeds,  each  4  oz.  and  half 
a  pound  of  liquoiice-root,  cut  in" slices. 
Let  these  ingredieiUs  be  bruised,  and  dis- 
tilled with  1 1  gallons  of  ])roof-spirit,  and 
two  gallons  of  water,  till  \\nfiints  begin 
to  rise.  Wiien  the  liquor  is  about  to  run, 
2  oz.  of  British  saflfion,  tied  in  a  linen 
bag,  should  be  fixed  to  the  extremity  of 
he  worm,  so  that  the  spirit  may  filter 
!i  rough,  and  extract  all  the  virtues  of  the 


safiron.  When  the  distillation  is  complet- 
ed, the  whole  should  be  sweetened  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  double-refined  su- 
gar, and  decanted  for  use. 

18th.  Common  ratafia,  is  obtained  by 
infusing  2  oz.  of  nutmegs,  2^  lbs.  of  bitter 
almonds,  2  lbs.  of  Lisbon  sugar,  and  2h 
grains  of  amber-grease,  in  ten  quarts  of 
clear  proof  spirit.  It  will  be  proper  to 
bruise  the  nutmegs  and  almonds  ;  and 
also  to  triturate  tiie  ambei-grease  with  the 
sugar,  in  a  mortar,  before  they  are  added 
to  the  other  ingredients  ;  and,  when  the 
whole  has  digested  for  a  sufficient  time, 
it  may  be  filtered  throvg-J'  a  bag,  and  kept 
for  use  in  close  vessels. 

Jied  Ratafia:  Take  24  lbs  o{ black-heart 
chtrries,  4  lbs.  of  the  conim,<m  black  cher- 
ries, 3  lbs.  of  raspberries,  and  the  same 
quantity  of  strawbenies,  which  must  be 
deprived  of  their  stalks,  and  then  bruis- 
ed. '  In  this  state,  they  are  to  remain  for 
the  space  of  12  hours;  when  the  juice 
should  be  expressed,  and  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  sugar  be  added  to  each  pint.  As 
soon  as  the  hitter  is  completely  dissolved, 
the  whole  ought  to  be  filtered,  and  mixed 
with  three  quarts  of  clear  proof  sjjirit. 
Next,  one  oimce  of  cinnamon,lwo  drachms 
of  mace,  and  half  a  drachm  of  cloves,  are 
to  be  bruised,  and  poured  into  an  alembic, 
tog-ether  with  two  pints  of  spirits,  and  one 
pint  of  water  :  one  quart  of  spicy  spirit 
should  be  drawn  oflT  with  a  brisk  fire,  and 
be  added  to  the  liquor  :  when  the  whole 
has  properly  subsided,  it  may  be  decanted 
for  use. 

Bry,  or  sharp  Ratifa  :  Take  30  lbs.  of 
cherries,  a  similar  quantity  of  gooseber- 
ries, 7  lbs.  of  mulberries,  and  10  lbs.  of 
raspberries.  These  fruits  must  be  clean- 
ed, picked,  and  bruised ;  after  which 
they  should  be  sufiered  to  stand  for  12 
hours.  The  juice  is  then  to  be  expressed, 
and  combined  with  three  ounces  of  sugar 
to  each  pint  "When  the  latter  is  dissolv- 
ed, t!)c  liquor  must  be  filtered,  and  four 
pints  of  pure  proof  spirit  mixed  with  every 
five  pints  of  t  he  former,  together  with  the 
same  qiumtity  of  spicy-spirit,  as  directed 
for  Red  Katifia. 

Of  Infusions.  Infusions  have  been  treat- 
ed of,  in  several  of  the  foregoing  receipts: 
they  were  made  use  of  before  the  distill- 
ing' of  liquors  was  well  known,  and  com- 
monly  done  in  spirits  of  wine,  which  me- 
thod is  still  observed  by  many  people: 
and  although  distillation  is  far  preferable 
to  infusion,  yet  the  latter  ought  to  be  well 
known  and  practised,  on  several  accounts; 
first,  for  the  satisfaction  of  such  as  have 
an  aversion  against  distilled  liquors,  2dly, 
as  it  is  an  essential  part  belonging  to  the 
art  of  distilling  :  3dly,  as  it  is  a  means  for 
procuring  things  in  such  places  where  no 


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utensils  for  disUUing  are  to  be  had  :  And, 
lastly,  as  we  may  perform  all  that, 
without  apprehension  of  danger,  which 
we  cannot  draw  over  the  helm,  where,  of 
necessity,  recoiuse  must  be  had  to  infu- 
sion. 

By  infusion  we  understand  a  steeping 
of  any  kinds  of  drugs,  roots,  leaves,  &c. 
in  some  liquor  proper  to  draw  out  their 
virtues. 

Several  infusions  are  made. in  water  foj- 
syrups,  and  medicines,  some  are  made  in 
wine ;  others  for  strong  liquors  and  ruti- 
fias,  are  infused  in  brandy,  and  spirits  of 
wine. 

Tlie  ingredients  are  put  into  a  atsscI 
that  can  be  well  covered  and  enclosed. 
They  are  either  pulverized,  cut,  or  left 
whole,  in  the  same  niaiiner  as  tliough  they 
were  to  be  distilled ;  they  are  continued 
in  infusion,  for  from  foiu-teen  or  fifteen 
days, to  a  month,  six  weeks,or  two  montlis, 
and  shook  about  every  two  or  three  days  ; 
after  which  the  liquid  is  gently  poured  off" 
the  ingredients,  then  mixed  with  syrups, 
prepared  for  that  purpose,  filtered  and 
bottled  for  use.  The  infusion  of  spices 
may  be  performed  in  eight  or  nine  days  : 
others,  for  extracting  of  colours  from  blos- 
soms, require  only  twenty-four  hours. 
The  aromatic  herbs  are  usually  infused  in 
alcohol  or  spiiits. 

The  riglit  metliodfor  making  infusions, 
is  to  put  tliem  in  cool  places,  except  it  is 
for  extracting  the  colours  out  of  blossoms; 
when  a  moderate  heat  becomes  neces- 
sary. 

The  following  circumstances  are  chief- 
ly observable  in  common  distillation. 

The  substance  from  which  the  distilla- 
tion is  made  in  some  cases  requires  pre- 
vious treatment,  in  others  none.  The 
petals  of  flowers,  such  as  roses  oi-  jessa- 
mine, may  be  used  immediately  or  only 
after  ihe  gefftlest  drying.  The  aromatic 
herbaceous  vegetables,  such  as  pepper- 
mint, may  be  used  indiscriminately  fresh 
or  dry,  observing  that  the  plant  is  much 
more  watery  wiien  fresh  than  when  dry ; 
more  water  may  be  added  in  the  disulta- 
tion  of  the  latter,  than  of  the  former. 
Hard  woods  should  be  rasped  or  bruised, 
and  as  they  ai*e  less'  easily  i^enetrated  b_\ 
the  water,  they  should  be  macerated  in  it 
witlmut  heat,  from  one  or  two  daj  s,  to 
as  nntny  weeks,  before  distillation. 

The  quantity  of  water  to  be  used  varies 
much  according  to  circumstances  It 
should  be  always  so  much  as  during  the 
whole  process  to  cover  all  that  part  of  the 
still  ^vllicll  is  immediately  ove>'  the  fire, 
otherwise,  the  vegetable  matter.'  will 
scorch,  and  give  a  very  .Lsagreeable 
burnt  taste  and  sraell,  or  empyreuma,  to 


the  distilled  liquor.  On  the  other  hand, 
too  much  water  makes  tlie  distilled  liquor 
unnecessarily  dilute.  In  general,  fresh  ve- 
getables require  about  thrice  tlieir  weight 
of  water,  and  when  dry,  five  or  six  times. 
The  still  should  never  be  more  than  about 
tln-ee-fourths  full,  or  even  less,  when  suc- 
culent vegetables  are  used,  to  prevent 
boiling  over. 

The  management  of  tlie  fire  is  of  some 
consequence,  to  prevent  boiling  over  aitd 
empyreuma  on  the  one  liand,  and  on  the 
otlier,  to  give  lieat  enough  for  extraction 
of  tlie  aromatic  principle.  Where  a  water 
bath  is  used  (whicli,  however,  is  tedious, 
and  seldom  if  ever  necessary)  all  danger 
of  excess  of  heat  is  avoided  ;  but,  it'is  oft- 
en requisite  to  encrease  the  heat  of  the 
batli  by  adding  salt  to  the  water.  When, 
in  distilling  without  a  bath,  too  much  heat 
is  used,  tiiere  is  danger  either  of  blowing 
off  tlie  capital,  not  without  risk  to  thebj-e- 
stander,  when"  tlie  I"quor  boils  with  ex- 
treme vehemence  (which  is  particulai'ly 
likely  to  occur,  whe.n  the  still  is  too  full  of 
bulky  iierbaccous  vegetables,  thr.t  rise  in 
the  capital,  and  partly  choak  up  the  open- 
ing into  theworm-pij)e)  or  else  the  liquor 
boils  over  into  the  worm-pipe,  and  mixes 
a  decoction  of  Die  vegetable  witli  the  dis- 
tilled water.  This  is  soon  perceived  by 
the  condensed  liquor  coming  out  at  the 
bottom  of  the  worm,  not  in  a  clear  uni- 
form streamlet,  but  by  gushes  and  starts, 
with  a  gurgling  noise,  and  fouled  or  co- 
lotu-ed.  When  this  accident  happens,  the 
fire  should  be  entirelj'  slacked, the  capital 
taken  ofi^,  the  liquor  already  come  over, 
returned  into  tlie  still,  and  the  distillation 
begun  again  with  more  care.  When  the 
stream  of  distilled  water  flows  evenly,  and 
the  boiling  liquor  is  heard  to  simmer  mo- 
derately in  the  boiler,  tiie  operator  will 
know  that  the  process  is  going  on  pro- 
perly. 

The  quantity  of  aromatic  water,  to  be 
obtained  from  a  given  weight  of  any  vege- 
table, cannot  be  l;iid  down  with  accuracy, 
so  as  to  obtiiin  a  liquor  of  uniform  strength ; 
as,  (independently  of  any  difi'erence  in 
conducting  the  operation)  the  season  of  the 
year,  the  length  of  drying-,  and  other  can 
ses,  will  materially  affect  the  intensity  of 
aroma  in  the  vegetuble.  The  taste,  there- 
fore, is  a  better  criterion  to  judge  when 
to  stop  the  process,  as  tlie  liquor  will  rim 
nearly  tasteless,  long  before  the  water  has 
all  boiled  away.  Some  advantage  is  gain- 
ed by  mixing  all  the  distilled  liquor  toge- 
ther, as  the  first  portion  has  generally  ra- 
tlier  more  essential  oiltiian  it  can  retain, 
and  the  last  poition  has  less. 

Some  other  observations  relative  to  the 
management  of  distillation,  will  be  men. 


BRA. 


DRA 


tinned  under  the  article  of  Oils  Essentiai, 
which  are  mostly  obtained  by  the  same 
process. 

Distilled  waters  are  geiierally  supposed 
to  be  made  much  stronger  by  cohobation, 
or  redistilling  the  same  water  from  fresh 
materials.  No  very  accurate  experiments 
liave  been  made  on  this  subject ;  and,  it 
would  appear,  that  when  water  is  the  first 
time  so  supersaturated  with  essential  oil, 
as  to  let  go  a  portion  by  mere  subsidence, 
no  further  process  can  make  it  take  up 
more.  If  so  great  an  increase  of  sensible 
and  other  properties  is  really  produced  by 
cohobation,  as  is  usually  allowed,  it  would 
render  probable  the  old  opinion  of  a  spiri- 
tus  rector,  or  a  peculiar  principle  in  which 
the  active  and  odorant  particles  reside,  se- 
parated from,  and  independent  of  the  es- 
sential oil,  and  which  is  most  largely  dis- 
engaged at  the  first  impression  of  heat, 
ancl  soluble  in  water,  already  saturated 
with  essential  oil 

The  greater  numbei*  of  those  liquors, 
commonly  called  DhtilUd  Waters,  Cordial 
Waters,  &,c  ave  prepared  by  the  particular 
vegetable,  distilled  with  ardent  spirit, 
more  or  less  diluted. 

The  simple  tuaters,  such  as  are  extract- 
ed from  orange-blossoms,  or  lavender, 
and  other  aromatic  plants,  are  va- 
luable ;  since  by  them  we  may  give  their 
respective  flavour  to  other  liquors  and 
things,  and,  by  that  means,  save  abun- 
dance of  labour,  pains,  and  expence. 

Tl>e  simple  waters  of  orange,  lemon- 
peel,  and  others,  are  not  only  used 
by  perfumers,  but  they  are  also  of 
use  in  the  kitchen,  for  making  of  ragouts, 
&c.  There  are  waters  also  distilled 
from  thyme,  sage,  chevril,  parsley,  sorrel, 
and  other  kitchen-herbs,  which  retain 
fheir  natural  flavour,  and  supply  tliewant 
of  tliem  in  the  winter  season. 

We  know,  by  experience,  that  distilled 
waters  of  spices  have  more  odour  and  vo- 
latile essence,  than  the  spices  themselves ; 
for  the  distillation  frees  them  from  the 
gross  parts,  and  a  superfine  spirit  is  there- 
by extracted,  whereof  two  or  three  drops, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  meat,  or 
sauce,  to  be  seasoned,  will  be  of  more  ef- 
fect than  seasoning  it  with  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  the  spice  itself.  The  spirit  of  spice, 
is  principally  useful  in  sauces  and  meats, 
that  are  of  a  transparent  and  cleai-  nature, 
which,  by  the  solid  spices,  are  rendered 
thick  and  obscure. 

DOG.     See  Animals  Domestic 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD,  is  a  red-colour- 

od,  inodorous,  and  insipid  resin,  insoluble 

•  n  water,  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  oils,  to 

)oth  wliich  liquors,  it  communicates  a  red 

olotfr.    By  fire  it  is  fusible,  inflammable. 


and  it  emits  an  acid  vapour,  like  tliat  ot 
benzoin.  A  solution  of  dragon's  blood  in 
alcohol,  is  used  for  staining  marble,  to 
which  it  gives  a  red  tinge,  which  pene- 
trates more  or  less  deeply,  accoiding  to 
the  heat  of  the  marble,  during  tlie  appli- 
cation. But,  as  it  spreads  at  the  same 
time  tiiat  it  sinks  deep,  for  fine  designs 
the  marble  should  be  cold.  Mr.  du  Fay 
says,  that,  by  adding  pitch  to  this  solu- 
tion, the  colour  may  be  rendered  deeper. 
It  is  also  used,  in  considerable  quantities, 
in  many  coloured  varnishes,  and  to  give  a 
mahogany  colour  to  white  wood ;  if  mixed 
with  a  small  portion  of  gamboge  yellow, 
it  much  improves  the  tint,  rendering  it 
more  deep  and  rich. 

DRAINING,  is  the  art  or  practice  of 
making  artificial  channels,  for  carrying  ofli" 
superfluous  moisture  or  water,  from  wet 
or  marshy  lands. 

Those  lands  to  be  drained,  are  usually 
divided  into  two  classes :  1.  Uplands,  or 
those  which  are  situated  so  high,  that  the 
water  can  descend  from  them,  if  properly 
collected  and  conducted ;  and,  2-  Fens, 
marshes,  or  those  lands  which  lie  so  low 
as  to  command  no  fall ;  have  no  descent ; 
and  some  being  even  below  the  level  of 
the  sea. 

1.  With  regard  to  uplands,  it  generally 
happens,  that  the  waters  from  the  springs 
beneatli  the  soil  are  obstructed  in  their 
course  to  the  neighbouring  rivers.  These 
springs  originate  from  the  atmospheric 
moisture  ;  which,  being  condensed  on  the 
summits  of  hills  into  water,  by  the  great- 
er coldness  of  those  parts,  perforates  the 
different  strata  of  the  incumbent  soil, 
where  it  is  of  a  porous  nature ;  the  water 
continues  to  descend,  sometimes  for  many 
miles  togetiier,  but  generally  from  the 
neai'est  eminences  into  the  adjoining  val- 
ley, till  its  course  is  intercepted  by  a  stra- 
tum of  clay ;  where,  being  collected  in 
considerable  quantities,  it  is  forced  to 
work  i'L self  a  passage  through  the  porous 
strata  of  sand,  grnvcl,  or  rock,  that  may 
be  above  the  clay,  following  the  course 
of  these  strata,  till  they  approach  tlie  sui'- 
face  of  the  earth,  or  are  interrupted  by 
any  obstacle,  which  causes  the  water  to 
rise  to  the  svu-face,  and  to  form  springs, 
bogs,  marshes,  &c. 

At  the  loot  of  hills,  therefore,  where  the 
plain  begins  to  be  too  moist,  some  augur- 
holes  should  be  bored,  in  order  to  find  tlie 
dejjth  of  the  springs,  and  consequently 
the  thickness  of  the  upper  stratum  of  the 
soil.  If  this  be  only  4  or  6  feet,  an  hori- 
zontal ditch  should  be  cut  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hill,  to  intercept  the  water, 
which  ought  to  be  carried  off"  by  one  or 
more  ditches  communicating  with  the  for- 


DRA 


DRA 


mer,  and  conducting  the  water  thus  col- 
lected, into  the  neighbouring  rivulet. 
Further,  as  the  strata,  through  which  the 
water  descends  in  forming  these  springs, 
have,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  same  in- 
chnation  as  the  surface  of  the  hill,  the 
holes  should  be  bored,  and  the  ditch  cut, 
not  vertically  downwards,  as  is  common- 
ly practised,  but  perpendicularly  to  that 
surface,  or  in  other  words,  they  should  be 
formed  perpendicularly  to  the  side  of  the 
mountain,  and  not  perpendiculai-ly  to  the 
horizon. 

If,  nevertheless,  on  cutting  a  ditch  five 
or  six  feet  deep,  along  the  foot  of  a  hill, 
vertically  to  the  rising  pkm,  the  upper 
stratum  be  not  penetrated,  and  conse- 
quently no  water  ooze  into  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch,  it  will  be  expedient  to  bore 
other  holes  at  the  bed  of  such  ditch,  some 
yards  deeper,  or  till  water  ascend  through 
them.  Where  this  succeeds,  mam-  holes 
should  be  made,  and  the  water  conducted 
into  the  adjacent  brook,  or  river;  for  it 
will  then  rise,  collect  in  those  trenches 
six  feet  below  the  wet  surface  of  the  val- 
ley, and  thus  be  carried  off,  instead  of 
rising  up  fiom  the  lower  wall-springs,  or 
apertures  of  the  stratum,  through  the  in- 
cumbent soil,  to  the  surface  of  the  valley, 
which  is  so  many  ieet  higher. 

Situations,  however,  fi-equently  occur, 
where  the  first  stratum  of  the  earth  may 
be  too  tliick  to  be  easily  perforated ;  or 
where  the  water,  condensed  from  the  at- 
mosphere on  the  summits  of  the  hills,  may 
work  itself  a  passage  between  the  second 
and  third,  or  between  the  third  and  fourth 
strata,  which  form  the  sides  of  those  hills, 
from  a  deficiency  of  so  many  of  the  strata 
at  theu-  summits.  Hence  the  water  lies 
too  deep  to  be  retarded  in  its  progress  by 
a  ditch,  or  by  boring;  but,  being  dammed 
up  by  the  materials  that  form  the  plain  of 
the  valley,  it  ascends  through  them  to  the 
surface,  and  thus  forms  boggj",  or  marshy 
ground.  In  such  cases,  the  common 
mode  of  draining  may  be  successfully 
employed:  it  consists  in  cutting  several 
ditches  four  or  six  feet  across  the  bog,  or 
morass ;  and  in  covering  them  so  that  the 
water  may  not  be  obstructed  in  its  passage, 
but  be  thus  in  part  collected  and  convey- 
ed away,  though  certainly  with  less  ad- 
vantage than  where  springs  can  be  inter- 
cepted. 

Another  method  of  draining  is,  that  of 
opening  trenches,  or  drains,  almost  an- 
nually, by  a  large  plough  with  two  con- 
verging coulters,  and  other  appropriate 
machinery,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting 
both  sides  of  a  ditch  at  the  same  time, 
and  turning  out  tlie  intervening  soil. 

II.  With  respect  to  the  draining  of  those 


plains  or  morasses,  where  no  fall  can  be 
procured,  the  water  may,  in  many  situa- 
tions, be  collected  by  cutting  u  long  hori- 
zontal ditch  above  the  level  of  the  morass, 
so  as  to  intercept  all  the  wall-springs; 
and  may  then  be  carried  off  in  wooden 
troughs,  or  hollow  bricks,  above  the  sur- 
face ;  and,  if  any  water  continue  to  pene- 
trate the  morass,  it  may  be  conducted  to 
the  extremity  of  the  ground,  either  in  open 
or  covered  drains. 

The  draining  of  low  moist  lands  may 
also  be  advantageously  effected  by  a  roller 
or  liheel;  for  an  account  of  which  see 
Agriculturi:. 

The  necessity  and  utility  of  draining 
the  surface  water  from  clay  soils,  in  wet 
seasons,  is  generally  acknowledged ;  but, 
excellent  as  the  different  methods  are  in 
the  cases  before  mentioned,  they  do  not 
appear  to  be  so  simple,  or  so  effectual,  as 
could  be  wished  in  the  present.  Covered 
drains  frequently  fail  in  producing  the 
desired  effect,  in  consequence  of  the  co- 
vering materials  being  of  too  close  a  tex- 
ture to  admit  the  water  to  filtrate  through 
them  with  sufficient  freedom.  Mole- 
ploughs,  of  the  best  consti'uction,  requu'e 
such  a  number  of  horses  to  draw  them, 
as  must  necessai'ily  injure  the  soil,  by 
poaching  it.  Farther,  covered  drains  are 
not  only  dangerous  to  cattle,  but  from  the 
quantity  of  clay  necessarily  dug  up,  and 
spread  over  the  richer  surface-soil,  they 
are  also  injurious  to  vegetation.  None 
of  the  several  modes  of  draining  now  in 
use,  being  subservient  to  the  essential  pur- 
pose of  conducting  large  quantities  of  wa- 
ter, fi-om  a  deep  soil,  we  feel  satisfaction 
in  communicating  the  following  simple 
contrivance  of  Mr.  John  INIiddleton,  just 
published  in  the  22d  No.  of  the  "  Com- 
mercial ami  ^Agricultural  Jllagazine."  It 
consists  merely  in  adding  a  piece  of  wood 
to  the  felly  of  a  common  six-inch  cart- 
wheel, to  which  is  prefi.xed  a  rim  of  iron, 
of  a  triangular  form.  The  whole  expense 
of  this  addition  does  not  exceed  one  gui- 
nea. A  wheel  of  this  description,  when 
put  on  the  axle  of  a  cart  in  the  usual  way, 
will  of  course  rest  on  the  edge  of  tlie 
triangular  rim  of  iron,  above  alluded  to  ; 
and,  on  di'iving  the  horses  forward,  will 
make  a  small  indent  on  the  ground,  mere- 
ly by  its  own  revolution.  But,  in  order 
to  press  it  down,  to  the  depth  of  six  or 
eight  inches,  that  side  of  tlie  cart  should 
be  laden  with  stones,  iron,  or  any  other 
heavy  material,  until  the  whole  of  the  rim, 
as  well  as  the  additional  piece  of  wood, 
and  the  felly  itself,  if  necessar}-,  sink  into 
the  soil.  The  cart  should  then  be  drawn 
in  such  a  direction  that  the  cutting-wheel 
ma%'  revolve  where  the  drains  are  intend- 


DRA 


DRA 


ed  to  be  formed.  Sometimes  it  will  be 
necessary  to  apply  the  indenting'  machine 
to  every  fdrrow  ;  but,  where  tlie  land  is 
level,  it  should  be  drawn  over  it  in  paral- 
lel lines,  five  or  ten  yards  apart.  The 
wheel  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  axle  is 
a  common  six-inch  wheel,  wiiicli  supports 
only  the  empty  side  of  the  cart,  and  con- 
sequently will  not  cut  the  ground. 

The  advantage  of  this  contrivance,  as 
stated  by  Mr  Middleton,  is,  that  it  makes 
an  indent  in  the  soil,  sufficient  to  carry  off 
the  water  during  the  ensuing  winter,  by 
pressing  down  the  herbage,  without  de- 
stroying it.  In  the  succeeding  spring, 
these  drains  will  be  nearly  grown  up,  so 
that  there  is  no  Injury  done  to  the  grass. 
He  observes,  however,  that  this  wheel 
should  be  drawn  over  the  ground  every 
yeai',  on  the  approach  of  winter  ;  but  so' 
ea.sy  is  its  application,  that  by  means  of 
it,  and  two  old  horses,  one  stout  boy,  or 
man,  may  drain  from  te7i  to  twenty  acres  in 
eig/it  hours. 

The  first  object  in  draining  a  bog  or 
marsh,  is  to  discover  the  lowest  spot  of 
dry  ground  that  surrounds  it,  in  order 
to  o])en  on  that  part  the  main  trench 
which  is  to  carry  oft"  the  water :  if  there 
be  the  least  appearance  of  any  stream,  it 
should  be  traced  with  care  ;  for  this  will 
point  out  the  proper  spot  on  which  to  be- 
gin. The  main  trench,  commencing  at 
the  lowest  part,  may  be  carried  to  what 
ever  distance  it  is  thought  proper ;  if  it 
begin  at  the  right  spot,  ten  acres  inay  be 
detached  from  the  marsh,  however  exten- 
sive, and  completely  drained  ;  but,  if  the 
drainage  be  not  begun  where  there  is  a 
sufficient  fall,  the  labour  bestowed  will  be 
to  no  purpose  :  the  main  cut  or  trench 
should  be  ten  feet  broad  in  the  clear,  with 
a  proper  slope,  to  prevent  the  sides  from 
falling  in,  and  filling  it  up. 

Bogs  are  divided  into  two  sorts,  Uaci 
and  red  The  former  are  solid,  and  make 
excellent  fuel  for  common  fires,  or  burn- 
ing lime  ;  but  the  red  bog  consists  of  a 
loose,  porous,  fimgous  mass,  which  burns 
badly,  and  yields  no  ashes.  Hence,  in 
black  bogs  only,  the  drains  ought  to 
be  cut  into  turfs,  dried,  carted,  and  pil- 
ed. 

As  the  main  canal  advances,  small  ones 
may  be  conducted  into  it,  on  either  side, 
inclosing  such  spots  of  ground,  as  are  in- 
tended to  be  improved.  No  certai.i  rule 
can  be  laid  down  for  the  depth  of  drains  ; 
yet  we  apprehend  the  prevailing  practice 
of  cutting  them  down  to  the  solid  ground, 
beneath  the  bog,  is  founded  on  the  erro- 
neous principle,  that  such  deptli  is  suffi- 
cient as  will  leave  the  surface  dry.  Nu- 
merous di'ains,-  liowever,  bt;ing    always 


useful  and  necessary,  the  spots  inclosed 
ought  not  to  contain  more  than  five  acres; 
but  in  such  space  it  is  requisite  that  seve- 
ral cross-cuts  be  made,  which  should  be 
four  feet  broad  at  the  top,  and  three  feet 
deep.  A  whole  year  wilj  be  requisite  to 
complete  these  drains  ;  and,  in  the  ensu- 
ing spring,  it  will  be  necessary  to  open, 
deepen,  and  clear  them  of  the  adventitious 
boggy  matter  ;  a  work  which  should  be 
occasionally  renewed.  The  second  year 
may  be  employed  in  extending  the  main 
trench ;  in  taking  in  fresh  hiclosures  by 
new  lateral  cuts ;  and  in  draining  these 
by  means  of  small  transverse  drains.  Al- 
though this  annual  deepening  and  clear- 
ing of  marshy  grounds  be  attended  with 
great  labour  and  expense,  yet  the  opera- 
tion is  thus  progressively  completed,  and 
in  succeeding  yetu-s  both  trouble  and  costs 
will  be  gradually  diminished,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  bog  subsides. 

As  soon  as  the  drains  have  rendered 
the  marshes  sufficiently  fii-m  for  oxen  to 
walk  on  them,  the  heaviest  rollers  that 
can  be  procured  should  be  employed,  to 
act  by  repeated  pressure.  Indeed,  with- 
out a  considerable  degi-ee  of  such  pres- 
sure, during  the  first  year,  no  bog  can  be 
effectually  consolidated.  An  alternate 
draining  and  rolling,  annually  (the  drains 
being  still  kept  open,)  would,  probably, 
contribute  much  to  the  destruction  of 
weeds-  Previously  to  rolling  in  the  spring, 
it  has  been  strongly  recommended  to  sow 
every  kind  ot  grass  seeds,  indiscriminate- 
ly, such  as  ray-grass,  hay-seed,  clover, 
&c. 

Before  we  conclude  this  subject,  we 
think  it  necessary  to  give  some  account 
of  stone  drains,  which  are  calculated  for 
soils  where  the  common  methods  of  drain- 
iiig  cannot  be  adopted.  Such  drams  ought 
to  be  cut  10  or  12  inches  wide,  with  per- 
pendicular sides  ;  and  flat  stones  should 
be  so  placed,  as  to  leave  a  water-course 
at  the  bottom,  by  setting  two  stones  trian- 
gularly to  meet  at  the  points.  Or,  the 
bottom  may  be  covered  with  a  flat  stone, 
and  three  others  placed  upright,  and  tlie 
water  left  to  work  itself  a  passage  between 
them.  In  either  case,  the  cavity  of  the 
drain  ought  to  be  filled  neai'ly  up  to  the 
top,  with  loose  stones  :  screened  or  wash- 
ed gravel,  whei  e  it  is  found  in  great  abun- 
dance, has  been  successfully  substituted. 
Those  pebbles,  however,  which  are  of- 
ten found  on  the  sea-shores,  are  well 
adapted  for  filling  drams ;  as,  being 
smooth,  and  generally  round,  the  water 
Hows  through  them  more  freely 

The  principal  drains  ought  to  be  tln-ee 
feet  deep,  and  18  inches  in  width;  the 
hottom  and  top  should  be  laid  with  flag- 


DRI 


DRI 


s:fones ;  the  sides  bmit  up  to  a  sufficient 
height  witli  common  stones;  and  the  whole 
covered  with  sous  of  turf,  but  the  grassy 
sides  downwards  :  these  again  are  to  be 
overspread  with  earth,  sufficient  to  ad- 
n  it  tile  plough.  Tlie  smaller  drains  are, 
in  general,  to  be  conducted  at  an  acute 
angle  into  the  main  trendies 

Lastly,  sod  or  eartli-drains  are  usualh' 
dug  two  feet  deep  with  a  spade,  when 
the  soil  is  taken  out  by  an  instrument,  or 
scoop,  about  four  inches  wide,  and  the 
drain  covered  with  sods  first  dug  out,  if 
the  ground  be  firm  enough  to  support 
them  ;  or,  some  black-thorns  are  put  in, 
in  order  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  sods. 
Those  drains  which  have  the  smallest  pas- 
sage for  the  water  at  the  bottom,  are  re- 
puted to  be  the  most  durable;  as  the 
force  of  the  water  has  been  found  suffi- 
cient to  clear  away  any  small  obstacles, 
accidentally  obstructing  its  course. 

Common  earth-drains,  are  sometimes 
dug  two  or  three  spits  deep,  with  a  broad 
spade,  the  bottom  is  taken  out  with  a  nar- 
row one,  and  filled  with  stones.  Some- 
times a  furrow  is  drawn  with  a  plough,  and 
cleared  by  a  common  spade  :  the  draining 
instrument,  (which  is  a  long,  narrow, 
pointed  spade,  terminating  in  an  acute  an- 
gle, in  the  form  of  a  wheat  leaf)  is  then 
introduced,  to  the  depth  of  18  inches  from 
the  surface ;  and,  after  taking  out  the 
loose  mould  with  a  scoop,  or  spade,  black 
thorn  bushes,  or  heath,  which  is  still  bet- 
ter, are  carefully  laid  along-  the  bottom, 
covered  with  strong  wheat-straw,  twisted 
to  the  thickness  of  a  man's  leg ;  and  the 
whole  is  then  carefully  closed  in. 

Hollow  drains,  without  stones,  have 
been  tried  on  stiff  lands  :  the}'  are  made 
narrow  at  the  bottom,  and  covered  half- 
way up  with  sods,  or  square  pieces  of  the 
surface-sward,  resting  on  ledges,  cut  for 
that  purpose. 

Those  who  wish  to  acquire  more  mi- 
nute information  on  this  subject,  we  re- 
fer to  Dr.  Anderson's  excellent  Practical 
Treatise  on  draining  bogs  and  sviavipy 
grounds,  8vo.  p.  308;  and  to  Mr.  John- 
stone's Account  of  the  most  approved 
JMode  of  JDraining  Land,  &c.  4to.  in  which 
it  is  amply  investigated.  See  also  Agri- 
culture. 

DRILLING,  in  husbandry,  a  method  of 
sowing  grain,  or  seed  of  any  kind,  so  that 
it  may  be  deposited  in  the  ground  at  an 
imitbrm  depth  ;  a  circumstance  of  the  ut- 
most importance  to  the  production  of 
h«;althy  and  vigorous  plants. 

This  method  differs  fi-om  the  old,  or 

broad-cast  husbandry,  which  is  performed 

by  sowing  the    grain,  or  seed,  with  the 

hand  ;  whereas,   the  new  practice  is  ef- 

VOL.    I. 


fcctcd  by  one  of  the  most  useful  machines 
ever  invented,  and  called  a  drill  plough. 

By  the  broad-cast  system  of  culture, 
the  land  is  often  sown  in  bad  tilth,  the 
seed  Is  always  scattered  at  random,  and 
sometimes  by  very  unskilful  hands.  In 
drilling,  the  ground  must  be  in  good  or- 
der ;  and  the'seed  set  in  trenches  regular- 
ly drawn,  all  being  nearly  of  an  equal 
depth,  >vliich  is  adapted  to  the  nature  of 
each  particular  kind  of  seed.  These  seeds 
are  also  distributed  at  proper  distances ; 
and,  by  being  equally  and  speedily  cover- 
ed, are  most  efiijctually  ])rotected  from 
vermin,  and  other  accidental  injury. 
Farther,  in  consequence  of  the  broad-casti 
practice,  the  seed  falls  in  many  places  too 
thick;  in  others,  too  thin  ;  and,  being  im- 
perfectly covei-ed,  part  of  it  is  devoured 
by  vermin,  which  follow  the  sower  ;  the 
remainder  is  exposed  to  rain  or  frost,  or 
to  heats,  either  of  which  are  veiy  hurtful. 
When  harrowed  in,  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  seed  is  so  deeply  buried  in  the  soil, 
tliatif  the  latter  be  wet,  it  putrefies  before 
it  can  vegetate. 

Besides,  when  corn  is  thus  sown,  the 
crop  will  not  admit  of  being^  touched  af- 
terwards, because  its  growth  is  irregular. 
The  soil  cannot  be  broken,  in  order  to  af- 
ford it  more  nourishment ;  nor  can  even 
tlie  weeds  be  destroyed  without  much  da- 
mage and  inconvenience.  On  the  contra- 
ry, in  the  drill-husbandry,  the  intervals 
between  the  rows,  whether  double  or  sin- 
gle, may  be  horse-hoed;  and  nourishment 
may  thiis  be  repeatedly  given  to  the  plants, 
and  tlie  weeds  almost  totally  extirpated. 
Drillirig,  however,  is  not  calculated  for 
every  soil ;  yet,  as  there  are  but  few  situa- 
tions, in  which  the  broad-cast  method  is 
preferable  to  it,  they  ought  not,  by  any 
means,  to  impede  the  more  general  intro- 
duction of  the  folmer. 

The  drill-husbandry  is  said  to  be  attend- 
ed v/ith  many  disadvantages  :  namely,  1, 
That  it  is  very  difficult  to  procure  the 
persons,  who  are  acquainted  with  the  use 
of  the  drill-plough,  or  its  proper  manage- 
ment, when  on  the  soil.  2.  That  the 
earth  requires  to  be  well  prepared  to  ad- 
mit of  it.  3.  That  the  crop  is  too  thhily 
sown  by  it.  4.  That  drilled  crops  are  ■ 
harvested  later  than  broud-cast  ones.  5, 
That  clover  does  not  succeed,  when  culti- 
vated according  to  the  drill-husbandry. 
6.  That  oats  produce  rank  and  coarse 
straw,  which  does  not  afford  wholesome 
food  for  cattle. 

These  objections  appear  formidable; 
and  it  must  be  allowed,  that  no  person  can 
acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
drill-husbandry  in  one  season.  It  is  never- 
theless untrue,  that  the  seed  is  too  thmly 
1.1 


DRI 


BRI 


sown ;  for,  though  the  quantity  required  is 
nearly  one  halfless  (wiiicli  is  consequent- 
ly saved),  yet  the  crops  of  drilled  wheat 
are,  in  general,  so  much  more  valuable 
than  those  of  broad -cast,  whether  we  con- 
sider the  quantit}',  quality,  or  weiglit  of 
the  grain,  tijat  the  infi-rioiity  of  the  latter 
is  evident  to  every  impanial  observer. 
This  reason  is  likewise  a  sufricicnt  answer 
to  the  objection  alledged  against  the  ex- 
pence  of  horse'-hoehig,  which  eradicates 
almost  every  weed,  even  where  hand-hoe- 
ing is  impracticable;  and,  consequently, 
in  a  very  considerable  degree,  promotes 
vegetation. 

To  This,  we  may  add,  that  by  drilling, 
the  seed  grows  more  regularly  and  vigor- 
ously ;  and  that,  though  the  crops  are  har- 
vested later  than  broad-cast  ones ;  yet, 
they  are  gotten  in  with  less  expence,  and 
with  greater  safety  ;  while  the  soil  is  left 
in  a  better  state  for  future  cro])s. 

Such  are  the  advantages, and  disadvan- 
tages, attending  the  drill-husbandry, 
wiiich  we  have  endeavoured  tairly  to 
state  :  after  these  decisive  proofs,  no  ra- 
tional agriculturist  will  hesitate  to  pro- 
nounce in  favour  of  the  new  system. 

On..-  of  the  earliest  implements  of  this 
description,  is  the  hand-drill,  which  is 
chiefly  employed  in  th'elow-lands  of  Scot- 
land, where  it  was  also  invented.  It  is 
puslied  along  by  two  handles,  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  wheel-bari-ows,  and  sows 
one  row  at  a  time.  The  principal  part  of 
this  machine  ^s  a  wheel,  about  22  niches 
in  diameter,  and  made  of  solid  deal,  upon 
the  axle  of  which  is  fixed  a  notched  roller 
2^  inches  in  diameter,  and  2  inches  long, 
that  turns  in  the  fore  part  of  the  drill-box. 
The  quantity  of  seed  intended  to  be  sown, 
is  regulated  by  a  slider,  which  moves  up 
and  down  in  tiie  fore -part  of  the  box,  by 
an  adjusting  screw  fixed  at  the  top  ;  and 
has  a  strong  brush,  that  projects  from  its 
lower  end,  and  sweeps  upon  the  notched 
roller.  There  is  also  a  sluice,  or  slider, 
which  lies  fiat  on  the  bottom,  on  the  in- 
side  of  the  drill-box,  and  juts  out  between 
the  two  handles  of  the  driil,  so  as  to  be 
within  the  reach  of  the  person  guiding  it; 
who,  by  pushing  the  slide  forwards,  c(mi. 
pletelycovers  the  notched  i-ollcr,  and  pre- 
vents any  of  the  seed  fi-om  being  scatter- 
ed while  the  drill  is  turning  at  the  end  of 
the  ridges.  With  this  im])leinent,  a  wo- 
man, or  boy,  is  aljle  to  drill  from  2  to  2\ 
acres  in  adW  ;  tiie  rows  being  ^tthe  dis- 
tance of  20  inches. 

The  next  contrivance,  is  that  of  the  in- 


genious Mr.  Arthur  Young,  whose  inde- 
fatigable labours  in  promoting  agriculture, 
are  too  well  known  to  require  our  enco- 
mium. In  the  common  drill-ploughs,  . 
there  are  generally  two  or  three  barrels 
with  corresponding  hoppers,  or  recepta- 
cles for  seed,  through  which  it  is  com- 
mitted to  the  ground.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment renders  them  necessarily  complex  ; 
and  to  obviate  the  defect  resulting  from 
it,  Mr.  Young  has  two  divisions  in  the 
barrel,  and  two  corresponding  ones  in  the 
hopper,  which  are  more  simple,  and  doubt- 
less preferable  to  moveable  boards.  In 
his  drill-plough  the  whole  machinery  is 
hxed,  yet  he  sows  with  it  single  rows  at 
any  distance,  double  ones  at  two  feet,  or 
three  rows  at  one  foot ;  relinquishing  the 
olh<  r  powers  of  mechanism,  to  render  the 
plough  in  all  its  parts  stronger,  and  more 
steady.  It  is  likewise  calculated  for  the 
stiffiist  soil ;  and  Mr.  Young  adds,  that  it 
it  will  even  deposit  seed  in  drills  cut 
through  a  clay  held,  without  any  previous 
ploughing. — For  a  more  detailed  account 
of  this  excellent  machine,  as  also  of  seve- 
ral others,  we  refer  our  readers  to  the 
'3d  vol.  of"  Annals  of  Agriculture" 

Before  we  conclude  this  highly  iiriport- 
ant  subject,  it  will  be  useful  to  state  the 
extraordinary  saving  that  would  arise  from 
a  general  introduction  of  the  drill-husban- 
dry, hideedthe  patriotic  Lord  Somerville, 
late  president  of  the  board  of  agriculture, 
in  England,  whose  exertions  in  promoting 
that  beneficial  science,  must  endear  him 
to  every  friend  of  his  country,  lias  already 
anticipated  our  calculations.  Though 
bred  to  the  broad-cast  method,  which  he 
till  lately  followed,  that  enlightened 
man,  has,  in  the  appendix  to  his  inte- 
resting work,  entitled,  "  Tlie  Systtin  fol- 
lowed dnririg  tiie  ttvo  last  years  by  tlie  Board 
of  Agriculture,''  &c  (8v( .  pp.  500,  Miller, 
1800),  impartially  exhibited  the  great  ad- 
vantages that  might  result  from  the  na- 
tional adoption  of  the  drill-husbandry., — 
We  regret  that  ovu-  limits  will  permit  us 
only  to  extract  a  few  leading  circum- 
stances from  his  jjublication.  In  ordei' 
to  -'ascertain,  bejond  the  possibility  of 
doubt,  the  infinite  superiority  of  the 
drilling,  over  that  of  the  broad-cast 
method  of  sowing,  lie  a])plied  to  three 
gentlemen  alike  eminent  for  their  agri- 
cultural skill,  and  each  of  whom  made 
use  of  different  drill-plougiis.  From  an 
accui-ate  statement  it  appears,  that  the 
expenccs  attendant  on  the  old  and  new 
pr;ictices,  are  as  follow  : 


DYE 


DYE 


Expence  of  seed-corn  on  133  acres  of  land,  sown  in  the  usual  broad-  Sterling. 

cast  husbandry  in  1799,  was .     .     .     L.  \3i  10  6 

The  expence  of  seed-corn  for  the  same  number  of  acres,  according  to 

the  present  improved  system  of  drilling-,         100  4  6 

In  the  year  1800,  the  expence  of  140  acres  broad-cast,  was      ...  216  10  0 

Ditto, ditto     .     .     drilled, 92  0  0 

Which  affords  a  saving- of  not  less  than 124  10  0 

HI  seed-com  on  140  acres  of  land. 


Both  estimates  were  made  from  actual 
experience,  by  the  industi'ious  Mr  Bud- 
den,  and  communicated  to  Lord  Sommer- 
ville,  by  the  Rev.  H.  J.  Close,  of  Hordle, 
near  Lyming-ton,  England ;  from  whose  let- 
ter we  insert  the  following-  computation  of 
an  annual  ^saving  that  ma)'  be  effected  by 
the  uniform  practice  of  the  drill-husbandry; 
and  which,  at  a  moderate  calculation,  will 
amountto  no  less  than  eight  niiUions  of 
bushels  of  wheat,  one  million  of  bushels 
of  rye,  three  millions  of  bushels  of  barle}', 
Jour  m.illions  of  bushels  of  oats,  and  or^ 
iniilion  of  bushels  of  beans  and  peas  !  . 

Having-,  however,  in  the  course  of  at- 
tentive observation,  during  the  last  twen- 
ty years,  witnessed  many  disappointments, 
both  in  statistical  'M\d.  political  schemes, 
we  are  not  so  sanguine  in  our  expecta- 
tions, as  to  place  implicit  confide;tce  on 
any  general  statement,  especially  when  it 
is  exemplified  by  rouH.{  numbers.  Xever- 
theless,  in  justice  to  the  zealous  support- 
ers of  the  drill-plough,  we  fully  admit  its 
superiority  over  the  clumsy  and  irregular 
practice  of  the  wasteful  broad-cast  hus- 
bandr}- ;  and  posterity  will  ever  grate- 
fully remember  the  names  of  Tull, 
Cooke,  Young,  and  DarwiTi,  if,  by  theii- 
joint  labours,  one  half  o?  the  above  stated 
quantity  of  grain  and  seeds,  that  is,  toge- 
ther eight  or  nine  millions  of  bu^she Is,  could 
be  annually  saved  to  the  Englsh  nation,  be- 
fore one  half  of  the  presenteventful  century 
is  expired. 

DRYING  OIL,  is  oil  prepared  by  boil- 
ing oils,  such  as  linseed,  with  litharge, 
and  is  the  basis  of  a  vast  number  of 
paints  and  varnishes.  If  the  naturally 
drying  oils  are  boiled  upon  litharge 
without  the  intervention  of  water,  they 
become  thick,  glutinous,  and  more  dry- 
ing than  before.  Not  only  the  oxids, 
but  also  aqueous  solutions  of  the  ace- 
tite  of  lead,  as  well  as  the  sulphat  of 
zinc,  are  eanployed  for  this  purpose.  See 
Oils. 

DYEING.  The  Jlrt  o/"._The  object  of 
this  ancient  and  truly  chemical  art  is 
to  fix  uuiformlj"  and  more  or  less  perma- 
nently, certain  colouring  matters  into  the 
fibres  of  wool,  linen,  cotton,  silk,  and 
other  filamentous  substances. 

The  operations  of  dyeing,  from  the 
preparation  of  the  stuff  to  that  of  the  co- 


bur  or  dye,  and  some  subsequent  pro- 
cesses, are  so  completely  chemical,  that 
however  the  dyer  may  consider  his  art 
meciianical,  a  knowledge  of  chemistry 
seems  indispensably  necessary.  Although 
it  is  well  known,  that  few  who  practise 
dyeing  in  this  country  are  skilled  in  the- 
or}-,  and  those  onlj"  are  confined  to  the 
production  of  a  few  colours,  yet  we  have 
known,  that  a  dyer  well  acquainted 
with  chemistry  has  made  more  progress 
in  the  advancement  of  his  art,  than  at  first 
view  would  be  supposed.  The  person, 
to  whom  we  allude,  is  Mr.  Partridge, 
now  principal  dyer  to  the  Messrs.  Du- 
ponts'  of  Brandywine.  He  has  not  only 
employed  a  number  of  indigenous  plants, 
but  has  invented  new  mordants,  so  that 
many  colours,  for  which  we  were 
heretofore  indebted  to  Europe,  we  obtain 
from  our  own  resources.  Dr.  Penxixg- 
Tox,  in  his  Cliemical  and  Economical  es- 
says, by  turning  his  attention  to  this  sub- 
ject, has  recommended  several  vegeta- 
ble astringents  for  the  production  of  black 
dye. 

These  facts  are  designed  to  shew,  that 
to  those  engaged  in  extensive  manufac- 
tures, where  dyeing  forms  a  necessary 
part,  much  may  be  accomplished  not  on- 
ly in  discovering  new  coloiu-s,  but  in 
using  new  mordants,  or  certain  bases 
suited  to  the  stufl'  and  the  colouiung  in- 
gredient. We  have  seen,  however,  w-ith 
great  satisfaction,  that  the  art  of  dyeing 
has  kept  pace  with  the  progressive  im- 
provements of  tlie  other  arts ;  but  we  have 
found,  that  in  every  case  where  a  new  co- 
louring matter  or  a  new  mordant  was  to  be 
used,  considerable  time  has  been  wasted 
in  a  number  of  vag-ue  experiments,  Mhich, 
from  theu-  being  unchemical,  have  serv- 
ed to  perplex  and  confound  the  ope- 
rator. 

In  families  we  find,  tliat  mixed  coloufs 
have  been  hit  upon,  for  dyeing  their  do- 
mestic articles,  without  any  chemical 
knowledge  whatever,  and  very  often  alum, 
chamber-lie,  &c.  are  employed  without 
knowing  their  use  ;  but  the  case  is  differ- 
ent on  a  larger  scale,  though  probably 
from  chance  the  manufacturer  may  suc- 
ceed, yet  the  risk  and  the  considerable 
expense  he  incurs  are,  too  frequently, 
objects  of  much  importance,    -we  would, 


DYE 


DYE 


therefore,  recommend  to  the  professional 
dyer,  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  chemistry  as  connected  witli  dyeing-. 

A  detailed  account  of  all  the  processes 
of  dyeing  would  of  itself  fJl  a  volume  : 
in  this  place  therefore  all  that  can  be  done 
vill  he  to  give  a  short  view  of  the  lead- 
ing facts  and  operations. 

The  substances  commonly  dyed  are 
either  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin.  To 
the  former  belong  wool,  silk,  hair,  leather, 
and  skin  of  all  kinds  ;  to  tlie  latter,  cot- 
ton, flax  and  hemp.  The  particular  che- 
mical analysis  and  properties  of  these  sub- 
stances, as  far  as  they  have  been  examined, 
will  be  described  under  the  respective  ar- 
ticles. A  7nost  important  and  essential 
difterence  exists  between  the  affinity  for 
colouring  matter  possessed  by  th«se  sub- 
stances, so  that  a  process  which  perfectly 
succeeds  in  dyeing-  wool  (for  example) 
may  have  no  elfect  upon  cotton,  neither  is 
there  any  agreement  in  the  cpiantity  of 
colouring  ingredient  necessary  to  dye 
each  stuff. 

A  simple  experiment  of  Dufay's  proves 
this.  He  had  a  piece  of  clotli  woven,  of 
which  the  warp  was  wool,  and  the  woof 
cotton,  this  was  fulled  that  each  sub- 
stance might  undergo  exactly  the  same 
prcj)aratlon,  and  then  passed  through  a 
scarlet  vat.  The  mooI  only  took  the  co- 
lour, but  the  cotton  remained  white  after 
rincing.  With  regard  to  c^uantity  of  co- 
lour, it  is  found  that  silk  takes  twice  as 
much  cochineal  to  dye  it,  as  wool  does. 
Tile  different  force  of  affinity  between 
different  fibres  and  colouring  matter  is 
also  shewn  by  the  more  or  less  perfect 
manner  in  which  they  exhaust  a  coloured 
bath ;  thus,  as  Bergman  observes,  wool 
dyed  in  a  weak  solution  of  sulphat  of  in- 
digo entirely  absorbs  the  dye,  and  leaves 
the  solution  colourless,  whereas  silk  can 
only  partially  rob  the  sul])huric  acid  of 
the  colouring  matter.  Generally  speak- 
ing, wool  has  the  strongest  affinity  for  co- 
lour, taking  it  more  easily,  and  retaining 
it  more  firmly ;  silk  and  other  animal 
matters  come  next  to  wool,  cotton  next, 
and  hemp  and  flax  last ;  but  this  is  not  to 
be  understood  with  great  latitude,  nor 
does  it  always  happen  that  substances 
which  take  colour  tlie  easiest,  retain  it  the 
longest,  besides  that  the  previous  prepa- 
ration is  not  the  same,  and  hence  the 
comparison  is  not  altogether  accurate. 

No  exact  explanation  can  be  given  of 
the  different  affinity  for  colour  in  different 
substances,  except  that  the  analysis  of 
vegetable  and  animal  matters  shews  a 
most  essential  difference  in  their  compo- 
nent parts,  and  their  habitudes  with  clie- 
niical  reagents.   It  is  on  tiiis  account  too. 


that  the  preparation,  which  eacli  substance 
receives  previously  to  being  d)  ed  so  much 
varies.  Animal  matter,  especially  wool, 
when  immersed  in  caustic  alkali  has  it^ 
fibre  immediately  relaxed,  becomes  clam- 
my,  loses  its  natural  toughness  and  elas- 
ticity, and  at  last  is  entirely  dissolved  in  a 
soapy  compound.  Vegetable  fibre  on  the 
other  hand  resists  alkalies  much  longer, 
and  is  not  easily  dissolved ;  and  hence  in 
tiie  jirevious  cleansing  and  fulling  of  wool, 
alkalies  are  scarcely  admissible,  or  must 
be  used  with  extreme  caution,  whereas 
tliey  may  be  employed  with  safety  in  the 
preparation  of  cotton  and  linen.  Animal 
fibre  is  also  much  more  easily  afl'ected  by 
acids. 

The  simple  colours  employed  in  dye- 
ing are  chiefly  of  animal  or  vegetable 
origin.  The  number  of  possible  dyes  is 
almost  equal  to  that  of  the  vegetable  or 
insect  tribes  on  the  face  of  the  eai-th,  for 
almost  all  of  these  will  make  a  coloured 
decoction  with  water,  which  is  capable  of 
tinging  cloth  immersed  in  it.  Hence  the 
variety  of  native  dyes  from  indigenous 
plants  used  in  different  parts  of  the  globe 
by  every  nation,  savage,  or  civilized.  A 
very  few,  however,  are  employed  in  the 
i-egular  manufactories  of  European  na- 
tions, being  such  as  are  obtained  in  the 
most  abundance  from  countries  where 
they  form  valuable  articles  of  commerce, 
and  whose  qualities  are  minutely  known, 
by  long  and  accurate  observation. 

Of  the  great  variety  of  known  dyes, 
some,  (liiough  comparatively  but  few) 
may  be  applied  to  animal  or  vegetable  fi- 
bre without  any  other  preparation  than 
that  of  cleansing  the  stuf^",  and  immers- 
ing it  in  a  decoction  or  infusion  of  the 
dye  for  a  sufficient  time.  The  colouring 
matter  then  unites  with  the  fibre  of  the 
cloth  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
force,  so  as  sometimes  ])ermanently  to  re- 
sist tlie  effect  of  washing,  and  the  bleach- 
ing power  of  the  sun  and  air,  sometimes 
partially,  sometimes  scarcely  at  ail.  On 
the  other  hand  the  greater  number  of 
dyes  have  naturally  only  a  very  feeble  af- 
finity for  fibre,  (though  never  in  the  same 
degree  for  animal  and  vegetable)  and 
therefore,  when  applied  without  addition, 
they  are  destro3ed  very  speedily ;  but 
the  ingenuity  of  man  has  discovered  that 
they  may  be  made  to  unite  with  fibre  much 
more  durable  by  the  intermede  of  some 
other  substance  (generally  a  salt  with  an 
alkaline,  earthy,  or  metallic  basis)  which 
possesses  a  very  strong  affinity  both  with 
fibre  and  with  colouring  mutter,  and 
hence  serves  to  bind  the  one  to  the  other. 
These  intermedes  are  called  JMordants  (a 
term  derived  from  an  erroneous  theofy 


DYE 


DYE 


nov.-  abandoned)  and  the  usual  practice  is 
first  to  steep  the  cloth  or  fibre  in  the  mor- 
dant, and  afterwards  in  the  dye. 

The  dyes  that  cannot  be  fixed  into  the 
stuff  without  mordants  may  be  termed 
(with  Dr.  Bancroft)  adjective  colours ; 
those  in  which  mordants  are  of  no  use  may 
be  called  substantive  colours.  Madder  is 
an  adjective  coloiu-,  since  it  is  rendered 
much  more  durable  by  the  intermede  of 
alum,  or  of  many  other  salts  than  when 
used  alone.  Indigo  is  a  substantive  co- 
lour, since  its  durability  is  not  encreased 
by  any  intermede  whatever. 

Another  important  difference  in  the  na- 
ture of  dyes  is  in  the  degree  of  perma- 
nency of  tint,  vliich  certainly  in  part  de- 
pends on  the  force  of  affinity  with  M'hich 
it  unites  to  the  fibre,  and  partly  on  the  in- 
timate nature  of  the  colouring  matter, 
and  its  susceptibility  of  decomposition  by 
light,  air,  moisture,  and  also  by  alkalies, 
soaps,  and  other  substances  employed  in 
the  common  uses  of  dyed  stuffs.  The 
permanency  of  colour  has  no  necessary 
connexion  with  the  mode  in  which  it  is 
united  to  the  substances  dyed,  for  among 
the  substantive  as  well  as  the  adjective 
colours  some  are  very  permanent,  others 
verv  fugitive.  For  example,  of  the  sub- 
stantive colours  (or  those  which  unite  as 
strongly  to  cloth  without,  as  with  mor- 
dants) Indigo  is  very  permanent,  resist- 
ing the  sun,  air,  washing  with  soap,  and 
most  chemical  agents  :  the  oriental  tlen.tf, 
which  is  a  fine  orange  red,  long  resists 
the  sun  and  air,  but  is  altered  and  de- 
stroyed by  soap  :  ^Srchil,  and  other  of  the 
purple  lichens,  is  instantly  altered  by 
soap,  and  is  soon  changed  by  the  light 
and  air,  so  as  only  to  give  a  very  fugitive 
but  beautiful  gloss.  Of  the  adjective  co- 
lours JMadder  is  one  of  the  most  perma- 
nent that  is  known,  retaining  its  body  of 
colour  (wlien  well  applied)  under  almost 
every  circumstance.  Cochineal  on  wool  is 
neatly  equally  fast  or  permanent,  but  on 
cotton  much  less  so  ;  Brazil  Wood  fades 
miich  sooner  than  the  last,  whatever  mor- 
dant be  appUed. 

The  selecti(m  and  right  application  of 
mordants  is  of  infinite  consequence  in  dye- 
ing, and  it  is  this  subject,  with  its  various 
niodincations  that  forms  the  trulv  scienti- 
fic pai't  of  this  beautiful  art.  Linen  or 
cotton  requires  a  different  mordant  from 
wool  or  silk,  some  colours  adhere  only  to 
a  particular  mord;\nt,  the  order  of  appli- 
cation, the  su'englh,  and  many  other 
smaller  circumstances,  all  of  which  mate- 
riallv  aflect  the  beauty  and  durability  of 
the  colour,  and  the  texture  of  the  cloth, 
must  be  attended  to  by  the  artist. 

Some  simple  experiments  related  by 


Dr.  Bancroft,  and  which  are  readily  re- 
peated, well  illustrate  the  action  of  mor- 
dants. A  piece  of  coiton  was  impressed 
with  various  figures  with  a  moi-dant  of" 
acetited  atumlne,  and  when  Avy  was 
j-inced  and  cleansed  in  the  usual  way  of 
calico  printing.  It  was  then  dyed  in  an 
infusion  of  saffron  and  came  out  uni- 
formly yellow,  but  on  exposure  to  air  the 
whole  became  white.  Hence  it  is  shewn 
both  that  the  colouring  matter  of  saffron 
has  no  strong  affinity  with  cotton,  and 
that  alumlne  has  no  power  of  fixing  it, 
and  hence  is  useless  as  a  mordant.  The 
same  piece  was  then  dyed  with  a  decoc- 
tion of  Brazil  wood,  and  the  whole  came 
out  coloured,  but  tlie  figures  printed 
with  the  aluminous  solution  were  of  a 
fine  crimson,  whereas  the  gi'ound  was 
only  faintly  tinged.  On  exposure  to  the 
sun  and  air  for  two  days  the  ground  sooh 
became  white,  and  the  figures  also  were 
faded,  and  in  eight  days  the  crimson  of 
the  latter,  which  had  been  gradually  di- 
minisiung,  was  no  longer  nsible.  This 
second  experiment  shews  that  acetited 
alumlne  is  a  powerful  mordant  for  Braz.ii 
wood,  but  still  not  sufficient,  finally  to  fir 
its  colour. 

The  same  piece  was  then  dyed  with  a. 
decoction  of  madder,  and  the  whole  came 
out  coloured,  but  the  figures  deeper  than 
the  gi'ound.  On  washing  with  bran  and 
water,  and  exposure  to  sun  and  air,  the 
ground  became  white,  but  the  figures  re- 
tained all  their  bod}'  and  brightness  of 
colour,  and  this  time  the  dye  was  perma- 
nent, shewing  in  a  very  striking  manner 
the  strong  affinity  both  of  the  alumlne 
for  the  cotton  so  as  to  remain  fixed  in  its 
fibres  during  three  successive  operations, 
and  of  the  alumine  for  the  madder  co- 
lour so  as  to  retain  it  permanently  in 
spite  of  the  washings  and  bleachings 
which  entirely  desti'oyed  the  dye  of  the 
ground. 

Mordants  not  only  fix  colouring  mat- 
ter, but  most  commonly  thej'  in  some  de- 
gree alter  the  natural  hue.  Thus  in  the 
instance  above-mentioned  the  aluminous 
mordant  changed  the  dull  red  of  madder 
to  a  bright  crimson ;  the  solutions  of  tin 
not  only  fix  the  colour  of  cochineal  in 
wool,  but  change  it  from  crimson  to  a 
bright  scarlet :  the  salts  of  iron  which 
are  powerful  mordants,  always  alter  the 
colour  of  dyes,  changing  the  yellow  of 
weld  to  olive-brown,  drab,  or  lead-coloiu" 
according  to  circumstances,  the  red  of 
madder  to  a  violet  brown,  and,  as  is  well 
known,  striking  a  bluish-lilack  whenever 
tiie  gallic  acid  is  present.  Hence  a  great 
advantage  is  most  ingeniously  made  of 
mixing   different   kinds  of  mordtints  to 


DYE 


DYE 


produce  varieties  of  sliadc ;  thus  a  mix- 
ture of  the  iron  and  aUiminous  mordant 
will  produce  with  madder  all  t!ie  shades 
of  flea-colour,  purple  and  violet ;  with 
weld,  brown  and  olive  green,  and  the  like, 
so  that  with  no  more  tiian  tiiree  or  fbui; 
colouring  materials  an  almost  infinite  va- 
riety of  dyes  may  be  produced  by  a  due 
selection  and  mixture  of  the  various  mor- 
dants. 

On  the  subject  of  mordants,  the  fol- 
lowing interesting-  memoir,  by  Messrs. 
Thenard  and  Hoard,  will  illustrate  eveiy 
part  of  this  branch  of  dyeing.     See  An- 

iJALES    DE    ChIMIE. 


quarts  of  distilled  water.and  lOO  grammes 
of  pure  alum,  which  had  been  previously 
dissolved  in  a  complete  manner.  After 
this  time,  the  silk  being  taken  out  of  the 
liquid,  was  hung  up  to  be  entire!}-  diy, 
over  the  alum  bath,  and  washed  several 
times  with  distilled  water,  to  separate  the 
part  of  the  mordant,  which  had  nut  been 
combined  with  it.  The  alum  buth  and 
the  washings,  were  evaporated  with  much 
care,  and  they  gave  often,  and  even  to 
the  end,  very  transparent  chrystals  of 
alum.  I'hese  first  results  show  us,  in  a 
positive  manner,  the  nature  of  the  combi- 
nation formed  with  the  silk,  during  the 


Mordants  are  those  substances  which  :  aluming,  and  that  it  was  at  the  same  time 
sene  to  efil-ct  a.  perfect  combination  of  very  probable,  that  the  alum  had  not  been 
the  colouring  matter  with  stuff's,  and  that  ;  decomposed.  We  again  boiled  that  alumed 
increase  their  beauty.  Those  properties  '  silk  i?)  a  matrass,  with  six  litres  or  quarts 
are  possessed  by  a  great  many  saline  and  '  of  distilled  water  ;  after  having  let  off  the 
metallic  substances  ;  but  those  that  pos- '  boiling  water,  we  washed  it  twelve  times ; 
sess  them  in  the  greatest  degree,  and  the  72  litres  or  quarts  arising  from  these  12 
which,  for  that  reason,  are  preferred  by  operations,  having  been  evaporated,  gave 
all  workmen,are  alum,  acetate  of  alumine,  i  us  again  well  defined  chrystals  of  alum, 
tartar,  and  solutions  of  tin.  j  which  quantity  added  to  that  from  the 

The  examination  and  analysis  of  the  { alum  bath,  did  not  differ  more  than  two 
effects  produced  by  these  mordants,  upon  i  decigramme, 


animal  and  vegetable  substances,  shall 
be  the  subjectof  our  present  investigation. 
We  shall  divide  the  subject  into  four 
chapters,  in  which  we  will  make  known 
successively,  the  action  of  alum,  the  ace 


or  one  four  hundred  and 
twentieth  part  from  the  95  gramnses  which 
had  befen  employed.  If  after  each  ofihese 
twelve  washings,  you  try  to  dye  silk,  the 
colour  becomes  less  and  less  deep,  so 
that  after  the  twelfth  washing,  the  silk 


tateof  alumine,  of  alum  and  of  tartar,  and  |  becomes  incapable  of  being  dyed.     Th 


of  the  solutions  of  tin  upon  silk,  wooi, 
cotton  and  thread,  agreeably  to  the  me- 
tliods  most  commonly  employed  in  dyeing. 
On  Muni.  The  manner  of  usingaluni, 
■which  is  called  "  alunage,"  (aluming) 
vai'ies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  stuffs, 
and  to  the  colours  that  are  desired.  I-'or 
silks,  it  is  left  to  macerate  for  some  days 
ill  the  solution  of  alum  sufficiently  strong 
to  prevent  the  chrystallization  of  the  salt. 
Aluming  wool  is  effected  by  boiling  it  for 
two  hours  in  water,  with  a  fourth'  of  its 


silk  bei)ig  disalumed,  or  deprived  of  alum, 
and  again  alumed,  acquires  immediately 
the  quality  of  fixing  the  colours  as  strong 
as  before  any  washing.  From  which  re- 
salts,  the  natural  explanation  of  the  cause, 
why  the  alumed  silks  take  colour  more 
intensely,  when  they  are  dyed  at  a  low 
temperature,  than  when  they  are  plung- 
ed at  once  into  boiling  water.  The  rea- 
son is,  that  in  the  first  case,  the  action  of 
the  boiling  water  on  the  mordants  is  so 
(juicJi,  that  the  colouring*  matter  lias  not 


weight  of  alum.     Cotton  and  flax  thread    time  to  be  fixed  in  it,  in  order  to  give  in 


are  alumed  with  a  strong  solution  of  alum 
in  luke  warm  water,  to  which  potash  is 
often  added,  and  in  which  it  remains  at 
least  for  24  hours.  It  lias  hitherto  been 
thought,  that  in  this  operation,  alum  was 
decomposed,  and  that  alumine  was  com- 
bined with  the  stuff',  the  colour  of  which 
was  more  easily  fixed,  when  dipped  in  tlie 
dyeing  liquid :  but  the  experiments  which 
have  been  made,  force  us  to  reject  this 
opinion. 

Jlnalysis  of  Almning  of  Silk.  Ninety -five 
grammes  [one  gramtne  is  ten  deci-grani- 
tnes  or  eighteen  grains  eighty  four  hun- 
dredths'] of  silk  well  cleansed,  and  per- 
fectly purified,having  been  ])ut  into  a  glass 
vessel,  for  the  space  of  6  days,  at  thc'tem- 
perature  of  the  atmosphere,  v  ith  about  4 


solubility  to  the  combination  ;  but  in  the 
second  case,  this  effect  car.not  take  place. 
Analysis  of  Alutned  fl'ool.  After  hav- 
ing  determined  tlie  ])henomena,  that  take 
place  in  the  aluming  of  silk,  it  became  ne- 
cessary to  continue  tiic  examination  in  the 
case  of  wool,  and  to  only  employ  matters 
perfectly  pure,and  especially  free  from  car- 
bonate of  lime,  which  is  always  in  a  pret- 
Ly  strong  j)rop()rtion.  To  separate  it  fiom 
them,  we  boiled  them  several  times  in  a 
matrass.wilh  veiy  weak  mu:  iatic  acid,  but 
in  order  to  extract  the  last  portion  of  tlie 
acid  it  was  necessary  to  use  so  considerable 
([uanlity  of  distilled  water,  that  we  were 
ready  to  abaiulon  the  experiment,  which 
recjuiied,  besides  time  and  patience,  the 
greatest  care.    The  separation  of  the  nui- 


DYE 


DYE 


riatlc  acid,  from  the  two  first  liecto  gram- 
mes  of  wool,  which  we  had  purified,  re- 
quired 200  litres  of  distilled  w  ater,  the 
temperature  of  100  degrees  of  the  centi- 
grade iheriiiometer,  and  being  divided 
into  20  successive  operations,  every  one 
lasted  from  seven  to  eight  hours  Calcin- 
ed and  treated  projierly,  the  hme  and  mu- 
riatic acid  disappeared  totally.  One  hun- 
dred grammes  of  tiiis  wool,  have  been 
alumed  with  tlie  same  caution  that  vv  ;is 
employed  in  the  case  of  siili.  Aflerwards 
it  was  submitted  to  20  washings,  ai  the 
temperature  of  100  degrees,  of  the  centi- 
grade tliermoraeter,  in  a  matrass,  with  6 
litres  of  distilled  water  for  t?acii  operation. 
The  aluming  being  finished,  tins  wool 
took  colours  the  must  intense,  while  after 
the  last  washiiig',  it  could  not  receive  a 
colour  from  the  dye,  more  than  the  same 
white  wool,  that  had  not  received  any 
mordant.  These  comparative  experi- 
ments show  us,  that  the  substance  which 
had  been  fixed  by  the  aluming,  and  which 
at  first  had  determined  the  colouring  of 
the  wool  during  the  dyeing,  had  been  re- 
moved by  the  water-  The  alum  bath  eva- 
porated, gave  in  the  state  of  chrystals  two 
thirds  of  the  quantity  of  alum  which  had 
been  employed  :  we  found  almost  entire- 
ly, the  other  third  in  the  residue  of  the 
bath,  chrystalizable  witii  diihcuky,  and  in 
the  prodtice  of  the  washing  of  the  alumed 
wool.  We  repeated  these  experiments 
several  times,  and  constantly  with  the 
same  results  ;  btit  as  they  did  not  appear 
to  us,  as  sure  as  that  on  siilc,  on  accoimt 
of  the  drfticulty  of  separating  the  animal 
matters,  from  the  last  part  of  the  alum 
bath  :  we  alumed  the  wool  in  tlie  cold,  as 
we  had  done  tlie  silk,  persuaded,  that  in 
that  case,  the  bath  could  not  sensibly  dis- 
solve that  matter. 

We  alumed  in  the  cold,  in  a  solution  of 
alum  of  5'',  some  pure  wool,  and  we  have 
taken  out  during  the  operation  on  the 
silk,  either  from  the  alum  bath,  or  the 
washings,  except  about  one  four  hun- 
dredth part,  all  the  alum  which  had  been 
used.  As  we  were  certain,  that  in  the 
aluming  of  all  these  animal  matters,  the 
alum  is  entirely  combined  witli  them, 
without  undergoing  any  decomposition, 
and  that  it  then  forms  combinations,  more 
or  less  soluble,  M'hich  have  a  great  affinity 
for  the  colotiring  matter. 

Jlnalysis  of  the  Aluming  of  Cotton  and 
Thread.  After  having  extracted  from  a 
parcel  of  cotton,  by  the  foregoing  means, 
all  the  foreign  matters  combined  with  it, 
we  alumed  it  in  a  luke  warm  bath,  wit\x 
a  certain  quantity  of  alum,  and  let  it  ma- 
cerate therein  two  days.  After  that  ope- 
ratioHj  this  stuff  dyed  perfectly  well,  but 


treated  afterwards  at  100  degrees  of  the 
centigrade  thermometer,  in  a  ma  tress, 
wiih  distilled  water,  it  lost  the  property 
of  being  colotiied  in  the  dye  vat  i  he 
alum  bath,  and  the  washings^  being  eva- 
porated, gave  us  the  same  qiuuitity  of 
alum,  that  had  been  used.  We  succeed- 
ed  in  separating  the  alum  from  the  vege- 
table matter,  which  it  had  dissolved  by 
several  chrystalizations.  We  did  not  wish 
in  this  operation,  to  wash  the  cotton  as 
often  as  we  did  the  silk  and  wool,  seeing 
that  the  luiiou  of  the  alum  with  vegeta- 
ble substances  is  so  weak,  that  we  cannot 
immerse  dia-ing  some  minutes,  the  alum- 
ed cottons  in  boiling  water,  without  de- 
priving them  of  a  great  part  of  their  mor- 
dant. So,  for  cotton  sttifis,  the  greatest 
care  is  to  be  taken  to  dye  them  at  a  low 
temperature,  because  it  is  only  when  the 
colouring  matter  has  given  a  degree  of 
insolubility  to  that  union,  that  it  can, 
without  being  altered,  support  a  great 
heat. 

A  parcel  of  thread,  treated  in  the  same , 
manner,  gave  the  same  result. 

Analysis  of  the  Aluming  cojnmon  Wool. 
Our  analysis  haxe  shown  in  the  fullest 
manner,  that  in  the  aunning  of  animal 
and  vegetable  substances,  the  alum  was 
combiiied  with  them,  without  any  decom- 
position, btit  we  thought  it  necessary  to 
verity  also,  on  the  substances,  in  their  or- 
dinary state,  the  facts  which  they  otlered 
to  us  after  being  puriLed.  The  wools 
alumed  with  alum  alone,  always  rerider 
the  bath  very  muddy,  and  let  fall  when 
cold,  a  great  quantity  of  white  precipi- 
tate, as  several  chemists  have  observed. 
These  precipitates,  being  well  washed, 
have  constantly  furnisiied  us  sidphate  of 
lime,  saturated  sulphate,  and  sometimes 
a  little  alumine.  The  bath  was  composed 
of  a  considerable  quantity  of  alum,  of  aci- 
dulous sulphate  of  potash,  combined  with 
a  small  proportion  of  animal  matter.  We 
only  tbtmd  on  the  wool  some  alum,  and  a 
very  small  quantity  of  precipitate. 

These  experiments  on  the  precipitates 
formed  by  the  aluming-,  do  not  differ  from 
those  of  Mr.  Berthollet,  but  that  learned 
chemist  having  neither  examined  the  mo- 
ther waters,  nor  the  alumed  wools,  could 
not  give,  as  he  himself  acknowledges,  a 
clear  explanation  of  the  effects  produced 
by  the  alum  and  the  tartar  in  the  opera- 
tion of  dyeing.  These  precipitates  ob- 
tained by  the  common  wool  with  alum, 
never  occur  in  purified  wool ;  and  as  those 
matters  do  not  differ  among-  tiiemselves, 
except  by  the  presence  of  the  carbonate, 
it  was  natural  in  such  a  case,  to  attribute 
to  that  substance  the  decomposition  of  a 
part  of  the  alum. 


DYE 


DYE 


We  ascertained  ourselves  in  Ircatiiig 
cluring  many  liours  at  the  temperature  of 
100  decrees,  in  a  glass  vase,  some  solu- 
tions ot  alum  in  distilled  water,  with  dif- 
ferent proportions  of  carbonate  of  lime. 
We  have  acknowledged,  that  the  alum 
was  decomposed  by  liie  carbonate  of  lime; 
and  that  if  you  had  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
it,  there  would  not  remain  the  smallest 
panicle  of  the  alum  salt  in  solution.  The 
mother  waters  are  the  very  acid  sulpiiate 
of  potash,  and  the  precijVitatcs  are  formed 
of  the  sulphate  of  hme,  ai.d  the  acidulous 
sulphate  of  ahimine,  and  of  potash  :  from 
which  it  follows,  that  the  property  pos- 
sessed bv  ordinary  wools,  of  Ibrjning  a 
precipitate  in  the  alum  bath,  and  causing 
a  great  degree  of  acidity  therein,  proceeds 
Teall)  from  the  carbonate  of  lime.  We  ob- 
tain moreover  a  result  precisely  similar, in 
making  with  ordinary  wool,  5  or  6  succes- 
sive alumings  with  the  same  bath.  But  to 
come  to  a  general  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion, it  was  necessary  to  ascertain  the  na- 
ture of  the  precipitate  formed  in  the  solu- 
tions of  alum,  by  means  of  se^ei-al  alka- 
line and  earthy  substances.  We  have 
taken  then,  alums  with  base  of  potash, 
and  base  of  ammonia,  which  we  treated 
with  ammonia  and  carbonate  of  potash, 
in  such  a  manner,  as  to  have  in  their  so- 
lutions a  small  excess  of  alum.  The  mo- 
tlier  waters  evaporated,  were  very  acid 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  of  potash  and  ajii- 
monia,  and  of  potash  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  alum,  and  the  precipitant  cm- 
ployed.  The  precipitates,  which  were 
acidulous  sulphate  ofalumine  and  of  jiot- 
ash  or  ammonia,  treated  by  tlie  sulphuric 
acid,  gave  some  alum,  and  acidulous  svd- 
phate  ofalumine  ;  boiled  moreover  a  num- 
ber of  times  with  distilled  water,  tliey 
were  changed  into  alum,  into  sulpliatc  ot 
potash,  and  into  \nivc  alum:  but  more  of 
the  acid  sulphate  of  potasli,  than  of  alinn. 

The  solutions  of  alum,  brought  to  100 
degrees  of  heat,  on  the  centigrade  scale, 
with  pure  alumlne,  were  converted  into 
very  acid  sulphate  of  potash,  and  acidu- 
lous sulphate  of  ahimine  and  ]M)tash.  Af- 
ter this,  we  could  have  no  doubt  as  to 
the  alterations  produced  by  the  common 
wool  bi  the  alumed  baths,  and  upon  the 
inconvenience  of  alkalies  in  those  destined 
for  cotton  ;  for  the  addition  of  those  mat- 
ters diminishes  tlie  qiumtity  of  alum,  an<l 
even  increases  the  acidity  of  tlie  bath. 

"  On  the  aluniing  of  anhnal  and  -vegetable 
matters,  tuith  the  acetnte  of  alutnir.e. — 
Wool,  silk,  cotton,  and  Hax,  in  the  differ- 
ent states,  in  which  these  substances  are 
employed  in  dyeing,  have  been  treated 
with  the  acetate  of  ahimine,  which  has 
completely  combined  with  them.     But  as  I 


in  the  exposure  to  the  air,  in  a  tempera- 
ture a  httle  elevated,  the  mordant  always 
loses  a  small  quantity  of  acid,  it  follows 
that  the  combination  formed  upon  tlie 
stuff  is  an  acetate,  with  excess  of  base ; 
for  this  reason,  in  treating  it  with  boiling 
water,  it  is  converted  into  an  acid  acetate 
of  Illumine,  which  is  dissolved,  and  an  ahi- 
mine which  cannot  be  extracted  by  wash- 
ings. ' 

"  On  the  action  of  acidulous  tar  trite  of 
potash  upon  kooI. —  Wool,  well  scoured, 
has  been  treated,  as  in  the  preceding  ex- 
periments, with  very  pure  creme  of  tar- 
tar, free  from  lime,  and  formed  direetly 
with  acid  of  tartar  and  jjotash.  1  his 
wool  has  been  washed  many  times,  and 
the  last  washing  did  not  contain  any  more 
of  the  principles  which  had  been  combined 
with  it.  The  evaporation  of  this  bath 
gave  us  a  creme  of  tartar  pure  and  crys- 
tallized in  the  proportion  of  a  third  part  of 
that  employed,  and  moreover  some  neu- 
tral tartrite  of  potash.  The  washmgs 
were  very  acid;  we  extracted  from  it  a 
small  quantity  of  creme  of  tartar,  and  a 
combination,  extremely  acid,  formed  with 
the  add  of  tartar  and  wool.  These  facts 
mjglu  have  been  sufficient  to  e.xjilain  the 
phenomena  which  take  place  in  the  alum- 
ing  of  wool  with  alum  and  tartar,  since 
we  know  already  by  the  experiments  of 
Mr.  Bcrtliollet,  that  these  two  salts  are 
not  decomposed,  and  that  we  have  de- 
monstrated, that  the  wool  is  combined  en- 
tirely with  the  alum,  and  that  it  acts  upon 
the  creme  of  tartar,  in  taking  from  it  tlie 
tartarous  acid,  with  which  it  unites  in  a 
most  intimate  manner:  but  in  order  to 
have,  willi  resjiect  to  that,  a  full  proof,  ■ 
we  repeated  this  expeiiment,  although  ^ 
long,  by  following  tlie  method  marked  out 
by  the  preceding  chapters. 

"  Before  treating  wool  with  alum  and 
creme  of  tartar,  we  made  some  experi- 
ments on  tlie  reciprocal  action  of  those 
two  salts.  We  have  ascertained  that  wa- 
ter docs  not  hold  in  solution,  at  the  tem- 
perature of  12"  or  14",  more  than  _J._  of 
creme  of  tartar,  that  boiling  water  dis- 
solves JL  of  its  weight,  and  that  a  mix- 
To 
ture  of  equal  parts  of  alum  and  creme  of 

tartar,  is  dissolved  in  three-fifths  of  its 
quantity  of  water;  that  these  two  salts 
would  iiave  required  to  be  dissolved  by 
themselves  at  tlie  same  temi)erature. 
These  results  do  not  differ  from  those  al- 
ready  obtained  by  M.  Berthollet,  who  ha.s 
demonstrated  that  alum  has  tlie  i)roperty 
to  augment  the  solubility  of  the  creme  of 
tartai-. 

"If  we  alum  wool  in  the  ordinary  propor- 
tions, which  are  one-foiu'lh  of  alum,  and 

t 


DYE 


DYE 


one-sixteenth  of  creme  of  tartar  of  the 
weit^ht  of  stuff,  all  tliese  matters  being 
perfectly  pure,  we  will  obtain  from  the 
alum-bath,  sufficiently  evaporated,  some 
alum  and  creme  of  tartar,  and  a  residue 
difficultly  crystallizable,  composed  of  the 
tattarite  of  potash  and  of  animal  matter. 
The  washings  of  this  wool  will  t^ive  some 
alum,  and  a  very  small  quaritity  of  creme 
of  tartar,  and  a  combination  extremely 
acid,  formed  of  much  tartarous  acid,  of 
ahim,  and  animal  matter. 

"  These  observations  do  away  all  imcer- 
tainty  upon  manj'  practical  facts,  whicii 
hitherto  offered  to  tlie  dyer  onlj-  some 
very  vague  calculations,  and  point  out  to 
him  in  a  precise  manner,  tiie  steps  he 
ought  to  follow  in  the  ajiplication  of  these 
mordants,  according-  to  the  nature  of  the 
colouis  which  he  desires  to  obtain.  la 
fact,  in  aluming  with  alum  and  lartar,  we 
combine  with  wool,  alum  and  much  tar- 
tarous acid ;  we  must  only  use  these  two 
salts  in  cases  \\'hefe  tlie  colour  is  suscep- 
tible of  being  augmented  and  rendered 
more  lively  by  the  acids,  as  is  the  case 
with  cochineal,  madder,  and  kermes; 
whereas  we  ought  not  to  alume,  except 
with  alum,  the  wool  intended  to  be  d3-ed 
with  woad,  wood  of  India,  Brazil  wood, 
of  which  the  colours  are  easily  altered  or 
destroyed  by  acids. 

"  Among  all  the  animal  and  vegetable 
substances,  we  chose  only  wool,  to  treat 
with  alum,  and  with  alum  and  tarlar,  be- 
cause it  is  solely  with  that  material  that 
these  mordants  are  employed  in  dyeing. 

"  On  the  action  of  acids,  and  of  some  salts 
employed  upon  ivool  as  mordants. — Al- 
though all  the  attempts  that  have  been  hi- 
therto made,  to  discover  a  substitute  for 
alum,  have  not  succeeded,  we  have  ne- 
vertlieless  treated  wool  with  a  great  va- 
riety of  substances,  less  however  to  find 
out  the  most  advantageous  mordants, 
than  to  ascertain  the  action  of  some  ani- 
mal matters  upon  them,  which  are  very 
soluble,  and  that  possess  great  strength. 

"  We  boiled  wool  for  two  hours  in  water, 
with  small  quantities  of  sulphuric,  nitric, 
muriatic,  and  tartarous  acids.  All  these 
specimens  of  wool,  but  principally  those 
combined  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  gave, 
with  cochineal  and  madder,  colours  at 
least  as  deep  as  those  obtained  from  stuffs 
alumed  with  alum  and  tartar.  After 
that,  we  cannot  doubt  that  these  acids 
might  offer  in  that  case  gieat  advantages, 
if  they  caused  the  felling  of  the  wool. 
But  of  all  the  mordants  of  which  we  have 
tried  the  action,  there  is  none  which  has 
given  (notwithstanding  the  opinion  of  Mr. 
Haussman)  colours  .so  vivid  as  those  ob- 
ta.ined  by  the  intervention  of  tlie  acid  tar- 
YOL.    I. 


tarite  of  alumine.  The  use  of  this  salt, 
might  be  in  several  instances  preferable 
to  tartar  and  to  alum,  on  account  of  the 
vivacity  of  the  colours,  if  ilit-  price  was 
not  higher  than  that  of  the  other  two  sub- 
stances. In  trying  to  determine  with 
great  care,  all  that  relates  to  ihe  nature 
and  to  the  mode  of  combination  of  mor- 
dants with  the  stufls,  we  have  not  for- 
gotten Lhe  examination  of  some  practical 
methods  adopted  a  long  time  since  in  all 
tiie  dye-shops ;  of  which  the  most  import- 
ant is  to  know  if  the  proportions  of  alum 
and  tartar,  the  most  generally  employed, 
are  in  fact  preferable  to  all  others;  if  the 
time  taken  up  by  the  process  of  aluming 
is  sufficient  to  combine  with  the  wools  in 
a  coHiulete  manner;  and  finally,  if  the  me- 
thod, which  V(-e  believe  very  necessary,  to 
leave  them  for  some  days  in  a  cool  place 
after  the  process  of  aluming,  gives  more 
advantageous  results. 

"  Kqual  parts  of  mordants,  or  half  the 
weight  of  the  stuffs,  do  not  act  better 
than  one-quarter,  but  in  reckoning  from 
that  proportion  to  one-twentieth,  the  co- 
lours of  cochineal,  kermes,  and  madder, 
are  weakened  according  to  the  diminu- 
tion of  these  salts;  whereas  this  effect 
operates  inversely  for  the  woad,  the 
wood  of  India  and  of  Brazil,  so  that  in 
those  four  last  substances,  the  colouring 
appears  so  much  nriore  deep,  as  the  wool 
hits  received  less  of  the  mordant.  Wool 
alumed  dunng  two,  tour,  six  hours,  has 
given  to  the  dye  different  colours ;  thus  it 
is  useless  to  prolong  the  alumhig  beyond 
two  hours.  The  relative  experiments, 
immediately  after  the  aluming,  or  a  very 
long  time  after,  have  not  presented  to  us, 
among  them,  any  difference,  except  only 
that  on  the  wool  alumed  with  alum  alone, 
which  on  the  wood  gave  us  colours  more 
deep,  after  having  remahied  some  time 
in  a  cool  place:  which  can  only  be  attri- 
buted to  the  separation  of  the  acid  sul- 
phate of  potash,  wliich  has  ran  out  with 
that  part  of  the  mordant  not  combined 
with  the  stuffs. 

"Of  the  Scarlet  colour. — Scarlet  is  that 
brilliant  and  lively  colour  which  is  given 
to  wool,  in  treating  it  with  tartar,  with 
cochineal,  and  the  solution  of  very  oxidtd 
till.  Before  the  discovery  of  this  process, 
which  is  due  entirely  to  Drebbel,  they 
also  called  scarlet  the  colours  obtained 
upon  woollen  stuffs,  by  kermes  or  cochi- 
neal, and  for  which  they  employ  alum 
and  tartar.  The  processes  for  obtaining 
that  colour,  are  known  long  since  among 
the  workmen  ;  however  tliey  have  not  as 
yet  made  any  theoretical  researches  upon 
the  phenomena,  which  take  place  in  the 
treatment  of  tlie  solution  of  tin  with  creme 

M  m 


DYE 


DYE 


of  tartar  and  with  cochineal.  Dr.  Ban- 
croft, wlio  has  experimented  with  much 
success  upon  dyeings,  has  endeavoured  it 
is  true,  to  show  what  passes  in  the  for- 
mation of  that  colour,  but  as  his  opinion 
does  not  appear  to  us  illustrated  by  any 
experiment,  we  ought  not  the  less  to  look 
upon  this  question  as  being  as  little  ad- 
vanced as  it  was  before  the  publication 
of  his  work.  We  ])ropose  to  determine 
the  chemical  nature  of  the  combination 
formed  upon  wool  by  the  cochineal,  the 
tartar,  and  the  solution  of  tin;  and  to 
make  known  the  result  of  oui-  reseaixhes 
upon  scarlet. 

"Examination  of  the  precipitate  formed 
by  the  solution  if  tin,  atidtht  acidulous  t.  irtrite 
of'  potash. — All  the  matters  used  in  our 
experiments  were  perfectly  pure,  and  we 
uniformly  used  glass  vessels  and  distilled 
water. 

"  Eighty  grammes  of  acidulous  tartrite 
of  potash,  dissolved  in  three  kilogrammes, 
five  hectogrammes  of  distilled  water, 
were  heated  for  two  hours  to  lOG''  of 
the  centigrade  thermometer,  with  125 
grains  of  a  solution  of  tin.  The  precipi- 
tate on  being  washed  several  times,  and 
distilled  in  a  retort  and  plunged  in  lime 
water,  disengaged  a  very  sensible  quanii- 
ty  of  cai'bonic  acid.  Proper  reagents 
have  indicated  in  other  parts  of  this  com- 
position, the  presence  of  much  tin  and  mu- 
riatic acid.  Thus  the  creme  of  tartar  | 
and  solution  of  tin  arc  decomposed,  and  j 
give  a  precipitate  formed  of  the  acid  of  i 
tartar,  and  much  muriatic  acid  and  tin. 
The  mother-water  contained  tartrite  of 
potash,  acidulous  tartrite,  very  acid  mu- 
riate of  tin,  arid  a  quantity  of  precipitate, 
which  is  jield  in  solution  by  e-xcess  of  mu- 
riatic acid. 

*'  Wool,  white  and  pure,  treated  with  the 
ordinary  proportions  of  a  solution  of  tin, 
and  of  creme  of  tartar  employed  in  the 
scarlet  dye,  having  received  many  wash- 
ings in  boiling  water,  which  have  taken 
away  all  the  substances  combined  with  it ; 
these  washings,  united  and  evaporated, 
yielded  the  same  principles,  which  we 
had  already  obtained  from  the  precipi- 
tate formetl  by  the  solution  of  tin  and 
creme  of  tartar. 

*'  We  have  discussed  in  these  researches 
the  action  of  cochineal,  and  we  have  as- 
certained that  it  did  not  make  any  differ- 
ence from  these  results. 

"  We  have  acciuired  by  these  means,  the 
certainty  tliat  this  fine  scarlet  colour  is 
only  caused  by  one  combination,  with  the 
wool  and  the  colouring  matter,  tiie  acid  of 
tartar,  muriatic  acid,  and  peroxide  of  tin. : 
But  we  would  greatly  mistake,  if  in  this 
operation,  we  were  to  regard  as  nothing  i 


the  influence  of  a  bath :  for  wool  combined 
with  mordants  that  we  have  just  noted, 
and  passed  through  the  bath  of  cochi- 
neal, never  takes  there  the  scarlet  shade, 
and  cannot  take  it  but  by  the  action  of 
this  very  acid  bath,  which  in  making  yel- 
low loses  the  impression  of  cochineal, 
which  gives  so  much  brilliancy  to  that  co- 
lour. This  last  experiment,  and  some 
others,  which  we  will  detail  at  the  close  of 
this  memoir,  prove  to  us,  that  tlie  wool,  as 
we  believed,  does  not  take  the  impression 
of  yellow  in  that  operation,  by  the  combi- 
nation which  it  forms  with  the  nitric  acid, 
which  is  found  in  excess  in  the  solution  of 
tin;  for  this  wool  comes  out  perfectly 
wliite,  from  all  the  boilings  and  redden- 
ings, to  which  it  was  submitted,  when  co- 
louring matter  has  not  been  employed. 

"Of  the  tartrites  of  tin,  and  some  other 
metallic  solutions. — The  pioofs  which  we 
have  just  given  of  the  formation  of  scar- 
let, appear  so  evident,  that  we  should  not 
have  thought  to  increase  the  number,  if 
the  importance  of  this  question  had  not  in- 
duced us  to  give  a  more  extended  view  of 
this  work. 

"  We  have  experimented  upon  wool  in 
the  usual  proportions  for  scarlet,  with  all 
the  sulphates  and  miiriats  of  antimony,  of 
bismuth,  of  zinc,  and  of  arsenic-  Some  of 
those  solutions  have  given  us  very  agree- 
able colours,  but  they  differ  sensibly  from 
that  which  we  wished  to  obtain. 

"  AVe  have  been  very  fortunate  in  our  re- 
searches upon  the  ta;  trite  of  tin  obtained 
from  the  tartrite  of  potash,  and  of  soda, 
by  the  muriat  of  tin,  very  oxided.  This 
salt  dissolved  in  the  muriatic  acid,  and 
employed  in  tlie  boilings  and  in  the  I'ed- 
denings  destined  for  scarlet,  have  given 
us  colours  as  deep  and  as  lively  as  those 
obtained  of  creme  of  tartar  and  solution 
of  tin.  The  tartrite  of  tin  dissolved  in  an 
excess  of  its  acid,  produced  also  very 
good  effects;  however,  as  that  way  woidd 
be  more  costly  than  the  ordinary  process, 
it  will  be  much  preferable  to  adopt  the 
solution  of  that  salt  in  the  muriatic  acid. 
But  before  recommending  the  use  of  this 
mordant  to  the  dyers,  we  propose  to  try 
it  in  the  large  way,  to  determine,  in  a  very 
strict  manner,  the  price  and  all  the  ad- 
vantages." 

Two  important  and  distinct  manufac- 
tures belong  to  the  subject  of  dyeing.  The 
one  is  dyeihg,  properly  so  called,  or  the 
art  of£"ivingan  uniform  colour,  to  an  en- 
tire piece  of  stuff:  the  other  is  topical 
dyeing,  or,  the  art  of  fixing  various  co- 
loured jjatterns  on  an  uniform  ground  ; 
which,  from  its  being  chiefly  and  origi- 
nai.y  employed  on  cotton  or  calico,  is  call- 
ed Calico-printing.     The  basis  of  each  art. 


DYE 


DYE 


as  far  as  relates  to  the  chemical  action  of 
the  iibi'es  of  the  stuff  upon  the  different 
dyes  and  their  mordants,  is  precisely  the 
same,  and  in  general,  the  materials  em- 
ployed, are  nearly  the  same  ;  but  the  ma- 
nipulations and  particular  mode  of  appli- 
cation widely  differ. 

The  process  of  dyeing  in  the  piece  con- 
sists of  a  few  simple  operations,  repeated 
more  or  less  often,  according  to  circum- 
stances ;  with  many  minute  variations  in 
the  temperature,  time  of  immersion,  and 
the  like,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
stuff,  and  the  colour  to  be  given,  by  rules, 
which  experience  alone  can  teach. 

The  following  is  a  short  sketch  of  the 
mode  of  dyeing  the  principal  colours, 
chiefly  taken  fromBertlioUet,  Lewis,  Ban- 
croft, Hellot.  and  some  other  authoriues; 
but,  it  should  be  added,  that  the  variety  in 
the  processes,  actually  used,  is  almost 
endless  ;  almost  every  manufacturer  liav- 
ing  his  particular  receipt,  in  which  slight 
variations  in  the  quantity,  or  quality  of  in- 
gredients, the  time,  or  order  of 'apphca- 
tion,  and  other  minute  circumstances,  are 
found  to  render  the  colour  somewhat  more 
or  less  full,  durable,  glossy,  uniform,  and 
the  like. 

Of  Blacks. — There  are  a  few  native  ve- 
getable juices,  that  produce  durable  sub- 
stantive blacks  ;  or  such  as  can  be  fixed  at 
once,  on  cloth,  without  any  previous  pi-e- 
paration.  Of  this  kind,  is  the  Anacanlium 
orientale,  a  kind  of  nut,  containing,  between 
the  inner  and  outer  shell,  a  fungous  sub- 
stance, filled  with  a  viscous  fluid  in  small 
quantity.  This  juice,  rubbed  on  linen  and 
cotton,  gives  a  reddish  brown  stain ; 
which,  by  exposure  to  air,  deepens  to  a 
full  black,  that  is  quite  permanent.  It  is 
said  to  be  used  in  India,  for  marking  linen 
and  cotton  cloths,  and  hence,  is  called, 
the  Marking  Mit.  The  West  India  ca- 
shew nut,  is  of  a  similar  nature  with  the 
East  Indian  anacardiutn ;  but  the  colour  is 
not  so  deep.  The  anacardium  would  be 
highly  valuable,  if  it  could  be  collected  in 
quantity,  particularly  for  linen  and  cotton ; 
but  it  is  only  used,  very  partially,  in  the 
countries  of  which  it  is  a  native. 

Several  otlier  native  vegetable  juices, 
yield  permanent  substantive  blacks ;  such 
as  the  American    Rhus  Toxicodendron   or  j 
Poison  Ash,  and  otlier  tropical  plants  ;  but  ■ 
none  of  these  are  used  in  Europe. 

The  place  of  galls,  which  bear  a  consi- ' 
derable  price,  is  frequently  supplied  by  j 
oak  bark,  oak  saw -dust,  sumach,  the  | 
cups  and  husks  of  acorns,  or  other  com-  [ 
mon  astringents.  Dr.  Pennington,  in  his  \ 
Chemical  and  Economical  Essays,  recom- 
mends this  pig  nut,  which  grows  in  abun- ' 
dance  in  the  United  States,  as  a  substitute 


for  galls,  both  for  black  dye,  as  welJ  as 
for  ink.  Sumach  is  used  for  dyeing  the 
black  for  Morocco  leather. 

The  black,  commonly  given  to  all  kinds 
of  stuff,  is  that  which  is  produced  by  some 
vegetable  astringent,  particulai'ly  galls^ 
with  the  salts  of  iron ;  but,  many  circum- 
stances must  be  observed,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce a  full  and  good  colour.  Wool  takes 
this  kind  of  black,  with  much  more  ease 
than  linen  or  cotton,  and  is  dyed  in  the 
following  manner : 

The  woollen  cloth  is  first  dyed  of  a  very 
deep  blue,  with  indigo,  to  give  a  fuller  bo- 
dy of  colour.  The  black  is  then  given  by 
astringents  and  iron,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  Hellot's  elaboi'ate  and  excellent 
process. 

For  every  50  lb.  of  cloth,  take  8  lb.  of 
logwood,  and  as  much  galls,  both  bruised 
or  powdered  ;  lie  them  loosely  in  a  bag, 
and  boil,  in  a  moderate  sized  copper,  for 
about  twelve  hours,  with  sufficient  water. 
Put  one-third  of  this  decoction,  with  a 
pound  of  verdigris,  into  another  copper, 
and  soak  the  cloth  in  it  for  two  hours, 
keeping  the  liquor  scalding  hot,  but  not 
boiling.  Take  out  the  cloth ;  add  to  the 
same  copper,  another  third  of  the  first  de- 
coction, with  4  lb.  of  vitriol,  or  sulphat  of 
iron,  and  bring  again  to  a  scalding  heat, 
and  souk  the  cloth  in  it  for  an  hour,  stir- 
ring it  well  all  the  time.  Then  take  out 
the  cloth,  and  add  tiie  remaining  third  of 
the  decoction,  with  8  or  10  lb.  of  sumach  ; 
boll  the  whole  ;  lower  the  heat  with  a  lit- 
tle cold  water;  add  a  pound  more  of  vi- 
triol, and  return  the  cloth  for  an  hour  lon- 
ger. The  cloth  is  then  washed,  and  aired 
again,  and  retiu'ned  to  the  bath  for  an 
hour;  after  which,  it  is  well  washed  in 
running  water,  and  fulled.  It  is,  lastly, 
passed  through  a  yellow  bath  of  weld  for 
a  short  time,  to  give  a  higher  gioss  and 
softness  to  the  black.  It  is  then  washed, 
and  dried  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  common  blacks,  however,  are  giv- 
en in  a  much  simpler  manner;  the  stuff 
(previously  dyed  blue)  being  first  soaked 
in  a  bath  of  galls,  and  boiled  for  two  hours, 
and  then  passed  through  another  bath  of 
logwood  and  vitriol,  at  a  scalding  heat,  for 
as  much  longer ;  after  which,  it  is  washed 
and  fulled. 

Several  observations  are  to  be  made  on 
this  process. 

The  previous  dyeing  blue,  is  not  in  the 
least  necessary  to  enable  the  cloth  to  take 
the  black  afterwards  ;  but  it  is  found  to  be 
of  great  service  in  giving  body  to  the  co- 
lour, and  is  never  omitted  in  the  finest 
blacks.  The  indigo  blue,  is  the  best  pre. 
paration  for  black,  being  a  deep,  heavy 
dve,   and  assimilates  well  vlth  perfect 


DYE 


DYE 


black.  When  tliis  proves  too  expensive 
for  the  stiifF,  it  is  sometimes  prepared  of 
a  buii,  iirfawn  colour,  with  walnut  husks, 
instead  of  blue. 

Black  is  never  given  by  a  single  opera- 
tion :  that  is,  the  stufl'is  fh-st  impregnated 
with  tile  galls,  or  otlier  astringents,  either 
at  once,  or  else  by  several  piocesses,  and 
afterwards  passed  hito  the  viiriol  bath. 
TJie  colour  is  tluis  rendered  much  faster, 
tlian  if  the  whole  ingredients  were  first 
mixed  A  certain  projiortion  must  he  ob- 
served between  the  astringerd  vegetables 
(of  which  kind  are  the  galls,  logwood  and 
sumach)  and  the  salt  of  iron ;  for,  if  the 
former  are  in  too  great  a  quantity,  the 
black  is  again  degraded,  towards  a  grey, 
rusiy  )iue.  Too  long  a  maceration  of  the 
cloth  lias  the  same  effect,  as  Lewis  has 
veil  observed;  and  BerthoUet  remarks, 
that  a  rusty  coloui  is  given  to  the  finest 
black,  by  being  passed  through  a  fresh 
bath  of  galls.  The  black  colour  is  not  en- 
tirely brought  out,  till  after  the  clotli  is  ex- 
posed to  tlie  air  ;  an  efi'ect,  similar  to  the 
well-known  deepening  of  the  colour  of 
pale  ink,  some  liours  after  it  is  used. 

Logwood  does  more  than  merely  add 
to  tlie  quantity  of  vegetable  astrhigent,  for 
it  contributes  much  to  the  depth  of  colour, 
and  cotmteracts  tlie  brownish  rust  tinge, 
which  galls  and  iron  are  apt  to  p;ive. 
Where  the  cloth  is  not  pre^^ously  blued, 
logwood  is  particularly  necessary.  A  vei-y 
fine  black  is  produced  on  blue  cloth,  ac- 
cording to  Lewis,  by  5  ib.  of  vitriol,  5  lb. 
of  galls,  and  30  lb.  of  logwood. 

The  verdigris,  also,  has  a  good  effect  in 
improving  the  colour  ;  but  it  is  not  exact- 
ly known  how  it  acts 

In  Hellot's  process,  the  cloth  already 
black,  is  finished  by  a  yellow  weld  bath 
Madder  has  also  been  much  used  in  the 
same  way,  and  is  supposed  to  give  a  vel- 
vet softness  to  the  colour.  The  use  of  any 
of  these  finishing  tints,  is,  however,  mucii 
disputed,  and  is  in  a  good  measure,  dis- 
contiiukd. 

Wool  is  dyed  black  nearly  in  the  same 
way  as  woollen  clotli.  The  natin-al  grease 
of  the  wool,  is  first  removed  b}'  boiling  in 
a  bath  of  stale  urine  and  water;  after 
which,  the  wool  is  dyed  blue  and  black, 
nearly  m  the  way  above-mentioned. 

Some  variety  ot^  the  above  processes  is 
requii'ed,  to  give;  a  black  dye  tosiik.  Raw 
silk,  in  the  state  in  which  ii  is  sj^un  from 
the  cocoons,  is  covered  with  a  natural 
kind  (if  gum,  or  varnish,  which  gives  it  its 
beautiful  orange  yellow  colour ;  and  also 
a  degree  of  stiffness  and  elasticity,  which 
is  detrimental  to  the  manufacture,  and 
must  be  first  removed.  This  is  done  by 
boiling  it  in  water,  for  four  or  five  hours, 


with  a  fifth  of  its  weight  of  fine  white  soap, 
winch  dissolves  this  ginnmy  water  The 
silk  loses  about  a  fourth  of  its  weight  in 
this  process.  To  dye  it  bhick,  it  is  Uicn 
boiled  three  or  four  hours,  with  about 
three-quarters  of  its  weight  of  galls,  and 
suffered  to  remain  without  boiling,  for 
about  a  day,  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  kind  of  manufacture  for  which  it  is 
intended.  It  is  then  blackened  in  a  bath 
of  sulphat  of  iron,  iron  filings,  and  cherry- 
tree  gum,  with  many  manipulations,  too 
numerous  to  be  here  described.  Silk  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  previously  blued,  as  wool 
is  ;  but,  sometimes  a  root,  or  fawn-colour- 
ed ground,  is  given  by  walnut  husks.  Silk 
requires  many  more  dippings,  and  alter- 
nate soakings  with  galls  and  iron,  than 
wool  does,  to  produce  a  full  good  colour  ; 
and  the  quantity  of  galls  required,  diflers 
most  remarkably,  five  or  six  pounds  being 
sufficient  for  a  hundred  pounds  of  wool, 
but  upwards  of  fifty  for  the  same  weigh^ 
of  silk.  Hence,  the  dyeing  of  silk,  is  much 
more  expensive. 

Hats  are  dyed  with  only  a  single  batli 
of  the  mixed  ingredients.  The  bath  is 
made  of  100  lb.  of  logwood,  12  ib.  of  gum, 
and  6  lb.  of  galls,  boiled  for  some  hours 
with  water ;  after  which,  6  lb.  of  verdigris 
and  10  lb.  of  sulphat  of  iron  are  added, 
and  the  liquor  kept  just  of  a  scalding 
heat.  Ten  or  twelve  dozen  of  hats,  are 
immersed  by  a  proper  contrivance,  into  the 
liquid,  for  about  an  hour  and  a  half,  then 
taken  out  and  aired,  and  another  set  im- 
mediately immersed  for  the  like  time. 
Each  set  is  dipped  and  aired  alternately, 
for  eight  times,  the  bath  being  occasion- 
ally refreshed  by  more  of  the  ingredients. 
The  verdigris  is  found  by  experience  to 
be  essential  to  the  beauty  of  the  dye. 

It  is  a  much  more  difficuli  operation  to 
fix  a  permanent  black  on  linen  and  cotton, 
which  will  stand  washing  with  soap,  and 
long  exposure  to  the  air.  The  processes 
that  succeed  on  wool,  do  not  answer  well 
here  ;  the  black  being  very  liable  to  dege- 
nerate to  a  rusty  brown. 

I,inen,  or  linen  thread,  is  generally  first 
blued  whh  indigo,  and  theti  receives  a 
mordant  of  ahmi ;  after  which,  it  is  passed 
througii  a  bath  of  galls  or  logwood,  or 
alder,  and  blackened  with  the  iron  solu- 
tion, for  which  a  variety  of  processes  are 
given. 

A  fine,  durable  black  on  cotton,  is  of 
still  more  consequence,  in  the  present  im- 
mense traile  of  printed  cottons,  llian  (  n 
linen  ;  and  much  pains  has  been  taken  to 
equal  the  excellent  fast  black,  given  to 
cotton  goods  in  the  Kast  Indies;  the  pro- 
cess for  which  is  not  know  n,  unless  it  be 
with  the  anacardium,  or  other  native  ve- 


DYE 


DYE 


getable  juices.  For  many  years,  a  kind  of 
ucetite  of  iron,  hus  been  used  very  largely 
in  England,  as  a  substitute  for  the  svilphat 
in  the  black  dye  ;  and  also,  partly  as  a 
substantive  colour,  by  which  alone  many 
uscfid  sliades  of  buff,  nankeen,  and  other 
dyes  arc  given  This  acetite  is  made  by 
macerating  refuse  pieces  of  iron  in  sour 
beer,  vinegar,  elder-berries,  ajid  other  sub- 
stances, tnat  afibrd  the  vegetable  acids,and 
produce  in  time,  a  very  strong  uncrystalliz- 
able,  high-coloured  solution.  Of  late  years 
too,  the  pyroligneous  acid  (obtained  from 
the  disti'lation  of  wood,  in  making  the 
best  charcoal  for  gunpowder)  and  theem- 
pjreumalic  acid  of  tar,  have  been  used 
very  extensively  in  calico-priiiting,  for  si- 
milar purposes,  and  with  very  compleat 
success  ;  bui  the  precise  mode  of  applica- 
tion is  kept  secret.  It  appears,  that  galls, 
or  similar  vegetable  matter,  are  not  re- 
cjuired  with  this  preparation,  but  the 
place  is  supplied  with  madder,  which, 
with  a  deep  iron  ground,  may  be  made  to 
give  a  very  dark  purple-brown,  hardly dis- 
tinguishable from  black. 

Since  cotton  and  linen,  which  are  of  ve- 
getable origin,  have  naturally  less  affinity 
with  colouring  matter,  than  wool  and  ani- 
mal matters,  dyers  have  been  in  the  habit 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  of  impregnat- 
ing linen,  and  especially  cotton,  with  ma- 
ny compound  mo.'dants;  the  united  effect 
of  which,  is  certainly,  in  many,  instances, 
to  enable  tlieni  to  take  and  retain  colours, 
with  much  more  perfection,  than  any  sim- 
pler process  £Ould  ob'.ain.  Sometimes 
these  mordants  are  animal  glues,  animal 
oils,  dung,  SiC;  and  it  has  been  very  hap- 
pily conjectured,  that  the  great  advantage 
of  these,  is,  in  some  degree,  to  nnhnalize 
the  vegetable  fibre,  as  it  were,  and  thus  in 
point  of  affinity  witli  colouring  matter,  to 
bring  it  more  on  a  level  with  wool,  silk, 
and  the  natural  animal  fibres.  The  fine 
turkey  red  of  madder,  fixed  on  cotton  by  a 
very  complicated  process,  is  a  striking  in- 
stance of  the  use  of  these  compound  mor- 
dants, as  will  be  afterwards  mentioned. 
The  following  process  for  dyeing  linen  and 
cotton  of  a  fine  durable  black,  is  given  by 
Mr.  Vogler,  an  eminent  practical  artist,  in 
which  animal  glue  is  used  as  a  mordant, 
together  with  a  solution  of  lead ;  which 
last  seems  to  have  a  strong  affinity  for  the 
materials  of  which  the  black  dye  is  com- 
posed. 

Mix,  in  a  l.qrge  bottle,  a  quart  of  soft 
watei-,  with  2  or  2h  ounces  of  common 
aquafortis,  and  throw  in  from  2  to  3  oun- 
ces of  litharge.  Set  the  bottle  in  a  warm 
place,  frequently  shaking  it,. till  a  solution 
is  made ;  which,  when  used,  should  be 
poured  oft"  clear  from  the  sediment.    In 


this,  dilute  nitrated  lead ;  first  soak  the 
linen  or  cotton  thread  (witliout  heat)  for 
ten  or  twelve  hours,  then  take  it  out,  wash 
it,  and  wring  it  well.  Next  dip  the  thread 
into  a  moderately  strong  waim  glue  wa- 
ter ;  wring  it  out,  but  do  not  wash  it,  and 
let  it  dry  in  the  sliade.  Next,  make  a  de- 
coction of  ^  of  an  ounce  of  galls  in  a  quart 
of  water  ;  and  when  they  have  boiled  for 
ten  minutes,  throw  in  |  of  an  ounce  of  salt. 
Then  soak  the  thread  therein  for  seven  or 
eight  minutes,  with  a  boiling  heat,  wash, 
wring  and  di-y  as  before.  The  thread  has 
now  a  dark,  yellowish,  grey  colour.  Af- 
terwards, dissolve  ^  of  an  ounce  of  sul- 
pliat  of  iron,  with  as  much  salt,  in  a  quart 
of  clean  hot  water ;  soak  the  thread  there- 
in for  eight  or  ten  hours  ;  after  wiiich, 
wash  and  dry.  The  colour  is  now  black, 
but  is  much  improved  by  the  following 
operations.  Boil  ^  olan  ounce  of  logwood 
in  a  quai't  of  water  for  ten  minutes  ;  after 
which,  add  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
starch ;  and,  when  well  mixed,  put  in  the 
blackened  thread  or  stufi,  and  boil  for  7  or 
8  minutes  ;  after  which,  wash  it  in  cold 
water  and  dry.  Lastly,  the  coloui-,  which 
is  much  improved  by  the  foregoing  opera- 
tion, is  fixed  by  the  following.  Make  a 
bath  of  one  ounce  of  bruised  galls,  and  a 
quart  of  pretty  strong  glue;  and,  when  it 
has  boiled  for  10  minutes,  add  one  ounce 
of  vitriol  of  iron,  and  allow  the  whole  to 
cool  with  fi-equent  stirring.  Then  soak 
the  thread  for  an  hour  in  tlie  liquor,  after 
wjiich,  wring  it  out,  and  dry  it  in  the  shade. 
The  dye  is  then  compleat  Though  the 
above  process  includes  many  operations, 
it  does  not  appear  needlessly  complex ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  is  very  judicious, 
and  agreeable  to  the  long  established 
practice  of  tlie  art.  Cloth  of  cotton  or  li- 
nen, may  be  dyed  in  this  way,  according  to 
the  author,  as  well  as  thread. 

The  following  observations  on  a  neie 
black  dye,  to  be  applied  to  all  kinds  of  lin- 
ens  and  stuffs,  by  Mr.  Hermbstadt,  may 
prove  useful : 

The  black  colours,  which  are  generally 
applied  to  linen  and  cotton  stufis,  are 
composed  of  iron  and  vinegar.  Their  base 
is  always  oxide  of  iron,  which  is  mixed 
with  decoctions  of  wood  of  different  kinds. 
A.11  these  colours  incline  either  to  red,  or 
blue;  and  they  resist  but  feebly  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air,  of  vvtiter,  and  of  acids.  The 
tincture  which  I  have  composed,  and 
which  I  use  daily,  in  dyeing  all  kinds  of 
cotton,  silk,  or  wool  stuffs,  to  an  unaltera- 
ble black,  embraces  an  intimate  union  of 
the  oxide  of  iron,  with  that  of  copper,  and 
the  pyro-ligneous  acid 

PreparaUon  of  the  Pjro-ligneous  Acid — 
Take  a  tubulated  retort,  made  of  plate 


DYE 


DYE 


iron,  or  of  cast  iron,  which  is  better;  place 
it  in  a  furnace  in  such  a  manner,  that  the 
neck  be  perfectly  free,  and  the  botiom  re- 
ceive directly,  the  heat  of  the  lire.  It 
must  be  luted  carefully  ;  and  there  must 
be  inti-oduced  into  the' retort,  some  ches- 
nut  wood,  cut  into  small  bits.  The  distil- 
lation then  commences  with  a  very  mode- 
rate fire,  which  is  projrressively  increased, 
till  no  more  Tutuid  passes  into  the  receiv- 
er. The  acid  wliicii  is  found  in  the  re- 
eeivei-,  mixed  with  a  kind  of  oil,  may  be 
separated  from  it  by  a  filter  of  grey  pa- 
per :  the  wood  will  be  reduced  to  char- 
coal in  the  retort. 

Prtparation  of  the  Oxide  of  Iron — Dis- 
solve 4  pounds  of  vitriol,  (sulphate)  of 
iron,  very  jiure,  in  24  pounds  of  rain  water. 
Dissolve' in  like  manner,  4  pounds  of  pot- 
ash, in  12  pounds  of  filtered  water.  These 
two  solutions,  when  well  mixed,  will  ap- 
pear  at  the  beginning,  of  a  deep  green  ; 
but,  in  a  little  time,  the  surface  exposed  to 
tlxe  air,  will  take  a  dark  red  colour;  then 
pom*  the  whole  on  a  filter  of  linen :  the 
oxide  which  will  remain  after  the  water 
has  passed,  ought  to  be  washed  in  a  great 
deal  of  Avater,  to  free  it  from  all  adhering 
salt.  Leave  this  oxide  exposed  on  a  plate, 
to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
will  reduce  it  to  a  state  of  red  oxide. 

Preparation  of  the  Oxide  of  Copper — To 
prepare  this  oxide,  take  a  ])ouiid  of  blue 
vitriol  of  Cyprus  (suljjhate  of  copper,) 
•which  dissolve  in  12  pounds  of  rain  wa- 
ter :  make  it  boil,  and  mix  with  it  :i  pound 
of  water,  satur;ited  with  potash,  and  you 
will  obtam  a  green  precipitate,  which 
must  be  well  washed  after  being  filtered. 

Preparation  of  the  Mordant  for  BLick. — 
Take  tliree  parts  of  the  oxide  of  iron,  and 
one  part  of  the  oxide  of  copper  :  triturate 
them  in  a  marble  mortar,  and  pom-  on 
them  the  necessary  quantity  of  pyro-llg- 
neous  acid  to  dissolve  tluni.  P'iltcr  the 
whole,  to  separate  the  thick  parts,  and 
the  niordant  is  made. 

Application  oj  this  Mordant  in  dyeing 
Slack.—  Steep  the  stuffs  intended  to  be 
dyed  in  this  mordant,  thickened  at  plea- 
sure. Afterwards,  proceed  to  the  dyeing 
in  the  ordinary  decoctions  made  with  dif- 
ferent dye-woods.  The  colour  obvained, 
will  be  a  very  beautiful  black,  and  almost 
unchangeable,  by  all  chemical  agents.  If 
the  black  is  meant  tc- serve  fur  jirinting 
stuffs  orcloths,  it  is  thickened  very  much  ; 
and  by  mixing  it  with  ditferent  tinctures 
of  dye-wood,  it  will  form  a  black  equally 
beautiful  and  lasting. 

Process  employed  to  obtain  a  liqxtid  black 
— Invented  by  Mr.  Clarke,  an  Knglisl.- 
man,  and  introduced  into  commerce  ;  its 
use  in  marking  linen  in  a  solid  and  dura- 


ble manner,  and  its  application  for  printing 
cottons  or  stuffs  : — 

For  these  two  or  three  years  pasti  a 
black  tincture  has  been  sold  for  tlie  pui'- 
pose  of  marking  linen. 

A  glass  polisher  and  directions  for 
using  the  tincture  accompany  the  two 
bottles  which  contain  the  ingredients,  and 
the  whole  is  sealed  up  in  a  case. 

One  of  the  bottles  contains  the  mor- 
dant. The  other  contains  the  ink,  which 
is  of  a  deep  brown  colour,  and  which  must 
be  well  shaken  before  making  use  of  it, 
because  it  subsides  when  left  to  rest. 

The  part  of  the  linen  intended  to  be 
marked,  must  be  in  the  first  place  impreg- 
nated wilh  the  mordant,  which  is  allowed 
to  dry  on  the  linen.  The  place  which  had 
been  wetted  is  then  rubbed  with  the  po- 
lisher; an  ordinary  pen  is  then  dipped  in 
the  ink,  and  the  writing  is  performed  on 
the  Unen  the  same  as  on  paper.  Neither 
soap  nor  any  chemical  preparation  will 
destroy  this  writing,  which,  when  well 
diied,  is  of  a  %'ery  fine  black. 

Having  chemically  analysed  these  two 
liquids,  we  are  able  to  give  an  account  of 
the  ingredients  which  compose  them. 

Preparation- of  the  Ink. — Dissolve  in  ni- 
tric acid  (aquafortis)  what  quantity  of  sil- 
ver you  please.  This  solution,  if  the  sil. 
ver  has  been  alloyed  with  copper,  will  be 
of  a  sapphire  blue. 

In  order  to  separate  the  copper  from 
the  silver,  add  to  the  solution  twelve  times 
its  weight  of  distilled  water,  or,  for 
want  of  it,  rain  w:iter,  and  svispend  in  it 
a  thin  plate  of  copper.  In  proportion  as 
this  plate  dissolves,  the  silver  will  preci- 
pitate itself,  perfectly  pure,  in  the  form  of 
a  white  powder-  When  no  more  of  this 
powder  will  i)recipitale  itself  the  liquor 
should  be  decanted.  The  powder  is  then 
washed  in  a  great  quantity  of  water,  un- 
til the  water  thrown  ujion  it  is  no  lonf^er 
of  a  blue  cast,  but  remains  perfectly  lim- 
ped. The  residue,  /.  e.  this  powder,  well 
dried,  will  be  silver  in  its  purest  state. 

If  this  residue  weighs  one  ounce,  dis- 
solve as  much  gum  Senegal  and  two 
drachms  of  white  glue,  in  two  ounces  of 
distilled  water.  Mix  this  solution  with 
throe  drachms  of  lamp-black  well-cal- 
cined in  a  close  crucible. 

To  manufacture  this  mixtiu-e  properly, 
it  ought  to  be  triturated  in  a  glass  mortar. 

This  operation  being  fini.shcd,  the  solu. 
tion  of  siher,  diluted  in  eight  times  its 
weight  of  distilled  Wiiter,  is  poured  upon 
the  above  mixture  ;  the  whole  is  then  well 
stirred  with  a  spatula,  and  tlie  mk  is 
made. 

Preparat'on  of  the  Mordant. — Dissolve 
two  ouu'vcs  of  white  glue  and  as  much 


DIE 


DYE 


isinglass  in  six  ounces  of  alcohol,  and  as 
much  distilled  water.  This  solution  will 
be  made  in  two  days.  The  B  M.  is  made 
use  of  for  the  purpose  ;  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  stir  the  two  kinds  of  glue  from 
lime  to  time. 

After  the  whole  is  dissolved,  it  must  be 
filtered  through  flannel,  in  order  to  keep 
back  all  its  mucilaginous  particles.  The 
liquid  thus  filtered,  and  preserved  in  a 
bottle  well  corked,  is  then  ready  for 
use. 

J\Ianner  in  nahicb  the  Ink  acts. — The  so- 
lution of  silver  in  the  nitric  acid  is  nothing 
else  than  the  composition  of  the  lapis 
inftrnalis ;  and  every  one  knows  its  pro- 
perties in  staining  the  skin,  nails,  &c.  of 
a  black  colour.  If  the  linen  or  stuff  is 
first  impregnated  with  the  above  mor- 
dant, xvhich  is  an  animal  substance,  the 
ink  may  be  afterwards  applied  without 
spreading,  and  will  completely  dye  every 
thread  of  the  part  to  wliich  it  is  applied, 
the  mordant  having  previously  partly  ani- 
malized  the  fibre  of  the  fabric. 

Soap,  or  any  other  ingredient  used  in 
washing,  may  obliterate  the  lamp-black, 
but  it  never  takes  out  the  nitrate  of  silver ; 
and  the  object  proposed  is  therefore  per- 
fectly well  attained. 

application  of  the  Ink  for  printing  orange 
Cotton  and  other  stuff n. — We  may  easily 
conceive  that  this  ink  m.ay  be  emplo3'ed 
with  advantage  for  printing  clotlis  of  a 
white,  yellow,  or  rose  ground,  or  any  other 
clear  colour. 

The  cloths  or  stuffs  intended  to  be 
printed  in  this  manner  require  no  other 
preparation  than  to  be  dipped  in  a  solu- 
tion of  parchment  or  isinglass  ;  and  after 
they  are  dried  they  must  be  rubbed  witli 
a  glass  polis)\er. 

The  ink  must  be  thickened  for  this  pur- 
pose with  a  greater  quantity  of  gum  se- 
nega!, and  then  applied  upon  the  clotlis 
or  stuffs  in  the  usual  manner,  by  means 
of  wooden  or  metal  stamps. 

Three  or  four  days  after  this  operation, 
the  stuffs  must  be  first  washed  with  a 
great  quantity  of  clear  water,  and  after- 
wards with  soap  and  water,  which  will 
make  them  appear  of  a  finer  black. 

Of  Grey — Many  of  tbe  varieties  of  grey, 
iron-grey,  slate  colour,  &c.  are  given  by 
processes,  in  general,  similar  to  tliose  for 
black,  but  with  smaller  quantities  of  the 
ingredients,  and  especially  a  sliorter  time 
of  immersion.  They  are  often  finished  with 
a  weak  batli  of  weld,  cochineal,  Brazil 
wood,  and  other  livelier  colours,  to  give 
some  particular  tints. 

Gre3-s  ma}-  be  produced  in  two  ways — 
In  the  first,  a  decoction  is  prepared  from 
bruised  galls,  and  the  vitriol  is  dissolved 


separately.  A  bath  is  made  proportionate 
to  the  quantity  of  the  stuff  to  be  dyed,  of 
the  lightest  shade  ;  and,  when  it  is  so  hot, 
thatthehand  will  just  bear  it,  some  of  the 
decoction  of  galls,  and  some  of  the  s<4u- 
tion*of  vitriol,  ai'e  poured  in.  Into  this,  the 
wool  or  cloth,  is  dipped.  When  it  has  at- 
tained the  shade  desired,  it  is  taken  out, 
and  more  of  the  decoction,  with  more  of 
the  solution,  is  added  to  the  same  bath. 
Into  this  more  cloth  is  dipped,  to  give  it  a 
deeper  shade  than  the  preceding.  In  the 
same  manner,  the  operator  proceeds  to 
the  deepest  shades,  always  adding  some 
of  each  of  the  liquors.  Hellot's  method, 
for  producing  grey,  consists  in  boiling,  for* 
two  hours,  the  proper  quantity  of  galls, 
brui.'ied  and  enclosed  in  a  thin  linen  bag : 
in  this  bath,  the  cloth  is  to  be  boiled  for 
an  hour,  being  kept  stirring,  after  which 
it  is  taken  out :  a  little  solution  of  vitriol, 
is  then  added  to  the  same  bath,  and  the 
cloth  that  is  to  have  the  lightest  shade,  is 
dipped  in  it. 

It  is  frequently  required  to  give  greys  a 
tint  of  another  colour,  as  a  nut,  agate,  or 
reddish  cast.  Tliese  varieties  are  given, 
by  a  little  modification  of  the  process  be- 
fore-mentioned. 

Silk  takes  all  greys,  except  black  grey, 
without  pi'eviously  aluming.  Tlie  bath 
is  composed  of  fustic,  logwood,  archil, 
and  copperas.  Some  dyers  form  a  per- 
manent grey,  by  galling  the  thread,  then 
dipping  it  into  a  very  weak  bath  ofthe  black 
cast,  and  then  maldered.  It  is  afterwards 
impregnated  with  a  very  hot  solution  of 
tartar,  wrung  gently,  and  dried.  It  is  then 
dyed  in  a  decoction  of  logwood.  It  is  ai- 
terwards  scoured  in  soap  suds. 

Of  Blue. — Tiie  principal  material  for 
this  most  important  colour  is  indigo,  a 
singular  vegetable  preparation  produced 
by  the  fermentation  of  tlie  leaves  of  a 
small  plant,  the  Indignfern  Tittctoria,  and 
one  or  two  varieties  of  the  same  genus, 
cultivated  abundantly  in  many  tropical 
countries,  particularly  in  Mexico  and 
other  parts  of  Spanish  America,  and  of 
late  }  ears  very  largely  in  the  British  Elast 
Indies. 

Many  important  chemical  facts  are 
connected  with  the  preparation  of  this 
colouring  matter,  vvhicli,  with  the  analy- 
sis and  fuller  account  of  the  methods  of 
solution  for  the  purpose  of  dyeing  will  be 
referred  to  the  article  Indigo  It  will  be 
.sufficient  to  observe  in  this  jjlace  tliat  in- 
digo is  brought  over  in  the  form  of  cubi- 
cal cakes  or  lumps,  which,  (when  the  ar- 
ticle is  of  the  best  kind)  are  of  a  very  deep 
bhie  colour  almost  black  in  mass,  very 
light,  breaking  short  and  easily  reduced 
to  powder ;  when  rubbed  witli  the  nail 


DYE 


DYE 


shewing  a  polished  copper-coloured 
streak,  and  of  a  peculiar  smell,  which 
particularly  shews  itself  when  in  solu- 
tion 

Indifjo  is  soluble  of  itself  in  scarcely 
any  known  menstruum  except  the  sti^ng^ 
er  acids  ;  water,  alkalies,  spirit  of  wine, 
&c.  added  singly,  having  no  action  on  it 
whatever.  The  reason  of  this  great  inso- 
lubility appears  from  mvdtiplied  exjieri- 
ments  to  consist  in  the  high  degree  of  ox- 
ygenation in  which  blue  indigo  in  its  com- 
mon state  exists.  That  the  blue  colour 
depends  on  the  action  of  the  air  is  obvi- 
ous from  the  circumstance,  that  in  the 
preparation  of  this  dye,  the  colour  of  the 
fermented  plant  is  at  first  green,  but  by 
exposure  to  air  it  takes  the  deep  and  per- 
manent blue,  for  which  it  is  much  valued. 
Other  experiments  which  will  be  men- 
tioned under  this  article  make  it  appear 
that  the  change  from  green  to  blue  is 
owing  to  this  cause. 

In  order  to  render  indigo  soluble  for 
the  purposes  of  dyeing  a  fast  colour,  a 
complicated  process  is  requisite.  First, 
some  substance  must  be  added  which  is 
capable  of  partially  deoxygenating  indi- 
go, or  of  reducing  it  to  a  state  somewhat 
similar  to  the  recent  green  pulp  of  the  in- 
digo whilst  under  manufacture  ;  and  next, 
a  liquid  must  be  added  capable  of  dis- 
solving the  deoxygenated  indigo,  that  it 
may  be  applied  to  the  fibres  of  the  stufli' 
immersed  in  it.  The  former  object  is  ful- 
filled by  a  great  variety  of  substances,  so 
different  in  nature,  that  it  is  hardly  to  be 
conceived  that  they  can  have  any  other 
property  in  common  than  that  to  which 
their  utility  is  attributed,  namely  that  of 
depriving  indigo  of  its  oxygen. 

The  additions  actually  employed  for 
this  purpose,  or  found  by  experiment  to 
be  capable  of  being  so  used,  are  other 
dyeing  matters,  such  as  madder  or  weld, 
vegetable  mucilaginous  substances,  such 
as  sugar  or  gum,  and  also  many  metallic 
siib-oxyds,  or  metals  only  partially  com- 
bined with  oxygen  and  capable  of  ab- 
sorbing from  the  indigo  that  additional 
quantity  of  this  principle  which  is  requi- 
site to  complete  saturation.  The  sub- 
oxyd  of  iron  is  chiefly  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  is  made  extemporaneously 
by  mixing  lime  and  sulphat  of  iron  ;  and 
as  a  proof  of  the  necessity  of  using  sub- 
axyd,  and  not  a  perfect  o.xyd,  it  may  be 
added,  that  the  red  perfect  o.xyd  of  the 
same  metal  has  no  etlect  whatever  in 
l>ringing  indigo  to  a  soluble  state.  Dr. 
Bancroft  also  has  found  the  sub-oxyd  of 
tin  equally  beneficial  The  sulphuret  of 
arsenic  or  orpiment  is  also  commonly  used 
for  the  same  purpose. 


The  indigo  thus  deoxygenated  is  now 
soluble  in  the  alkalies  or  in  lime-water, 
which  are  the  solvents  actually  employed 
in  the  coniposition  of  the  indigo  vat. 

Indigo  is  a  substantive  colour,  or  one 
that  requires  no  mordant  to  be  previous- 
ly united  with  the  stuft"  to  be  d>  cd  It  is 
also  one  of  the  fastest  colours  known,  but 
to  render  it  permanent,  it  must  be  pre- 
sented to  the  fibres  of  the  cloth  in  its 
green  deoxygenated  state.  Hence  it  is  diat 
clotli  when  it  comes  out  of  the  mdigo  vat 
is  always  of  a  deep  green,  but  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air  it  .soon  changes  to  a  fine 
deep  blue.  This  change  of  colour  of  the 
solution  of  indigo  fii.m  green,  (oi-,  if  much 
alkali  has  been  used,  yellowish  gTcen)  to 
blue,  forms  a  very  enicrtaining  expeii- 
ment  in  tlie  smidl  way.  The  same  change 
is  constantly  going  on  upon  the  suilaces 
of  indigo  \ats,  wliich,  being  in  contact, 
with  air,  are  always  covered  with  a  fine  • 
variegated  green  and  copper-coloured 
scum  liiat  is  perpetually  i)assing  to  blue, 
unless  stirred  in  and  mixed  with  the 
mass  below. 

This  constant  change  in  the  nature  of 
the  indigo,  demands  an  equalh^  constant 
attention  to  the  slate  of  the  vat,  on  the 
part  of  the  workmen,  to  keep  the  liquor 
at  the  proper  point  of  ox}  gvnation  ;  for 
when  the  blue  colour  is  regenerated,  the 
indigo  again  partly  separates  from  the 
lime  or  alkaline  solvent,  or  remains  only 
suspended  in  it  as  a  fine  impalpable  pow- 
der, which  will  not  adhere  to  cloth  with 
any  permanence.  Fresh  deoxydating  ma- 
terials also  become  from  time  to  time 
necessary  ;  but  again,  too  great  a  quanti- 
ty of  this  and  of  the  lime  or  alkali,  is 
equally  detrimental,  and  so  far  alters  the 
nature  of  the  indigo,  that  it  will  no  longer 
change  to  blue  by  air,  but  remains  of  a 
rusty  yellowish  green. 

Woad,  which  is  a  fecula  or  dried  pulp, 
made  of  the  fcrinented  leaves  and  stem  of 
the  /satis  Tinctiria,  and  in  nature  not  un- 
like indigo,  is  commonly  used  along  with 
indigo,  in  the  dyeing  of  woollen.  Woad 
is  never  employed  alone,  for  the  blue  co- 
lour, which  It  gives,  though  full-bodied, 
and  very  perraaiieiii,  is  not  sufficiently 
bright  and  glossy  In  its  nature  and  affi- 
ihlies  for  oxygen  it  appears  considerably 
to  resemble  iiuligo 

'I'he  bath  in  wliich  wool  is  dyed  blue, 
is  not  a  copper  boiler,  as  is  the  case  with 
other  dyes,  hut  is  a  large  wooden  vat,  go 
nerally  sunk  in  the  gi-ound  fitted,  with  a 
cover  to  |iroVect  it  fnnii  the  draught  of 
external  air,  and  to  preserve  the  tempe- 
rature more  uniform.  Tht  colour  is  some- 
times i^rocured  from  indigo  alone,  some- 
times from  a  mixtureof  indigo  and  woad. 


DYE 


DYE 


The  latter  is  prepared  in  the  following' 
way. 

Two  hundred  parts  of  woad  broken 
small,  are  first  thi'ovvn  into  tlie  vat,  to 
which  is  then  addt-d,  a  hot  decoction  of 
15  parts  of  weld,  .is  much  madder,  and  a 
basket  of  bran,  all  boiled  in  a  separate 
vessel,  with  water  enough  to  fill  the  wood- 
en vat.  This  is  allowed  to  remain  at  rest 
for  six  hours,  when  the  whole  is  well 
stirred  together,  and  again  let  to  i-est.  A 
kind  of  fermentation  is  tiius  produced  in 
tlie  vat,  attended  with  very  strong  acrid 
vapours,  owing  to  the  beginning  decom- 
position of  the  woad.  After  a  sufficient 
time  (during  which  the  stirring-  is  often 
repeated,),  four  pans  of  lime  are  added, 
which  turns  the  vat  of  a  black  colour,  and 
makes  the  fumes  still  more  acrid  Imme- 
diately afterwards  from  5  to  15  parts  of 
indigo  (more  or  less  according  to  the 
depth  of  colour  to  be  dyed,)  mixed  up 
with  water,  into  a  cream-like  fluid  poured 
in  and  th^  whole  stirred  and  covered. 
The  disoxygenation  of  tlie  indigo,  is  ef- 
fected by  the  action  of  all  the  vegetable 
matter  already  in  the  vat,  and  "when  thus 
altered  it  is  dissolved  by  the  lime.  The 
signs  of  the  solution  of  the  indigo,  are  the 
rising  of  a  blue  copper-coloured  and  varie- 
gated scum,  and  the  liquor  beneath  be- 
coming of  a  bright  green. 

Before  the  cloth  is  put  into  the  vat,  it  is 
wetted  with  clear  hot  water  and  wiling 
out.  The  time  of  remaining  in  the  vat, 
depends  on  the  depth  of  colour  wanted, 
and  on  other  circumstances. 

It  comes  out  green,  as  already  men- 
tioned, but  the  colour  changes  to  blue  by 
exposure  to  air.  It  is  then  thoroughly 
washed,  to  discharge  all  the  colouring 
matter  that  is  not  fixed,  and  dried  in  the 
field. 

Dr.  Bancroft  thinks  (and  with  some 
reason,)  that  the  weld  and  madder  added 
to  this  vat,  have  little  other  effect  than  to 
supply  vegetable  matter,  for  the  fermen- 
tation, which  is  to  disoxygenate  the  indi- 
go, and  hence,  that  instead  of  these  ex- 
pensive ingredients,  any  herbs,  or  a  great- 
er quantity  of  bran,  or  coarse  sugar,  or 
many  other  cheaper  materials,  might  be 
substituted. 

A  richer  blue  bath,  that  gives  a  finer 
and  softer  colour  (but  is  more  expensive 
on  acc(nint  of  indigo,  alone  supplying  the 
blue  colour,)  is  made  by  boiling  in  a  cop- 
per \vlth  sufficient  water,  nine  parts  of 
pearlash,  with  as  much  bran,  and  one  part 
of  maddei",  after  which  nine  parts  of  indi- 
go, ground  up  with  a  little  water  are  add- 
ed, and  a  gentle  heat  kept  up  for  about 
forty-eight  hours,  stirring  the  whole  well 
together,  three  or  four  times  during^  the 
VOL.    I.  ' 


solution.  In  this  case  the  alkali  is  the 
solvent  of  the  indigo  when  deoxygenated 
by  the  bian  ard  the  maddei-. 

In  other  indigo  batiis,  the  ammonia 
contained  in  stale  urine,  is  the  solvent  of 
the  colouring  matter,  and  the  deoxygCr 
naiing  matters  ai-e  madder  and  tartar. 
The  variety  is  endless  of  combinations 
thus  afforded  by  the  use  of  a  vast  num- 
ber of  vegetable  matters,  with  lime  or  any 
of  t.he  alkalies. 

Silk  is  dyed  in  a  similar  indigo  vat  with 
the  f(;)regoing,  and  without  woad.  For  the 
very  deep  colours,  however  it  is  found  ne;. 
cessary  to  prepare  the  silk,  with  a  high 
purple  from  archil. 

Metallic  sub-oxyds  and  sulphurets  were 
mentioned  to  be  equally  powerful  in  de- 
oxygenating  indigo,  with  vegetable  mat- 
ters, and  to  be  employed  accordingly. 
This  chiefly  takes  place  in  preparing  the 
indigo  vats  for  cotton  and  hnen.  A  very 
simple  and  efficacious  mode  of  compos- 
ing this  kind  of  blue  vat,  is  to  mix  to- 
gether one  part  of  indigo,  two  parts  of 
sulphat  of  iron,  and  two  of  lime,  with  suf- 
ficient water  in  a  vat,  to  stir  them  toge- 
ther very  well,  for  a  considerable  time, 
and  then  suffer  them  to  remain  two  days 
at  rest.  In  this  case  part  of  the  lime  first 
decomposes  the  sulphat  of  iron,  sepai'at- 
ing  the  sub-oxyd  of  iron,  which  then  acts 
on  the  indigo,  and  brings  it  to  the  state 
of  the  green-yellow,  or  deoxygenated  in- 
digo, at  which  time,  it  becomes  soluble 
in  the  remainder  of  the  hnie.  This  vat 
therefore  consits  of  a  solution  of  deoxyge- 
nated indigo  by  lime,  mixed  with  some 
sulphat  of  lime,  (arising fiom  the  decom- 
position above  mentioned)  and  at  the 
bottom  is  a  sediment  of  the  oxyd  of  iron, 
with  any  undissolved  lime,  or  regenerated 
blue  indigo,  that  may  be  contained.  The 
cotton  comes  out  of  the  vat  green,  as  in 
the  former  case,  and  turns  blue  by  expo- 
sure to  air.  It  is  the  constant  practice 
after  the  cotton  is  dyed,  to  pass  it  through 
a  cistern,  containing  cold  water,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  sulphuric  acid.  This 
is  found  to  heighten  the  colour,  and  is  of 
further  use,  in  dissolving  out  any  adhering 
lime  or  sulphat  of  lime,  which  would 
give  a  hai'shness  to  the  stuff  and  impair 
the  lustre. 

Alkalies  are  also  frequently  used  in- 
stead of  lime  in  the  above  vat.  Their  effect 
is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the  lime, 
only  being  themselves,  much  more  solu- 
ble in  water  than  lime,  they  will  bear  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  indigo,  and  of 
course  will  form  a  much  deeper  and  rich- 
er dye. 

The  indigo  rapidly  regenerates  or  reco- 
vers its  oxygen  (and  with  its  blue  colour) 

N  n 


DYE 


DYE 


at  the  surface,  of  all  tliese  solutions,  and 
in  so  doing,  it  separates  from  Uie  alkali 
or  lime-water,  wiiich  held  it  dissolved,  and 
partly  sinks  to  the  bottom,  partly  reniaias 
entangled  in  the  scum,  llence  the  use 
of  the  occasional  stirrings,  to  mix  the  re- 
generated indigo,  with  the  other  materials, 
and  again  dissolve  it-  Frequent  additions 
are  also  used,  of  the  deoxygenaiing  and 
dissolving  substances  to  refresh  tlie  vat, 
when  long  exposed  to  air,  and  bring  it 
back  to  the  proper  state  for  dyeing. 

It  is  remarkiibie  that  the  .salts  of  copper 
are  found  by  constant  experience,  to  liave 
a  totally  ojjposite  eflect  on  indigo,  from 
the  salts  of  iron,  the  former  being  obscrv- 
ed  n(ji  only  to  have  no  ei'iect^  m  render- 
ing indigo  soluble,  but  even  to  prevent 
the  operation  of  the  sub-oxyds  of  ii-on, 
andtoliasten  tiie  regeneration  of  dissolv- 
ed indigo.  This  is  suppo.>^ed  to  be  tiie 
reason,  why  cottons,  first  soaked  in  sid- 
phat  of  copper,  and  tlien  passed  through 
a  very  weak  indigo  vat,  extract  at  once  ad 
the  colour,  the  copper  determining  the 
inmu-diate  separation  of  the  indigo. 

Orpiment  or  sulphiu'el  of  arsenic,  is 
clileHy  used  in  jDreparing  tlie  indigo  solu- 
tion tor  topical  application  in  calico-print- 
ing. Mr.  Ilaussman  mixes  for  this  ])ur- 
pose  25  gallons  of  v/ater,  wiih  10  poinids 
of  indigo,  (more  or  less  according  to  its 
quality,)  to  whicli  is  added  30  lb.  of  good 
pearla'sli,  121b  of  lime,  and  12  lb.  of  or- 
piment. The  whole  is  boiled  for  a  suffi- 
cient time  with  stirring,  and  forms  a  very 
strong  yellow  liquid  solution,  which  turns 
blue  by  expo.sure  to  air.  i'or  calico- 
printing  it  is  thickened  either  with  gum 
senega)  or  with  starch,  to  the  consistence 
of  a  jelly,  and  wlien  strongly  impressed 
on  cotton,  it  forms  durable  blue  figines. 
The  extreme  inconvenience  of  this,  antl 
all  other  solutions  of  indigo  in  lime  or  al- 
kalies, is  tlie  impossibility  of  preventing 
the  perpetual  regeneration  of  the  indigo, 
before  tite  whole  is  used ;  and  as  all  the 
colour  prematurely  regenerated,  is  rea- 
dily washed  away,  in  the  after  processes, 
itbecom'es  extremely  dillicult  to  maintain 
an  unirorm  sliade  of  l)lue'i  through  the 
pattern  of  a  whole  piece  of  cloth.  The 
gum  or  paste  is  of  further  use,  in  re- 
tarding tins  premature  change  of  the  in- 
digo. 

According  to  Professor  Pallas,  cotton 
and  silk,  are  dyed  blue  at  Astracan,  %y  a 
bath  very  sinular  to  tiie  simplest  indigo 
vat  for  wool,  the  deoxygenaiing  substance 
being  honey,  and  the  solvent  of  the  indigo 
being  soda. 

The  proportions  are  two  pountls  of  in- 
dig'o,  fiVe  ])ounds  of  carbonat  of  soda,  two 
pounds  bt"  ijne,  and  one  pound  of  clarifi- 


ed honey.  These  are  put  with  sufficient 
water  into  large  earthen  jars,  set  in  brick 
work  over  a  fire,  which  will  bear  a  boil- 
ing heat,  and  are  heated  with  frequent 
stirring,  till  the  indigo  is  dissolved. 

Saxon  Blue,  is  the  name  given  to  a  to- 
tally  diflerent  preparation  of  indigo,  from 
those  hitherto  mentioned,  and  is  made  by 
digesting  tiiis  colouring  matter  for  above 
twenty-four  hours,  with  a  gentle  heat,  in  a 
about  four  times  its  weight  of  strong  " 
suliihuric  acivl  This  acid  (thus  con- 
cern rated,wbich  with  the  assistance  of  heat 
would  charr  and  dcitvoy  mo.st  vegetable 
matters,)  produces  but  little  appaicnt  al- 
teration on  indigo,  but  dissolves  it  into  a 
fluid  of  an  inky  blackness,  wiien  undilut- 
ed, bilt  when  iargeiy  mixed  wiin  water, 
it  produces  a  very  beautiful  transparent 
blue  liquor,  of  a  brighter  colour,  tiian  the 
alkaline  solutions  of  indigo,  and  capable 
of  giving  very  fine  dyes  to  cloth,  silk,  or 
cotton.  Tiie  great  inconvenience  how- 
ever, of  the  Saxon  blue,  is  <he  extreme 
difficulty  of  rendering  it  a  tolerably  fast 
colour,  for  when  applied  in  the  common 
way,  it  is  soon  dcstrojed  by  washing, 
especially  with  soaji,  so  that  the  indigo 
in  the  state  in  which  it  exists  in  this  so- 
li: .ion,  appears  to  have  but  a  very  feeble 
affinity,  with  animal  or  vegetable  fibre  ;  a 
i-emarkable  contrast  to  the  habitude  of  the 
same  colouring  matter,  when  deoxyge- 
nated  and  dissolved  in  alkalies. 

The  colour  of  the  Saxon  blue  under- 
goes  no  notable  change  like  that  of  the 
common  indigo  vats,  the  stuffs  dyed  in  it 
coming  out  blue  and  not  green.  The  co- 
lour takes  upon  woollen  cloch  with  great 
rapidity,  so  that  it  is  very  diffictdt  to  dye 
it  uniform  through  a  whole  piece.  Some  ^ 
scientific  dyers  have  thought  tiiat  this  dye  * 
was  more  permanent  when  the  solution 
was  saturated  with  an  alkali  just  short  of  ' 
the  point  at  vvliich  the  indigo  begins  to  se- 
parate, for  an  entire  saturation  of  the  acid 
will  preci))itate  the  indigo  neiu'ly  un- 
changed. Otiicr  artists  have  thought 
alum  of  use  in  this  case  in  hxing  the  co- 
lour. The  action  of  acids  upon  hidigo 
will  be  further  mentioned  under  the  arti- 
cle Indigo 

J'lussian  Blue  is  so  beautiful  a  colour- 
ing matter  for  jniinting,  that  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  fix  it  permanently  on 
cloth  of  difl'erent  kinds.  Prussian  blue, 
or  ])riissiat  of  iron,  is  naturally  a  fast  co- 
lour, resisting  the  action  of  liglu  and  air 
for  any  length  of  time,  but  when  tlissolved 
in  any  of  the  alkalies,  or  in  lime-water,  the 
blue  is  immediately  destroyed,  and  a  ])ale 
straw  colour  substituted.  The  solution 
is  a  ti-iple  compound  of  prussic  acid,  iron, 
and  the  alkali  or  lime  used.     If  any  acid 


DYE 


BYE 


be  added  to  the  above  prussiat,  to  tlie  full 
saturation  of  the  alkali  or  lime,  the  blue 
colour  is  restored  without  immediately 
precipitating  the  Prussian  blue. 

Two  methods  have  been  adopted  of  pre- 
paring"this  colour  for  dyeing,  the  one,  by 
mixing  it  with  muriatic  acid,  in  which 
case  it  is  only  suspended  and  not  dissolv- 
ed; the  other,  by  dissolvnig  it  in  alkalies 
or  lime,  and  saturating  the  solution  to  that 
point  at  vvliich  the  blue  colour  is  restored 
The  Prussian  blue  in  either  case  has  suffi- 
cient  affinity  wilh  the  fibre  of  cloth  to 
unite  witli  it  rapidly  and  hrnily. 

Some  haye  used  an  acetite  of  iron  as  a 
kind  of  mordant  to  the  cloth  before  the 
application  of  the  prusbiatcd  alkaline  so- 
lution. It  is  necessary  in  all  cases  where 
this  solution  is  used,  that  it  beneutraUzed 
witi)  an  acid  to  diminish  the  strong  affini- 
ty between  the  alkali  and  colouring  mat- 
ter, wliich  without  tliis  assistance  the 
cloth  alone  could  not  overcome. 

Two  capital  inconveniences  have  hi- 
therto been  found  to  attend  the  use  of  this 
.  substance  as  a  blue  dye,  the  one  the  ex- 
treme difficulty  of  making  it  take  at  all 
uniformly  on  a  moderate  extent  of  cloth  ; 
for  an  immersion  of  a  very  lew  minutes  is 
found  sufficient  to  give  tiie  full  eftect  of 
this  colour,  and  hence  the  dye  is  deposit- 
ed so  rapidly  as  to  be  constantly  wavy 
and  uneven.  The  other  defect  is,  that  it  is 
readily  discliarged  by  soup,  the  alkali  in 
the  soap  having  the  same  effect  on  the 
colour  fixed  in  the  fibres  of  cloth  as  it 
has  on  prussiun  blue  in  substance,  so  that 
after  a  very  few  washings,  the  coloiu-  be- 
comes of  a  dirty  yellowish  biown.  Stuffs 
dyed  with  this  colour  therefore  must  be 
washed  with  bran,  or  oatmeal,  or  i)i  any 
other  way  in  whicli  no  alkuiine  substance 
is  employed. 

A  basis  of  other  colours  is  often  used 
in  dyeing  with  prussian  blue. 

Very  be;iutiful  greens  are  produced 
with'tliis  colour,  and  the  permanent  yel- 
lows. 

Dr.  Bancroft,  in  his  curious  experi- 
ments on  this  colouring  matter,  observes, 
that  when  cotton  is  printed  with  a  .nix- 
ture  of  adjective  colours,  and  an  iron 
mordant  ivithout  alum,  and  afterwards 
dyed  wilh  prussian-blue  solution,  the  re- 
sult is  not  a  mixture  of  tlie  blue  with  the 
adjective  colour  already  applied  (for  ex- 
ample, green,  where  the  latter  is  a  yel- 
low) but  is  simply  that  colour  wfiich  the 
Prussian  solution  would  produce  with  the 
iron  mordants  without  the  adjective  dye : 
pr  in  other  words  the  prussian  blue  ap- 
pears merely  to  displace  the  first  applied 
colour,  and  unite  with  the  iron  mordant. 
It  has  however  the  capital  advantage  of 


•dyeing  much  more  uniformly  than  in  the 
common  way,  so  that  in  this' instance  the 
adjective  colour  appears  to  divide  and 
distribute  the  mordant  more  accurately 
than  could  be  done  without  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  wliere  the  adjective  colour  is 
fixed  with  an  alum  mordant,  the  prussian 
blue  cannot  displace  it,  and  therefore 
unites  with  it,  forming  an  intermediate 
shade  of  colour. 

We  have  seen  therefore,  that  blue  may 
be  dyed  with  various  substances ;  as  with 
the  blue  vat  with  indigo,  with  the  vat  of 
pertel  or  woad,  or  by  means  of  blue  vi- 
triol and  logwood:  That  the  blue  vat  is 
made  in  difiierent  ways;  as,  with  ley, 
urine,  lime  water,  &c.  When  indigo  is 
employed,  it  is  necessarj'  fo  understand 
what  is  meant  by  its  deoxydizement.  In 
order  to  render  this  subject  familiar,  we 
shall  subjoin  the  following  remarks,  ex- 
tracted from  the  iMndon  Tradesman. 

To  deoxidize  indigo,  is  to  bring  it 
back  to  the  same  coloui-,  and  the  same 
state,  with  regard  to  the  minuteness  of  its 
particles,  as  it  appeared  in  immediately 
after  its  being  expressed  from  the  leaves 
of  the  indigo  plant :  this  is  termed  spring- 
ing by  the  dyers.  When  deoxidized,  it 
passes  instantly  from  the  blue  to  the 
green  state,  and  springs,  as  it  were,  fi-om 
the  bottom  of  the  vat,  and  becomes  equal- 
ly dissipated  throughout.  Chevraul,  a 
F|j-ench  chemist,  however,  has  shown, 
that  the  indigo  exists  in  the  plant,  chiefly 
in  the  state  of  a  white  matter,  v.hicli  be- 
comes blue  as  it  absorbs  oxygen.  What 
is  termed  springing,  then,  appears  not  to 
bring  the  indigo  back  to  the  state  of  a 
white  matter,  as  it  exists  in  the  plant,  but 
to  deoxidize,  or,  in  other  words,  to  sepa- 
rate the  oxygen,  probably  to  such  a  de- 
gree only,  as  to  produce  the  green  colour. 
See  Thomson's  Chonistry. 

Tliere  are  various  methods  practised 
by  the  calico  printers  and  dyers  to  take 
the  oxygen  fi-om  indigo ;  the  following  is 
used  by  the  dyers  of  cotton  goods,  whose 
pieces  are  generally  from  24  to  28  yards 
long,  and  6.4ths  to  9-8ths  wide.  Having 
two  vats,  each  6  feet  deep,  3i  wide,  and  6 
long,  with  a  light  frame  to  go  so  easily  out 
and  in,  and  two  slides  on  the  two  sides  to 
move  up  and  down  with  hooks  on  the 
slides,  and  on  each  side  of  the  frame  on 
which  they  can  be  fastened  by  the  two 
selvages  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
piece,  (the  slides  are  for  the  purpose  of 
stretching  the  pieces,  and  are  moveable, 
that  they  may  be  placed  according  to  the 
width  of  the  goods,)  take  eight  pounds  of 
good  indigo  well  ground,  boil  each  pound 
with  two  of  potash  in  one  gallon  of  water 
for  two  hours,  and  then  put  it  in  the  vat. 


DYE 


DYE 


which  you  mean  to  work  as  your  dyeing 
vat,  having  previously  charged  it  wilii  wa- 
ter; add  tour  pounds  of  stont  lime  newly 
slacked,  to  each  pound  otindigo,  stir  it  up 
well,  and  put  two  pounds  of  copperas  to 
each  pound  of  indigo;  stir  it  well  again, 
let  it  settle  24  hours,  wjien  it  ought  to  be 
fit  to  work.  Chalk  is  sometimes  used  in- 
stead of  lime,  but  is  not  by  any  means  so 
good.  According  to  tlie  -ihade  of  blue 
requir-d,  add  or  diminish  your  indigo, 
keepn^g  the  same  prop(;riions  of  lime  ;ind  ! 
popperus;  and  when  you  find  it  gel  weak  i 
er,  add  lime  and  copperas,  with  ofien  ; 
stirring  up,  until  you  have  exhausted  your  ' 
indigo.  The  other  val,  wliich  is  filled; 
with  pure  water,  is  to  dip  the  piece  with 
the  frame,  in  and  out  as  soon  as  it  is  taken 
from  the  former  one,  by  which  means  the 
colour  is  rendered  regular  and  level,  that 
is,  even  and  free  from  stains :  for  the  li- 
quor of  the  dyeing  vat,  when  it  first  re- 
ceives the  air,  fixes  on  the  piece,  and  in 
taking  it,  out  of  the  vat,  runs  from  tlie  top 
selvage  to  the  bottom  one,  and  acquires 
oxygen  from  the  air :  thus  the  bottom  sel- 
vage would,  without  that  caution,  become 
darker  than  the  top  ;  but  this  irregularity 
of  colour  is  prevented  by  the  water  vat,  as 
the  piece  is  plunged  into  it  immediately  on 
its  being  taken  out  of  the  indigo  vat ;  it 
washes  oft'  the  colouring  matter  that 
would  lie  in  loose  particles,  while,  p.t  the 
same  time^  the  water  gives  out  as  muck 
oxygen,  to  tiie  indigo,  as  to  let  what  has 
entered  into  the  interior  of  the  cloth  re- 
main. It  is  more  probable,  however,  that 
the  water  is  not  decomposed,  but  that  the 
oxygen  is  obtained  from  another  source  ; 
namely,  from  atniosplieric  air.  For  dark 
blues,  the  water  vat  ma)  be  done  without, 
as  the  marks  caused  by  the  running  of 
the  coloui-  are  not  discovered ;  but  for  the 
light  blues,  it  is  indispensable. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  the  cloth  lias  an 
affinity  for  the  indigo  in  that  state,  or 
when  it  came  into  the  water  llie  dye  would 
wash  oft';  but  the  cloth  impregnated  with 
the  liquor  equal  to  the  strength  of  that  in 
the  vat,  whenever  it  comes  in  contact  with 
the  atmosphere,  these  minute  particles,  by 
acquiring  oxygen,  become  in  an  instant 
larger,  and  ai-e  thus  detained  in  llie  tiire:id 
bf  the  clotli ;  in  addition  to  lliis,  if  the 
clotli  sliould  be  dipped  into  the  vat  again, 
it  keeps  tlie  indigo  that  is  on  the  jiiece, 
from  ueoxidizing,  and  thus  retains  wliat 
it  has  got. 

Jndigo  is  one  of  the  best  dytiing  drugs 
we  are  acquainted  witli  for  the  consumer, 
fis  v'hen  it  is  on  the  clotli  ii  is  neither  Ttf- 
ifected  bV  acids  or  alkalies  in  common 
yse,  whilst  astringents  and  iron  make  uo 
Stains ;  through  time,  it  gets  ligiiter  by 


washing,  and  air.  The  only  method  to 
make  it  as  durable  as  can  be,  is  to  have 
the  indigo  as  much  dcoNidized  as  possi- 
ble, and  let  the  cloth  remain  in  the  liquor 
one  hour  at  least,  so  that  it  may  ])enetrate 
well,  and  have  the  liquor  so  strong  that 
the  colour  may  be  obtained  with  only  one 
or  two  dips,  because  the  longer  the  pieces 
are  in  the  liquor,  it  penetrates  the  better 
into  the  interior  of  the  thread,  whilst  the 
oftener  it  is  dipped  and  receives  the  air, 
and  dipped  again,  it  lies  more  on  the  sur- 
face  of  the  ciotli  m  small  particles,  and  by 
friction,  or  washing,  or  wear,  falls  oft'. 
There  have  been  some  dark  blues  that 
would  nib  and  beat  off  as  much  colour- 
ing matter  as  might  dye  a  good  light 
blue. 

It  is  general,  after  blues  are  taken  out 
of  the  water  vats  to  run  them  through  a 
cold  liquor,  composed  of  water  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  so  sour  that  it  shall  taste  in 
the  mouth  like  lemon  juice;  this  is  to 
take  off  w  hat  iron  or  alkali  the  piece  may 
have  got  in  the  vat ;  it  also  destroys  the 
greenish  tinge,  and  makes  it  appear  of  a 
brighter  blue ;  they  are  well  nnsed  out 
(if  this  sotir  liquor,  and  washed  in  a  little 
hot  water,  which  tastes  sliglitly  of  alum  ; 
this  also  helps  the  fixity  of  the  colour. 

The  method  of  deoxidizing  indigo,  as 
practised  by  the  calico  printers;  for  then- 
pencilling  blue,  is  thus  -.  Take  1  02,.  of 
good  indigo,  ^  07,.  orpiment,  A  lb.  pearl- 
ashes,  i  lb.  lime.  Mix  the  hme  and  ashes 
together,  let  them  settle,  take  oft'  tlie 
clear  ley,  boil  it  to  tlie  strength,  and  quan- 
tity of  caustic  ley  you  want,  then  put  in 
the  indigo,  bf'il  it  one  hour,  take  it  oft' the 
fire,  let  it  cool,  and  then  stir  in  the  orpi- 
ment ;  lastly,  thicken  it  with  gum  arable, 
according  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
wanted. 

Indigo  thus  treated,  penetrates  un- 
commonly well,  and  is  the  fastest  of  all 
blues ;  it  is  even  more  deoxidized  tlian 
in  the  blue  vat  of  the  dyer ;  it  ought  to 
be  a  yellowish  brown,  and  when  exposed 
to  the  air  it  changes  from  a  yellow  to 
brown,  from  tliat  to  green,  and  then  as- 
sumes'a  blue.  This  mode,  however,  can- 
not be  practised  but  in  pencilling,  for 
were  it  ])ut  upon  a  block  lor  printing, 
from  the  exposure  of  such  a  surface  to 
the  atmos])hcre  as  would  be  necessary,  it 
would  most  rapidly  acquire  oxjgen  and 
become  IjIuc  before  being  applied  to  the 
cloth,  antl  then  its  particles  being  enlarg- 
ed, would  lay  on  the  surface  and  be  wash- 
ed off;  likewise  the  sti-ength  of  the  caus- 
tic alk.ili  would  injure  the  printing  blocks ; « 
however  that  miglit  be  got  over  if  the  first 
could.  ^Vhen  the  printers  use  the  block 
in  prmting  blue,  they  print  on  llie  indigo, 


DYE 

finely  ^roimd,  mixed  with  gum  to  make 
it  work  freely,  then  diy  it  j  have  ready 
two  vats,  similar  to  those  first  mentioned, 
each  filled  with  water  ;  with  as  much  cop- 
peras in  tbe  one,,and  in  the  other  as  much 
lime,  as  the  water  in  each  will  lake  up ; 
a  frame  must  also  be  in  readiness,  like 
that  described  above;  let  tiie  piece  be 
hooked  on  it,  put  it  in  the  linie  vat,  then 
the  copperas  vat  alternately,  till  ihe  cop- 
peras and  lime  have  deoxidized  tW  indi- 
go on  the  cloth  so  as  it  shall  become  fix- 
ed :  this  is  what  tlie  printers  call  their 
China  blue  ;  it  is  rather  inclined  to ,  pale 
blue,  but  verj"  durable. 

The  calico  printers  sometimes  pencil  on 
the  top  of  a  yellow,  in  which  case,  if  cop- 
peras be  used  instead  of  orpiment,  it  dar- 
kens the  astringent 

A  set  of  experiments  on  the  solution  of 
indigxj,  in  different  kinds  of  sulphuric  acid 
[oU  of  vitriol]  were  made  by  Mr.  Buc- 
holz,  in  1805,  who  found  that  the  British 
sulphuric  acid  was  a  bad  solvent,  unless 
it  had  been  previously  boiled  with  sul- 
phur; that  the  acid  manufactured  in  the 
north  of  Europe  dissolved  it  well  in  its 
natural  state  ;  but  when  deprived  of  the 
sulphurous  acid  gas,  it  became  as  ineffi- 
cacious as  the  English.  Hence  it  appears 
that  the  presence  of  this  gas  promoted  the 
solution;  of  course  the  common  sulphu- 
ric acid,  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  usu- 
ally employed  by  the  dyers,  namely, 
blackened  with  vegetable  matter,  answei'S 
tlieir  purpose  better  than  tlie  purest. 

O/"  Yellovi. — Yellow  is  so  common  a  co- 
lour fo!  the  extractive  part  of  vegetables 
as  to  furnish  a  considerable  number  of 
dyes,  many  of  which  are  only  used  ex- 
temporaneously by  uncivilized  nations  in 
different  parts  of  the  Horld,  and  scarcely 
known  beyond  those  parts.  The  yellow 
dyes  actually  employed  in  this  countrv 
are  few,  and  it  liappens  imfortimately 
that  the  most  beautiful  are  not  the  most 
permanent.  All  tlie  known  yellows  are 
adjective  colours,  or  sucli  as  require  a 
mordant,  and  on  the  whole  this  is  a  dye 
easily  given,  but  always  (when  on  cotton 
and  linen),  liable  to  be  impau-ed  by  the 
action  of  light  and  air. 

Held  {Roseda  Luttola  Linn.)  is  a 
slender  plant  growing  to  the  height  of 
about  three  feet,  and  cultivated  for  d\e- 
ing  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  Tlie 
plant  is  cut  when  ripe,  and  simply 
spread  out  to  dry,  after  which  it  is  tied 
up  in  bundles,  and  used  in  this  state 
without  any  other  preparation.  It  requires 
nearly  a  boiling  lieat  to  enable  water  to 
extract  the  colour  of  weid  with  effect, 
and  a  coction  of  tlyee  quarters  of  an  hour 
before  the  whole  of  the  colour  is  exhaust- 


DYE 

j  ed,  during  which  time  it  is  loosely  tied 
in  a  bag,  and  kept  down  in  the  boiler  by 
a  heavy  wooden  frame.  The  decoction 
of  we'.d,  wlien  concentrated,  is  a  brownish 
yellow,  when  diluted  it  is  more  of  a  lemon 
yellow  with  a  shade  of  green.  The  ap- 
pearances which  occur  on  tlie  addition  of 
acids,  alkalies,  &c  to  a  decoction  of  weld, 
are  treated  at  large  by  Bertliollet  (ii.  p. 
2o9)  to  w^hich  we  lefer  the  reader. 

Weld  is  considered  by  most  dyers  as, 
on  tjje  whole,  tlie  yellow  which  unites 
beauty  witli  durability  in  the  highest 
degree. 

NV'ool,  and  woollen  cloth  is  dyed  with 
weld  (according  to  Hellot)  in  the  follow- 
ing way.  The  wool  is  first  cleansed  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  then  passed  through  a 
bath  of  about  4  parts  alum  and  1  of  tartar 
to  every  16  parts  of  wool.  The  quantity 
of  tartar  is  determined  by  the  greater 
or  less  brightness  of  colour  wanted  to  be 
given.  It  is  then  dyed  in  the  weld  bath, 
tor  wl  '.  h  about  3  or  4  parts  of  weld  (of- 
ten miich  less)  are  used  to  1  part  of  wool. 
For  economy,  the  weaker  shades  of  co- 
lour are  dyed  in  the  same  bath  after  the 
stronger  are  finished. 

A  golden  yellow  with  more  or  less 
orange  is  given  by  a  weak  madder  bath 
after  the  welding. 

Silk  is  dyed  of  a  golden  yellow  gene- 
rall)-  with  weld  alone.  The  stuff  is  first 
boiled  in  soap  water,  alumed  and  washed, 
then  passed  twice  through  a  weld  bath 
in  which,  the  second  time,  some  alkali  is 
dissolved  whicli  gives  a  rich  golden  hue 
to  the  natuHil  yellow  of  the  weld.  A  lit- 
annotta  still  further  deepens  the  colour. 
The  solutions  of  tin  also  apply  very  well 
to  silk,  and  witli  w  eld  give  a  bright  clear 
jellow. 

Some  advise  that  die  silk  should  be 
soaked  twenty-four  hours  in  a  solution  of 
tin,  made  with  four  parts  of  spu-it  of  nitre, 
one  of  common  salt,  and  one  of  tin,  and 
saturated  with  tartar  ;  that  it  should  be 
washed,  and  boiled  iialf  an  hour,  with  an 
equal  quantitj'  of  weld  flowers.  A  fine 
Straw  colour  is  thus  formed,  which  is 
said  to  resist  the  action  of  acids. 

To  dye  cotton  yellow,  it  is  first  cleansed 
with  wood  asiies  and  water,  rinced,  alum- 
ed, dried  without  further  rincing,  and 
then  passed  tlirough  a  yellow  bath  in 
which  tMfe  weld  is  somewhat  more  than 
the  weight  of  the  cotton.  "When  the  co- 
lour has  sufficiently  taken,  the  cotton  is 
thrown  into  a  bath  of  suiphat  of  copper, 
blue  vitriol,  and  water  and  kept  there  for 
an  hour,  after  wliich  it  is  boiled  with 
w  liite  soap-water,  and  finally  washed  and 
dried. 

If  a  deeper  jonquil-yellow  is  wanted. 


DYE 


BYE 


tJie  aluming  is  omitted,  and,  in  its  stead,  a 
little  verdigris  is  added  to  the  weld  bath, 
and  the  cotton  finished  with  soda. 

It  is  particularly  in  giving  the  lively 
green  lemon  yellow,  that  weld  is  preferred 
to  all  other  naaterials.  It  is  however  ex- 
pensive, considering  the  small  pi-oportion 
of  colouring  matter  to  the  weight  of  tlie 
plant,  and  the  dye  is  not  extracted  readily 
with  less  than  a  boiling  heat,  which  in  ca-. 
lico-printing  is  sometimes  a  gTeat  incon- 
venience. It  is  also  found  to  degrade  and 
interfere  with  madder  colours  more  than 
other  yellows,  which  is  anotlier  disad- 
vantage in  printing,  where  patterns  are 
first  impressed  witli  madder-colours,  and 
the  wliole  finished  with  a  weld  bath. 

For  the  yellow  colours,  on  printed  cot- 
ton, the  stuff  is  impregnated  by  means  of 
engraved  stamps,  with  the  mordant  de- 
scribed under  madder,  made  by  tlie  mix- 
ture of  sugar  of  lead  and  alum  ;  the  yel- 
low colour,  which  the  parts  not  impregna- 
ted with  the  acetite  of  alumine  (foriped  as 
above)  have  acquired,  is  then  discharged, 
by  the  action  of  bran,  and  exposure  on 
the  grass.  The  same  mordant  might  un- 
doubtedly be  employed  with  success  tor 
cotton  and  linen  to  be  dyed  yellow.  See 
Calico-Printing.  Cotton  velvet  is 
usually  dyed  with  the  root,  of  a  plant 
called  cureum,  or  terra  merita,  a  species 
of  rush  which  comes  from  the  East- 
Indies. 

Quercitron  Bark. — The  bark  of  the 
American  oak  (the  Quercus  A'lgrj,  Linn  ) 
,l»as  been  long  used  as  a  yellow  dye  in  tlie 
United  States,  and  was  first  introduced 
into  England  by  Dr.  Bancroft,  from  whose 
full  and  elaborate  account  ol' its  properties 
the  following  general  facts  are  extracted. 

The  colouring  matter  of  this  bark  may 
be  readil}'  extracted  by  water  oiMy  blood- 
warm.  'I'he  infusion  in  hot  water  is  ra- 
ther turbid,  and  there  separates  by  filLra- 
tion  a  small  ({uantity  of  yellow  resin. 
Tlie  infusion  will  yi(;lcl  by  evaporation  an 
extract  which  contains  the  colour  in  a  very 
concentrated  state,  but  wlien  kept  for  a 
short  time  daes  not  answer  f'or  dyeing  .so 
well  as  the  unprepared  bark.  'I'lie  de- 
r>ction  of  quercitron  is  of  a  )ellowish 
})rown,  darkened  by  alkalies,  and  render- 
ed lighter  by  acids  :  alum  causes  a  verj- 
small  precipitate  of  a  deep  yellow  :  the 
solutions  of  tin  produce  a  very  lively  yel- 
low and  a  copious  sediment. 

The  quantity  of  colour  contained  in 
quercitron  bark,  is  very  great,  compared 
to  its  weight,  much  more  than  in  an  equal 
weight  of  weld,  to  which  it  a])proaches 
the  nearest  in  beauty  and  durability  com- 
bined. 

Wool  may  be  dyed  of  a  fast   yellow 


with  quercitron,  by  being  first  cleaned  in 
the  usual  manner,  boiled  for  about  an 
hour,  with  one-sixth  of  its  weight  of  alum, 
in  sufficient  water,  tlien  without  rincing, 
transferred  into  a  copper,  containing  a 
decoction  of  as  much  quercitron  bark  as 
there  was  used  of  alum,  and  turned 
thj'ough  the  boiling  liquor,  over  the  winch 
as  usual,  till  tlie  colour  appears  to  have 
taken  sufficiently. 

After  this,  some  chalk,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  pound  for  every  100  lbs.  of 
the  cloth,  is  to  be  mixed  with  the  dyeing 
liquor,  and  tlie  operation  continued  ten 
minutes  longer,  when  the  process  will  be 
finished.  It  may  be  observed,  that  chalk 
or  alkali,  is  of  great  service,  in  all  yellow 
dyeing,  whether  with  weld,  quercitron, 
or  any  other  colour,  when  the  mordant  is 
alum,  as  this  addition  helps  to  bring  out 
and  heighten  the  dye. 

The  yellow  of  quercitron,  given  in  this 
way,  is  however  inferior  to  that  of  weld. 

1'he  salts  of  tin,  being  powerful  mor- 
dants, for  almost  every  colouring  matter, 
may  be  employed  with  advantage  in  dye- 
ing ysUow,  particularly  the  finest  colours. 
Dr..  Bancroft,  recommends  the  murio-sul- 
phat  of  tin,  (made  by  dissolving  14  ounces 
of  tin,  -in  a  mixture  of  two  pounds  of 
strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  three  pounds 
of  the  muriatic,)  of  which  ten  pound,  with 
as  much  quercitron  bark,  are  sufficient  to 
give  the  highest  orange  yellow,  to  100  lbs. 
of  cloth.  The  bark  is  first  put  into  the 
boiler,  (tied  up  in  a  bag,)  and  boiled  with 
water  for  a  few  minutes,  after  which  the 
tin  solution  is  added,  the  mixture  well 
.stirred,  and  the  cloth,  previously  scoured 
iind  wi  tted,  is  then  passed  briskly  through 
the  liquor  over  a  winch,  for  a  sufficient 
time,  which  is  generally  no  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  hour. 

With  an  addition  of  alum  a  pure  gol- 
den yeilow.  with  less  of  the  orange  is  pro- 
(luci'd  ;  for  the  delicate  gieenyeiiows  Dr. 
B.  uses  the  tin  solution  vith  both  tartar 
and  alum. 

'I'lie  method  of  dyeing  cotton  yellow 
with  weld,  has  been  already  mentioned. 
A  similar  way,  will  answer  with  all  the 
yellow  dyes,  but  owing  to  the  small  affi- 
iiity,  which  the  fibres  of  cotton  have  for 
colouring  matter,  it  is  extremely  dilR- 
cult,  by  any  mean;>,  to  fix  a  full,  equal 
and  lasting  yellow  on  this  material.  Even 
the  salts  of  tin,  which  aie  so  useful  as 
mordants,  to  wool  or  silk.  Dr.  Bancroft 
observes,  to  have  no  good  effect  with  cot- 
ton, and  to  be  worse  in  every  respect  than 
alum. 

On  account  of  the  superior  beauty,  and 
durability  of  the  yellows  given  to  cotton, 
in  the  process  of  calico-printing,  to  tltose 


BYE 


DYE 


r>f  common  dyemg.  Dr.  Bancroft  proposes, 
tlie  use  of  the  primers  mordant,  the  ace- 
tite  of  alumine,  in  general  dyeing.  When 
used  for  this  purpose,  it  is  not  to  be 
thickened  witli  gum  or  starch,  but  pre- 
pared simply  by  mixing  one  part  of  sugar 
of  lead,  with  tln-ee  of  alum,  and  sufficient 
water.  The  cotton  (and  the  same  applies 
to  linen,)  should  be  first  soaked  for  two 
hours,  in  the  aluminous  liquor,  kept  blood 
warm,  and  then  dried  in  a  stove  :  then 
soaked  a  second  time  in  the  mordant, 
dried  without  rincing  in  water,  then  soak- 
ed in  lime-water,which  tends  to  fix  the  alu- 
mine in  the  cloth,  and  neutralizes  the  ace- 
tous, acid.  Afier  this,  (or  where  a  very 
durable  yellow  is  wanted,  with  a  thud 
aluming-  and  liming,)  it  is  fit  for  the  yel- 
low bath;  in  which  12  or  18  pounds  are 
sufficient  for  100  of  the  linen  or  cotton. 
A  finish  with  a  very  weak  solution  of 
sulphat  of  copper  seems  to  raise  the  co- 
lour. 

Some  of  the  further  uses  proposed  to 
be  made  of  the  quercitron,  by  Dr.  Ban- 
croft, will  be  mentioned,  when  describ- 
ing tiie  cochineal  scai'let,  and  calico-print- 
ing. 

Old  Fustic,  so  called  in  this  country, 
(the  B.:is  Jaune  of  tlie  Fiencli,)  is  the 
\\  ood  of  a  large  tree,  tlie  JMorui  tinctoria, 
which  grows  abundantly  in  many  parts  of 
the  West  indies,  and  the  American  con- 
tinent. 

Fustic  is  of  a  sulphur  colour,  abound- 
ing in  colouring  matter,  which  is  much 
more  durable  than  any  of  the  other  yel- 
low dyes,  insomuch  as  when  applied  even 
substantively,  or  witiiout  a  mordant,  the 
dye  is  considerably  durable,  but  still  more 
so,  when  used  with,  the  same  mordants, 
as  weld,  orquei-citron. 

The  decoction  of  fustic  in  water,  when 
strong,  has  a  deep  and  somewhat  dull  red 
yellow,  and  by  dilution  becomes  orange 
}ellow.  Acids  produce  in  it  only  a  slight 
precipitate,  which  alkalies  redissolve,  ren- 
dering the  hquor  red. 

Fustic  though  valuable,  for  the  dura- 
bility of  its  colour,  is  seldom  used  for  the 
pure  yellows,  as  the  colour  which  it  gives 
is  dull  and  muddy.  It  is  chiefiy  used  in 
compound  colours,  as  in  forming  gieen 
with  a  Saxon-blue  basis ;  or  in  producing 
witli  a  mixed  mordant,  of  alum  and  iron 
liquor,  an  infinite  variety  of  diab  and  ofn c 
d}es,  where  the  natural  dullness  of  its  co- 
lour is  of  no  consequence.  It  is  used 
cliiefly  in  general  dyeing,  and  seldom  in 
printing.  It  goes  much  further  than 
weld. 

For  use,  fustic  must  be  split  or  cut  in 
chips,  and  inclosed  in  a  bag,  that  no  part 
of  it,  may  fix  in  the  stuff  and  tear  it.  We 


may  heat  fustic  in  the  same  way  as  weld, 
with  only  this  difterence,  that  in  order  to 
obtain  the  same  shade,  much  less  fus- 
tic is  required ;  thus  fi^'e  or  six  ounces 
of  this  wood,  are  sufficltnt  to  give  a  le- 
mon colour,  to  a  pound  of  cloth  ;  but  the 
colours  obtained  from  it  incline  more  to 
orange,  than  those  obtained  from  the 
weld. 

Young  Fustic,  the  Fustet  of  the  French, 
dyers,  Jihus  Cutinus  or  Venice  Sumach,  is 
a  shrub  growing  in  Italy  and  the  South  of 
France,  which  gives  a  fine  greenish  yel- 
low, but  without  any  permanence,  so  that 
it  is  never  used  alone,  but  only  as  an  ac- 
cessary colour,  to  heighten  cochineal  and 
other  dyes,  and  give  them  an  approach  to 
yellow. 

The  common  Sumach,  gives  a  yelldw 
dye  with  the  aluminous  mordant,  but  very 
pale  and  dull.  It  is  therefore  never  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  ;  but  on  account 
of  the  large  quantitj"  of  gallic  acid  it  con- 
tains, it  is  of  great  sen-ice  in  black  dyes, 
and  all  the  degradations  of  this  dye. 

Sav-JVort  fSarrttte,  Fr.)  the  Serratula 
Tinctoria  of  Linnseus,  is  a  useful  plant 
which  gives  a  good  lemon  yellow  to 
wool,  when  used  with  the  aluminous  mor- 
dant, 

I)yer''s  Broom  fGenestroie,  Fr.)  the  Ge- 
nista Tiuctorui  of  Linn  sens,  a  plant  abun- 
dant in  dry  hilly  countries,  gives  a  tolera- 
ble yellow,  which  witii  an  :Uum  and  tar- 
tar mordant,  is  sometimes  used  in  the  in- 
ferior woollen  goods. 

Ji'vignon  or  French,  berry  (  Graine  d'Avig- 
noil)  is  a  very  beautiful  but  remarkably 
fugitive  yellow,  which  can  never  be  used 
with  advantage  to  the  consumer,  except 
where  a  very  temporary  but  fine  colour  is 
wanted. 

The  ,hnerican  Golden  Rod  (Solidago 
Canadensis)  tliough  not  commoidy  intro- 
duced, appears  by  the  experiments  of 
able  dyers,  to  be  one  of  the  very  best  of 
the  vegetable  yellows,  little  if.at  all  infe- 
rior to  weld. 

Several  other  vegetables  have  also  been 
occasionally  used  for  yellow  dyes,  but  are 
of  little  importance.  In  fact  scarcely  any 
other  substance,  is  actually  employed  for 
this  colour  than  weld,  fustic,  and  querci- 
tron. 

OfJfadder  lieds.  The  root  of  madder, 
f liubia  TinctoruinJ  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  colouring  matters,  on 
account  of  the  great  body  and  quantity  of 
colour  which  it  possesses,  its  durability 
when  fixed  by  proper  mordants,  and  the 
immense  variety  of  shades  of  colour, 
which  are  obtained  from  it  by  various  ad- 
mixtures. • 

Some  facts  concerning  the  cultivation 


DYE 


DYE 


of  madder,  will  be  described  under  that 
article.  The  general  result  oflhe  analj  sis 
is,  that  madder  naturally  contains,  two 
distinct  colouring-  matters,  one  ofwliicii 
is  of  a  deep  blood-red,  (for  which  alone 
it  is  valued,)  and  the  otlier  of  a  dun  or 
yellow  brown,  more  soluble  tiian  the  for- 
mer, but  so  intimately  combined  with  it,  as 
materially  to  deteriorate  the  natural  beau- 
ty of  the  red  portion. 

The  natural  colour  of  madd(!r  tlierefore, 
is  a  dull  orange  red,  with  much  body  but 
little  brightness  ;  but  by  various  means 
(some  of  them  extremely  complicated,) 
the  art  of  man  has  been  enabled  to  extract, 
and  fix  dies  of  gi-eat  beauty  from  this  in- 
gredient. _  . 

.Madder  is  an  adjective  colom*,  its  stains 
being  removed  from  all  kinds  of  cloth, 
without  much  difficulty  by  washing,  and 
exposure,  unless  fixed  by  mordants.  Of 
these  tlie  aluminous  salts  are  the  most 
powerful,  and  most  commonly  employed. 
The  salts  of  tin,  are  not  used  in  hxingtlie 
colour,  but  when  fixed,  tliey  render  it 
more  livel}-. 

Wool  or  woollen  cloth,  when  to  be  dyed 
with  madder,  is  hrst  soaked  in  a  ba:h  of 
alum  and  tartar,  in  varying  proportions  ; 
but  w'wmi  the  latter  is  in  excess,  the  co- 
lour, though  solid,  degenerates  to  a  cin- 
namon brown  The  uiadder  added  to  the 
bath  of  alum  and  tartar,  musi  scarcely  be 
heatfd  more  tiian  blood-warm,  otherwise 
the  dye  will  become  browner  and  deeper. 
At  any  time,  however,  the  madder  reds, 
on  wool,  are  not  so  beautiful  as  those  on 
linen  or  cotton,  though  easier  given,  and 
with  more  body. 

The  fixing  a  jsermanent,  full,  and  beau- 
tiful madder  red  upon  cotton,  and  especi- 
ally lineu,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  difficult 
and  complicated  process  in  dyeing  ;  and 
one  on  which  more  has  been  written,  and 
more  experiments  and  enquiries  have 
been  nuide,  than  perhaps  any  other 
part  of  this  chemical  art.  The  affinity  of 
cotton,  (and  the  same  applies  to  linen)  to 
madder-colour  is  so  small,  that  even  the 
aluminous  mordant  will  not  alone  be  suffi- 
cient to  enable  it  to  resist  fiequent  wash- 
ing, and  especially  tlie  bleaching  effect  oi' 
the  sun's  rays.  Hence,  it  is  found  neces- 
sary previously,  to  fix  into  the  fibres  of 
the  cotton,  one  oi*  more  substances,  capa- 
ble of  uniting  with  both  the  mordant,  and 
the  colouring  matter,  and  to  retain  them 
with  great  I'orce. 

There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  mad- 
der colours  known,  but  w  ii  ii  a  great  varie- 
ty of  intermediate  shades  ;  one  is  the  com- 
mon red,  not  very  brilliant,  but  considera- 
bl}'  permanent,  in  whicb  the  substances 


used  are  chiefly,  first,  any  vegetable  sub- 
stance, containing  a  large  quantity  of  tan, 
and  above  all,  galls ;  secondh ,  an  alumi- 
nous mordant  added  to  the  galled  cotton, 
generally  with  a  certain  poi-lion  of  tartar ; 
thirdi)-,  the  madder  colouring  matter ; 
and  fourthly,  a  finish,  with  an  alkaline 
baih,  wiiich  indeed  is  not  essential  to  tlie 
fixity  oflhe  colour,  but  is  found  most  ma- 
terially to  heighten  and  unprove  it,  chiefiy 
as  has  been  supposed,  by  removing  the 
brown-yellow  part  of  the  madder  which 
ahrays  mixes  more  or  less. with  the  red, 
and  degratles  it  'Jhe  other  madder  co- 
lour is  a  very  bright,  beautiful,  and  a  most 
diu-able  red,  which,  from  having  long 
been,  and  being  still  prepared  at  Adriano* 
pie,  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant,  with  a 
])erfection  scarcely  imitable,  is  called  the 
Ailrianople  or  Turkey  Red,  and  if  the  ac- 
counts of  its  preparation  are  accurate,  it 
is  the  most  complicated  and  tedious  pro- 
cess in  the  whole  art  of  dyeing. 

Tlie  true  Adrianople  red,  besides  its 
uncommon  beauty,  has  tlie  propei'ty  of  re- 
sisting more  than  any  other  madder  red, 
the  action  of  soap,  alkalies,  alum,  acids, 
and  all  other  reagents.  On  this  account, 
nitric  acid  is  employed  as  a  test  to  distin- 
guish this  red  from  any  spurious  imita- 
tions. If  the  latter  is  immersed  in  aqua- 
fortis, or  common  nitric  acid,  ilsoon.loses 
colour,  and  in  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
it  is  quite  white ;  whereas,  the  genuine 
Turkey  red  cotton,  will  remain  nearly  an 
hour,  without  any  perceptible  loss  of  co- 
lour, and  retains  an  oi-ange  tint  to  the  last. 

There  can  be  no  doulH  too,  that  much 
of  the  beauty  of  the  Levantine  red,  is  ow- 
ing to  the  superior  qiuility  of  the  madder, 
as  will  be  noticed  undei-  that  article  ;.so 
that  even  with  the  best  madder  of  the 
North  of  Europe,  it  is  probable,  that  no 
accuracy  in  the  dyehig  can  entirely  make 
up,  for  this  radical  diHerence. 

We  shall  not  detail  the  .stwiiteen  distinct 
o]5erations  (given  by  the  Abbe  .Mazeas)  as 
employed  in  tliis  piocess,  but  only  des- 
cribe the  g-eneral  way  of  proceeding. 

The  cotton  yarn  is  first  thoroug'hly 
cleansetl  by  long  boiling"  in  water.  The 
next  step  is  to  impregnate  it  with  an  ani- 
■in:l  substance;  which,  having  a  much 
sti-onger  affinity  for  colouring  matter  than 
the  cotton  itself,  forms  an  excellent  basis 
or  substratum,  on  which  the  dye  may  fix 
itself  by  tlie  sflbsequent  operatioiis.  Tiic 
animal  matter  in  this  instance,  is  shceji's 
dung.  Oil,  is  another  intermede  also  used  ; 
and  the  effect  of  this,  is  cei'tainh'  to  assist 
infixing  the  coloui-,  and  rendering  it  af- 
terwards insoluble  in  all  other  substances. 
The   oil  and  tlie  dunj^  are  blended,  and 


DYE 


DYE 


both  togctlier  dissolved  in  a  ley  of  soda, 
and  the  cotton  well  mixed  with  it  with 
much  manual  exertion. 

The  cotton  is  then  steeped  in  olive  oil, 
witliout  the  dung,  brouglit  to  the  state  of 
a  milky  liquid,  or  an  extemporaneous 
soap,  by  just  sufficient  soda.  It  is  then 
steeped  in  three  successive  baths  of 
soda  and  water,  each  stronger  tlian  the 
last,  in  order  thoroughlj",  to  separate  all 
the  oil  tliat  loosely  adheres  to  the  cottoa  ; 
or  all  but  what  is  intimately  combined 
with  it.  This  is  necessary  to  make  it  take 
up  the  solublepart  of  the  galls,  with  which 
it  is  combined  in  the  next  operation.  A 
strong  decoction  of  galls  is  then  made, 
and  the  cotton  is  long  and  thoroughly 
steeped  in  it,  with  much  wringing  and 
pressing,  after  which  it  is  sti'etched  and 
dried  as  quickly  as  possible. 

The  cotton  now  may  be  considered  as  a 
compound  of  vegetable  fibre,  \vitu  the  ani- 
mal matter  of  dung,  with  oil,  and  witii  tan 
very  intimately  combined ;  and,  it  is  tlien 
in  the  state  fit  to  receive  the  proper  mor- 
dant for  tlie  madder  colour.  This  mor- 
dant is  Roman  alum,  in  which  the  cotton 
is  carefully  steeped  for  a  due  time,  and 
then  stretched  and  dried. 

After  tins  long  preparation,  the  cotton 
undergoes  an  exact  repetition  of  the  whole 
process  step  b}-  step,  the  dung  bath  only 
excepted  ;  tliat  is,  of  oiling,  steeping  in 
soda,  galling,  and  lUuming. 

The  whole  of  this  labour  being  perform- 
ed, the  cotton  is  thoroughly  dried  and 
aired,  and  is  then  of  a  dun,  or  root  colour, 
this  hue  being  given  by  the  galls.  The 
next  step  is  tlie  maddering ;  but,  in  order 
more  fully  to  animalize  the  cotton,  a  small 
quantity  of  sheep's  blood  is  mixed  with  tlie 
water  in  the  boiler,  in  which  the  madder 
is  dissolved.  The  selection  of  the  mad- 
der depends  on  the  precise  coloiu-  requir- 
ed to  be  given;  the  quantity  is  always 
twice  the  weight  of  the  cotton.  Wlien 
this  bath  has  got  to  a  lukewai-m  heat,  the 
hanks  of  cotton  ai-e  steeped  in  it,  well 
stretched  on  wooden  frames,  that  keep 
the  thread  sufficiently  asunder,  to  allow 
the  dye  to  penetrate  thoroughly  and  uni- 
formly. 

This  steep  lasts  an  hour,  during  which, 
tlie  heat  of  the  bat^is  slowly  increasing; 
and,  after  it  begins  to  boil,  the  cottonis 
taken  off  the  frame,  and  let  to  he  loose  in 
the  vessel  for  an  hour  longer ;  the  Uquor 
being  all  tlie  while  kept  at  a  boiling  heat. 
After  this,  the  colour  of  tlie  bath  being  ex- 
hausted, the  cotton  is  taken  out,  and 
washed  in  running  water,  stretched,  and 
dried.  Lastly,  the  cotton,  now  thoroughlv 
and  durably  dyed,  Is  finished  by  being 
boiled  for  four  or  five  hours,  in  a  closely 

VOL.  I. 


covered  vessel  in  a  solution  of  white  Mai". 
seilles  soap,  olive  oil,  and  soda.  This  fi- 
nishing  brings  out  the  colour,  and  much 
increases  its  richness  and  durabilitv.  In  a 
word,  Turkey  red  may  be  dyed"  thus : 
-Vfter  boiUng  the  cotton  for  three  hours, 
in  about  an  ounce  of  potash  and  fish  oil, 
to  each  pound  of  cotton,  ^\^th  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water  ;  wash  it.  -\fter  it  is 
dryed,  let  it  be  immersed  in  fish  oil  for 
ten  days.  After  washing  it  well,  soak  it 
iii  a  solution  of  alum,  composed  of  one  part 
of  alum,  and  forty  parts  of  water.  Agi- 
tate it  in  a  mixture  of  cow  dung  and  hot 
^^ater,  and  again  throitgh  alum  water ; 
then  in  a  decoction  of  sumach  or  galls,  in 
Uie  proportion  of  an  ounce  to  a  poimd  of 
cotton.  Immerse  it  now  in  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  glue ;  tlien  wash  it,  and  alum  it  — 
Now  madder  it,  with  a  half  pound  of  mad- 
der, to  the  pound  of  cotton.  Alum  it,  and 
;ii;-ain  madder  it,  using  from  a  to  A  a  lb. 
of  madder  more,  to  tlie  pound  of  cotton. 
Then  finish  the  operation,  by  boiling  it  in 
a  weak  solution  of  white  soap.  Instead 
of  using  alum,  the  acetite  of  alumine,  has 
been  recommended :  this  is  prepared  by 
mixing  1  lb.  of  alum,  and  2  lbs.  of  sugar 
of  lead  in  1  gallon  of  water,  separating,  if 
you  please,  the  white  precipitate,  (sul- 
phate of  lc<»d)  or  removing  it  afterwards 
by  washing.  The  process  already  men- 
tioned, has  been  found  to  answer  remark- 
ably well,  as  will  appear  fi-oni  the  follow- 
ing obsen^ations  of  Mr.  Lau.  A.  Washing- 
ton, of  Winchester,  (Vu-ginia)  : 

"  Mrs.  Washington  made  attempt  last 
summer,  to  dye  cotton,  to  the  colour  ge- 
nerally known  by  the  name  of  Turkey 
Red.  She  followed  a  receipt  in  the  Do- 
mestic Encyclopedia,  and  succeeded  be- 
yond her  expectations,  in  imparting  to  the 
cotton  yam,  a  beautiful,  brilliant,  red  co. 
lour,  possessing  a  permanence  that  was 
at  first  Ultle  expected.  She  had  the  yarn 
woven  into  a  piece  of  fancy  cloth,  for  her 
own  wear,  which  has  been  very  often 
washed,  and  still  retains  its  brilliancy  of 
colour,  without  any  sensible  diminution, 

"  Several  persons  have  adnured  the  co- 
lour, and  expressed  a  great  deshe  to  get 
the  receipt.  As  the  Domestic  Encyclo- 
pnedia  is  in  com])arati%'ely  few  hands,  and 
the  season  for  dyeing  and  making  cotton 
cloth  is  approaching,  I  have  thought  it 
would  be  rendei'ing  some  service  to  con- 
dense the  receipt  into  familiar  language, 
for  general  benefit.  In  the  original  it  is 
very  long,  .and  a  gi-eat  man)-  technical 
terms  are  used,  which  I  have  avoided  as 
much  as  possible.  Sec." 

As  tlie  process  is,  in  some  degree,  mo- 
dified, it  may  not  be  improper  to  give  it  iii 
this  place. 

o  o 


DYE 


DYE 


First — Make  a  lie  of  one  part  oi'  fjood 
potash,  dissolved  i'.\  four  jjarls  of  boilinjj 
water.  Then  slack  half  a  part  of  lime  in 
it-  Next  dissolve  one  part  of  powdered 
alum,  in  two  parts  boiling  water,  and 
wliiie  tins  last  solution  is  warm,  pour  the 
He  gradually  into  it,  stirring-  :uk1  mixing 
them  close' together.  Tlien  odd  to  the 
above  mixture,  a  thirty-third  part  of  lin- 
seed oil,  wluch,  when  well  mixed  witii  it, 
will  form  a  rich  milky  substance,  resem- 
bling-cream. As  the  skenisuf  coUoii  are 
dipt  in  this  mixture,  it  must  be  siirred,  as 
the  oil  will  rise  to  tlie  top  of  it  wiien  it  is 
at  rest. 

The  above  ingredients  make  what  is 
chemically  called,  '  Alkjline  solutSion  of 
alumine,  mixed  with  oil ;'  which,  in  sjjeak- 
ing-  of  hereafter,  I  shall  call  the  aikaline 
mixture. 

The  quantity  of  the  alkaline  mixture  to 
be  made,  must  be  determined  by  the 
quantity  of  cotton  intended  to  be  dyed. 
And  to" ascertain  tlie  respective  parts  of 
the  diiferent  ingredients  as  named  above, 
they  must  all  be  weighed;  begmniiig 
with  the  water  first,  of  which  theie  must 
be  enough  to  permit  each  skein  of  cotton 
to  be  entirely  immersed  in  it. 

Before  the  cotton  (or  flaxen  thread, 
when  that  is  to  be  dyed)  is  dipt  into  the 
alkaline  mixture,  it  must  be  first  well 
bleached  and  cleaned  by  washing,  of 
every  foreign,  extraneous  substance. 
Then  boiled  in  strong  lie  matte  of  pot- 
ash, and  dipt  into  tlie  alkaline  mi.\ture 
wiiilst  it  lb  hot,  and  as  v/et  as  it  will  be, 
when  tiie  lie  is  well  gotten  out  of  it  by 
drawing  the  skeins  through  the  iiands. 
The  skeins  are  to  be  immersed  into  the 
alkaline  mixture,  one  afler  another,  and 
to  be  repeatedly  dipt  and  di  awn  gently 
through  the  hand  until  tliey  beconie  well 
soaked.  As  each  skein  tnidergoes  the 
above  process  it  is  to  be  i)ut  upon  a  pole, 
in  tlie  shade,  to  dry;  in  summer  they  are 
to  be  put  out  of  doors  where  they  are  pro- 
tected from  the  rain,  and  in  thexwinler  to 
be  kept  in  a  warm  place,  within  doors. 
After  remaining  in  that  state  for  twenly- 
fom-  hou's,  they  must  be  well  washed  in 
pure  running  or  rain  water  and  again 
dried. — Afier  \>)rici>  tliey  are  to  be  wash- 
ed in  a  strong  lie,  made  of  good  hickor\ 
ashes  (or  belter  of  potash)  one  skein  after 
another,  and  gently  and  equally  pressfd, 
by  drawing  through  the  hand  or  a  pair 
of  smootlt  wooden  rollers,  and  again  hung 
up  to  dry. 

The  madder  is  no-.v  to  he  used — after 
fixing  upon  the  quantity,  (w  hich  will  be 
regulated  by  tlie  deepness  of  tiie  colour 
intended  lo  be  produced,  of  wliicli  more 
will  be  said  presently)  it  nrist  be  put  in 


as  m\ich  clean  rain  water,  as  will  com- 
|)letely  and  entirely  ccner  the  whole  ol' 
the  rotton.  Then  add  thereto  of  pound- 
ed clialk,  (whicli  must  by  no  means  be 
omitted)  a  fourth  of  the  wt.  of  the  mad- 
der used.  It  must  now  be  put  over  a 
slow  fire,  an<l  kept  for  about  three  hours, 
at  a  state  oi  heat,  something  less  than 
boiling,  or  in  such  a  state  that  hardy  per- 
sons can  put  their  hands  into  it  without 
being  scalded  During  this  part  of  the 
process,  the  skeins  are  to  be  frequently 
shifted  and  changed,  that  every  part  of 
tUein  may  imbibe  the  colouring  matter. 
I'rom  tiiis  the  cotton  is  taken  and  dried, 
and  then  waslicd  in  a  large  quantity  of 
water  to  cleanse  it.  The  finisliing  part  of 
the  process,  called  clearing,  now  follows, 
vviiich  consists  in  boiling  tlie  <iotton  for 
eight  hours  in  water,  containing  a  bag 
filled  with  bran.  The  water  is  to  be  kept 
in  a  brisk  state  of  boiling  the  whole  time, 
and  as  it  evaporates,  boiling  water  is  to 
be  added.  The  water  ought  also  to  be 
boiling,  when  the  cotton  is  put  into  it. 
The  deepness  or  intensity  of  the  colour, 
in  this  mode  of  dyeing,  will  be  regidated 
by  the  number  of  times  the  cotton  is  dipt 
into  the  alkaline  mixture  and  the  quantity 
of  madder  used  To  give  the  different 
shades  of  red,  the  cotton  may  receive  two 
three,  or  four  immersions,  and  a  quantity 
of  madder  equal  to  once,  twice,  ihi  ee  or 
fovH-  tiines  the  weight  of  the  cotton.  If 
dipt  more  than  once,  fiesli  alkaline  mix- 
tiu-e  must  be  made  each  time,  as  it  loses 
its  qualities  by  standing.  And  the  same 
process  of  drying,  washing  in  water  and 
lie,  as  above  describetl,  nuist  be  observed 
and  strictly  attended  to  after  each  dipping 
into  the  alkaline  mixture,  &j.c. 

On  the  use  of  sheep's  dung  in  dyein» 
cotton  of  a  turkey  red  <-oh)ur,rwe  i-efer  the 
reader  to  an  ingenious  essay  by  professor 
Yitalis,  in  the  Joiu'iial  de  Pliysique. 

1  he  essential  principles  brought  for- 
waid  in  this  essay  may  be  reduced  to  the 
following. 

1.  Sheep's  dung  used  in  dyeing  Turkey 
red  does  not  contain  ammonia. 

2.  Ammonia  has  not  the  property  of  en- 
livening (roser)  'I'urkey  icd. 

;V  Sheeps*^  dung  acts  onl}'  by  the  albu- 
mino-'gelatinous  matter  that  it  contains ; 
which  serves  to  reduce  the  cotton  to  the 
nature  of  animal  substances,  and  of  course 
to  ilispose  it  to  unite  more  solidly  witii 
colouring  matters  than  before. 

4.  The  dung  and  intestinal  liquor  of 
sheep  .'U-e  very  useful  f()r  fixing  colours  in 
general,  and  particularly  Tui-key  red- 

As  the  subject  of  dyeing-  with  madder 
is  important,  and  especially  that  of  'i'ur- 
key Red,  we  svould  also  recommend  the 


BYE 


DYE 


essay  by  J.  M.  Haussman,  which  may  be 
seen  in  Tillocli's  Magaxine,  or  in  tlie  Do- 
mestic Encyclopedia;  also  that  oiJ.  A 
Chaptal  on  mordants  in  dyeiijg-  cotton 
red,  in  the  Annales  de  Chimje,  or  in  the 
Register  of  Arts,  p.  2l2. 

In  dyeing-  this  colour  the  animal  mat- 
ter, the  oil,  the  soda,  the  galls,  and  the 
alum,  appear  all  to  have  tlieir  distinct 
«ises,  and  jirobably  it  would  be  very  dif- 
^ult  to  dispense  with  any  of  them  (or 
substances  similar  to  them)  without  in- 
juring tlie  perfection  of  the  dye. . 

Tlie  fine  imitation  of  this  colour  made 
at  Montpellier  is  conducted  in  a  manner 
closely  following  the.  Turkey  pi-ocess  ac- 
cojding  to  the  testimony  and  actual  ex- 
perience of  Gliaptal. 

The  observations  of  this  excellent  prac- 
tical chemist  give  many  important  rules 
with  regard  to  the  choice,  and  use  of  the 
materials  too  mhuite  to  be  fully  detailed 
in  this  place.  Instead  of  sheep's  dung 
the  gastric  liquor  contained  in  the  sto- 
mach of  ruminating'  animals  is  employed, 
in  each  case,  mixed  with  the  oil  and  soda 
into  a  kind  of  oleo-animal  soap.  Tlie  oil 
should  be  of  that  kind  which  remains 
permanently  united  with  caustic  alkali 
into  a  uniform  milky  soap,  without  sub- 
siding or  running  again  into  drops  in  any 
sensible  degree  This  kind  ofoil  is  pro- 
bably that  which  is  the  freest  from  ex- 
tractive matter,  and  the  observations  of 
other  chemists  have  found  that  linseed  oil, 
which  contains  very  little  extract  is  even 
better  than  any  kind  of  olive  oil. 

It  also  seems  necessary  that  in  the  mix- 
ture of  oil  and  alkali,  the  oil  should  be  in 
excess,  or  in  greater  quantity  tlian  in 'the 
proportions  which  constitute  common 
soap  :  for  the  use  of  the  alkali  is  cliiefly 
to  divide  the  oil  and  enable  it  to  pene- 
trate uniformly  into  the  cotton,  but  if  thei'e 
were  no  excess,  of  oil  it  is  not  likely  that 
the  alkali  would  abandon  any  of  it  to  the 
fibres  of  the  cotton.  Soda  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  essential,  potash  being  found  to 
answer  as  well.  ' 

The  galling  is  one  of  the  nicest  ope- 
rations. The  cotton  should  be  made  to 
take  the  gal's  very  uniformly,  and  should 
be  dried  rapidly,'  as  the:  action  of  the  air 
is  found  so  far  to  affect  the  soluble  mat- 
ter of  the  galls,  that  if  much  exposed  to 
it,  the  outer  part  of  the  cotton  will  be- 
come dark,  and  the  remainder  .grey,  and 
the  subsequent  colour  will,  in  conse- 
quence take  unequally.  Sumach  is  used 
with  the  galls  in  ratiier  a  larger  pi-opor- 
tion.  The  repetition  of  the  oiling,  gall- 
ing, and  alumiug  is  practised  at  Montpel- 
lier as  in  Turkey.    In  the  finishing  part 


two  operations  are  used.  The  first  is,  as 
in  Turkey  boiling  with  soda  and  soap,  in 
a  very  high  teniperatuie.  The  boiler  is 
closely  fitted  with  a  strong  cover  with 
only  a  very  small  hole  for  the  exit  of  the 
vapour,  anil  by  the  heat  of  the  fire  be- 
ne.;th  the  confined  liquor  is  made  to  re- 
ceive a  heat  certainly  above  that  of  com* 
mon  boiling,  similar  to  what  lakes  place 
in  a  digester  This  brings  out  the  co- 
lour to  a  very  beaiitiful  red,  but  it  is  fur- 
ther heightened  by  the  final  operation 
whicli  was  long  kept  secret,  and  which 
consists  in  passing  the  cotton  through  a 
mixed  solution  of  nitro-murlat  of  tin  and 
alum,  at  a  blood  heat. 

Linen  thread  is  dyed  of  a  fine  red  by 
the  same  method,  but  a  still  greater  num- 
ber of  successive  operations  are  required, 
and  in  particular,  the  alkaline  lies,  should 
be  niTich  stronger 

.Madder  reds  of  extreme  beaut)',  are 
prepared  by  the  Armenian  dyers  settled 
at  Astracan.  The  process  as  given  by 
Professor  Pallas  is  more  simple  thin  that 
practised  at  Adrianople,  but  agrees  with 
it  'm  the  essential  particulars.  The  mad- 
der is  a  fire  sort  that  grows  wild  in  seve- 
ral parts  of  Persia,  and  is  dried  and 
ground  for  use.  The  oil  employed  is 
procured  from  the  entrails  and  refuse 
parts  of  the  sturgeon,  beluga,  and  other 
fish  that  are  so  abundant  in  the  Volga* 
This  supplies  both  oily  and  animal  mat- 
ter. Tne  alkali  employed  is  a  coarse  na- 
tive soda,  prepared  by  burning  various 
salt  plants  in  the  vicinity.  But  the  oil 
seems  to  be  Used  without  alkali,  tire  soda 
being  only  employed  in  the  finishing. 
The  general  process  is  as  follows :  the 
cotton  yarn  previously  washed  and  well 
dried  is  laid  in  a  tub,  and  covered  with 
the  fish  oil,  where  it  remains  for  the 
night.  Tn  the  morning  it  is  taken  out 
and  hung  up  in  the  air  on  poles.  This 
alternate  .steeping  in  oil  during  the  night 
and  airing  during  the  day,  is  continued  for 
a  week,  after  which  the  yarn  is  washed 
in  the  river  and  dried.  A  strong  decoc» 
lion  is  then  made  of  pulverized  sumach 
leaves  and  galls,  to  which,  when  still  hot, 
alum  is  added.  The  galls  and  alum  are 
in  the  proportion  of  5  pound  of  each  to 
every  pud  (40  lb  )  of  cotton.  This  com- 
pound liquor  is  poured  on  the  cotton,  and 
well  worked  in  with  the  hands,  and  the 
yarn  ag-iiin  dried.  It  is  then  fit  for  the 
maddcring-,  in  which  slieep's  blood  is 
here  also  used  along  with  the  madder. 
The  whole  operation  is  finished  b_v  boil- 
ing tlie  dyed  cotton  with  a  lie  of  impure' 
soda  in  large  clay  pans  with  a  very  nar- 
row neck,  and  set  in  brick  over  a  fire 


DYE 


DYE 


place.    The  boiling  continues  for  t\\  ent}-- 
ibur  hours. 

A  dye-house  forgiving  to  cotton  y\ii'n  a 
fine  red  equal  to  the  Turkey  red  was  es- 
tablished at  Glasgow  by  Mr.  Fapillon,  tiic 
secret  of  which  was  purchased  by  tiie 
Commissioners  for  jNIanufactures  in  Scot- 
land, and  has  been  made  public  not  long 
since.  It  consists  of  a  very  close  imita- 
tion of  the  Adrianople  process,  as  already 
described,  but  witli  a  considerable  saving 
in  the  length  and  number  of  applications. 
The  particulars  need  not  be  here  enume- 
rated, but  it  may  be  mentioned  generally 
that  it  consists  of  the  distinct  operations 
of  boiling  with  soda, — steeping  in  a  com- 
pound bath  of  sheep's  dung,  oil,  soda  and 
other  ingredients — oiling  without  the 
dang — galling — aluming — dyeing  with 
madder  and  blood— fixing  the  colour  with 
the  dung  and  oil  steeps — and  lastly  bright- 
ening the  dye  with  a  finish  of  soap-water 
and  soda. 

Mr.  Hawssman  in  his  obsei-vations  upon 
Adrianople  processes,  announces  a  great 
simplification  in  the  number  of  processes 
and  an  alteration  in  the  mordants,  by 
which  he  asserts  that  a  red  may  be  pro- 
cured fully  equal  to  tliat  of  tlie  Levant 
The  mordant  which  he  proposes  is  a  com- 
pound solution  of  alumine  and  oil  in  caus- 
tic alkali,  and  is  made  in  the  readiest  way 
by  adding  caustic  alkali  to  a  hot  concen- 
trated solution  of  aUmi,  which  first  preci- 
pitates, then  redissolves  the  alumine,  after 
which  a  small  portion  of  linseed  oil  (and 
probably  fish  oil  would  answer  full  as  well 
if  not  better)  is  to  be  put  in,  and  the  whole 
mixed  into  a  cream-like  liquor.  Cotton 
steeped  twice  (or  where  fine  colours  arc 
wanted,  thrice)  in  this  alumino-oily  soap 
appears  to  be  then  fit  for  maddcring  and 
to  retain  the  colour  in  great  perfection. 

To  give  a  full  dead-red  like  that  of  the 
India  handkerchiefs,  lierthollet  directs 
that  the  cotton  should  first  be  boiled  in 
lime-water;  then  steeped  in  the  bath  of 
soda,  oil,  and  gastric  liquor  of  sheep,  or 
other  ruminating  animals;  washed  ;  steep- 
ed in  a  mordant  of  acetite  of  alumine 
(made  by  alum  and  sugar  of  lead)  and 
lastly  maddercd.  In  tliis  case  the  finish- 
ing process  is  not  re([uired.  The  colour 
thus  produced  is  a  full  red  without  lustre, 
and  the  deadness  of  colour  appears  to  be 
owing  to  the  lime-water. 

Cottfjn  dyed  red  may  be  brouglU  down 
through  all  the  intermediate  siiades  to  a 
pale  orange,  by  steeping  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time  in  nitrat  of  til).  As  a  gene- 
ral rule,  to  give  the  brighter  colours  the 
cotton  must  be  but  moderiaely  oiled  and 
galled,  steeped  for  a  length  of  time  and 
often  in  alkulme  leys  of  the  weaker  sort, 


largely  alumcd,  dyed  with  the  best  anl 
brightest  madder,  and  at  the  last  long 
and  plentifully  soaped. 

Such  in  a  general  way,  are  the  processes 
by  which  the  red  colour  of  madder  may 
be.  made  durable  on  cotton  and  linen. 
The  siiades  of  degraded  red  producible 
by  adding  any  iron  solution  to  the  alumi- 
nous mordant  are  endless.  It  may  only 
be  added  that  for  tlie  sake  of  economy 
the  same  bath  may  often  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage, both  for  the  fine  bright  reds,  and 
for  the  violets,  wine  colouj-,  and  other 
darker  shades,  by  employing  for  the  for- 
mer the  madder  bath  when  first  warm 
and  fiesh,  and  for  the  latter  the  same 
bath  when  fully  boiled,  where  the  dun 
yellow  part  of  the  madder  begins  to  pre- 
vail, and  in  which  it  can  ])roduce  no  ma- 
terial injury  to  the  intended  colour. 

Of.  Cochineal  Scar  In  and  Red — Who- 
eveu-  casts  his  eyes  on  a  piece  of  broad 
cloth  dyed  in  the  most  perfect  manner 
with  the  fine  or  cochineal  scarlet,  must 
be  struck  with  its  transcendant  beauty 
and  lustre,  and  acknowledge  it  to  be  one 
of  the  finest  eflTortsofthe  art  of  dyeing. 

The  scarlet  dyeing  in  general  makes  a 
distinct  branch  of  trade,  the  materials  be- 
ing of  that  delicate  kind  as  easily  to  be 
liurt  by  accidental  admixtiu-e  of  other  co- 
lours, and  part  of  the  apparatus  being 
somewhat  diiferent  from  that  of  common 
dyeing.  The  boiler  in  which  the  cochi- 
neal bath  is  made  is  generally  of  tin  or 
strongly  tinned  copper,  for  as  a  solution 
(;f  tin  is  the  mordant  cmplo)  ed,  no  harm 
can  arise  lioni  its  being  in  contact  witli 
the  same  metal,  but  copper  might  be 
somewhat  acted  on  in  the  piocess  and  the 
dye  injured.  The  quality  of  the  M'ater  is 
also  of  importance  here,  whicii  should  be 
soft  and  pure,  for  hard  water  tends  to 
produce  a  rose  colour,  wliich  however  is 
corrected  by  boiling  bran  or  starch  in 
it. 

Cochineal  (the  peculiar  nature  of  which 
is  described  under  that  article)  contains  a 
vast  quantity  of  colourhig  matter  in  pro- 
portion to  its  weight,  and  yields  it  very 
reacfily  to  water  cold  or  hot.  The  infu- 
sion of  cochineal  is  naturally  of  a  fine 
crimson,  and  is  entirely  an  adjective  co- 
lour, but  with  a  mordant  it  fixes  on  wool- 
len and  silk  with  jfieat  firnmcss,  but 
weakly  and  with,  dilficulty  on  linen  and 
cotton. 

Alum  appears  to  have  been  tlie  mor- 
dant llrst  cTiiployed  tb  fix  the  colour  of 
cochineal  on  wool.  It  does  not  sensibly 
alter  the  natural  tint,  as  it  gives  a  deep 
and  durable  crimson.  It  even  restores 
the  crimson  to  cloth  dyed  scarlet  by  the 
compound  tin  mordant. 


DYE 


DYE 


The  astonishing  effect  of  all  the  solu- 
tions of  tin  in  heightening  the  colour  of 
cochineal,  appears  to  have  been  first  dis- 
covered and  put  in  practice  by  one  Kiis- 
ter,  a  German,  who  settled  at  Bow,  neiir 
London,  about  the  year  1543,  whence 
scarlet  was  called  the  Bow  dye  in  this 
countr}',  and  in  England.  It  has  been  ge- 
nerally supposed  that  the  change  of  the 
natural  crimson  of  this  drug  to  scarlet  was 
owing  simply  to  the  effect  of  the  nitro-rau- 
riat  of  tin,  which  is  the  common  solution 
used  bv  the  dyers,  but  Dr.  Bancroft  has  ful- 
ly proved  (as  iixleetl  is  ackiwwledged  by 
Berthollet  in  his  second  edition)  that  this  is 
a  mistake,  and  di;it  the  nltrat,  or  muriat,  or 
nitro-muriat  of  tin  used  alone  only  height- 
ens the  colour  of  cochineal,  but  does  not 
materially  cliange  its  natural  crimson ;  but 
that  it  is  tl>e  addition  of  tartar  to  the  tin 
solution  which  converts  tlie  crimson  to 
that  fiery  bright  scarlet  for  which  this 
dye  is  so  |Treeminen'tly  valuable.  Now 
as  scarlet  is  a  colour  composed  of  crim- 
son and  yellow,  and  as  tartar  clianges 
the  cochineal  crimson  to  yellow,  it  may 
be  inferred  that  the  simple  efi'ect  of  the 
tartrite  of  tin  (which  salt  is  formed  by 
double  decomposition  when  the  nitro- 
muriat  of  tin  and  tartar  are  mixe<l)  is  that 
of  adding  a  yellow.  This  position  Dr. 
Bancroft  found  by  experiment  to  be  accu- 
rate; for  when  cloth  was  dyed  with  co- 
chineal, and  the  tartrite  of  tin  siugl 
made  b\'  dissolving  this  metal  in  the  tar- 
tareous  acid,  the  dye  was  a  full  scarlet- 
An  equal  effect  was  produced  by  stibsti- 
tuting  lemon  jtiice  or  else  the  pure  cit)  ic 
acid  to  the  tartareous.  Berthollet  also 
found  that  on  dyeing  three  samples  of 
cloth,  the  first  with  nitro-muriat  of  tin, 
tartar,  and  cochineal,  in  the  proportions 
commonly  used ;  tlie  second  with  tiie 
same  ingredients  but  with  a  double  pro- 
poilion  of  tartar;  and  the  third  omitting 
the  tartar,  that  the  first  sample  was  (,f  a 
full  scarlet,  the  second  a  scarlet  more  in- 
clining to  yellow,  and  the  third  a  crim- 
son. 

The  solution  of  tin  usually  employed  by 
the  dyers  is  prepared  in  tlie  following  way. 
Dilute  nitric  acid  of  the  kind  called  single 
aqunfortis  is  the  acid  used,  and  may  be 
made  by  proper  management  to  take  up 
about  one-eig!>th  of  its  weight  of  tin.  A 
small  quantity  ofti"  (previously  granu- 
lated by  being  poured  when  meited  into 
cold  water,  kept  briskly  agitated  with  a 
a  bimdle  of  rods)  is  ptit  into  a  glass  ves- 
sel, to  which  is  added  the  aquutbitis  mix- 
ed with  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth 
of  its  weight  of  commoji  salt  or  saO am- 
moniac, and  still  further  diluted  with  wa- 
ter.    A  strong  action  begins  almost  im- 


mediately, without  artificial  heat,  and  it  is 
the  business  of  the  preparer  to  keep  this 
action  as  moderate  as  possible,  by  setting 
the  vessel  in  a  cool  place  and  adding  only 
small  quantities  of  tin  at  a  time,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  last  added  quantity  is  dis- 
solved. By  this  method  the  acid  be- 
comes fully  saturated  with  oxyd  of  tin, 
whereas  if  the  heat  generated  in  the  pro- 
cess is  not  checked,  or  if  the  acid  is  too 
strong,  tlie  greater  part  of  the  tin  will  re- 
main undissolved  in  the  form  of  a  white 
oxyd.  Kven  wlien  well  made,  the  solu- 
tion (or  spirit  as  the  dyers  call  it)  is  apt 
to  coagulate  by  mere  keeping  and  to  de- 
posit the  oxyd  of  tin,  which  it  cannot 
again  be  made  to  take  up.  The  use  of 
the  muriat  of  soda  or  ammonia  is  to  pre- 
vent the  spontaneous  separation  of  the 
tin.  The  miu'iatic  acid  singly  is  a  much 
better  solvent  for  tin,  taking  up  a  large 
quantity  and  retaining  it  for  any  length  of 
time,  but  the  simple  muriat  of  tin,  and  in- 
deed of  manj^  otiier  metals,  is  found  to 
have  a  very  coiTosive  effect  on  the  fibres 
of  wool,  and  even  (in  a  less  degree)  on 
those  of  linen  and  cotton. 

To  preserve  the  muriatic  acid  in  the 
solution,  and  at  the  same  time  to  combine 
it  with  some  otlier  acid  which  has  not 
such  a  corrosive  effect  on  cloth.  Dr.  Ban- 
croft recommends  the  murio-sulphuric  so- 
lution of  tin,  :is  equal  in  efficacy  to  tlie 
nitro-nmriatic  and  much  cheaper.  For 
this  purpose  14  ounces  of  granulated  tin 
are  to  be  added  to  a  mixture  of  two 
pounds  of  sulphuric  acid  of  ordinary 
strength,  with  three  pounds  of  muriatic 
acid.  Xo  particular  precautions  are  re- 
quired in  making  the  solution,  which  will 
be  equally  permaiient  with  or  without  ar- 
tificial heat. 

As  the  slate  of  oxygenation  of  all  me- 
tallic solutions,  and  particularly  of  those 
of  tin,  very  materially  affects  all  their  che- 
mical properties,  a  few  observations  oa 
this  subject  may  be  mentioned  after  de- 
scribing the  process  of  scarlet  dyeing. 

Woollen  cloth  is  generally  dyed  scar- 
let in  two  operations,  though  a  single  one 
will  suffice,  but  in  general  is  less  conve- 
nient.    To  dye   a    Imndred    pounds    of 
wool,  8  or  10  pounds  of  tartar  are  first 
put  into  the  boiler  with  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  soft  water,  and  6  or  8  ounces  of  co- 
chineal.    Immediately  afterwards,  10   or 
\2  pounds  of  the  nitro-muriat  of  tin  are 
added,  and  when  the  mixture  is  ready  to 
boil,  the  ck)tli  (previously  wetted)  is  put 
into  the  dyeing  liquor  and  turned  through 
j  it  by  a  winch  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  the 
I  liquor  being  kept  boiling  the  whole  time. 
I  The  cloth  IS  then  taken  out  and  rinsed, 
I  and  is  found  to  have  acqtiired  by  this  first 


DYE 


DYE 


operation  a  full  flesh  colour.  Tlie  boiler 
is  emptied,  and  again  filled  with  trcsli 
water,  and  when  nearly  boilinij,  from  live 
lo  six  pounds  of  powdered  cocltine&l  (ac- 
cording to  the  depth  of  colour  wanted) 
are  thrown  in  and  w-ell  stirred,  after 
which  about  10  pounds  more  of  the  solu- 
tion of  tin  are  added,  and  the  cloth  is  then 
put  in  and  stirred  through  tlie  boiling  li- 
quor at  first  bilskly,  afterwards  slowly, 
lor  half  an  hour.  It  is  then  washed  and 
dried  in  the  usual  manner-  'I'lie  average 
proportion  of  cochineal  to  dye  a  full  scar- 
let is  an  ounce  to  a  pound  of  the  cloth, 
and  hence  from  the  high  price  of  this  ar- 
ticle the  cochineal  dye  is  one  of  the  most 
(if  not  the  most)  expensive  of  all  the  pro- 
cesses in  the  whole  art  of  dyeing. 

This  dye  may  be  given  apparently,  with 
equal  effect,  by  a  single  jjrocess,  that  is, 
by  mixing  together  the  whole  quantity  of 
tartar,  solution  of  tin,  and  cocliineal  at 
once,  and  passing  the  cloth  through  the 
bath  for  a  sufficient  time;  for  the  affinity 
between  the  wool,  and  the  mordant,  and 
the  colouring  matter  is  so  strong,  that  this 
triple  union  takes  place  at  once,  and  with 
great  force.  Or,  the  wliole  of  the  tin  and 
tartar  may  be  used  in  the  first  operation, 
and  the  whole  of  the  cochineal  in  the  se- 
cond. 

It  may  also  be  observed,  tliat  a  great 
difference  is  found  in  the  res])cctive  pro- 
portions of  these  ingredients,  used  b ,  dif- 
ferent dyers.  ^ 

When  a  very  bright  flame-coloured 
scarlet  is  wanted,  a  little  yellow  fustic  is 
added  to  the  fii-st  bath,  or  else  some  tur- 
meric is  added  to  the  cochineal  in  the  se- 
cond. This  gives  both  a  yellow  ground, 
and  mixes  a  portion  of  yellow  wjlh  the 
scarlet.  These  additions  arc  discovered 
by  cutting  the  cloth  ;  lor,  iii  this  case,  the 
iimer  part  will  be  found  dyed  sim.ply  }  el- 
low  ;  the  reason  of  vvhicii  is,  that  in  the 
common  process,  the  c()chineal  does  not 
penetrate  the  inner  part  of  the  cloth,  so 
that  where  these  yellows  are  not  used,  this 
part  remains  white.  If  ihe  scarlet  has  too 
much  of  an  orange  tint,  this  is  corrected 
by  afterwards  boiling  the  cloth  In  hard 
water,  or  one  that  contains  any  earthy 
salt. 

It  is  on  accoimt  of  the  case  with  which 
almost  any  alkaline  or  eartliy  salt  coun- 
teracts the  yellow  part  of  all  these  co- 
lours, that  scarlet  cloth  is  always  changed 
more  or  less,  to  a  rose  or  crimson,  by  the 
process  of  fulling.  Hence  too,  the  scailet 
is  always  given  to  wool,  after  it  is  manu- 
factured, and  not  in  tlie  stale  of  yarn. 

After  the  full  scarlet  has  been  given  to 
the  clotli,  the  liquor  still  retains  part  of 
liie  cochineal,  with  a  large  poition  of  the 


mordant,  and  this  is  Used  for  the  lighter 
d)es  ;  or  with  the  addition  of  liistic,  mad- 
der, and  other  ingrtdieiUb,  it  is  employed 
for  a  vast  variety  of  mixed  or  degiaded 
reds,  orange,  &c.  jNluch  technical  skill 
seems  to  be  vequired,  to  make  the  uUiiost 
advantage  of  these  residues,  which  are 
still  very  valuable. 

It  does  not  exactly  appear  in  what  state 
of  oxygenation,  tiie  conmion  dyer's  solu- 
tion exists ;  butpiobably,  before  the  co- 
loiu'  is  co'npletelybrougiit  out,  the  metal 
is  oxygenated  in  the  highest  degree.  The 
mtric  acid  indeed,  when  used  alone,  if 
weak,  and  if  the  Solution  be  made  very 
slowly,  and  without  heat,  is  found  by 
Proust,  to  contain  the  sub-oxyd  of  tin,  or 
this  metal,  in  a  very  low  state  of  oxygena- 
tion ;  for,  it  is  only  in  this  state  that  it  re- 
mains soluble ;  and  wiien  more  highly 
oxygenated,  it  totally  se])arates  from  tlie 
acid  in  the  form  of  a  white  peifect  oxyd. 

But,  the  muriat  ot  tin  on  the  other 
haiiTd,  may  contain  either  the  perfect 
OX)  d  or  the  sub-oxyd ;  the  latter  is  the 
cuse  wlien  the  solution  is  recently  made, 
and  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  air,  from 
which  it  greedily  attracts  oxygen,  but  in 
this  case,  without  separating  from  its  acid 
solvent. 

The  muriat  of  tin,  loaded  with  metal, 
by  being  boiled  on  more  than  it  can  take 
lip,  if  cooled  to  the  freezing  point,  gives 
abundance  of  crystals,  which,  however, 
again  liquefy  at  a  summer  heat ;  and 
hence,  must  lie  kept  in  a  cool  place.  Mr. 
Haubsmun  dissolved  one  ounce  of  this  salt, 
recently  made  in  8  pints  of  water ;  to 
which  iic  added  with  constant  stirring,  an 
infusion  of  2  ounces  9f  cochineal,  in  8  pints 
of  water.  A  very  deep  violet  coloiu'ed 
precipitate  subsided,  (a  mixture  of  the 
sub-oxyd  of  tin  with  the  colouring  matter 
of  tlie  cochineal)  which,  however,  by  ex- 
posure to  air,  gradually  turned  to  a  fine 
carmine:  but  ke])t  close  in  a  bottle  no 
such  change  of  colour  took  place.  If  the 
solution  of  tin  is  exposed  to  air  before 
mixture  with  the  cocliineal,  the  precipi- 
tate becomes  carmine  much  more  speedi- 
Iv,  as  it  already  contains  nearly  oxygen 
sufficient  for  this  ])urpose.  'I'lic  cai'uiine- 
coloured  oxyd  turns  somewiiat  crimson, 
by  theaddiiiuii  oiainmonia,  but  returns  to 
carniiiie  when  this  alkali  is  again  evaporat- 
ed. > 

Jf  a  carbonated  alkali  is  added  to  >the 
muriated  sub-oxyd  of  tin,  a  carbonated 
sub-oxyd  is  separated,  wliich  is  very 
gi  eedy  ofoxygen,  but  il'added  imniud  late- 
ly to  dilute  nitrous,  or  dilute  su'phuiic,  or 
acetic  acid,  dissolves  thereiv  v.i>h  ease, 
and  produces  a  nitrated,  stiiphaled,  or 
acctiled  sub-oxyd  of  tin.  The  nitrated  sub- 


DYE 


DYE 


oxyd  however,  shews  different  properties 
from  the  common  dyer's  solution,  produ- 
cing- only  a  violet,  or  dull  crimson,  with 
cochmeal,  which  afterwards  heightens  in 
colour  by  exposure  to  air 

An  acetited  sub-os}d  of  tin  is  also 
formed,  as  Mr  Haussman  has  also  observ- 
ed, by  adding  equal  parts  of  crystallized 
muriat  of  tin,  and  acetited  lead,  with  suf- 
ficient water,  and  decanting'  the  clear  li- 
quor from  the  muriat  of  lead,  formed  by 
double  affinity  This  liquor  to  reiain  its 
sta.e  of  sub-oxyg-enation,  should  be  kept 
in  a  close-stopped  vessel,  and  wlien  mix- 
ed with  cochineal,  gives  also  a  deep  violet 
precipitate,  which  requires  an  exposure  of 
some  weeks  before  it  entirely  changes  to 
red  or  carmine. 

Mr.  Haussman  proposes  the  acetite  of 
tin,  as  a  mordant  in  topical  dyeing,  eitlier 
to  calico  or  any  other  substance,  and  with 
any  suitable  dyeing  drug.  As  the  acetites 
are  much  better  mordants  for  printing, 
than  the  salts,  with  the  three  mineral 
acid.s,  the  acetite  of  tin,  may,  perhaps,  be 
of  use,  in  this  species  of  dyeing;  but, 
when  prepared  with  acetited  lead,  there  is 
always  a  danger  of  some  lead  being  mix- 
ed with  the  solution  of  tin,  which  may 
materially  and  unexpectedly  alter  andde- 
gi'ade  the  colours. 

Crimson  is  given  to  cloth  in  two  ways, 
either  directly,  or  by  changi.ig  the  scarlet 
dyed  in  tlie  manner  already  described. 
All  earthy  salts,  and  especially  alum,  will 
change  the  cochineal  scarlet  into  crim- 
son, when  boiled  with  it  for  an  hour  or 
more.  Very  h:ird  water  will  produce  the 
same  effect  witliout  any  addition.  Hellot 
fiund  that  muriat  of  ammonia,  with  a  lit- 
tle potash,  gives  almost  immediately  a 
beautiful  rose  colour  to  scarlet. 

To  dye  cloth  directly  of  a  full  crimson, 
the  same  materials  are  used  as  fo**  scarlet, 
but  less  of  the  tin  solution  is  employed, 
and  alum  is  added  to  the  bath.  They  are 
sometimes  finished  with  litmus  and'  pot- 
ash, which  add  much  to  the  lustre  and 
deptli  of  colour,  but  this  finish  is  only  su- 
perficial and  extremely  fugitive. 

Syk  is  dyed  crimson  in  the  following 
way.  It  is  first  prepared  by  boiling  with 
soap  as  usual,  but  not  so  compleatlv,  as  it 
is  ratlier  of  service  to  leave  a  sliade"  of  the 
natural  yellow,  which  it  is  the  object  of 
the  soaping  to  destroy.  It  is  then  alumed 
very  strongly,  and  for  a  considerable  time. 
The  dyeing  balli  is  made  with  the  usual 
materials  for  scarlet,  that  is,  solution  of 
tin,  tartar,  and  cochineal;  but  it  is  also 
found  expedient  first,  to  add  some  galls, 
to  give  a  basis  to  the  silk,  tr)  receive  the 
cochineal  dye.     The  particular  manage- 


ment in  the  cochineal  bath,  need  not  be 
described. 

Ihe  crimson  is  often  slightly  browned 
by  passing  the  dyed  siik  through  a  weak 
bath  of  sulphat  of  iron.  If  an  approach  to 
flame  colour  is  wanted,  the  silk  is  finished 
with  fustic. 

It  is  impossible  to  dye  silk  scarlet  by  the 
same  metnod  as  that  employed  for  wool- 
len cloth  ;  for,  instead  of  this  fine  colour, 
the  silk  ti-eated  in  ibis  way  would  lose  its 
lustre,  and  only  take  a  very  faint  d}e.  It 
appears  still  to  be  a  point  hardly  attained, 
though  ver\  desirable,  to  give  to  silk  a 
full  durable  scarlet,  equal  to  that  on  wool- 
len. 

Cochineal  is  very  seldom  used  to  cot- 
ton or  linen,  as  no  method  is  yet  known 
(except  as  a  lucrative  secret  to  one  or 
two  individuals)  of  giving  a  good  cochi- 
neal scarlet  to  these  substances  ;  and,  in 
general,  the  eifectof  this  dye  on  linen  and 
cotton,  is  not  so  much  superior  to  the 
cheaper  madder  and  other  colours,  as  to 
be  at  all  adequate  to  the  cost  ot  cochineal. 

Of  litiis  from.  Kermes,  Coccus  Poloni- 
cus,  and  Gum-Lac. 

These  three  substances  all  give  differ- 
ent  shades  of  redj  of  at  least  as  much  du- 
rabiuty  as  those  of  cochineal,  but  much 
less  brilliance ;  and  they  are  so  totally  dis- 
used in  tliis  country,  and  nearly  so  in 
Europe,  that  a  very  shert  notice  wiU  suf- 
fice. 

The  Kennes,  C  Coccus  IlicisJ  is  a  small 
insect  found  in  many  parts  of  Asia  and 
southern  Europe. 

It  gives  a  high  red  both  to  water  and 
alcohol. 

Wool,  intended  to  be  dyed  with  it,  is 
first  boUed  in  bran  water,  then  alumed 
with  alum  and  tartar,  to  which  sour  starch 
liquor  is  often  added.  In  the  dyeing  pro- 
cess, nearly  equal  parts  ot  kermes  with 
the  cloth  are  required,  whereas  cochineal 
need  not  be  more  than  about  one-sixteenth 
of  the  wool.  The  dyed  cloth  may  be  finish- 
ed with  soap  water,  which  gives  a  crim- 
son cast. 

The  dye  of  kermes  is  so  durable,  that 
tapestry  200  years  old,  was  observed  by 
Hellot,  to  have  lost  nothing  rf  its  depth  of 
colour,  durinaso  long  an  exposure  to  sun 
and  ;dr.  The  kermes  scarlet  was  an- 
ciently called  in  France  Eccrlate  de  Graine 
(or  sometimes  Venice  Scarlet.)  It  niaj'  be 
prepared  in  the  same  way,  generally,  as 
the  cochineal  scarlet 

The  kermes  red  is  much  less  lively  than 
that  of  cochineal,  and  tends  more  to  the 
colour  of  blood.  It  has  tlie  great  advan- 
tage however,  of  resisting  soap  and  other 
substances  very  well,  so  that  grease  spots 


DYE 


DYE 


may  be  got  out  of  kermcs-rlyed  cloth, 
without  any  detriment.  On  tlie  whole,  it 
seems  very  worthy  to  be  retained.  Silk 
has  never  yet  been  made,  to  take  more 
from  it  than  a  rusty  red. 

The  Coccus  Polonicns  is  a  small  round 
insect,  found  adhering  to  the  roots  of  a 
species  of  the  polygonum.  It  is  not 
known  to  be  employed  in  Hie  dye-l)oiises 
in  England,  but  is  used  in  I'oiand  and 
countries  where  it  is  indigenous,  and  also 
in  Turkey. 

Lac  or  Gum  Lac  (which  see)  is  a  gum- 
my-resinous substance  somewhat  resem- 
bling bees-wax,  occasionally  used  in  dye- 
ing, though  rarely,  if  ever,  in  this  coun- 
try. A  part  only  of  the  colouring  matter 
is  soluble  in  water,  and  it  gives  a  dull  red 
but  very  durable  dye,  which  has,  been 
used  with  advantage  mixed  with  cochi- 
neal. 

Of  Reds  and  Violets  from,  other  sub- 
stances— Many  of  the  lichens  are  capable 
of  giving  different  shades  of  purple,  red, 
violet  and  the  like,  and  these  colours  are 
so  far  substantive  that  no  mordant  will 
sensibly  encrease  their  durability,  but 
they  are  all  moi-e  or  less  fugitive,  and  can 
only  be  used  with  propriety  to  give  a 
gloss  or  finish  to  articles  already  dyed. 
The  substance  called  turnsole,  archil,  or 
litmus,  is  the  best  known  of  all  the  li- 
chens, and  is  used  pretty  largely,  especi- 
ally in  silk -dyeing.  (See  the  articles  JJ- 
chcn  and  Litmus.) 

Carthamus  or  SaffioiMer,  is  another  beati- 
tlful  and  delicate  red,  verging  towards 
orange,  sometimes  used  in  dyeing,  but  is 
fugitive.  It  is  the  colouring  material  of 
the  rouge  used  as  a  cosmetic 

Brazil  Wood  or  Fernmnbnuc  is  an  arti- 
cle of  much  more  importance  thar;  any  of 
the  preceding,  and  is  employed  vcrj- 
largely  in  dyeing.  The  natm-al  colour  of 
this  wood  is  of  a  purple-red,,  and  by  dif- 
ferent mordants  it  may  be  made  to  as- 
sume most  of  the  shades  of  colour  con- 
nected with  red. 

The  great  inconvenience  attending  tlie 
use  of  iirazil  wood  is  its  fugiuve  nature, 
and  no  method  seems  yet  to  be  found 
which  will  prevent  its  loss  of  colour  by 
considerable  exposure  to  air,  and  its  <le- 

gradation  by  soap  and  alkalies.  Hence 
le  Brazil  wood  colours  are  sometimes 
calledyrt/.fe  dyes,  being  mucli  inferior  in 
durability  to  the  true  d}es  given  by  cochi- 
neal or  madder.  The  coloin-  of  Brazil 
wood  reffuire  a  mordant,  wliicii  is  iisnaUy 
alum  with  a  small  quantit}-  of  tartai'. 
This  both  gives  a  certain  durability  to 
the  dye  and  turns  the  natural  pur])!c  to  a 
clear  red.  Too  much  taitur  gives  a  5*el- 
low  tinge.     It  rcquiics  long  boiling  to  ex- 


haust this  wood  of  its  colouring  matter. 
Nitro-muriat  of  tin  is  also  an  useful  mor- 
dant, and  gives  much  brilliance  to  the 
colour. 

Silk  is  dyed  crimson  with  this  wood, 
and  the  colour  is  nearly  as  beautiful  as 
the  cochineal  crimson,  though  much  less 
diu-able.  The  ^silk  is  first  prepared  with 
white  soa]i,  then  alumed,  and  then  jjassed 
through  a  stiong  decoction  of  the  wood. 
Wlien  the  shade  is  too  red  it  is  brought 
to  a  crimson  by  finishing  with  a  weak  al- 
kaline bath.  Vvhen  a  very  deep  crimson 
is  wanted,  logwood  decoction  is  mixed 
with  that  of  the  Brazil  wood.  Silk  will 
not  admit  of  the  tin  mordant  with  this 
wood  any  more  than  with  cochineal;  ow- 
ing, as  appears,  to  the  too  rapid  precipi- 
tation of  the  colouring  particles  before 
they  can  properly  fix  themselves  to  the 
fibres  of  the  silk. 

Cotton  takes  the  Braxil  wood  colour 
with  difficulty,  and  this  is  always  liable 
to  be  changed  by  soap. 

The  most  permanent  Brazil  wood  co- 
lours are  those  in  which  the  natural  pur- 
ple-red is  changed  to  orange  or  yellow  by 
acids,  but  it  is  chiefly  for  the  red,  crin;- 
son,  antl  purple  hues  that  this  dye  would 
be  the  most  valuable,  if  any  means  could 
be  found  to  render  them  permanent. 

Logwood,  or  Camfieuchy  Wood  is,  like 
the  former,  a  very  hard  heavy  wood  of  a 
deep  red  or  orange  red  coloiu*.  and  large- 
ly employed  in  dyeing.  The  chemical 
propeities  of  logwood  will  be  described 
under  that  article. 

The  colour  of  logwood  is  extracted  by 
boiling  with  water,  and  it  then  forms  a 
deep  violet  red  or  jjurjjle  decoction,  like 
Brazil  wood  made  yellow  by  acids  and 
dce])ehed  by  alkalies.  The  colour  of  log- 
wood is  n)ore  violet  than  Biazil  wood, and 
it  also  contains  mucli  more  gallic  acid, 
and  hence  its  use  with  iron  liquor  in  all 
black  dyes,  as  has  already  been  men- 
tioned.- The  red  or  pur])le  of  logwood  is 
not  permanent,  but  with  alum  and  tartar 
it  g-ives  a  fine  deep  violet,  and  is  often 
used  for  this  purpose.  A  fine  bhie  is  also 
given  by  dissolving  verdigris  in  the^de- 
coclion  of  this  wood. 

Silk  is  dyed  violet  by  logwood  on  an 
alum  mordant. 

Of  Fav.'n,  Jiuff  or  J^'ankeen  Colour. — 
Almost  all  vegetables  contain  in  the  bark 
or  cortical  -part  a  colouring  matter  of  a 
siiade  approaching  either  to  brown  or 
vellou-  with  more  or  less  of  red,  which  has 
a  certain  and  oficn  a  vciT  strong  affinity 
wi'.li  liie  fibres  of  wool,  linen  and  cotton, 
.Did  may  even  frequently  be  fixed  ))ern)a- 
nently  in  these  substances  without  any 
mordant.     A  great  portion  of  this  colour- 


DYE 


DYE 


ing'  matter  is  pure  tannin,  the  colour  of 
which  is  natural!}'  of  a  lig-ht  dun  yellow. 
It  is  also  often  mixed  witli  gallic  acid,  and 
hence  tliese  substances  ma}'  be  made  to 
produce  an  infinite  variety  of  shades  com- 
posed of  brown-yellow,  and  black,  in  dif- 
ferent proportions,  by  the  use  of  an  iron 
mordant.  Of  these  the  conmionest  are 
walnut  iiusks  and  sumach. 

The  outer  bitter  husk  of  tlie  Malnut  is 
well  known  to  be  green  at  first,  but  by 
exposure  to  air' it  turns  of  a  deep  brown- 
ish-black, so  as  to  give  the  fingers  a  very 
durable  brown  stain.  The  decoction  of 
this  substance  slowly  evaporated  forms 
successively  a  number  of  pellicles  at  the 
surface,  which  when  well  washed  are 
nearly  black,  and  in  which  nearly  the 
same  cliange  seems  to  have  taken  place 
speedily,  as  occurs  by  long  exposure  in  a 
iioderatc  temperatm-e.  Alkalies  do  not 
sensibly  alter  the  colour  of  tlie  decoction, 
but  acids  brighten  it  and  give  a  decided 
yellow  cast.  ,Aium  gives  a  very  small 
ikwn  coloured  precipitate  ;  sulphat  of  iron 
turns  it  black,  and  even  oxyd  of  iron  boil- 
ed in  the  decoction' is  dissolved  therein 
and  forms  a  black  ink. 

The  root  and  bark  of  the  walnut-tree 
give  a  decoction  much  resembling  the 
fruit-husk. 

The  colouring  part  of  this  substance 
has  a  strong  affinity  to  wool,  uniting  with 
it  nearly  as  strongly  without,  as  with  mor- 
dants, and  giving  it  a  very  fast  bull'  or 
fawn  colour ;  but  alum  encreases  the  den- 
sity of  the  dye  and  makes  it  somewhat 
lighter  in  colour. 

Walnut  husk  forms  an  excellent  dye 
for  wool,  both  by  itself  and  as  a  basis  for 
other  colours.  The  husks  will  keep  for 
more  than  a  year  in  tubs  covered  with 
A\ater. 

Sumach  is  a  very  extensively  useful  ar- 
ticle of  dyeing,  both  for  all  the  fawn  and 
butf  colours,  and  witii  an  u*on  mordant, 
for  various  shades  of  grey  to  blaclc.  It 
requires  a  mordant  to  fix  it  on  stuffs,  but 
then  is  very  durable.  With  alum  it  gives 
a  greenish  yellow,  with  a  mixture  of  ace- 
tite  of  alumine  and  iron  liquors  it  gives  a 
grey,  and  with  iron  liquor  alone,  a  black. 

A  good  bright,  and  durable  nankeen 
colour  is  given  to  cotton  by  ii'on  liquor, 
the  cotton,  being  previously  prepared 
with  dung  and  alkali,  nearly  as  in  the 
first  part  of  the  Turkey  process.  This 
method  of  nankeen  dyeing,  as  given  by 
Mr.  Brewer,  consists  of  eight  operations, 
the  first,  second  and  third  of  which 
are  to  give  the  cotton  yarn  a  preparation 
in  a  batii  of  sheep's  dung  and  soap  ;  the 
fourUi  a  bath  of  pearl  ash  ;  the  fifth  is  the 
dyeing  with  iron  liquor ;  the  si^th  apearl- 
VOL.    I. 


ash  bath  ;  the  seventh  a  souring  with  di- 
lute sulphuric  acid,  and  tile  eighth,  a  fi- 
nish witli  soap.  The  iron  liquoi  is  chiefly 
the  aceto-tartrite,  or  that  which  the  cali- 
co-printer^ mostly  prepare  by  dissolving 
iron  in  an  acid  made  of  any  termented 
materials,  or  of  pyroligneous  acid,  or  al- 
der bark  and  buds,  or  many  other  vegeta- 
ble matters,  that  either  contain  a  naked 
vegetable  acid,  or  are  able  to  produce  one 
by  fermentation.  The  cotton  is  first  soak- 
ed in  this  acid  iron-Uquor,  after  which  it 
is  su]5ersaturated  with  pearlash,  so  that 
probably  a  solution  of  oxyd  of  iron  in  car- 
l)onated  alkah  is  formed,  whicli  finishes 
the  d}"e,  and  gives  it  durability.  The  use 
of  the  sulphuric  acid  is  to  dissolve  out 
all  the  iron  that  only  loosely  adiieres  to 
the  stuff,  whici:  being  chiefly  the  red  oxyd, 
the  colour  becomes  clearer,  and  brighter, 
by  the  loSs. 

Qf  Greeti.  Though  nature  abounds 
witli  this  colour,  it  is  rather  singular,  that 
no  vegetable  has  yet  been  discovered  ca- 
pable of  giving  to  cloth  of  any  kind,  a 
green  of  an}'  tolerable  permanence-  This 
dye  is  therefore  always  a  compound  co- 
lour formed  in  dye-vats,  either  by  putting 
a  yellow  on  a  blue  ground,  (which  is  the 
commonest)  or  a  blue  on  the  yellow 
ground,  or  by  first  mixing  the  blue  and 
yellow  materials,  and  dyeing  with  these, 
as  w  ilh  a  simple  colour. 

Much  nicety  in  the  practical  part  of 
dyeing,  is  shewn  in  the  proper  raising 
and  fixbig  of  this  colour,  and  many  pro- 
cesses of  pai-ticular  excellence  are  care- 
fully confined  within  the  walls  of  differ- 
ent manufactories.  The  general  methods 
however  are  simple,  and  well  known. 

Thecommon  and  most  permanent  green 
on  woollen  cloth,  is  given  in  the  fi)llc)wing 
way.  The  cloth,  previously  dyed  blue, 
in  the  indigo  vat,  (with  mere  or  less  body 
of  colour,  according  to  the  body  of  green 
required,)  is  first  scoiu-ed,  then  dyed  in  a 
bath  of  weld,  or  any  other  yellow  dye, 
with  alum  and  tartar,  almost  exactly  in 
the  way  followed  for  the  simple  yellows, 
but  with  a  greater  quantity  of  the  yellow 
materials,  than  would  be  required  for  the 
yellow  alone  of  equal  body-.  Very  deep 
greens  have  sometimes  a  slight  brown,  or 
kind  of  burnish  given  to  them  by  adding 
to  the  bath  a  small  quantity  of  log^vood 
and  sulpliat  of  iron.  J'or  silk  the  process 
is  reversed,  being  first  strongly  alunied, 
then  dyed  yellow  with  weld,  and  after- 
wards finished  in  the  indigo  vat.  It  is 
much  more  difficult  to  fix  the  colour  even- 
ly on  silk  than  on  wool,  for  the  silk  when 
strongly  alumed,  takes  the  dye  so  rapidly 
that  it  is  apt  without  great  care,  to  become 
\va\7  or  spotted. 


DYE 


DYE 


Another  kind  of  g^rcen  dye,  more  bi  iijht 
and  beautiful  than  the  last,  but  not  quite 
so  permanent,  is  the  Saxon  Green,  so  call- 
ed, fiom  the  blue  part  being  g-iven  by  the 
Sax<in  blue,  or  sulphat  of  inditjo.  This 
coloui-  may  be  dyed  by  first  givin^j  a 
gTovuid  of  Saxon  blue,  then  aluming,  and 
then  passing-  the  cloth  throiigli  a  yellow- 
bath.  Fustic  is  commonly  preiened  as  the 
yellow  material,as  being  less  altered  by  the 
adhering  acid  ol  the  sulphat  of  indigo, 
than  weld  or  the  other  yellows.  To  correct 
the  effect  of  this  acid,  and  enable  quer- 
citron to  equal  the  fustic  in  this  respect, 
(whilst  its  natural  colour  much  excels  it,) 
Dr.  Bancroft  advises,. after  the  cloth  has 
received  the  blue,  to  mix  chalk  with  the 
alu-.n  mordant,  to  neutralize  the  adhering 
acid,  before  the  yellow  is  t^iven. 

TUe  Saxon  green  may  also  be  given  in 
a  single  bath :  for  which  purpos#the  cloth 
is  first  alunied  and  well  rinced ;  then  a 
strong  decoctionoffustic  is  made,t»which, 
when  cooled  to  a  blood  heat,  is  added 
the  sulphat  of  indigo,  and  the  cioth  dyed 
therein,  with  the  usual  precautions.  Beau- 
tiful Saxon  gi-eens  may  be  dyed  in  a  slill 
more  expeditious  way,  according  to  Dr. 
Bancroft,  by  using  the  compound  alum 
and  un  mordant.  The  process  he  advi- 
ses, is  the  following.  Put  into  the  boiler 
6  or  8  lbs.  of  quercitron  bark  to  every 
lOOlbs.  of  cloth,  boil  with  sufficient  water, 
then  add  6  lbs.  of  the  viurio-sulphat  of  tin 
(in  preference  to  the  niiro-nun-iat,)  and 
4  lbs.  of  alum :  when  tliese  have  boiled 
five  or  SIX  minutes,  lowe"  the  heat  wi!,h 
cold  water  to  blood  warm,  after  which 
add  as  much  sulphat  of  indigo,  as  may 
be  thought  necessary,  for  the  intended 
depth  of  colour,  ^nd  then  dye  the  cloth 
in  this  bath  witli  proper  care. 

Silk,  cotton  and  linen,  are  dyed  green, 
in  the  same  gericral  way,  but  with  consi- 
derable variation  in  the  detail  of  the  dif- 
ferent processes,  and  the  same  diiticul- 
ties,  that  attend  the  fixing-  a  single  colour 
on  these  substances,  apjjly  to  the  com- 
pound colour. 

The  most  beautiful  green  hitherto 
known,  and  one  that  resists  the  action  of 
light  and  air,-  perfectly  well,  is  given  by 
the  combination  of  Prussian  blue  and  yel- 
low ;  but  like  the  simple  blue  from  this 
colouring  matter  it  is  destroyed  by  soap 
and  alkalies.  It  is  given  to  cotton  by  first 
dyeing  it  olive  with  weld,  or  any  other 
yellow  dye,  and  a  compour.d  mordant  of 
alum  and  iron,  and  then  raising  the  green 
by  prussiat  of  potasli,  in  tlie  manner  de- 
scribed under  the  I'rnssian  blue  coloni-s. 
In  this  process,  as  Bertiiollet  observes, 
lliere  seems  to  be  a  mutual  distribution 


of  the  mordants  and  colours,  the  Prussian 
colour  taking  the  iron,  and  becoming  blue, 
whilst  the  alum  and  weld,  remaining  in 
the  olive,  form  a  fast  yellow,  and  unite 
with  the  blue  iiuo  a  fine  green. 

The  only  simple  gieen commonly  used, 
is  that  of  the  carbonated  oxyd  of  copper, 
precipitated  from  verdigris  by  an  alkali. 
A  solution  of  verdigris  is  made  in  vinegar, 
and, a  few  hours  before  djeing,  a  solution 
of  as  much  pearl-ash  as  verdigris  is  added 
to  It,  the  mixture  is  heated,  and  the  cot- 
ton jJieviously  ahimed,  is  passed  through 
this  bath.  The  colour  thus  given  is  a 
soft  apple-green. 

Of  other  C'ovipound  Colours.  By  the 
mixture  of  red  and  blue  in  different  pro- 
portions, violets,  purples,  lilacs,  and  vast 
numbers  of  other  agreeable  dyes  are  form- 
ed, but  of  which  it  would  be  tedious  to 
attempt  an  imperfect  detail.  In  like  man- 
ner the  coquelicots,  brick-colotus,  ches- 
nuts,  cinnamons.  Sec.  are  formed  from  the 
intermixture  of  red  and  yellow.  It  may 
be  added,  that  in  cotton  dyeing,  advan- 
tage has  been  taken  by  Chaptal,  of  the 
difficulty,  with  which  cotton  strongly  alu- 
med  and  oiled  (as  for  the  Turkey  red,) 
imbibes  watery  liquids,  to  give  a  singular 
variety  of  shade  in  the  same  piece,  ac- 
cording to  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
seen,  and  which  gives  the  effect  of  a  num- 
ber of  small  irregular  streaks  over  the 
surface-  If  cotton  previously  oiled,  alu- 
med  and  galled,  be  only  slightly  passed 
through  a  bath,  containing  sulphat  of  iron, 
the  nap  of  the  cloth  alone  becomes  en- 
tirely black,  and  the  thread  grey  :  if  this 
be  afierwards  maddered,  the  thread  be- 
comes red  and  the  nap  violet,  which  pro- 
duces an  agreeable  changeableness  ot  co- 
lour, as  seen  in  different  lights. 

Having  thus  given  a  general  view  of 
dyeing  operations,  with  the  kind,  use,  and 
api)iicution  of  mordants,  and  some  account 
of  na.tive  <lyes,  we  shall  conclude  by  ob- 
serving, that  more  extensive  information 
on  the  theory  and  practiceof  dyeing,  may 
be  found  in  the  works  of  Bertiiollet,  Ban- 
croft, and  llellot. 

Dyeing  oj  Hats.  Tlie  d)  eing  of  liats 
being  similar  to  the  tUeing  of  cloth  or 
Wf)ol,  for  inlbrmation  on  this  head,  we  re- 
fer the  reader  to  the  article  Dyeing. 

Djeing  of  Leather.  Leather  is  dyed  of 
various  colours,  for  tUfl'erent  purposes. 
The  colours  used  arc  those  already  men- 
tioned under  Dyeing. 

Dyeing,  or  stahiing  of  paper,  wood, 
bone,  marble,  &c.  is  formed  with  diffeient 
colouring  matters.  The  article  being  first 
prepared,  if  necessary,  is  either  immersed 
in  the  dye,  or  the  dye  applied,  as  circiuii- 


DYE 


DYE 


stances  require.  For  the  preparation  of 
the  colour,  see  Dyeixg.  The  following 
processes  for  staining  wood,  £cc.  may, 
however,  be  useful. 

To  stain  IFood  Fellow.  Take  any  wood, 
and  brush  it  over  several  times  wiih  the 
tincture  of  turmeric  root,  made  by  putting 
an  ounce  of  turmeric,  ground  to  powder, 
to  a  pint  of  spirit,  and  after  they  have 
stood  for  some  days,  straining  off"  the  tinc- 
ture. If  the  yellow  colour  be  desired  to 
have  a  reddish  cast,  a  little  dragon's 
blood  must  be  added. 

A  cheaper,  but  less  strong  and  bright 
yellow,  is  by  tiie  tincture  of  French  bea*- 
ries  made  boiling  hot. 

Wood  may  also  be  stained  yellow  by 
means  of  aqua  fortis,  which  will  some- 
times produce  a  very  beautiful  yellow 
colour, but  at  other  times  a  browner.  Caic 
must  be  taken,  however,  that  the  aqua 
fortis  be  not  too  strong,  otherwise  a  black- 
ish colour  wili  be  the  result. 

To  stain  Wood  Red.  For  a  bright  red 
stain  for  wood,  make  a  strong  infusion  of 
Brazil  wood  in  stale  urine,  or  water  im- 
pregnated with  pearl-xshes,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  an  ounce  to  a  gallon  ;  to  a  gal- 
lon of  either  of  which,  the  proportion  of 
Brazil  wood  must  be  a  pound;  which 
being  put  to  them,  they  must  stand  toge- 
ther for  two  or  three  days,  often  stirring 
the  mixture.  With  this  infusion  strained, 
and  made  boiling  hot,  brush  over  the 
wood,  to  be  stained,  till  it  appear  strong- 
ly coloured  ;  then,  while  yet  wet,  brush 
it  over  with  alum  water,  made  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  ounces  of  alum,  to  a  quart 
of  water. 

For  a  less  bright  red,  dissolve  an  ounce 
of  dragon's  blood  in  a  pint  of  spivits  of 
wine,  and  brush  over  the  wood  with  the 
tincture,  till  the  stain  appears  to  be  as 
strong  as  is  desired;  but  this  is,  in  fact, 
rather  lacquering  than  staining. 

For  a  pink  or  rose  red,  add  to  a  gallon 
of  the  above  infusion  of  Brazil  wood,  two 
additional  ounces  of  the  pearl-ashes,  and 
use  it  as  was  before  directed :  but  it  is 
necessary,  in  this  case,  to  brush  the  wood 
over  with  the  alum  water.  By  hicreas 
ing  the  proportion  of  pearl-ashes,  the  red 
may  be  rendered  yet  paler  ;  but  it  is  pro- 
per, when  more  than  this  quantity  is 
added,  to  make  the  alum  water  sti-onger. 

To  stain  Wood  Blue.  Wood  may  be 
stained  blue,  by  means  either  of  copper  or 
indigo. 

The  method  of  staining  blue  with  cop- 
per is  as  follows  :  Make  a  solution  of  cop- 
per in  aqua  fortis,  and  brush  it  while  hot 
several  times  over  the  wood  ;  then  make 
a  solution  of  pearl-ashes,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  ounces  to  a  pint  of  water,  anc^ 


brush  it  hot  over  the  wood,  stained  with 
the  solution  of  copper,  till  it  be  of  a  per- 
fectly blue  colour. 

To  stain  Wood  Green.  Dissolve  verdi- 
gris in  vinegar,  or  crystals  of  verdigris  in 
water,  and  with  the  hot  solution,  brush 
over  the  wood,  till  it  be  duly  stained. 

To  stain  Wood  Purple.  Brush  the  wood 
to  be  stained  several  times,  with  a  strong 
decoction  of  logwood  and  Brazil,  nude  in 
the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  the  log- 
wood, and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  the 
Biazil,  to  a  gallon  of  water,  and  b.iled 
for  an  hour  or  more.  When  the  wood  has 
been  brushed  over  till  there  be  a  suffici- 
ent body  of  colour,  let  it  dry,  and  then  be 
sUghtly  passed  over  by  a  solution  of  one 
drachm  of  pearl-ash  in  a  quart  of  water. 
This  solution  must  be  careflilly  used,  as 
it  will  gradually  change  the  colour  from 
a  brown  red,  which  it  will  be  origmally 
found  to  be,  to  a  dark  blue  purple,  and 
therefore  its.  effect  must  be  restrained  to 
tiie  due  point  for  producing  tlie  colour 
desired. 

To  stain  Wood  Mahogany  Colour.-— 
The  substances  used  for  staining  maho- 
gany colour  are  madder,  Brazil  wood, 
and  logwood ;  each  of  which  produce  red- 
dish brown  stains,  and  they  must  be  mix- 
ed together  in  such  proportions  as  will 
produce  the  tint  required. 

To  stain  Wood  Black.  Brush  the  wood 
several  times  over,  with  a  hot  decoction 
of  logwood.  Then  having  prepared  an 
Infusion  of  galls,  by  putting  a  quarter  of 
a  pound  of  powdered  galls  to  two  quarts 
of  water,  and  setting  them  in  the  sun- 
shine, or  in  any  other  gende  heat,  for  three 
or  four  days,  brush  the  wood  over  three 
or  four  times  with  it,  and  it  will  be  of  a 
beautlfid  black.  It  may  be  polished 
with  a  hard  brush,  and  shoemakers  black 
wax. 

The  following  observations  and  experi- 
ments  on  staining-  Wood,  by  Professor 
Beckmann,  may  prove  useful. 

The  oldest  inlaid  works  now  extant, 
are  preserveii  in  Italy ;  and  the  most  high- 
Iv  esteemed  of  these  are  those  made  by 
John,  of  Verona,  a  monk,  and  cotempora- 
ry  of  Raphael,  who  was  born  in  1470,  and 
died  in  1537.  He  was  invited  to  Rome, 
bvpope  Julius  II,  in  order  tliat  he  might 
add  to  the  splendour  and  magnificence  of 
the  Vatican ;  and  he  left  behind  liim  many 
specimens  of  his  art  at  Sienna,  Is'aples.^ 
and  other  Italian  cities.  The  works  of 
this  artist,  on  account  of  the  variety  and 
beautv  of  the  stained  pieces  of  wood  em- 
ployed in  them,  are  still  celebrated  among 
connoisseurs,  and  preferred  to  all  new 
works  of  the  like  kind.  It  is,  however,  to 
be  lamented,  that  the  processes  used  by 


DYE 


DYE 


/ 


.Tohn  of  Verona,  are  at  present  altogether 
unknown,  t])oi\}jh  the  wood  he  employed, 
was  chiefly  of  European  growth.  \'e- 
nee.'ed  or  inlaid  works  are  now  so  much 
in  vogue,  that  there  are  few  houses  in 
whici)  some  of  the  furniture  is  not  orn:i- 
mented  in  this  mannei' ;  and  th.e  sums  of 
money  expended  every  year  for  difi'erent 
kinds  of  foj-eign  wood,  necessary  to  sup- 
ply this  luxury,  is  very  considerable. 
These  woods  are  imi)ortcd  chieHy  from 
India,  by  the  English,  Dutch  and  French  ; 
and  some  of  tliem  are  of  more  value  than 
the  best  copper,  the  filings  of  which 
might  be  employed  to  muke  imitations  of 
them.  I'liat  narrow  district  alone  on  the 
Rhine,  between  Darmstadt  and  Heidel- 
berg, receives  annually,  f(;r  Malnut  tree 
wood,  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  florins. 
Since  mahogany  furniture,  however,  be- 
gan to  be  used,  our  cabinet  makers  have 
made  scarcely  any  thing  else  than  com- 
mon works,  because  we  ai'e  accustomed  to 
purchase  from  the  EljigUshySaj  s  the  profes- 
sor, not  only  the  materials,  but  also  the 
works  themselves  ;  so  that  the  time  may 
come,  when  no  workmen  of  this  kind  will 
be  f  lund  in  Germany  :  on  that  account,  it 
is  Veil  worth  the  trouble  to  make  experi- 
ments on  the  staining  of  wood,  in  order  lo 
render  tlirm  equal,  if  not  to  all  foreign 
woods,  at  le.'ist  to  some  of  them,  since 
many  things  can  be  coloured  in  that  man. 
uer,  which  are  haider  and  jnore  compact 
than  wood.  Tiie  labours  of  Uufay  in  this 
respect,  arc  well  known  ;  and  it  appears  by 
some  pajiers  of  his  among  the  .Memoirs  of 
the  \cademy  of  Sciences,  that  rock  crys- 
tal, when  exposed  to  the  vapour  of  arse- 
nic and  antimony,  assumes  a  red  colour. 
Count  dt  Horch's  description  of  tlic  me- 
thod of  stai'iing  marble  in  Italy,  may  also 
be  rnenlioKL  J ;  mul  tiie  process  by  means 
of  the  smoak  of  oak  chips,  whicji  is  em- 
ployed by  the  Dutch  for  colouring  their 
tiles  and  earthen  ware  Canes  are  prepur- 
ed  f  r  use  in  India,  by  dipping  them  in 
quicklime.  That  haid  ?omp';ict  w(iod 
brouj^ht  from  America,  aiul  paiticularly 
Guiana  ;  which,  on  account  of  its  variegat- 
ed and  spotted  appearance,  is  called  hois 
de  Inures  ;  and  wiiich  Aublet,  vdio  gives 
it  the  name  of  Piratinera  Gui^mensis 
much  admired,  has  its  whole  surface 
stained  by  the  Ir.dians,  with  the  blackest 
and  most  durable  colours.  As  the  ai"  of 
staining  wood,  seems  at  present,  to  be 
nearly  lost,  the  following  experiments  may 
be  of  some  utility  to  artists  : 

1.  JHy  jykans  of  Oils  ■ntd  ^9cids. — Expe- 
riment 1  — A  square  jiiece  of  plane-tree 
wood,  a  hue  in  thickness,  was  put  into 
pounded  dragon's  blood  from  the  Cana- 
ries, mixed  witll  oil  of    turpentine,  and 


placed  over  the  fire  in  a  glass  vcssc-l.  Tbs 
«  ood  slowly  assumed  the  colour,  even  be- 
fore the  spirit  was  volatilised.  After 
more  than  an  hour,  the  vessel  \v  as  taken 
from  the  fire,  and  suffered  to  stand  the 
whole  night,  when  the  wood  a])peared  ot 
a  maiiogany  colour,  not  merely  on  the 
surface,  but  also  in  the  interior  parts, 
1  he  denser  fibres  were  somewhat  less 
coloured,  but  this,  instead  of  uijuring  the 
beauty  of  the  wood,  rather  added  to  it. 
The  red  dye  can  be  made  strc^nger  or 
weaker,  by  taking  a  greater  or  less  quan- 
tity of  dragon's  blood,  and  by  a  greater 
or  less  degree  of  digestion  and  boiling. 
The  wood  of  the  plane-tree  was  chosen 
for  this  purpose,  because  it  can  be  easily 
sawn  and  polished;  because  it  has  a  white 
colour;  is  neither  too  hard,  nor  too  soft ; 
becai'ise  it  neither  contracts,  nor  warps  ; 
has  beautiful  white  spots,  witli  veins,  that 
cross  each  other  ;  and  because  artists  who 
make  inlaid  work,  have  long  attempted  to 
colour  it  by  staining.  The  wood,  when 
stained,  can  very  easily  be  freed  from  the 
dragon's  blood  adhering  to  it,  by  means 
of  rectified  spirit  of  wine.  The  spirit  of 
turpentine  makes  the  wood  more  com- 
pact, ar.d  renders  it  more  susceptible  of  a 
fine  polish.  • 

2.  Gamboge,  dissolved  in  spirit  of  tur- 
pentine, gave  to  the  whole  surface  of  a 
small  piece  of  wood,  a  most  beautiful  shin- 
ing, golden  yellow  colour.  The  fibres  and 
veins,  on  thq  other  hand,  had  assumed  a 
colour,  inclining  a  little  to  red.  A  ])iece 
of  the  wood  of  the  pear  tree,  assumed  a 
darker  colour,  somewhat  aj)proaching  to 
green,  and  which,  in  part,  was  nearly  an 
olive  colour.  Different  colours. may  there- 
fore be  obtained  by  empUi}  ing  different 
kinds  of  wood. 

3.  One  part  of  dragon's  blood,  two 
parts  of  gamboge,  with  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine, gave  to  the  wood  of  the  plajie  tree, 
or  beech,  according  to  the  mixtuje  of  the 
colours  and  the  nature  of  the  wood,  a  re- 
markable variation  of  dyes.  A  Lit  of 
beech  wood  seemed  alwa\  s  to  assume  a 
blackish  yellow  colour ;  and  was  tho- 
rougiily  stahied,  when  moderate  heat  was 
kept  up  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time. 

4  Distilled  verdigris,  (crystallized  ace- 
tite  of  cojjper)  could  not  easily  be  used  in 
the  above  manner,  as  its  colour  is  too 
much  changed  by  oil  and  fire,  as  is  known 
to  those  who  employ  it  iis  a  pigment. 
The  olive  colour  also,  does  not  penetrate 
to  the  interior  part  of  the  wood. 

2.  Jiy  oneans  of  Spirit  of  ]Viiie. — Expc- 
rlnieiiL  1. — When  dragon's  blood  and 
gamboge  were  nterely  dissolved  in  siiiit 
of  wine,  the  extract  was  not  sufficiently 
strong,  and  the  dye  was  of  no  use.    The 


DYE  DYE 

process,  however,  succeeds  when  the  spi-  This  process  may  be  readily  employed  by 
lit  of"  wiiie  has  been  long  boiled,  over  a  I  ai-tists,  as  it  is  easy,  and  does  not  require 
slow    fire,   till   it   is  almost    evaporated,  j  much  expense. 

The  piece  of  wood  appears  then  of  a  dark  ;  5.  Another  black  dye  for  staining  wood, 
I'ed  colour,  which  is  improved  if  the  wood  ;  which  succeeds  extremely  well,  and  may 
be  washed  in  piu'e  spirit  of  wine-  But  the  !  lead  to  other  useful  experiments,  is  that 
colour  is  never  so  bright  as  that  produced  i  formed  with  lj\er  of  sulphur,  (sulphuret 
by  means  of  an  oil.  of  potash)  and  metallic  solutions.    As  the 

2.  (iaraboge  with  spirit  of  wine  gave  to  |  sulphurized  hydrogen  gas  is  so  subtle 
wood  in  this  manner  a  yellow,  and  gam-  i  that  it  penetrates  tiie  closest  bodies,  it 
boge  and  dragon's  blood  a  yellowish  red  |  might  leadily  be  conjectured  that  it  would 
colour.  I  easily  give  a  bluck  colour  to  wood,  if  the 

3.  Experhnent  v:ith  Wax. — Whitewood  I  latter  could  any  how  be  made  to  imbibe 
boiled  in  spirit  of  wine,  to  which,  v.  hen  it  \  it  with  a  metallic  solution.  Pieces  of  dif- 
began  to  boil,  wax  was  added,  could  iiot ;  ferent  kinds  oi  wood  were  placed,  for  se- 
be  made  to  assume  the  green  or  tl»e  red  |  veral  da}  s  successively,  in  a  solution  of 
d\e,  even  in  its  small  cross  veins,  which  |  acetite  of  lead,  and  a  solution  of  silver, 
were  exceedir.gly  porous.  j  copper,   iron,    and   otlier   metals ;     after 

4.  Experivunts  vjith  dissolved  Salts  and \  v.hich  a  solution  of  arsenical  liver  of  sul- 
^letals — The  following  experiments  with  I  pl-ur  was  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
these  substances,  which  have  already  j  ner :  One  part  of  tlie  arsenical  liver  of 
been  described  by  Macquer,  seemed  to  I  sulphur  was  mixed  willi  two  parts  of 
be  most  successful.  j  clear   quicklime,   in   a  porcelain  vessel. 

Experiment  1. — A  solution  of  common  j  over  which  was  poured  six  or  eight  parts 
alum  (sulphate  of  alumine)  penetrates  j  of  boiling  water.  The  solution  was  then 
exceedingly  well  into  wood  which  has  •  poured  off,  and  the  wood  which  had  been 
been  digested  in  it ;  so  that  hopes  may  be  j  impregnated  with  the  above  metallic  so- 
entertained  ol'  something  being  effected  ■  lutions  being  placed  'a\  it  and  suffered  to 
by  it,  as  the  white  colou/  of  every  kirid  ot ;  remain  several  da}s,  tlie  vessel  being 
w  ood  becomes  whiter  by  solutions  of  sa-  j  closeh  shut,  it  assumed  a  black  colom*. 
line  substances  :  this  may  be  of  great  use  The  solution  of  acetite  of  lead  produced 
to  aitists.  "      I  the  greatest  eflect ;   tliat  of  silver  next, 

2.  Wood  soaked  in  a  solution  of  gold  j  and  those  of  the  otlier  metals  least  of  all. 
assumed  a  red  colour,  but  the  umer  pai't  ■  Spotted  wood,  and  particidarly  that  of  the 
was  only  of  a  yellowish  red.  |  plane,  beech,  and  pear  tree,  assimied  the 

J.  Distilled  verdigris  dissolved  in  vine- 1  best  coloiu'.  It  is  therefore  beyond  all 
gar  stained  wood  green,  but  the  colour  I  doubt  tliat  porous  wood,  sucu  as  that  of 
could  never  be  brouglit  to  a  grass  g!i.en.     the  lime,  the  elder,  &c.  could  be  stained 

4.  "Wood  which  has  lain  a  long  time  much  easier.  Though  the  arsenical  liver 
undej'  watei'  becomes  black,  as  experl-  of  sulphur  from  lime  may  appear  super- 
ence  slicw  s,  and  looks  as  if  charred  It  j  Suous,  as  the  common,  which  is  prepared 
however,  loses  none  cf  its  toughness  or  i  from  alkaline  salts  and  sulphur,,  can  pro- 
compactness  ;  and  many  trees  dug  up  in  |  d»ice  the  same  effect,  the  above  pix)cess 
Holiand  from  the  turf  earth  are  employed  ,  however  is  that  which  ought  to  be  reeom- 
thei-e  for  ship-building.  The  efti;ct  of' mended.  This  method  of  staining  may 
the  sulphuric  acid  on  wood  gave  occasion  ;  be  considered  as  the  best,  because  it  im- 
to  tlie  foilowhig  experiment  Pieces  of .  prcgnates  the  wood  with  metallic  paiticles, 
diiliri'cnc  kinds  of  wood,  of  considerable  '.  gives  it  a  hardness  susceptible  of  a  fine 
thickness,  were  placed  in  the  sulphurous  '  polish,  and  secures  it  from  worms.  The 
acid.  In  half  an  hour  the  whole  surface  vessel  employed  tor  this  purpose  must  be 
of  them  was  covered  with  a  yellowish  ;  either  of  porcelain,  stone  ware,  or  glass, 
scurf,  and  the  wood  itself  hud  the  appear-  j  We  shall  now  offer  some  remai-ks  on 
ance  of  being  charred.  Wh.cii  washed  in  |  the  staining  of  satin. 
water,  and  exposed  some  hours  to  the  j  This  is  an  art  wliich  many  of  the  fair 
open  air,  it  was  observed  that  the  black  i  sex  take  great  delight- in.  The  mode  of 
colour  had  penetrated  still  fiuthe]-,  that '  preparing  the  colours  is  similar  to  the 
the  interior  jiart  only  retained  the  natural "  former :  tl;e  following  processes,  however, 
colour,  and  that  the  wood  was  exceeding- ,  may  be  noticed. 

ly  close  and  com]»ct.  After  this  wood  j  For  lied. — I'ake  the  chips  of  the  best 
Had  been  several  times  rubbed  over  with  Brazil-wood,  and  infuse  them  in  good 
the  oil  or  spirit  of  turpcntijie,  it  becam.e  i  v.^ine  vinegar,  for  six  or  eigiU  liours  ;  then 
harder  and  fii-mer,  so  thac  it  could  receive  j  adding  some  beer  that  is  cleiu-,  boil  it  in  a 
the  highest  polish ;  by  which  means  tlie  glaied  pipkin,  over  a  gentle  fire,  with 
coloiu-   was   rendered    more    agreeable.  |  some  alum   and  gum-arabic ;   when  tju; 


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colour  is  found,  take  it  oH"  the  fire,  aii'A 
filter  it  through  a  cloth,  putting  it  up, 
when  coo!,  into  glass  phials,  for  use. 

For  a  Crimson.  Mix  carmine  with  gum 
water,  in  which  dissolve  some  white  su- 
gar-candy; the  shade  may  be  made  light 
or  depp.  We  may  likewise  boil  cochi- 
neal, having  first  beat  it  in  a  moi'tar  to  a 
fine  powder,  and  mix  it  with  alum,  and 
creme  of  tartiu-. 

For  Purple.  Take  fresh  chips  of  log- 
wood, and  infuse  them  in  clean  water, 
with  some  alum ;  after  it  has  stood  for 
two  or  three  days,  add  to  it  some  gum- 
ai-abic,  and  it  is  fit  tor  use. 

For  Light  Jilue.  Take  litmus  blue,  and 
boil  it  with  some  alum,  quick-lime,  and 
pearl-ash,  in  clean  water,  and  a  pleasant 
blue  to  paint  with  on  satin  will  be  formed. 

For  a  Deep  Blue.  Grind  Prussian  blue, 
to  shade  the  litmus  blue,  tempering  it 
with  gum-water  and  sugar-candy. 

For  Green  Boil  verdigris,  with  vine- 
gar and  salt ;  or  only  mix  the  verdigris, 
with  vinegar  in  a  phial,  and  set  it  to  di- 
gest in  the  sun.  If  it  is  to  be  of  a  grass- 
green,  add  to  it  some  yellow. 

For  Yclloxx).  Infuse  French  berries  in 
clean  water,  with  some  alum  :  after  it  has 
stood.for  a  week,  pour  off  the  colour,  and 
dissolving  therein  a  little  gum-arabic,  it 
will  be  fit  for  use. 

Of  Stiiining  or  Marbling  Paper.  The 
paper  must  first  be  prepared,  that  it  may 


more  easily  retain  the  colour.  This  pre- 
paration is  performed  by  wetting  the  l^a- 
per  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  alum  water, 
then  letting  it  dry.  When  the  sheets 
have  been  thus  prepared,  have  a  pan  full 
of  water,  and,  with  a  large  and  long-han- 
dled painting-brush,  take  of  one  colour, 
and  shake  it  in  the  water;  take  of  another 
and  do  the  Si<me,  and  so  on  tiil  you  have 
taken  of  all  tlie  colours  }  ou  intend  to  have 
on  your  paper,  and  which  you  are  suji- 
posed  to  have  tlieie  already  by  you.  Each 
of  these  colour.s  full  to  the  bottom  of  the 
water  ;  but  take,  with  a  similar  brush  as 
the  first,  a  mixture  of  bullock's  gall,  and 
of  a  solution  of  soap  and  w;.ter,  then 
shake  on  the  water,  all  over  its  sur- 
face, and  you  will  soon  see  all  the  colours 
rising  up  again,  and  swimming  on  the 
top  of  the  water,  each  separately  as  you 
first  put  them.  Then  lay  the  sheet  of  pa- 
per on  it,  give  it  a  turn  on  one  side  or  the 
other,  as  you  like,  and  take  it  up  again  ; 
wash,  and  set  k  to  dry,  then  burnish  it, 
and  it  is  done. 

We  may  observe,  however,  that  this 
mode  of  producing  marbled  paper,  will 
not  completely  luiswer ;  but  in  order  to 
render  the  colours  variegated,  it  is  of  im- 
portance to  separate  the  different  colour- 
ing fluids,  which  is  done  in  this  city  by 
means  of  the  spirits  of  turpentine.  This 
is  added  to  water,  after  the  colours  are 
put  in  that  fluid. 


E. 


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EARTHS.  Chemists  have  sometimes 
in  a  gross  and  inaccurate  way  called  those 
substances  earths,  which  remain  aflcr  the 
volatile  products  of  distillation  have 
arisen,  and  which  are  not  soluble  in  wa- 
ter. This  is  not  however  sufliciently  ex- 
act, though  it  is  difficult  to  exhibit  a  good 
positive  definition.  Earths,  are  bodies 
simple  with  respect  to  tlic  j^owers  of  che- 
mical analysis,  if  we  except  the  opinion 
of  Davy,  brittle,  incombustible,  infusi- 
ble by  the  heat  of  furnaces,  and  des- 
titute of  that  opake  briUiancy,  which  cha- 
racterizes metals. 

We  are  at  present  acquainted  with  nine 
distinct  substances,  that  are  classed  as 


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earths  :  viz.  Alumine  or  the  pure  earth 
of  clay,  barytes  or  heavy  earth,  glucine, 
lime  oi<  calcareous  earth,  magnesia,  silex 
or  flinty  earth,  strontiun,yttria and  zircon. 
■\Vhich  we  shall  here  describe  in  this 
order,  after  some  general  remarks.  The 
agustine  earth,  which  Trommsdort  ima- 
gmed  he  had  discovered  in  the  Saxon 
beryl,  Vauquelln  has  shown,  to  be  phos- 
phat  of  lime  :  and  the  ochroit,  wliich 
Klaproth  supposed  he  had  found,  in  the 
tungsten  of  liastnas,  appears  to  be  a  me- 
tal. As  four  of  these  earths,  barytes, 
lime,  magnesia,  and  stronlian,  have  scmic 
affinity  to  alkalies,  certain  chemists  have 
proposed,  to  class  ihcm  as  such,  while 


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others  distinguish  them  by  the  term  al- 
kaline earths.     See  Alkalies. 

The  attention  of  the  chemical  world 
was  once  strongly  excited  by  some  expe- 
riments of  Messrs.  Ruprecht  and  Tondi, 
Mho  affirmed,  that  they  had  reduced  alu- 
mine,  iime,  barytes,  and  magnesia  to  the 
metallic  state,  by  strongly  heating  them 
with  ciiarcoal.  ]3ut  however  probable  it 
may  be  from  analogy,  that  such  reduc- 
tions may  be  within  the  limits  of  possibili- 
ty, it  is  now  universally-admitted,  that  the 
metal  obtained  in  these  experiments  con- 
sisted of  iron  from  the  crucibles  used. 

In  some  systems  a  distinction  is  made 
between  earths  and  stones ;  but  this  is  of 
no  utility  in  the  chemical  inquiry  respect- 
ing their  component  parts  and  properties. 
A  stone  is  nothing  more  than  a  hard 
earthy  mass,  and  an  earth  in  powder  is  an 
aggregate  of  very  minute  stones. 

Earths  appear  to  have  an  affinity  for 
each  other  in  the  humid  way,  which  has 
not  yet  however  been  sufficiently  exa- 
mined. Tile  affinity  of  alumine  for  mag- 
nesia is  tlie  most  powerful.  It  has  also  an 
affinity  for  silex  and  lime.  Scheele  was 
the  first  who  observed  this ;  and  Chenevix 
and  Darracq  have  made  further  experi- 
ments on  the  subject.  St)  has  Guyton 
Morveau;  but  Mr.  Chenevix  observes, 
that  he  was  led  into  errors  probably  by 
using  earths,  precipitated  from  sulphiu'ic 
acid,  of  which  they  still  retained  a  little. 

The  combination  of  earths,  with  acids, 
forms  a  class  of  salts,  called  earthy  salts, 
which  are  an  important  class  of  bodies. 

1.  Ahmiine,  or  the  pure  T^arth  of  Clay. — 
The  principal  natural  specimens  of  tliis 
earth  are,  clays,  properly  so  called,  marls, 
boles,  slates  or  schistus,  and  mica.  In 
none  of  these,  except  the  flag  stone,  does 
the  alumine  amount  to  so  much  as  half 
their  weight,  though  their  predominating 
qualities  ajjpear  to  depend  upon  it.  A 
fossil  has  been  found  in  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land, however,  containing  70  per  cent  of 
alumine.  The  most  obvious  characters  of 
tliis  earth  are,  an  adhesion  to  the  tongue, 
or  to  any  wet  and  soft  bod}',  in  the  more  so- 
lid specimens ;  and  a  remarkable  tenacity, 
ductility,  or  kneadability  serve  to  distin- 
guish moistened  clays  in  a  very  eminent 
degree.  It  is  soluble  in  acids  ;'bttt  alka- 
lies act  much  less  upon  it,  either  in  the 
dry  or  moist  way,  than  they  do  on  silex. 
Alum  is  a  combination  of  tliis  earth  with 
sulphuric  acid.  If  the  concrete  volatile 
alkali  be  added  to  a  solution  of  pure 
alum,  the  alkali  and  acid  unite,  while  the 
alumine  falls  to  the  bottom,  united  only 
with  a  small  quantity  of  carbonic  acid. 
The  fluid  must  be  absiracted  by  decaiita- 


tion,  and  the  precipitate  washed  with  dis- 
tilled water,  and  dried,  if  we  would  have 
it  very  pure,  alum  may  be  dissolved  in 
four  times  its  weight  ofboiiing  water,  and 
precipitated  by  liquid  ammonia.  As  this 
method  fS,  however,  tedious,  a  more  rea- 
dy way  is  to  procure  it  from  such  of  the 
natural  clays  as  contain  only  silex  awd 
alumine,  by  solution  in  muriatic  acid,  and 
precipitation  by  ammonia. 

Alumine  has  a  consideraljle  affinity  for 
metallic  oxides,  piirticularly  that  of  iron; 
tor  vegetable  or  animal  colouring  matter ; 
and  for  the  extractive  matter  of  vegeta- 
bles :  hence  its  uses  as  a  mordant  in  dye- 
ing, and  as'  the  bases  of  the  pigments 
termed  lakes. 

Clays  may  be  easily  diffused  and  sus- 
pended in  water,  but  are  not  soluble  in 
any  sensible  degree.  The  sudden  appli- 
cation of  strong  heat  hardens  their  exter- 
nal parts,  which  afterwards  burst  by  the 
explosion  of  the  moisture  within.  By  a 
more  gradual  heat  pure  clay  contracts 
very  much,  becomes  hard,  and  full  of 
cracks  or  fissiu-es.  The  presence  of  sili- 
ceous earth  in  common  clays,  where  it 
usually  constitutes  above  half"  the  weight, 
renders  the  contraction  more  uniform 
throughout,  and  prevents  the  cracks; 
probably  hi  no  other  way  than  by  render- 
ing them  more  numerous,  and  too  small 
to  be  perceived.  When  thus  baked,  it 
consthutes  all  the  varieties  of  bricks,  pot- 
tery, and  porcelain.  These,  if  baked  in  a 
strong  heat,  give  fire  with  steel ;  a  ])roper- 
ty  that  may  be  attributed  to  tlie  siliceous 
earth  they  contain,  which  cannot  act  on 
the  steel  unless  firmly  set  in  the  hardened 
clay.  The  dimensions  of  pottery  are  les5;, 
the  greater  the  heat  to  which  the  article 
has  been  subjected.  On  this  property  is 
constructed  a  thermometer  for  measiu-ing 
the  heat  of  furnaces,  by  igniting  a,  small 
bi-lck  of  known  dimensions  therein,  and 
afterward  measiu-ing  its  contraction. 
Baked  clay  is  no  longer  kneadable  with 
water,  though  as  finely  pidverized  as  me- 
chaniQal  means  can  go.  Hence  it  has  been 
inferred,  that  clays  owe  their  ductility  to 
a  kind  of  gluten,  winch  is  supposed  to  be 
dissipated  by  heat.  See  Bricks  and  Pot- 
tery. 

2.  Barytes,  or  Heavy  Earth. — This  earth, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  weight 
of  its  compounds,  has  never  been  found 
native,  in  a  pure  state.    Its  sulphat  is  most 
\  common,  and  has  long  been  kno\v'n  by  the 
;  names  of  heavy  spar  imd  mannor  metalli- 
i  cum.     At    a    mine    at    Anglezark,    near 
Ch(Mly,  in  England,  the  carbonat  of  ba- 
rytes is  found  in    large  quantity.     This 
may  be  decomposed  by  intense  heat.    Mr. 


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Henry  gives  the  following  process,  (w  hicli 
is  nearly  the  same  Pelletior  used,)  tor  pro- 
curing the  purceartli 

Let  tlie  native  carbonut  be  powucred 
and  sifted  through  a  fine  sieve;  mix  it 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  wheaten  flour;  and 
make  it  into  a  ball  witli  water.  Pnt  this 
ball  into  a  crucible  one  third  full  of  char 
coal  powder ;  cover  it,  and  surround  it 
with  more  of  the  (lowtler ;  lute  on  a  co- 
ver ;  and  expose  it  for  two  hours  to  tiie 
itiost  violent  heat  that  can  be  raised  in  a 
wind  furnace.  When  cold,  take  out  the 
ball,  and  on  adding  water  to  it  great  heat 
will  be  emitted,  and  the  barytes  dissolved. 
The  filtered  solution  on  cooling  will  shoot 
into  beautiful  crystals. 

Barytic  water,  like  limewater,  abstracts 
carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  till  the  whole 
of  the  earth  is  converted  into  carbonat, 
and  precipitated.    See  Alkalies. 

Barytes  is  an  active  poison,  as  are  most 
of  its  salts,  particularly  the  carbonat. 

3.  Glucine. — This  earth  was  discover- 
ed by  Vauquelin,  first  in  the  aqua  marina, 
and  afterward  in  the  emerald,  in  the  win- 
ter  of  1798.  Its  name  is  derived  from  its 
distinguishing  character  of  forming  with 
acids  salts  that  are  sweet  to  the  taste. 
The  following  is  his  method  of  obtaining 
it: 

Let  100  parts  of  beryl,  or  emerald,  be 
i-educed  to  a  fine  powder,  and  fused  in  a 
silver  crucible  with  300  of  pure  potash. 
Let  the  mass  be  diffused  in  water,  and 
dissolved  by  adding  muriatic  acid.  Kva- 
porate  the  solution,  taking  caie  to  stir  it 
toward  the  end :  mix  tlie  residuum  with 
a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  filter,  to  se- 
parate the  silex.  Precipitate  the  filtered 
liquor,  which  contains  the  muriats  of  aUi- 
mine  and  glucine,  with  carbonat  of  pot- 
a.sh  ;  wash  the  precijMtate,  and  dissolve  it 
in  sulphuric  acid.  Add  a  certain  quaiiti- 
ty  of  sulphat  of  potash,  evaporate,  and 
crystals  of  alum  will  be  obtained.  When 
no  more  alum  is  afforded  by  adding  sul- 
phatof  potash  and  evaporuting,  add  a  solu- 
tion of  carbonut  of  annnonia  in  excess, 
shake  the  mixture  well,  and  let  it  stand 
some  hours,  till  the  glucine  is  redissol\"ed 
by  the  excess  of  carbonat  of  anmii)niu, 
and  nothing  but  the  alumine  remains  ;i.t 
tlie  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Filter  liie  so- 
lution, evaporate  to  dryness,  and  exi)el 
the  acid  from  the  carbonaV  of"  glucine  by 
slight  ignition  in  a  crucible.  Thus  15  or 
16  per  cent  of  pure  glucine  will  be  obtain- 
ed. 

Glucine  thus  obtained  is  a  white,  soft 
powder,  light,  insii)id,  and  adhering  to 
the  tongue.  It  does  not  change  vegeta- 
ble blues.  It  does  not  harden,  shrink,  or 
agglutinate  by  heat ;  and  is  infusible.    It 


is  insoluble  in  water,  but  forms  with  it  a 
slightly  ductile  paste. 

4.  I/iu.e,  or  Calcareous  Earth. — It  pre- 
dominates in  most  stones  whicii  are  soft 
enough  to  be  scratched  with  a  knife. 
These  are  chalk,  limestone,  marble,  spars, 
gypsum,  or  plaster-stone,  and  viirions 
others.  .\s  the  lime  is  most  frequently 
combined  with  carbonic  acid,  it  is  usual 
for  mineralogists  to  drop  a_  small  quanti- 
ty of  nitric  acid  upon  the  stones  they  are 
desirous  of  classing;  and  if  they  froth  by 
the  escape  of  tlie  acid,  they  conclude  that 
lime  enters  into  the  comi)osition  To  ob- 
tain j)ure  calcareous  earth,  powdered 
chalk  must  be  repeatedly  boiled  in  water, 
which  will  deprive  it  of  the  saline  impuri- 
ties it  frequently  contains.  It  must  then 
be  dissolved  in  distiUed  vinegar,  and  pre- 
cipitavod  by  the  addition  of  concrete  vola- 
tile alkali. '  The  precipitate,  when  well 
washed  and  dried,  will  consist  of  lime 
united  to  carbonic  acid;  the  latter  of 
which  may  be  diiven  oH'  by  heat,  if  neces- 
sary. 

If  chalk,  marble,  limestone,  spar,  or  any 
other  specimens  of  this  earth,  containhig 
carbonic  acid,  be  exposed  to  continued  ig- 
nition, they  give  out  carbonic  acid  and 
water,  to  the  amount  of  near  half  their 
weight.  The  remainder,  consisting  chief- 
ly of  lime,  has  a  strong  tendency  to  com- 
bination, and  attracts  water  very  power- 
fully. The  addition  of  water  to  lime  pro- 
duces a  very  considerable  he.at,  attended 
with  noise,  and  agitation  of  the  parts, 
which  break  asunder ;  a  considerable  va- 
pour ai-ises,  wliich  cairies  up  Witii  it  pai't 
of  the  lime ;  and  a  phosplioric  light  is 
seen,  if  tlie  experiment  be  made  m  the 
dark.  Lime  tluis  saturated  w  ith  water  is 
said  to  be  slaked.  A\"ater  dissohes  about 
owe  five-hundredth  part  of  its  weight  of 
lime,  and  is  then  called  lime-water.  This 
solution  has  an  acrid  taste,  and  turns  sy- 
rup of  violets  to  a  green  colour.  If  lime- 
water  be  exposed  to  the  open  air,  the  lime 
attracts  carbonic  acid,  and  is  by  this 
means  converted  into  chalk ;  w  hieh,  not 
being  soluble  in  water,  fiinns  a  crust  on 
tlie  surface,  formerly  called  cream  of  lime ; 
whichi  when  of  a  certain  thickness, 
bi-eaks,  and  falls  to  the  bottom  :  and  in 
thib  w;fy  the  whole  of  the  lime  will  in  time 
be  sei)arate<l.  If  tlie  fire  have  been  too 
violent  in  the  burning  of  lime,  the  stone 
becomes  hard,  sonorous,  and  incapable  of 
absorbing  water  with  the  requisite  de- 
gree of  avidity.  I'his  effect  seems  to 
arise  from  pai't  of  the  calcareous  earth 
having  entered  into  fusion  with  tlie  clay, 
flint,  or  other  conlaininaling  earths,  with 
which  it  forms  a  glass  that  covers  and  de- 
fends the  rest. 


EAR 


EAR 


The  paste  of  lime  and  water,  called 
mortar,  has  a  degree  of  adhesion  and 
ductility,  though  much  less  than  clay 
When  diy.  it  is  more  or  less  fiiable,  like 
chalk.  A  mixture  of  sand,  or  broken 
earUien  vessels,  greatly  increases  its  firm- 
ness, which  it  seems  to  effect  by  rendering 
it  more  difficult  for  the  parts  to  be  re- 
moved with  respect  to  each  otlier  Wlien 
mortar  is  left  to  dry  by  the  gradual  eva- 
poration of  its  superfluous  water,  it  is 
ven,'  long  before  it  obtains  its  utmost  de- 
gree of  firmness.  But  if  dry  quick-lime 
be  mixed  with  mortar,  it  gradually  ab- 
sorbs the  superfluous  water,  and  the 
mass  becomes  sohd  in  a  very  short  time. 
See  Cement. 

Lime  has  an  affinity  for  tannin,  whence 
it  is  probable  that  a  portion  of  it  is  retain- 
ed in'  tanned  leather,  perhaps  not  to  the 
improvement  of  its  quality.  It  has  an 
edulcorative  power  with  i-espect  to  ani- 
mal oils,  by  combining  with  the  putrid 
gelatine  in  them  ;  but  its  coagulative  ac- 
tion on  them  is  too  strong  to  admit  of  its 
being  used  for  this  purpose  with  advan- 
tage, unless  in  small  quantity.  Featliers, 
however,  may  be  very  conveniently  clean- 
ed by  steeping  three'or  four  days  in  strong 
lime-water,  and  aftei"ward  washing  and 
drying  them. 

Though  infusible  in  the  strongest  heat 
of  our  furnaces,  it  is  nevertheless  a  ver}" 
powerful  flux,  with  regard  to  mixtures  of 
the  other  earths.  These  are  all  fusible  by 
a  proper  addition  of  hme.  Compounds 
are  still  more  fusible ;  for  any  three  of 
the  five  well  known  earths  may  be  fused 
into  perfect  glass,  if  they  be  mixed  toge- 
ther in  equal  portions,  provided  tlie  cal- 
careous be  one  of  tliem.  See  Glass.  See 
also  .\lkalies. 

The  earthy  part  of  animals  is  chiefly, 
if  not  altogether,  calcareous :  in  most 
cases  it  is  united  with  phosphoric  acid, 
but  fi-equently  with  the  carbonic. 

5.  J\Iagnesia. — Tliis  earth  is  of  modem 
discovery.  Bergmannhas  written  a  trea- 
tise upon  it  in  his  usual  masterly  manner. 
It  first  began  to  be  known  at  Rome  under 
the  name  of  Count  Palma's  powder,  where 
it  was  offered  by  a  regular  canon  as  a  re- 
medy fjr  all  disorders.  Its  resemblance 
in  many  respects  to  calcareous  earth  in- 
duced man}-  to  consider  it  at  first  as  the 
same  thing ;  but  Mr.  F.  Hoffmann  first 
proved  it  to  be  essentially  different.  This 
was  afterward  discovered  by  Dr.  Black  of 
Edinburgh,  and  Margraaf  of  Berlin,  un- 
known to  each  other. 

Magnesia  is  a  white  powder,  perfectly 
void  of  taste  or  smell,     li  is  veiy  little  so- 
luble, water  taking  up  about  a  two  thou- 
sandth part  only :  yet  it  appears  to  have 
TOL.    I. 


some  affinity  for  water,  as,  If  it  be  moist- 
ened with  water,  and  then  dried,  it  gains 
about  18  per  cent  It  changes  svrup  of 
violets  green,  but  its  filtered  solution  does 
not  With  the  acids  it  forms  verv  soluble 
and  bitter  salts.  It  is  not  soluble  in  caus- 
tic alkaUes.  It  has  a  great  affinity  for  alu- 
mine. 

Xo  effervescence  or  loss  of  weight 
should  ensue,  on  adding  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  to  pure  magnesia  ;  it  should  dissolve 
entirely  in  the  acid;  and,  when  largely 
diluted,  oxalat  of  ammonia,  should  occa- 
sion no  precipitate  in  the  solution. 

The  carbonat  of  magnesia  shows  signs 
of  fusion  in  a  strong  heat;  but  pure  mag- 
nesia resists  the  most  powerful  focus  of 
the  bui-ning  glass,  without  either  contract- 
ing in  its  dimensions,  or  undergoing  any 
other  change.  It  flows  easily  with  borax, 
and  the  microcosmic  salt:  with  equal 
parts  of  flint  and  borax,  it  assumes  the 
form  of  a  beautiful  coloured  glass,  resem- 
bUng  the  topaz.  With  equal  parts  of  flint 
and  fluor  "^par,  it  affords  a  glass  resem- 
bhng  the  chrysoUte :  and  with  an  equal 
portion  of  fluor  alone,  it  corrodes  and 
runs  through  the  crucible.  Almost  any 
proportion  of  lime,  pure  clay,  and  flint  is 
made  by  it  to  flow  in  the  fire  ;  and  with 
four  times  its  weight  of  green  glass,  it  af- 
fords a  mass  resembhng  porcelain,  and 
hard  enough  to  give  fire  with  steel.  It 
will  not  flow  with  an  equal  weight  singly, 
ehher  of  flint,  quicklime,  bar}-tes,  glass, 
lead,  potash,  or  sulphat  of  potash :  but 
common  clay  runs  with  it  into  a  hard 
mass. 

Though  this  eai-th  appears  to  be  very 
extensively  diffiised  over  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  yet  it  is  undoubtedly  less  plen- 
tiful than  the  calcareous,  siliceous,  or  alu- 
minous earths  Most  of  the  native  speci- 
mens  of  the  magnesian  genus,  are  remark- 
able for  a  ceruiji  soapy  or  greasy  feel.  Of 
these,  the  most  common  are,  steatites  of  a 
greenish  colour,  and  soft  enough  to  be 
scraped  with  the  nail ;  soap  rock,  lapi? 
ollaris,  or  Spanish  chalk,  ef  a  yellow  or 
whitish  colour,  or  black,  though  rarely, 
rather  harder  than  steatites,  and  so  easily 
wrought  and  turned,  that  pots  are  made 
of  it.  Asbestos,  amiantlms,  and  tlie  Ve- 
netian  and  Muscovy  talc  are  included  in 
tills  genus. 

In  the  state  of  phospliat,  it  is  said  by 
Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin,  to  exist  in  the 
bones  of  all  the  animals  they  examined, 
those  of  man  excepted.  Giobert  has 
found,  that  a  white  earth  emplovtd  near 
Tui'in,  in  the  fabrication  ofporceUir.;,  and 
considered  as  pvire  ahimine,  contains  80 
per  cent,  of  subcarbon  at  of  magnesia,  and 
sometimes  90,  without  a  grain  of  alumine. 

<i  q 


EAR 


EAR 


According  to  him,  it  contains,  on  an  ave- 
rage, magnesia  68,  carbonic  acid  12,  silcx 
156,  suljjliat  of  lime  1'6,  water.  It  is  said 
to  be  of  extraordinary  good  quality  for 
making  pottery  This  is  dug  at  Baudis- 
sero,  and  a  somevliat  similar  cai-th  is 
foimd  at  Castcllamonte,  in  tiie  same 
neighbourhood.     See  Alkalies. 

Under  the  name  of  calcined  magnesia, 
the  pure  earth  is  mucli  used  in  medicine, 
where  absorbents  are  indicated,  and  the 
carbonic  acid  might  be  detrimental. 

6.  Siiex,  or,jlinty  earth — The  most  emi- 
nent cliaracters  of  this  earth  are,  its  hard- 
ness and  insolubility  in  almost  every  acid. 
It  exists  nearly  in  a  state  of  purity,  in 
rock-crystal,  and  abounds  in  all  natural 
bodies,  Wiiich  are  hard  enough  to  strike 
fire  with  the  steel.  In  the  pulveru- 
lent form,  it  possesses  a  singulai-  degi'ee 
of  asperity  to  the  touch,  and  has  not  the 
least  disposition  to  adhere  and  become 
kneadable  by  the  addition  of  water.  No 
acid  dissolves  it  but  that  of  the  fluor  spar, 
which  suspends  it  abundantly,  while  in 
the  aeriform  state,  less  so  when  dissolved 
in  hot  water,  and  very  sparingly  when 
cold.  The  fixed  alkalies  dissolve  it  both  m 
the  humid  and  the  dry  way.  In  the  hu- 
mid way  they  combine  with  abovit  one- 
sixth  part  of  their  weight,  when  the  sili- 
ceous earth  is  in  a  state  of  extreme  divi- 
sion. And  in  the  dry  way  they  take  up  a 
very  large  proportion,  according  to  the 
degree  of  heat  made  use  of  From  one  to 
two  parts  of  alkali,  with  one  part  of  silex, 
form  hard  permanent  glass ;  but,  if  the 
salt  exceed  lliis  proportion,  the  compound 
will  attract  humidity  from  the  air,  and  as- 
sum.e  the  liquid  state.  This  fluid,  or  com- 
bination of  silex  with  water,  by  the  me- 
dium of  alkali,  is  known  by  the  name  of 
the  liquor  of  flints.  The  addition  of  an 
acid  will  seize  the  alkali,  and  throw  down 
the  siliceous  earth  in  a  state  of  puritv; 
and  accordingly,  this  is  the  process  ty 
which  it  is  to  be  obtained  in  a  disengaged 
State.  That  is  to  say,  let  rock  crystal  be 
dissolved  by  strongfusion  iufourtimes  its 
weight  of  fixed  alkali,  ;ind  the  mass  dis- 
solved in  water  :  let  muriatic  acid  be  then 
added  in  excess;  this  will  seize  the  alkali, 
and  form  soluble  salts,  with  any  other 
earths  that  may  be  present ;  but  the  sili 
ceons  earth  will  fall  to  the  l)ottom.  Re- 
peated ablutions  in  distilled  water  will  se- 
parate all  the  extraneous  saline  fluid, 
which  may  be  interposed  between  these 
particles  after  decantation,  and  the  dried 
powder  will  consist  oipure  silex. 

Witli  niitallic  oxides,  more  especially 
those  of  lead,  it  combines  by  fusion,  and 
forms  glass  of  a  dense  texture,  and  strong 
refractive  power.    See  Glass. 


Rock  crystal,  quartz,  flint,  gritstone, 
jasper,  and  most  of  the  precious  stones  or 
gems,  owe  their  distinguishing  qualities 
to  siliceous  earth,  and  are  therefore  consi- 
dered as  specimens  of  this  genus. 

7.  Strontia.  About  twenty  years  ago, 
a  mineral  was  brought  to  Edinburgh  by  a 
dealer  in  fossils  from  a  lead-mine  at  Stron- 
tian,  in  Argyleshire,  which  was  generally 
cotisidered  as  a  carbunat  of  barytes.  It 
has  since  been  found  in  France,  Sicily,  and 
in  Pennsylvania.  Dr.  Crawford  first  ob- 
served some  diffiirence  between  its  solu- 
tion in  muriatic  acid,  and  that  obtained 
from  the  cat  bonat  of  barytes  of  Angle- 
zark,  and  thence  supposed  it  to  be  a  new 
earth.  Dr  Hope,  of  Edinburgh,  had  en- 
tertained the  same  opinion,  and  confirmed 
it  by  experiments  in  1791.  Kirwan.Klap- 
roth,  Pelletier,  and  Sulzer,  did  the  same. 
The  carbonic  acid  may  be  expelled  by  a 
heat  of  140''  of  Wedgwood,  leaving  the 
strontia  behind :  or  by  dissolving  in  the 
nitric  acid,  and  driving  this  oft"  by  heat. 

Pure  strontia  is  of  a  grayish  white  co- 
lour ;  a  pungent,  acrid  taste ;  and  when 
powdered  in  a  mortar,  the  dust  that  rises 
irritates  the  lungs  and  nostrils.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  approaches  that  of  barytes. 
It  requires  rather  more  than  160  parts  of 
water  at  60°  to  dissolve  it ;  but  of  boiling 
water  much  less.  On  cooling,  it  crystal- 
lizes in  thin,  transparent,  quadrangular 
plates,  generally  parallelograms,  seldom 
exceeding  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  frequently  adhering  together.  The 
edg'es  are  most  frequently  bevilled  from 
each  side.  Sometimes  they  assume  a  cu- 
bic form.  These  crystals  contain  about 
•68  of  water;  are  soluble  in  514  times 
their  weight  of  water  at  60°,  and  in  little 
more  than  twice  their  weight  of  boiling 
water.  They  give  a  blood  red  colour  to 
the  flame  of  burning  alcohol.  The  solu- 
tion of  strontia  changes  vegetable  blues  to 
a  green.  Strontia  combines  with  sidphur 
eillier  in  the  m  et  or  dry  way,  and  its  sul- 
phuret  is  soluble  in  water. 

In  its  properties,  strontia  has  a  conside- 
rable afiinity  to  barytes.  It  difiers  from  it 
chiefly  in  being-  infusible,  much  less  solii- 
ble.of  a  different  ibrm,  weaker  in  its  afti- 
nities,  and  not  poisonous.  Its  saline  com- 
pounds aflord  differences  more  marked. 

8.  Yttria.  This  also  is  a  new  earth, 
discovered  in  1794,  by  Prof.  Gadolin,  in  a 
stone  from  Ytterby,  in  Sweden,  called  the 
gadolniite. 

It  may  be  obtained  most  readily  by  fu- 
sing the  gadolinite  with  two  parts  of  caus- 
tic potash,  washijig  the  mass  with  boiling 
water,  and  filtering  the  liquor,  which  is 
of  a  fine  green.  This  liquor  is  to  be  eva- 
porated, till  no  more  oxide  of  manganese 


EAR 


EAR 


falls  down  from  it  in  a  black  powder ;  af- 
ter which  the  liquid  is  to  be  saturated 
with  nitric  acid.  At  the  same  time  di- 
gestthe  sediment,  that  was  not  dissolved, 
in  very  dilute  nitric  acid,  which  will  dis- 
solve the  earth  with  much  heat,  leaving 
the  silex,  and  the  hig-hly  oxided  iron,  \ui- 
dissolved.  Mix  the  two  liquors,  evaporate 
them  to  dryness,  redissolve,  and  filter, 
which  will  separate  any  silex  or  oxide  of 
iron,  that  may  have  been  left  A  few  drops 
of  a  solution  of  carbonat  ot  potash,  will  se- 
parate any  lime  that  may  be  present ;  and 
a  cautious  addition  of  hydro-sulphuret  of 
potash,  will  throw  down  the  oxide  of 
manganese  that  may  have  been  left;  but, 
if  too  much  be  employed,  it  will  throw 
down  Uie  yttria  likewise.  Lastl}-,  the 
yttria  is  to  be  precipitated  by  pure  ammo- 
nia, well  washed,  and  dried. 

Yttria  is  perfectly  white,  when  not  con- 
taminated with  oxide  of  manganese,  from 
which  it  is  not  easily  freed.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  4842.  It  has  neither  taste  nor 
smell.  It  is  infusible  alone ;  but  with  bo- 
rax melts  into  a  transpai-ent  glass,  or 
opake  white,  if  the  borax  were  in  excess. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  in  caustic  fix- 
ed alkalies  :  but  it  dissolves  in  carbonat  of 
ammonia,  though  it  requires  five  or  six 
times  as  much  as  glucine.  It  is  soluble 
in  most  of  the  acids.  The  oxalic  acid,  or 
oxalat  of  ammonia,  forms  precipitates  in 
its  solutions,  perfectly  resembling  the  mu- 
riat  of  silver.  Prussiat  of  potash,  crystal- 
lized and  redissolved  in  water,  throws  it 
down  in  white  grains  ;  phosphat  of  soda, 
in  white  gelatinous  flakes ;  infusion  of 
galls,  in  brown  flocks. 

Some  chemists  are  inclined  to  consider 
ytti'ia  rather. as  a  metallic  than  as  an 
earthy  substance;  their  reasons  are  its 
specific  gravity,  its  forming  coloured  salts, 
and  its  property  of  oxigenizing  muriatic 
acid;  after  it  has  undergone  a  long  calcina- 
tion. 

9.  ZirCon — was  first  discovered  in  the 
jargon,  of  Ceylon,  by  I^laproth,  in  1789, 
and  it  has  since  been  found  in  the  hyacinth. 
To  obtain  it  the  stone  should  be  calcined 
and  thrown  into  cold  water,  to  render  it 
friable,  and  then  powdared  in  an  agate 
mortar.  Mix  the  powder  with  nine  parts 
of  pure  potash,  and  project  the  mixture  by 
spoonsful  into  a  red  hot  crucible,  taking- 
care  that  each  portion  is,  fused  before 
another  is  added.  Keep  the  whole  in  fu- 
sion, with  an  increased  heat,  for  an  hour 
and  an  half  When  cold,  break  the  crucible, 
separate  its  contents,  powder,  and  boil  in 
water,  to  dissolve  the  alkali.  Wash  the 
insoluble  part ;  dissolve  in  muriatic  acid ; 
heat  the  solution,  that  the  silex  may  fall 
down-,  and  precipitate  the  zircon  by  caus- 


tic fixed  alkali.  Or  the  zircon  may  be 
precipitated  by  carbonat  of  soda,  and  the 
carbonic  acid  expelled  by  heat. 

Zircon  is  a  fine  white  powder,  without 
taste  or  smell,  but  somewhat  harsh  to  the 
touch.  It  is  insoluble  in  water ;  yet,  if 
slowly  dried,  it  coalesces  into  a  semi  ti  ans- 
parent  yellowish  mass,  like  gum  arable, 
which  retains  one-third  its  weight  of  wa- 
ter. It  unites  with  all  the  acids.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  pure  alkalis ;  but  the  alkaline 
carbonats  dissolve  it.  Heated  with  the 
blow-pipe  it  does  not  melt,  but  emits  a 
yellowish  phosphoric  light.  Heated  in  a 
crucible  of  charcoal,  bedded  in  charcoaf 
powder,  placed  in  a  stone  crucible,  and 
exposed  to  a  good  forge  fire  for  some 
hours,  it  undergoes  a  pasty  fusion,  which 
nnites  its  particles  into  a  gray  opake 
mass,  not  truly  vitreous,  but  more  resem- 
bling porcelain.     See  Agriculture. 

EARTH  (FULLER'S).— Among  the 
useful  researches,  for  which  we  are  in- 
debted to  the  illustrious  Bergmann,  we 
find  one  upon  Lithomarga,  or  stone  marie; 
which  seems  to  differ  from  common 
marie  in  its  composition,  chiefly  in  pos- 
sessing a  much  larger  portion  of  siliceous 
and  less  of  calcareous  earth.  Fullers  earth 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  vaiieties  of  Li- 
thomarge. 

Cronstedt  describes  Lithomarge  under 
the  following  general  characters  :  First, 
when  dry,  it  is  smooth  and  slippery  like 
hard  soup.  Secondly,  It  is  not  perfectly 
dissoluble  in  water :  but  when  immersed 
in  that  fluid  it  falls  into  pieces  of  greater 
or  less  magnitude,  or  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  assume  the  appearance  of  curds. 
Thirdly,  in  the  fire  it  easily  melts  into  a 
white  or  reddish  frothy  slag,  which  is  con- 
siderably larger  than  before,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  porosity.  Fourthly,  Its 
fracture  is  irregularly  con\ex  or  con- 
cave. 

Lithomarge  is  found  in  Lemnos,  Tarta- 
ry,  and  in  Hampshire  (England.) 

The  properties  required  in  a  good  ful- 
ler's earth  are,  that  it  should  contribute 
to  the  washing  away  all  impurities,  and 
promote  that  curling  and  intermixture  of 
the  hairs  of  the  woollen  cloth,  which 
thicken  its  textiu-e,  and  give  it  the  desir- 
ed  firmness.  Both  probably  depend  on 
its  detergent  quality,  that  clears  away  all 
the  unctuous  matter  of  the  wool,  and  i-en- 
ders  its  parts  capable  of  becoming  more 
perfectly  entangled  together  by  the  me- 
chanical action  of  fulling ;  an  effect  not 
so  likely  to  take  place  when  the  fibres  or 
hairs  are  disposed  by  grease  to  slide  ea- 
sily over  each  other.  The  detergent 
power  resides  in  all  cla3's,  but  is  doubt- 
less greatly   increased  by  the  siliceous 


ENA 


ENA 


earth,  which  may  be  considered  as  tlie 
brusli,  while  the  clay  serves  as  the  soap. 
This  is  famiharly  shown,  by  the  comnion 
practice  of  adding-  sand  to  soap,  wliich 
renders  it  much  more  detergent ;  but  at 
the  same  time  more  capable  of  injuring 
the  substances  to  which  it  is  applied,  and 
that  more  especially  when  the  sand  is 
coarse.  Fuller's  earth  is  bad,  if  the  sand 
be  not  exceedingly  fine  ;  and  the  superi- 
or excellence  of  the  Hampshire  fuller's 
earth  seems  to  depend  more  on  the  fine- 
ness of  its  parts,  than  on  their  proportions, 
as  is  shewn  by  the  experiment  of  boiling 
it  in  waicr;  after  which  it  passes  more 
plentifully  through  the  filter  than  any  of 
the  other  lithomargx. 

EARTHEN  WARE,  see  Pottery. 
EBONY,  an  exceedingly  hai'd  and  hea- 
vy w  ood,  imported  from  the  East-Indies ; 
it  admits  of  being  very  highly  polished, 
for  which  reason  it  is  used  chiefly  for  ve- 
neering cabinets,  in  Mosaic  work,  &c. 

Ebony  is  of  various  colours,  viz.  black, 
red,  and  green  ;  but  the  first  is  that  most 
generally  known,  and  used.  Cabinet- 
makers, inlayers,  and  others,  frequently 
substitute  pear-tree,  and  other  wood,  for 
ebony,  by  giving  the  former  a  black  co- 
iom* ;  which  some  effect  by  washing  it  in 
a  hot  decoction  of  gall-nuts,  and  after  it 
is  dry,  by  rubbing  it  over  with  ink,  and 
polishing  it  by  means  of  a  hard  brush  and 
a  little  wax :  others  heat,  or  almost  burn 
their  wood,  till  it  becomes  black,  so  that 
it  acquires  such  a  degree  of  hardness, 
that,  when  properly  polished,  it  can  with 
difficulty  be  distinguished  from  genuine 
ebony.     See  Dyeing  of  Wood. 

EMERY.— Tlie  best  sort  is  of  a  light 
gray  coloiu-,  but  becomes  biown  by  cal- 
cination. It  is  brought  principally  from 
the  Archipelago,  particularly  from  the  Isle 
of  Naxos,  and  is  much  used  for  grinding 
and  polishing.  Difl'erent  specimen^  of 
emery  has  been  analysed  by  Mr.  Tennant, 
one  of  which  gave  .80  alvimuie,  0.3  silex, 
0.4  iron,  and  0.3  insoluble  matter :  a  se- 
cond, .65  alumine,  0.8  silex,  0.32  iron,  0.4 
residuum.  Emery  has  been  found  in  the 
United  States,  or  at  least  a  stone,  which, 
when  pulverized,  answers  all  the  purposes 
of  emery.  The  discovery  of  this  sub- 
stance in  the  United  States  is  of  consi- 
derable importance  for  the  polishing  of 
muskets,  swords.  Sec.  and  for  the 
t^rinding  or  polishing  of  various  parts 
of  machinery.  In  Europe  a  soldier  is 
allowed  a  certain  quantity  of  emery  to 
polish  his  musket. 

ENAMEL  or  ENAMELLING.  Ena- 
melling is  an  art,  which  has  been  practis- 
ed in  this  coimtry,  as  well  as  in  Europe. 


we  have  seen  specimens  of  American  ena- 
mel, equal  to  the  foreign. 

The  delicate  and  beautiful  art  of  ena- 
melhng  consists  in  the  application  of  a 
smooth  coating  of  vitrified  matter,  (trans- 
parent or  opake,  and  without  colour,  fi- 
giu-es,  and  other  ornaments)  to  a  bright 
polished  metallic  substance.  It  is  tljere- 
fore  a  kind  of  varnish  made  of  glass,  and 
melted  upon  the  substance  to  which  it  is 
applied,  and  affording  a  fine  uniform 
ground,  for  an  infinite  variety  of  orna- 
ments, which  are  also  fixed  on  by  heat. 

The  general  principles  on  which  ena- 
melling is  founded,  are  on  the  whole  very 
simple,  but  perhaps  there  is  none  of  all 
the  chemico-mechanical  arts  which  re- 
quires, for  the  finer  parts,  a  greater  de- 
gree of  practical  skill  and  dexterity,  and 
of  patient  and  accurate  attention'  to  mi- 
nute processes. 

The  concealment  observed  by  those 
who  profess  this  art,  is  proportioned  to  the 
difficulty  of  acquiring  it ;  the  general  che- 
mist must  therefore  content  himself  with 
the  general  principles  of  enamelling,  and 
the  detail  of  those  particulars  that  are 
commonly  known. 

Though  the  term  enamelling  is  usually 
confined  to  the  ornamental  glazing  of  me- 
tallic surfaces,  it  strictly  applies  to  the 
glazing  of  Pottery  or  porcelain,  the  dif- 
ference behig  only  that  in  the  latter  tlie 
surface  is  of  baked  clay.  Witli  regard  to 
the  composition  of  coloured  enamels 
(which  are  all  tinged  by  different  metallic 
oxyds)  a  very  gener.d  account  of  the  sub- 
stances used  will  suffice  in  this  place,  and 
the  rest  of  the  subject  n»ay  be  properly 
referred  to  the  article  of  coloured  Glass. 
The  enamelling  on  metals  therefore  will 
only  be  noticed  in  this  place. 

The  only  metals  that  are  enamelled  are 
gold  and  copper,  and  with  the  latter  the 
opake  enamels  are  only  used.  Whei-e  the 
enamel  is  transjiJarcnt  and  coloured,  the 
metal  chosen  should  be  of  that  kind  as  not 
only  to  have  its  surface  unalterable  when 
fully  red-hot,  but  also  to  be  in  no  de- 
gree chemically  altered  by  the  close  con- 
tact of  melted  glass,  containing  im  abun- 
dance of  some  kind  of  metallic  oxyd. 
This  is  the  chief  reason  why  coloured 
enamelling  on  silver  is  impracticable, 
though  the  brilliancy  of  its  surface  is  not 
inqxiired  by  mere  heat,  for  if  (for  cxam- 
jile)  an  enamel  made  yellow  with  oxyd  of 
lead  or  antimony  is  laid  on  a  surface  of 
bright  silver,  and  kept  melted  on  it  for  a 
certain  time,  the  silver  and  the  enamel 
act  on  each  other  so  powerfully  that  the 
colour  soon  changes  from  a  yellow  to  an 
orange,  and  lastly  to  a  dirty  olive.  Copper 


ENA 


ENA 


is  equally  altered  by  the  coloured  ena- 
mels, so  that  gold  is  the  only  metal  which 
can  bear  the  long  contact  of  the  coloured 
g-iasses  at  a  full  red  heat,  without  being 
altered  by  theia. 

The  simplest  kind  of  enamel  is  that  fine 
white  opake  glass  which  is  applied  to  tlie 
dial-plate  of  watches.  The  precess  of 
laying  it  on  (which  may  sene  as  a  gene- 
ral example  of  the  art)  is  the  following  : 

A  piece  of  thin  copper  sheet  hammer- 
ed, of  the  requisite  convexity,  is  first  ac- 
curately cut  out,  a  hole  drilled  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  axis  of  the  hands,  and  both  the 
surfaces  made  perfectly  bright  with  a 
scratch  brush. 

A  small  rim  is  then  made  round  the 
circumference  with  a  thin  brass  band 
rising  a  little  above  the  level,  and  a  simi- 
lar rim  round  the  margin  of  the  central 
hole.  The  use  of  these  is  to  confijie  the 
enamel  when  in  fusion,  and  keep  the 
edges  of  tfie  plate  quite  neat  and  even. 
The  substance  of  the  enamel  is  a  fine 
white  opake  glass,  the  materLds  of  which 
will  be  presently  mentioned.  This  is 
bought  in  lump  by  the  enamellers,  and  is 
first  broken  down  with  a  hammer,  tlien 
ground  to  a  sufnciently  fine  powder,  with 
some  water  in  an  agate  mortar  ;  the  su- 
perfluous water  being  then  poured  oft', 
tlie  pulverized  enanK:!  remains  of  about 
the  consistence  of  wetted  sand,  and  is 
spread  very  evenly  over  the  surface  of 
the  copper  plate  by  many  dextrous  ma- 
nipulations. On  most  enameUings,  and 
especially  on  this  it  is  necessary  also  to 
counter  enamel  the  under  or  concave 
surface  of  tlie  copper  plate  to  prevent  its 
being  drawn  out  of  its  true  shape  by  the 
unequal  shrinking  of  the  metal  and  ena- 
mel on  cooling.  For  tliis  kind  of  work, 
the  counter-enamel  is  only  about  half 
the  tliickness  on  the  concave,  as  on  the 
convex  side.  For  fiat  plates  the  thick- 
■  ness  is  the  same  on  both  sides. 

The  plate  covered  with  the  moist  ena- 
mel powder  is  warmed  and  thoroughly 
dried,  then  gently  set  upon  a  thin  earth- 
en ring  that  supports  it  only  by  touching 
the  outer  rim,  and  put  gradually  into  the 
red-hot  muffle  of  the  enameller's  furnace. 
This  furnace  is  constructed  somewhat 
like  the  assay  furnace,  but  the  upper  part 
alone  of  the  muffle  is  much  heated,  and 
some  peculiaiities  are  observed  in  the 
construction  to  enable  the  artist  to  govern 
the  fire  more  acctirately. 

Ihe  precise  degree  of  fire  to  be  given 
here  as  in  all  enainelling,  is  tliat  at  which 
the  parades  of  the  enamel  run  togetbei- 
into  an  uiabim  pasty  consistence,  arid 
extend  tbemselves  evenly  over  the  sur- 
face, shewing  a  fine  polished  face,  care- 


Fully  avoiding  on  the  other  hand  so  grestt 
a  heat  as  would  endanger  the  melting  of 
the  thin  metallic  plate .  A\Tien  the  ena^oel 
is  thus  seen  to  y=u.far  d<ysn,  as  it  were,  to 
an  uniform  glossy  glazing,  tlie  piece  is 
gradually  witbdraNvn  and  cooled,  other- 
wise it  would  fly  by  the  action  of  the  cold 
air. 

A  second  coating  of  enamel  is  then  laid 
on  and  fired  as  before,  but  this  time  the 
finest  powder  of  enamel  is  taken,  or  that 
which  remains  suspended  in  the  washings. 
It  is  then  ready  to  receive  the  figures  and 
division  marks,  which  are  made  of  a  black 
enamel,  ground  in  an  agate  mortar  with 
much  labour  to  a  most  impalpable  pow- 
der, worked  up  on  a  pallet  with  oil  of  la- 
vender, or  spike,  and  laid  on  with  an  ex- 
tremely fine  hair  brush.  The  plate  is  thea 
stoved  to  evaporate  the  essential  oil,  and 
the  figures  burnt  in  as  before.  The  po- 
lishing with  tripoh  and  minuter  parts  of 
the  process  need  not  be  here  mentioned- 

If  the  enamel  be  chipped  off  a  dial  plate 
(which  may  be  done  with  the  utmost  ease 
by  benduig  it  backwards  and  forwards, 
as  the  adhesion  between  the  metal  and 
glazing  is  very  slight)  the  part  immedi- 
ately in  contact  with  the  copper  will  be 
fourid  deeply  and  nearly  unifonnly  brown- 
ed, which  shews  how  unfit  copper  alone 
would  be  for  the  transparent  enamels. 

The  regulation  of  the  fire  appears  to 
be  the  most  difficult  of  all  tlie  parts  of 
this  nice  process,  particularly  in  tlie  fine 
enamelling  of  gold  tor  omannental  pur- 
poses, of  designs,  miniatures  and  the  like, 
where  three,  tour,  or  sometimes  five  se- 
parate firings  are  required.  If  the  heat 
is  too  low,  tlie  enamel  does  not  spread  and 
vitrify  as  it  ought ;  if  too  high,  it  may 
be  enough  to  melt  the  metal  itself,  whose 
fusing  point  is  but  a  small  step  above  that 
of  the  enamel,  or  else,  (what  is  an  equal 
mortification  to  the  artist)  the  delicate 
figures,  laid  on  with  so  much  care  and 
judgment,  melt  down  in  a  moment,  and 
the  piece  exhibits  only  a  confused  assem- 
blage of  lines  and  fragments  of  designs. 

The  exact  composition  of  the  opake 
white  enamel,  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance,  and  is  procm^d  by  the  ena- 
mellers,  from  persons  whose  business  it 
is  to  prepare  it.     A  good  enamel  of  this 
kind,  fit  to  be  applied  both  to  porcelain 
and  metals,  should  be  of  a  very  clear  fine 
white,  so  nearly  opake,  as  only  to  be  trans- 
lucent at  the  edges,  and  exposed  to  a  mode- 
rate red  heat,  it'should  run  into  that  kind  of 
paste,  or  imperfect  fusion,  which  allows 
it  to  extend  itself  fi-eely  and  uniform!}-,       ^ 
and  to  acquire  a  glossy  even  siuiace,  with-    jk 
cut  however  fully  melting  into  a  thin  glass.    j| 
The  opake  v  liite  of  th.is  enaniel,  is  given     *^ 


ENA 


ENA 


by  the  oxyd  of  tin,  wliich  possesses,  even 
in  a  small  proportion,  tiie  property  of  ren- 
dering vitrescent  mixtures  white,  and 
opake,  or  in  still  less  proportion,  milky, 
and  wlien  otherwise  coloured,  oi);ilescent. 
The  oxyd  of  tin  is  always  mixed  witii 
three  or  four  times  its  quantity  of  oxyd 
of  lead,  and  it  appears  necessary  tliat  tlie 
metals  should  be  previously  mixed  by 
melting',  and  tiie  alloy  then  calcined. 

The  following  are  tlie  directions  given 
by  Clouet,  for  the  composition  of  this  ena- 
mel. -Mix  luO  parts  of  pure  lead,  with 
from  20  to  25  of  the  best  tin,  and  bring 
them  to  a  low  red  heat  in  an  open  ves- 
sel. 

The  mixture  then  burns  nearly  as  ra- 
pidly as  charcoal,  and  oxidates  very  fast. 
Skim  off  the  crusts  of  oxyd,  successively 
formed,  till  the  whole  is  thoroughly  cal. 
cined.  It  is  better  then  to  mix  all  the 
skimmings  and  again  heat  as  before  till 
no  flame  arises  from  them,  and  the  whole 
is  of  an  uniform  grey  colour.  Take  100 
parts  of  this  oxyd,  100  of  sand,  and  25  or 
30  of  common  salt,  and  melt  the  whole  in 
a  moderate  heat.  This  gives  a  greyish 
mass,  often  porous  and  apparently  imper- 
fect, but  which  liowever  runs  to  a  good 
enamel  when  afterwards  heated.  This  is 
the  enamel  used  for  porcelain,  but  for 
metals  and  finer  works,  the  sand  is  pre- 
viously calcined  in  a  very  strong  heat, 
with  a  fourth  of  its  weight,  or,  if  a  more 
fusible  compound  is  wanted,  as  mvich  of 
the  oxyd  of  tin  and  lead,  as  of  salt  istaken, 
and  the  whole  melted  to  a  while  porous 
mass.  This  is  then  employed  instead  of 
the  rough  sand,  as  in  the  above-mention- 
ed process.  The  above  proportions  liow- 
ever are  not  invariable,  for  if  more  fusi- 
bility is  wanted,  the  dose  of  oxyd  is  en- 
creased,  and  that  of  the  sand  diminished, 
tiie  quantity  of  common  salt  remaining 
the  same.  Tiie  sand  employed  in  tliis 
process  according  to  M.  Clouet,  is  not  the 
common  sort,  however  fine,  but  a  mica- 
ceous sand,  in  which  the  mica  forms  about 
one-fourth  of  the  mixtiu-e. 

Keri,  in  liis  valuable  treatise  on  glass- 
making,  has  given  long  ago  the  following- 
proportions,  for  the  common  materials  of 
all  the  opake  enamels,  which  Kunckel  and 
other  practical  chemists  have  confirmed. 
Calcine  30  parts  of  lead,  wilii  33  of  tin, 
■with  the  precautions  mentioned  above. 
Take  of  this  calcined  mixed  ox}  d  50  lb. 
and  as  much  of  powdered  flints,  (prepar- 
ed by  being  thrown  into  water  wlicn  red- 
hot,  and  then  ground  to  powder,)  and  8 
ounces  of  salt  of  tartar  ;  melt  the  mixture 
in  a  strong  fir«  kept  up  for  lU  hours,  after 
which  reduce  the  mass  to  powder.     Tiiis 


is  the  common  material  for  the  opake 
enamels,  and  is  of  a  grey  white.  To  make 
this  fine  enamel  quite  white,  mix  61b.  of 
this  material  with  48  gi-ains  of  tiie  best 
black  oxyd  of  manganese,  and  melt  in  a 
clear  fire.  When  fully  fused,  throw  it  into 
cold  water,  then  re-melt  and  cool  as  before 
two  or  tiiree  times,  till  the  enamel  is  quite 
white  and  fine.  Kmickel  observes  on  this 
process,  that  he  tried  it  wthout  the  oxyd 
of  manganese,  but  the  enamel  instead  of 
being  milk-white  was  blueish  and  not 
good,  so  that  there  is  no  doubt,  bul  that 
this  oxyd  is  hig'hly  important.  If  too  much 
is  used,  the  enamel  becomes  of  a  rose- 
puri)le.  For  furtlier  observations  on  the 
use  of  manganese  in  vitrescent  mixtures, 
see  the  article  Glass. 

Coloured  enamels,  are  composed  of  a 
common  basis,  which  is  a  fusible  mixture 
of  vitrifiable  materials,  and  of  some  me- 
tallic oxyd.  in  general  the  coloured  ena- 
mels are  required  to  be  transparent,  in 
which  case  the  basis  is  a  kind  of  glass 
composed  of  borax,  sand,  and  oxyd  of 
lead,  or  other  vitrescent  mixtures,  in 
which  tlie  proportion  of  saline  or  metal- 
lic fiux,  is  more  or  less  according  to  the 
degree  of  heat,  that  the  colouring  oxyd 
will  bear  widiout  decomposition.  When 
the  coloured  enamel  is  to  be  opake  or 
opalescent,  a  certain  portion  of  the  white 
opake  enamel,  or  of  the  oxyd  of  tin,  is 
added  to  the  mixture-  Tlic  most  beau- 
tifid  and  costly  colour,  known  in  enamel- 
ling, is  an  exquisitely  fine  rich  red  with  a 
purple  tinge,  given  by  the  salts  and  oxyds 
of  gold,  especially  the  purple  precipitate 
formed  by  tin  in  one  form  or  other,  and 
nitro-muriat  of  gold,  and  also  by  the  ful- 
minating gold.  This  beautiful  colour  re- 
quires much  skill  in  the  artist,  to  be  fully 
brought  out.  It  is  said  that  when  most 
perfect,  it  should.come  from  the  fire  quite 
colourless,  and  afterwards  receive  its  co- 
lour by  the  flame  of  a  candle.  Gold  co- 
lours will  not  bear  a  violent  fire. 

Other  and  commoner  reds,  are  given  by 
the  oxyd  of  iron,  but  this  requires  the 
mixture  of  alumine  or  some  otiicr  sub- 
stance, refractory  in  the  fire;  otiierwise,  at 
a  full  red  heat,  the  colour  will  degenerate 
into  black. 

Yellow  is  given  either  by  the  oxyd  of 
silver  alone,  or  by  the  oxyds  of  lead  and 
..nliinony,  witli  simi'ar  nii.\tures  to  those 
retjuired  f()r  iron.  'Vhe  silver  is  as  tender 
a  colour  as  gold,  and  readily  injured  or 
lost  in  a  liigli  heat. 

Creen  is  given  by  the  oxyd  of  copper, 
or  it  may  also  be  produced  by  a  mixture 
of  blue  and  yellow  colours. 

Blue  is  given  by  cobalt,  and  this  seems 


ENA 

of  all  enamel  colours  the  most  certain,  j 
and  easily  manageable. 

Black  is  produced  by  a  mixture  of  co- 
balt and  manganese. 

Red  enamel  is  aiforded  by  the  oxyd  of 
gold,  and  also  by  that  of  iron.  The  for- 
mer is  tlie  most  beautiful. 

Undei*  the  article  of  coloured  Glass- 
es, this  subjtfct  will  be  noticed  more  at 
large. 

'I'he  reader  may  conceive  how  much 
the  difficulties  of  tiiis  nice  art  are  increas- 
ed, when  the  object  is  not  merely  to  lay 
an  uniform  coloured  glazing,  on  a  metal- 
lic surface,  but  also  lo  pahii  that  surface 
witli  figures  and  otlier  designs,  that  re- 
quire extreme  dehcacy  of  outline,  accu- 
racy of  shading,  and  selection  of  colour- 
ing. The  enamel  painter  has  to  work, 
not  with  actual  colours,  but  with  mix- 
tiu'es  which  lie  only  knows  from  experi- 
ence, will  produce  certain  colours,  after 
the  delicate  operation  of  rire  ;  and  to  the 
common  skill  of  the  painter  in  the  ar- 
rangeincnt  of  his  pallet,  and  clioice  of  his 
colours,  the  enameller  has  to  add,  an  in- 
finite quantity  of  practical  knowledi^e  of 
the  chemical  operation  of  one  metallic 
oxyd  on  another,  tlie  fusibility  of  liis  ma- 
terials, and  the  utmost  degree  of  heat  at 
which  tliey  wiU  retain  not  only  the  accu- 
racy of  the  figures  which  he  has  given, 
but  the  precise  shade  of  colour,  which  he 
intends  to  lay  on. 

Painting  in  enamel  requues  a  succes- 
sion of  firings  ;  fii'st  of  the  ground  which 
is  to  receive  the  design,  and  which  itself 
requires  two  firings,  and  tlien  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  design  itself  The 
ground  is  laid  on  in  the  same  general  wa}-, 
as  the  common  watch-face  enamelling, 
already  described.  The  colours  are  the 
different  metalUc  osyds,  melted  with 
some  vitrescent  mixtm-e,  and  ground 
to  extreme  fineness.  These  are  v\"orked 
up  with  an  essential  oil  (that  of  spike  is 
preferred,  and  next  to  it  oil  of  lavender.) 
to  the  proper  consistence  of  oil  colours, 
and  are  laid  on  with  a  very  fine  hair  brush. 
The  essential  oil  should  be  very  pure,  and 
the  use  ot  this,  rather  than  any  fixed  oil, 
is  probably  that  the  whole  may  evapo- 
rate completely  in  a  moderate  heat,  and 
leave  no  carbonaceous  matter  in  contact 
with  the  colour  when  red-hot,  which 
might  affect  its  degree  of  oxidation,  and 
thence  the  shade  of  colour  which  it  is 
intended  to  produce. 

As  the  colour  of  some  vitrified  metallic 
oxyds,  (such  as  that  of  gold,)  will  stand 
only  at  a  very  moderate  heat,  whilst  others 
will  bear,  and  even  require,  a  higher  tem- 
peratui'e  to  be  properly  fixed,  it  forms  a 


ENA 

great  part  of  the  technical  skill  of  the 
ai'tist,  to  apply  the  different  colours  in 
proper  order ;  fixing  first  those  shades 
whicli  ai"e  produced  by  the  colours,  that 
will  endure  the  highest  heat,  and  finish- 
mg  with  those  that  demand  the  least 
heat.  The  outline  of  the  design  is  first 
traced  on  the  enamel,  ground  and  burnt 
in  ;  after  which  the  pai'ts  are  filled  up 
gradually  witlt  repeated  burnings,  to  the 
last,  and  finest  touches  of  tlie  tenderest 
enamel. 

Transparent  enamels  are  scarcely  ever 
laid  upon  any  other  metal  than  gold,  on 
account  of  the  discoloration,  produced  by 
other  metals,  as  already  explained.  If 
however,  copper  is  the  metal  used,  it  is 
first  covered  with  a  thin  enamel  coating, 
over  which  gold  leaf  is  laid-and  burnt  in, 
so  that  in  fact  it  is  still  tins  metal,  that  is 
the  basis  of  the  ornamental  enamel. 

Witb  regiu-d  to  the  vast  rimiber  of  im- 
portant mmutix  in  the  selection  and  order 
of  applying  the  colours,  the  management 
of  tlie  tire,  &c.  &.c  almost  the  wJiole  of 
what  is  known  on  this  subject,  is  confined 
to  the  practical  artist,  nor  could  tliis 
knowledge,  if  obtained,  interest  the  ge- 
neral reader. 

The  art  of  enamelling  on  metals  is 
treated  at  full  lengtli  by  Mr.  Brogiiiart  in 
tlie  .innaies  de  Cliimie,  vol.  9. 

The  following  circumstances,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  we  have  said,  mav  be  use- 
ful. 

We  have  seen,  that  oxide  of  copper  af- 
fords a  green  ;  manganese,  a  violet ;  co- 
ball,  a  blue ;  and  ii-on,  a  very  fine  black. 
A  mixture  of  these  different  enamels  pro- 
duces a  great  variety  of  intermediate  co- 
lours, according  to  their  nature  and  pro- 
portion. In  this  branch  of  the  art,  the 
coloured  enamels  are  sometimes  mixed 
with  each  other,  and  sometimes  the  oxides 
are  mixed  before  they  are  added  to  the 
vitreous  bases. 

The  enameller,  who  is  provided  with  a 
set  of  good  colours,  is  very  far  fi-om  being 
in  a  situation  for  practising  the  art,  unless 
he  be  skilled  in  the  methods  of  applying 
them,  and  tlie  nature  of  the  grounds  upon 
which  they  are  to  be  laid.  Many  of  the 
metals  are  too  fusible  to  be  enamelled, 
and  almost  all  of  them  are  corroded  by 
the  action  of  the  fused  glass.  For  this 
reason,  none  of  the  metals  are  used  but 
gold,  silver,  and  copper.  Platina  has  in- 
deed  been  used  ;  but  of  its  eflects  and 
habitudes  with  enamels  very  hltle  can  be 
said,  for  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
experiments. 

The  pm-est  gold  of  24  carats  is  calcu- 
lated to  produce  the  best  effect  with  ena- 


ENA 


ENA 


jncl.  1.  Because  it  entirely  preserves 
the  metallic  brilliancy  without  undcrgo- 
iJig  any  oxidation  in  the  fire.  2.  Being- 
less  fusible,  it  will  admit  of  a  more  re- 
fractory, and  consequently  a  liarder  and 
more  beautiful  enamel.  It  is  not  usual, 
however,  to  enamel  upon  finer  gold  tlian 
22  carats;  and  the  operation  would  be 
very  defective,  if  a  coarser  kind  than  that 
of  18  carats  were  used.  For  in  this  case 
more  alkali  must  be  added  to  the  enamel, 
to  render  it  more  fusible,  and  this  addition 
would  at  the  same  time  render  it  softer 
and  less  brilliant. 

Rejecting  all  these  exceptions,  we 
give  the  following  description,  by  way 
of  example,  of  fixing  a  transparent  blue 
enamel  upon  gold  of  22  carats. 

The  artist  begins  his  operation  by 
breaking  tlie  enamel  into  small  pieces  in 
a  steel  mortar,  and  afterward  pulverizing 
it  in  a  mortar  of  agate.  He  is  careful  to 
add  water  in  this  part  of  his  process, 
which  prevents  the  splinters  of  glass  from 
flying  about.  There  are  no  means  of  e.x- 
plaining  the  point  at  whicli  the  trituration 
ought  to  be  given  up,  as  this  can  be  learn- 
ed only  by  experience.  Some  enamels 
require  to  be  very  finely  tritiu-ated ;  but 
others  may  be  used  in  th.e  form  of  a  coarse 
powder.  As  soon  as  he  apprehends  that 
his  enamel  is  sufficiently  pounded,  lie 
washes  it  by  agitation  in  very  clear  water, 
and  pouring  ofl'  the  fluid  as  it  becomes 
turbid.  This  operation,  wliich  is  made 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  ott'  dust,  and 
every  other  impurity  from  the  enamel,  is 
continued  until  the  water  comes  off  as 
clear  as  it  was  poured  on. 

The  workman  puts  his  enamel,  thus 
prepared,  in  a  white  china  or  eartlien  sau- 
cer, with  water  poured  on  it  to  the  depth 
of  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch.  He  after, 
ward  takes  up  this  enamel  with  an  iron 
spatula,  as  equally  as  po.ssible.  As  the 
enamel  here  spoken  of  is  transparent,  it  is 
usual  to  ornament  the  surface  of  the  gold 
with  rose  work,  or  otiier  kinds  of  works, 
calculated  to  produce  a  good  efiect 
through  tiie  enamel. 

The  thickness  of  this  first  layer  dejicnds 
entirely  upon  its  colour  :  delicate  colours, 
in  general,  rc(piire  that  it  should  have  no 
great  thickness. 

The  moist  enamel,  being  thus  placed, 
is  dried  by  applying  a  very  clean  half- 
worn  linen  cloth  to  it,  which  must  be  very 
carefully  done,  to  avoid  removing  tlie  ena- 
mel  by  any  action  of  wiping. 

In  this  state  the  piece  is  ready  for  the 
fire.  If  it  be  enamelled  on  both  sides,  it 
is  placed  upon  a  tile,  or  iron  plate,  hol- 
lowed out  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  un- 
covered edges  of  tiic  piece  alone  are  in 


cont.ict  with  the  support.  But  if  it  be 
enamelled  on  one  side  only,  it  is  simply 
laid  upon  the  plate,  or  on  a  tile.  Two 
things,  however,  require  to  be  attended 
to.  1.  If  the  work  be  very  small,  or  not 
capable  of  being  enamelled  on  its  opposite 
side,  the  iron  plate  must  be  perfectly  flat, 
in  order  that  the  work  may  not  bend 
when  softened  by  heat.  2.  If  the  work  be 
of  considerable  sl»e,  it  is  always  counter- 
enamelled  if  possible  ;  that  is  to  say,  an 
enamel  is  applied  on  the  back  surface,  in 
order  to  counteract  the  effect  which  the 
other  coating  of  glass  might  produce  on 
the  soft  metal,  when  it  came  to  contract 
by  cooling. 

The  enameller's  furnace  is  square  and 
built  of  bricks,  bedded  in  an  earth  proper 
for  the  purpose.  It  may  be  considered 
as  consisting  of  two  parts,  the  lower  part, 
which  receives  a  muffle,  resting  on  tlie 
floor  of  the  furnace,  and  open  on  both 
sides- 

The  upper  part  of  the  furnace  consists 
of  a  fire-place,  I'ather  larger  and  longer 
than  the  dimensions  of  the  muffle.  This 
fire-place  contains  the  charcoal,  which 
must  suiTound  the  muffle  on  all  sides,  ex- 
cepting at  the  bottom.  The  charcoal  is 
put  in  at  a  door  above  the  muffle,  which 
is  closed  when  tlie  fire  is  lighted.  A 
chimney  proceeds  from  the  summit  of  the 
furnace  with  a  moderate  aperture  which 
may  be  closed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  ar- 
tist, by  apphing  a  cast  iron  plate  to  it. 
This  furnace  differs  fi-om  that  of  the  as- 
sayer  in  the  ciicumstance,  that  it  is  sup- 
plied with  air  through  the  muffle  itself: 
for,  if  the  draught  were  beneath  tiie 
muffle,  the  heat  would  be  too  strong, 
and  could  not  be  stopped  when  requi- 
site. 

As  soon  as  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the 
muffle  has  obtained  the  requisite  degree 
of  ignition,  the  charcoal  is  disposed  to- 
ward the  lower  part  of  the  muffle  in  such 
a  manner,  as  that  it  shall  not  fall  upon  the 
work,  which  is  then  convened  into  the 
muffle  with  tlie  g-reatcst  care  upon  the 
plate  of  iron  or  earthen-ware,  which  is  ta- 
ken up  by  long  spring  pincers.  The 
work  is  ])laccd  as  near  as  possible  at  the 
further  extremity  of  the  muffle ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  artist  perceives  a  commence- 
ment of  fusion,  he  turns  it  round  with 
great  delicacy,  in  order  tliat  the  fusion 
may  be  very  imiforni.  And  as  soon  as  he 
perceives  that  the  fusion  has  completely 
taken  place,  lie  instantly  removes  it  out  of 
the  furnace :  fi)r  the  fusion  of  gold  happens 
so  very  near  that  of  the  enamel,  that  a  ne- 
glect of  a  few  seconds  might  be  attended 
with  considerable  loss. 

■When  the  work  is  cooled,  a   second 


ENA 


ENA 


coat  of  enamel  is  applied  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  tlie  first,  if  necessaiy.  This,  and 
the  same  cautious  management  of  the 
fire,  are  to  be  repeated  for  every  addition- 
4I  coat  of  enamel  the  nature  of  tlie  work 
may  demand. 

As  soon  as  the  number  of  coatings  are 
sufficient,  it  becomes  necessary  to  give  an 
even  siirf\tce  to  the  enamel,  which,  though 
polished  by  the  fire,  isnevertlieiess  ii-regu- 
lar.  This  is  done  witii  an  English  fine- 
gi-ained  nie  and  water.  As  tlie  file  wears 
smooth,  sand  is  used.  Much  precaution 
and  address  are  required  in  this  part  of 
the  work,  not  only  because  it  is  easy  to 
make  the  enamel  separate  in  splinters 
•  from  the  metal,  but  likewise  because  the 
colour  would  not  be  uniform  if  it  were  to 
be  ground  thinner  at  one  part  than  at  .ano- 
ther. 

The  deep  scratches  of  the  file  are  in 
the  nest  place  taken  out,  b\-  rubbing  the 
surface  with  a  piece  of  deal  wood  and 
fine  sand  and  water.  A  polish  is  then 
given  by  a  second  ignition.  This  polish, 
however,  is  frequently  insuflficient,  and 
not  so  perfectly  uniform  as  the  delicacy  of 
the  work  may  require. 

The  substance  used  by  the  enamellers, 
as  a  polishing  material,  is  known  by  the 
name  of  rotten-s'one;  which  is  prepared 
by  poimding,  crashing,  decanting  off  the 
tui*bid  water,  suffering  the  fine  suspend- 
ed pai-ticies  to  subside  from  this  water, 
and  lastly  levigating  it  upon  a  glass 
plate. 

The  work  is  then  cemented  to  a  square 
piece  of  wood  with  a  mixture  of  resin  and 
brick-dust,  and  by  this  means  fixed  in  a 
vice,  as  before  observed. 

The  first  operation  of  polishing  is  made 
l)y  rubbing  the  work  with  rot/en-stone 
upon  a  small  straiglit  bar  of  pewter. 
Some  delicacy  is  here  required,  to  avoid 
scratching  or  producing  flaws  in  the  ena- 
mel, by  pressing  it  too  liard.  In  this  way 
the  piece  is  rendered  perfectly  even :  but 
the  last  brilii;uit  polish  is  given  by  a 
piece  of  deal  wood  ind  the  same  rotten- 
stone. 

This  is  the  general  method  of  apply- 
ing enamels;  but  some  colours  requu-e 
more  precaution  in  the  management  oi  the 
fii-e. 

When  different  colours  are  intended  to 
be  placed  beside  one  another,  they  are 
kept  separate  by  a  small  edge  or  promi- 
nency, which  is  left  in  the  gold  for  that, 
purpose,  and  is  polished  along  with  the 
enamel. 

The  enamelling  upon  silver  is  effected 

nearl)-  in  the  same  manner  as  tliut  of  gold ; 

but  the  changes  sustained  by  the  colours 

upon  the  silver,  by  the  action  of  fire,  are 

VOT,.    J. 


much  more  considerable  than  when  gold 
is  used. 

Ck)pperis  not  much  used  by  enamellers, 
on  accoimt  of  the  difficulty  which  attends 
the  attempt  to  fix  beautiful  colours  upon 
it.  When  this  metal  is  used,  the  common 
practice  is  to  apply  a  coating  of  opaque 
while  enamel,  and  upon  tins  other  co- 
louis,  which  are  more  fusible  than  the 
white. 

A  good  effect  is  produced  in  toys,  by 
leaving'  part  of  the  gold  bare.  For  this 
purpose  its  surface  is  cut  into  suitable 
compartments  by  the  engraver.  This, 
however,  is  an  expensive  method,  and  is 
for  tliis  reason  occasionally  imitated  by 
applying  small  and  very  thin  pieces  of 
gold  upon  Uie  surface  of  the  enamel, 
where  they  are  fixed  by  the  fire,  and  after- 
ward covered  by  a  transparent  vitreous 
coating. 

After  tliis  detail  of  tlie  aa-t  of  enamel; 
ling,  Mr.  Brogniart  describes  a  method  ot 
taking  ofl^  the  enamel  from  any  toy,  with- 
out injuring  its  metallic  part.  For  this 
purpose,  a  mixture  of  common  salt,  nitre, 
and  alum,  in  powder,  is  applied  upon  the 
enamel,  and  the  piece  put  into  the  furnace. 
As  soon  as  the  fusion  has  taken  place,  the 
piece  is  suddenly  thro^^^l  into  water, 
which  causes  the  enamel  to  fly  off  either 
totally  or  in  part.  The  part  which  may 
remain  is  to  be  removed  by  repeating  the 
same  operation  a  second  time.  See  Glass  ; 
also  Porcelain. 

To  coat  vessels  of  iron  or  copper  for 
cuhnary  purposes  with  an  enamel  capable 
of  defending  the  metal  from  tlie  action  of 
any  solvent,  and  enduring  any  heat,  or 
transition  from  heat  to  cold,  appears  a  de- 
sirable object;  and  many  expcriment.s 
have  been  made  on  the  subject  by  M/. 
Soen  Rinman,  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Stockholm. 
,  The  following  compositions  he  found 
answer  very  well  on  copper.  1.  Tl.e 
white  semitransparent  fiuor  spar  and  sul- 
pliat  of  lime  in  equal  quantities,  powder- 
ed, mixed,  and  calcined  in  a  white  heat ; 
then  powdered,  made  into  a  tliin  paste 
with  water,  and  applied  a  little  warm  to 
the  vessel  also  warmed.  When  dried 
and  heated  gradually  to  a  certain  point,  a. 
very  strong  heat,  greater  than  is  common- 
ly obtained  in  an  assaying  furnace,  is  to  be 
apphcd  as  quickly  as  ])ossible.  2.  Sixty 
parts  of  hme,  100  of  fluor  spar,  60  of  gyp- 
sum, 20  of  qukrti,  and  one  of  manganese, 
were  calcined,  ground,  and  applied  in  a 
similar  manner.  3.  Four  parts  of  fluor 
spai',  four  of  gypsum,  and  one  of  litharge, 
melted  into  a  straw-coloured  glass, 
ground,  and  applied  in  the  same  way,  re- 
quired  a   still    stronger    heat.    4.  Fi^ 


ENG 


ENG 


parts  of  ftiior  spar,  5  of  gypsum,  2  of  mi- 
nium, 2  of  flint  glass,  J  a  part  of  borax, 
the  same  of  oxide  of  tin,  and  one  twenty- 
fiftli  of  apart  of  oxide  of  cobalt  melted  to- 
gether, made  an  enamel;  which,  when 
ground  and  applied  as  the  others,  fused 
with  a  less  degree  of  heat.  This  Mr. 
Ilinman  imagines  would  have  been  acted 
upon  in  length  of  time  by  sulphuric  acid. 
The  oxide  of  cobalt  was  prepared  by  sa- 
turating a  solution  of  cobalt  in  aquaibrtis 
with  common  salt,  and  evaporating  to  dry- 
ness. 

As  these  would  not  do  for  u'on,  he  tri- 
ed the  following.  1.  Minium  9  parts, 
flint  glass  6,  pure  potash  2,  nitre  2,  borax 
1,  were  ground  together,  put  into  a  co- 
vered crucible  which  they  only  half  filled, 
and  fused  into  a  glass.  This  poured  out 
on  a  piece  of  marble,  qtienched  in  water, 
powdered,  and  made  into  a  thin  paste, 
was  laid  on  both  sides  of  an  iron  vessel. 
After  having  been  dried  and  l>eated  gra- 
dually, the  vessel  was  put  under  a  muffle 
well  heated  in  an  assaying  furnace,  and  in 
half  a  mirute  the  enamel  melted.  The 
vessel  being  then  withdrawn,  was  found 
enamelled  of  a  beautiful  black  colour, 
which  appeared  to  be  owing  to  a  thin  lay- 
er of  oxided  iron  seen  through  the  trans- 
parent glaze.  2.  The  same,  with  one 
hundredth  part  of  oxide  of  cobalt,  pre- 
pared as  above,  covered  t\ie  vessel  more 
perfectly  with  a  blue  enamel.  3.  The 
same  ground  with  potters'  white  lead, 
which  consists  of  4  parts  lead  and  1  tin, 
produced  a  very  smooth  gray  enamel, 
more  firm  and  hard  than  the  preceding. 
A  small  quantity  of  red  oxide  of  iron  gave 
it  a  tine  dark  red  colour.  4.  Flint  glass 
12  parts,  mhiium  18,  potash  4,  nitre  4,  bo- 
rax 2,  oxide  of  tin  3,  oxide  of  cobalt  one- 
eighth  of  a  part,  gave  a  smooth  pearl-co- 
loured enamel,  not  brittle  or  subject  to 
crack,  and  capable  of  enduring  sudden 
ijianges  of  heat  and  cold,  as  well  as  the 
action  of  oils,  alkalies,  and  weak  acids ; 
but  it  cannot  i-esist  the  stronger  vegetable 
acids,  and  still  less  the  mineral. 

'I'hese  enamels  can  be  applied  only  on 
hammered  iron,  cast  iron  being  too  thick 
to  be  lieated  with  sufficient  (juickness.  It 
may  be  unnecessary  to  add,,  none  of  them 
will  bear  hard  blows. 

ENGINKS,for  raisiftg  water,in  Hydrau- 
lics. The  engines  for  raising  water  are 
numerous :  tlie  common  pump  is  the  sim- 
plest. This  useful  and  domestic  ma- 
chine was  invented  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  years  before  tlie  bu-th  of 
Christ ;  but  it  has  been  greatly  improved, 
even  since  the  time  of  Galileo,  wlien  the 
pressure  of  the  atmospheie  became  more 
Ve*fectly  known-. 


This  pump  is  formed  of  a  long  cylin 
der  of  wood  or  lead,  one  end  oi  which 
stands  in  the  water  at  the  bottom  of  the- 
well.  It  contains  two  valves,  or  hollow 
pieces  of  wood,  which  tit  close  to  the  cy- 
linder, with  lids  opening  upwards ;  the 
lower  valve  c  remains  fixed,  but  the  up-- 
per  valve  b  is  fastened  to  the  piston  rod, 
and  moves  up  and  down  by  the  action  of 
the  handle  or  lever. 

The  mode  of  operation.  This  descrip- 
tion supposes  that  the  water  in  the  cy- 
linder of  the  pump  stands  no  higher  than 
the  water  in  the  well,  and  tliat  the  re- 
mainder of  the  cylinder  is  empty,  or  ra- 
ther occupied  by  air.  Now,  when  the 
handle  of  the  pump  is  raised  u]^,  the  pis- 
ton B  sinks  to  shards  o,  which  condenses 
the  air  between  b  and  c,  till  its  resistance 
forces  open  the  valve  or  lid  ;  then  the  air 
escapes  into  the  upper  and  open  part  of 
the  cylinder.  As  the  piston  rises,  the 
air  which  is  contained  between  b  and  c 
becomes  rarified,  and  the  elasticity  of  that 
portion  of  air  which  is  contained  in  the 
cylinder,  between  the  lower  valve  c  and 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  well,  forces 
open  the  lower  lid,  and  a  part  of  it  esc.ipes 
into  the  rarified  space  between  b  and  c, 
which  has  been  formed  by  the  rising  of 
the  piston.  Tlius,  by  a  few  strokes  of 
the  handle,  if  the  wood  or  metal  of  the 
cylinder  be  sufficiently  close  to  exclude 
tlie  air,  and  the  piston  and  valves  be  well 
fitted  to  the  sides  of  the  pipe,  the  com- 
pressive power  of  the  atmosphere  will  bi; 
removed  from  the  surface  of  that  part  of 
the  fluid  which  is  contained  within  the 
cylinder,  and  the  atmospherical  pressure 


ENG 


ENG 


<«.n  the  general  surface  of  the  well  wiU 
ibrce  up  the  barrel  to  any  height  less  than 
33  or  34  feet. 

Then,  supposing  the  lower  valve  to  be 
placed  at  a  less  distance  than  33  feet  from 
the  surface,  the  ascending  water'  will 
force  it  open  and  get  admitted  into  the 
cylinder  between  c  and  b.  When  the  pis- 
ton descends,  the  weight  of  the  water 
upon  the  lower  valve  closes  it,  and  the 
fluid  is  forced  through  the  upper  by  the 
sinking  of  the  piston ;  so  that,  when  the 
handle  is  returned,  the  water,  which  now 
rests  on  the  upper  lid,  is  carried  towards 
the  top  of  the  cylinder,  and  flows  out  of 
the  spout  E  ;  and  tlie  supply  irom  the 
well,  by  the  compression  of  the  atmos- 
phere upon  its  surface,  forces  through  the 
valve  c  into  the  cylinder,  as  the  upper 
piston  raises  the  water  by  the  power  of 
the  handle. 

After  the  pump  has  been  worked,  if 
the  barrel  and  pistons  be  good,  the  water 
will  stand  in  the  cylinder  close  to  the 
^out,  and  ready  to  flow  on  the  first  stroke  • 
of  the  handle. 

As  it  is  the  pressure  of  the  atnv^phere 
alone  that  forces  the  water  up  the  barrel 
of  the  pump,  when  the  lower  valve  is  more 
than  33  or  34  feet  from  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  well,  the  pressure  of  the  air 
•cannot  raise  it  to  the  valve,  consequently 
the  machine  would  be  useless  ;  but  this 
is  prevented  by  sinking  the  lower  piston 
in  the  cylinder  till  it  be  actually  within 
the  height  of  the  pressure,  and  by  length- 
ening the  piston  rod  of  the  upper  in  pro- 
portion to  the  depth  of  the  lower ;  this 
gives  an  additional  weight  of  fluid  to  be 
lifted  each  stroke,  and  the  power  must  be 
proportionate  to  the  handle.  See  Mams' 
Philosophy,  Jilartin's  Philosophia  Britta- 
nicoy  bfc. 

The  Hair-Rope  Pump  is  also  another 
means  of  raising  water.  It  is  formed  in  the 
following  manner : 

The  three  hair  ropes  f  pass  ia  grooves 
over  two  pullies  a  b,  and  the  lines  are 
kept  extended  by  a  weight  which  is  fas- 
tened to  the  lower  pinley  b  ;  at  c  is  a 
wheel  and  handle,  over  which  the  line 
passes  that  joins  them  to  a  small  multi- 
plying wheel  {listened  to  the  well  beam, 
and  this  acts  on  the  uppermost  pulley. 
When  the  machine  is  put  in  motion,  as 
the  hair  ropes  pass  through  the  water  in 
tlie  well  it  sinks  into  their  interstices,  and 
by  the  quickness  of  their  motion  it  is 
carried  up  the  ascending  ropes  in  consi- 
derable quantities,  till  it  reaches  the  up- 
per pulley,  when  it  falls  into  the  reser- 
voir E.  This  method,  simple  as  it  may 
appear,  is  now  used  to  raise  water  from 
a  well  90  feet  deep,  and  by  tolerable  ex- 


ertion it  is  capable  of  drawing  up  about 
9  gallons  a  minute. 


^rckinieifcs'  Screw  Engine. — This  mode 
of  raising"  water  is  of  great  antiquity. 
The  fluid  enters  at  a,  the  mouth  of  the 
spiral,  and  by  the  surrounding-  pressure, 
rises  to  c.  When  it  has  attained  this 
point,  it  cannot  afterwards  occupy  any 
other  part  of  the  spiral  than  that  which  is 
on  the  under  side ;  for  it  cannot  move 
from  c  towards  d,  because  it  is  situated 
higher  above  the  horizon  ;  and  as  this  will 
always  be  the  same  in  eveiy  similar  part;, 
it  is  evident  that  when  the  machine  is  in 
motion,  the  water  as  it  is  raised  by  the 
spiral,  will  always  remain  on  the  under 
side  till  it  flows  out  of  the  spout. 


ENG 


KNG 


The  following  is  a  description  of  a  very 
cheap  Engine  for  raising  Water,  in  a  let- 
ter from  Mr.  H.  Sarjeant,  of  Whitehaven, 
to  Mr.  Taylor,  Secretary  to  the  Sopiety  for 
the  Encouragement  of  Arts. 

"  I  am  sensible  that  the  little  engine,  a 
drawing  of  which  accompanies  this  letter, 
can  lay  no  great  claim  to  novelty  in  its 
principle  ;  nevertheless,  it  is  respectfull}' 
submitted  to  the  consideration  of  tlie  so- 
ciety, how  for  its  simplicity,  and  cheap- 
ness of  construction,  may  i-cndcr  it  wor- 
thy of  their  attention,  with  a  view  to  its 
being  more  generally  known  and  used  in 
similar  cases. 

Irton  Hall,  the  seat  of  E.  I.  Irton,  Esq. 
is  situated  on  an  ascent  of  sixty  or  sixty- 
one  feet  perpendicular  height ;  at  the  foot 
of  which,  at  the  distance  of  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  yards  from  the  offices, 
runs  a  small  stream  of  water.  The  ob- 
ject was  to  raise  this  to  the  house  for  do- 
mestic purposes. 

To  this  end,  a  dam  was  made  at  a 
short  distance  above,  so  as  to  cause  a  fall 
of  about  foui-  feet ;  and  the  water  was 
brought  by  a  wooden  trough,  into  which 
was  inserted  a  piece  of  two-inch  leaden 
pipe,  a  part  of  which  is  seen  r.t  A,  fig.  3. 


The  stream  of  this  pipe  is  so  directed, 
as  to  run  into  the  bucket  B,  wlien  the 
bucket  is  elevated ;  but  so  soon  as  it  be- 
gins to  descend,  the  stream  flows  over  it, 
and  goes  to  supply  the  wooden  trough  or 
well,  in  which  the  foot  of  the  forcing  pump 
C  stands,  of  three  inches  bore. 

D,  is  an  u'on  cylinder  attached  to  the 
pump  rod,  which  passes  through  it.^  It  is 
filled  with  lead,  and  weighs  about  two 
hundred  and  forty  pounds.  This  is  the 
power  which  works  the  pump,  and  forces 
the  water  through  four  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  of  inch  pipe,  from  the  pump 
up  to  the  house. 

At  E,  is  fixed  a  cord  which,  when  the 
bucket  comes  to  within  four  or  five  inch- 
es of  its  .lov.est  projection,  becomes 
stretched,  and  opens  a  valve  in  the  bot- 
tom of  it,  through  which  the  water  emp- 
ties itself. 

I  beg  leave  to  add,  that  an  engine,  in  a 
great  degree  similar  to  this,  was  erected 
some  years  ago  by  the  late  James  Sped- 
ding,  esquire,  for  a  lead  mine  near  Kes- 
wick, with  the  addition  of  a  smaller  buck- 
et whio^  emptied  itself  into  the  larger, 
near  the  beginning  of  its  descent,  without 
which'  addition  it  was  found  that  the  beam 


ENG 


ENG 


only  acquired  a  vibratory  motion,  witliout 
making-  a  full  and  effective  stroke. 

To  answer  this  pui'pose  in  a  more  sim- 
ple way,  I  constructed  tlie  small  engine 
in  such  a  manner,  as  lo  finish  its  stroke 
(speaking  of  the  bucket  end,)  when  the 
beam  comes  into  an  horizontal  position,  or 
a  little  below  it.  By  this  means,  ilie  lever 
is  virtually  lengthened  in  its  descent  in 
the  proportion  of  tlie  radius  to  the  cosine, 
of  about  thirty  degrees,  or  as  seven  to  six 
nearly,  and  consequently,  its  power  is  in- 
creased in  an  equal  proportion. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  ojjening  of  the 
valve  might  have  been  effected,  perhaps 
better,  by  a  projecting  pn\  at  the  bottom  ; 
but  I  chose  to  give  an  exact  description 
of  the  engine  as  it  stands.  It  has  iiow 
been  six  months  in  use,  and  completely 
answers  the  purpose  intended. 

The  only  artists  employed,  except  the 
plumber,  were  a  country  blacksmitli  and 
carpenter ;  and  the  whole  cost,  exclusive 
of  the  pump  and  pipes,  did  not  amount  to 
five  pounds." 

In  another  letter,  dated  Whitehaven, 
April  28,  1801,  Mr.  Sarjeant  further  ob- 
serves, that  the  pump  requires  about 
eighteen  gallons  of  water  in  the  bucket  to 
raise  tlie  counter-weight,  and  make  a 
fresh  stroke  in  the  pump ;  that  it  makes 
three  strokes  in  a  minute,  and  gives  about 
a  half  gallon  into  the  cistern  at  each  stroke. 
He  adds,  "  1  speak  of  what  it  did  in  the 
driest  part  of  last  summer ;  when  it  sup- 
plied a  large  family,  together  with  work 
people,  &c  with  water  fof  all  purposes, 
in  a  situation  where  none  was  to  be  had 
before,  except  some  bad  water  from  a 
common  pump,  which  had  been  since  re- 
moved. But  the  above  supply  being  more 
than  sufficient,  the  machine  is  occasion- 
ally stopped  to  prevent  wear,  which  is 
done  by  merely  casting  off  tlie  string  of 
the  bucket  valve." 

Mr.  Fessenden  in  his  Register  of  Arts, 
observes,  that  the  simplicity  of  construc- 
tion, and  the  cheapness  of  this  machine, 
must  render  it  worthy  of  attention,  not 
only  for  raising  water  for  domestic  par- 
poses,  but  in  many  cases  it  might  be  turn- 
ed to  account  in  agriculture,  by  watering 
upland  fields,  gardens,  &c. 

This  engine,  although  the  most  simple 
of  any  which  has  fallen  within  our  notice, 
exhibits  but  one  of  a  great  variety  of  me- 
tliods  which  engineers  have  adopted  for 
raising  a  part  of  a  stream  of  water  above 
its  level  by  force  of  its  till.  Machines  for 
accompUshing  the  same  object,  but  of  a 
more  complicated  construction,  are  des- 
cribed in  philosophical  journals.  The  in- 
vention of  Mr.  Close,  pubhshed  in  Ni- 
cholson's Philosophical  Journal,  for  Janu- 


ary, 1802;  and  analysed  by  Mr.  Nicholson 
in  his  Journal  for  Februarv,  the  same 
year,  of  a  hydraulick  apparatus,  acting  by 
a  syphon,  Mr.  Trevithack's  powerful  en- 
gine for  raising  water  by  the  pressure  of  a 
column,  enclosed  in  a  pipe,  described  in 
Nicliolson's  Journal,  for  March,  1802,  im- 
provements on  the  hydrauhck  engine  of 
Schemnitz,  and  that  of  Mr.  Goodwyn  by 
Mr.  John  Wiiitley  Boswell,  likewise  de- 
scribed in  Mr.  Nicholson's  Journal,  have 
all  the  same  object.  But,  after  having- 
attentively  perused  these,  we  are  of  opt- 
nion  that  the  machine,  liere  desciibed, 
will  be  found  to  possess  much  the  great- 
est general  utility.     See  Hydkaulics. 

ENGINE  STEAM.  See  Steam  En- 
gine 

ENGRAVING,  or  Graving  as  it  is 
generally  called,  is  the  cutting  lines  upon 
a  copper-plate,  by  means  of  a  steel  instru- 
ment, called  a  graver,  without  the  use  of 
aqua  fortis. 

This  was  tlie  first  way  of  producing 
copper-plate  prints  that  was  practised, 
and  is  still  much  used  in  historical  sub- 
jects, portraits,  and  in  finishing  land- 
scapes. 

It  would  be  an  injustice  to  our  coun- 
trymen, if  we  were  not  to  observe,  that 
this  art  has  arrived  to  perfection  in  the 
United  States ;  specimens  of  engraving, 
equal,  if  not  supeiior  to  the  productions 
of  Europe,  have  long  since  been  produced. 
This  reflects  much  honour  to  the  names 
of  a  number,  whom  we  could  mention. 

i'he  tools  necessary  for  this  ai-t,  are, 
gravers,  a  scraper,  a  burnisher,  an  oil- 
stone, a  sand-bag,  an  oil-rubber,  and  some 
good  charcoal. 

J  he  graveis  are  instruments  of  tem- 
pered steel,  fitted  into  a  short  wooden 
handle.  They  are  of  two  sorts,  square 
and  lozenge  :  the  fii'st  is  used  in  cutting 
very  broad  strokes,  the  oiiier  for  fainter 
and  more  delicate  lines. 

The  scraper  is  a  three -edged  tool,  foi 
scraping  off  the  burr  rai.sed  by  the  graver. 
Burnishers  are  for  rubbing  down  any  lines 
that  are  too  -deep,  or  burnishing  oiit  anv 
scratches  or  holes  in  the  copper  :  they  are 
of  very  hard  steel,  well  rounded  and  po- 
lisiied. 

The  oil-stone  is  for  whetting  the  gra- 
vei-s,  etching-points,  &.c. 

The  sand-bag,  or  cushion,  is  for  laying 
the  plate  upon,  for  the  convenier.cy  of 
turning  it  round  in  any  duvction. 

The  oil-rubber  and  charcoal,  are  for 
polishing  the  plate  when  necessary. 

As  great  care  is  required  to  whet  the 
graver  nicely,  particularly  ihe  belly  of  it, 
cave  must  be  taken  to  iay  the  two  ang'ies 
oi  the  graver  wliicii  are  to  be  held  next 


ENG 

One  plate,  flat  upon  the  stone,  and  rub 
them  steadily,  till  tlie  belly  rises  gn-adual- 
ly  above  vhe  piute,  so  as  that,  when  you 
iay  the  graver  flat  upon  it,  you  may  just 
perceive  the  light  under  the  point ;  other- 
wise it  will  di^^  into  the  copper,  and  tlien 
it  will  be  impossible  to  keep  a  point,  or 
execute  the  work  with  freedom-  In  order 
to  do  this,  keep  your  right  arm  close  to 
your  side,  and  place  the  fore -finger  of  your 
left  hand,  upon  that  part  of  the  graver 
wliich  lies  uppermost  on  the  stone.  When 
this  is  done,  in  order  to  whet  the  face, 
place  tlie  flat  part  of  the  handle,  in  the 
boUow  of  your  hand,  with  the  belly  ot  the 
graver  upwards,  upon  a  moderate  slope, 
and  rub  the  extremitj,  or  face,  upon  the 
stone,  till  it  has  an  exceedingly  sharp  pomt, 
v/hicix  you  may  try  up<^n  your  thumb- 
nail. _  u     1        • 

When  the  graver  is  too  hard,  as  is  usu- 
ally the  case,  when  first  bought,  and  may 
be  known  by  the  frequently  breaking  of 
the  point,  the  method  of  tempering  it,  is 
as  follows  :  Heat  a  poker  red-hot,  and 
hold  the  graver  upon  it,  within  half  an 
inch  of  the  point,  till  the  steel  changes  to 
a  light  straw-colour;  then  put  the  point  into 
oil,'  to  cool ;  or,  hold  the  graver  close  to 
the  flame  of  a  candle,  till  it  be  of  the  same 
colour,  and  cool  it  in  the  tallow  ;  but  be 
careful  cither  wa}-,  not  to  hold  it  too  long, 
tor  then  it  will  be  too  soft ;  and  in  that 
case  tlie  point,  which  will  tlien  turn  blue, 
must  be  tempered  again  Be  not  too 
hasty  in  tempering  ;  for  sometimes  a  little 
M'iictting  will  bring  it  to  a  good  condi- 
tion, when  it  is  but  a  little  too  hard. 

To  lioldthe  graver,  cutoff  that  part  of 
the  handle  which  is  upon  the  same  line 
with  the  belly,  or  sharp  edge  of  the  gra- 
ver, making  that  side  fiat,  that'll  may  be 
no  obstruction. 

Hold  the  handle  in  the  hollow  of  your 
hand ;  and,  extending  your  fore-finger 
towards  tlie  point,  let  it  re'ston  the  back 
of  the  graver,  that  you  may  guide  it  flat 
and  parallel  with  tlie  plate  Take  care 
that  your  fingers  do  not  interpose  between 
tlie  plate  and  the  graver;  Soy  they  will 
hinder  you  fi-om  carrying  the  graver  level 
witli  the  plate,  and  from  cutting  your 
strokLS,  so  clean  as  they  ought  to  be. 

To  lay  tlie  design  upon  the  plate,  after 
vou  have  polished  it  fine  and  smooth,  heat 
"it  so  that  it  will  melt  virgin-wax,  with 
which  rub  it  thinly  and  equally  over,  and 
let  it  cool.  Tlien  the  design  which  you 
lay  on,  must  be  drawn  on  paper,  with  a 
black-lead  pencil,  and  laid  upon  the  plate, 
with  its  pencilled  .side  upon  the  wax  ;  then 
press  it  to,  and  with  a  burnisher,  go  over 
every  part  of  the'  design,  and  when  you 
rake  oif  the  paper,  j-yu  will  find  every  line 


ENG 

Mliich  you  drew  with  the  black-lead  pen- 
cil, upon  the  waxed  plate,  as  if  it  had 
been  drawn ;  then  with  a  sharp  pointed 
tool,  trace  all  your  design  through  the 
wax  upon  the  plate,  and  you  may  then 
lake  off'  the  wax,  and  proceed  to  work. 

Let  tlie  table,  or  board  you  work  at, 
be  firm  and  steady ;  upon  which  place 
your  sand-bag  with  the  plate  upon  it;  and, 
holding  the  graver  as  above  dii-ectcd, 
proceed  in  tlie  following  manner. 

For  straight  sti'okes,  hold  your  plate 
firm  upon  the  sand-bag,  with  your  left 
hand,  moving  your  right  hand  forwards  ; 
leaning  lighter  where  the  stroke  should 
be  fine,  and  harder  where  you  would 
have  it  broader. 

For  circular  or  crooked  strokes,  hold 
the  graver  sledfast,  moving  your  hand  or 
the  plate,  as  you  see  convenient. 

Learn  to  can-y  your  hand  willi  such 
dexterity,  that  you  may  end  your  stroke 
as  finely,  as  you  began  it ;  and  if  you  have 
occasion  to  make  one  part  deeper  or 
blacker  than  another,  do  it  by  degrees  ; 
and  that  you  may  do  it  with  greater  ex- 
actness, take  care  that  your  sti-okes  be 
not  too  close,  nor  too  wide. 

In  the  course  of  your  work,  scrape  off 
the  roughness  which  ai-ises,  with  your 
scraper ;  but  be  careful,  in  doing  this,  not 
to  scratch  the  plate  ;  and  that  you  may 
see  your  work  properly  as  you  go  on, 
rub  it  with  the  oil-rubber,  and  wipe  the 
plate  clean,  which  will  take  off  the  glare 
of  the  copper,  and  shew  what  you  have 
done  to  the  best  advantage. 

Any  mistakes  or  scratches  in  the  plate, 
may  be  rubbed  out  with  the  burnishei", 
and  the  part  levelled  with  the  scraper, 
polishing  it  again  afterwards,  lightly  witli 
the  burnisher,  or  chaixoal. 

Having  thus  attained  the  use  of  the 
graver,  according  to  the  foregoing  rules, 
you  will  be  able  to  finish  the  piece  you 
had  etched,  by  graving  up  the  several 
parts  to  the  colour  required ;  beginning, 
as  in  the  etching,  with  the  fainter  parts, 
and  advancing  gradually  with  the  strong- 
er, till  the  wiiole  is  completed. 

The  dry  point  er  needle,  (so  called  be- 
cause not  used,  till  the  ground  is  taken 
ofi"  the  plate,)  ie  principally  employed  in 
the  extremcl}'  light  parts  of  water,  sky, 
drapery,  architecture,  &c. 

I'o  prevent  any  obstruction  from  too 
great  a  degree  of  fight,  tlie  use  of  a  sash, 
made  of  transparent,  or  fan  paper,  pasted 
on  a  frame,  and  placed  sloping  at  a  conve- 
nient distance  between  your  work  and  the 
light,  will  preserve  the'  sight ;  and  when 
the  sun  shines,  it  cannot  possibly  be  dis- 
pensed with. 
In  order  ta  obviate  certain  inconvem- 


i  ngxaTrer '  S  Machine . 


& 


Fi^.o. 


ENG 


ENG 


ences,  to  which  engravers  are  liable,  the 
Abbi  Joseph  Lorghi,  of  Monza,  has  con- 
trived a  table,  which  in  the  opinion  of  the 
most  celebrated  engravers  of  our  city,  is 
«ot  only  very  ingenious,  but  also  extreme- 
ly well  calculated  for  the  purpose  intend- 
ed A  gold  medal  was  given  to  the  Abbe 
for  this  invention.  The  first  professors 
of  the  art  in  Europe,  liave  approved  of  it 
Without  going  into  particulars,  the  fol- 
lowing* description  of  the  plate,  will  be 
sufficient. 

Plate  fig.  1.  Uepi'esents  the  whole 
machine,  as  it  is  used. 

A  Copper-plate  on  which  the  engrav- 
ing is  to  be  made. 

aaaaaoaa.  Screws  by  which  the 
plate  is  affixed  to  the  moveable  board 
B. 

B.  The  upper  or  moveable  part  of  the 
table.  It  consists  of  a  th^n  plank,  to  the 
bottom  of  which  is  united  tlie  iron  plate, 
represented  in  fig.  3. 

C.  The  under-boai'd,  which  is  made  to 
rise  and  fall  at  pleasure,  in  the  manner 
of  a  pair  of  hinges ;  in  the  middle  of  it  is 
a  pretty  thick  axis. 

D.  The  foot  by  which  the  desk  is  sup- 
ported at  any  requii*ed  height. 

E.  The  frame  of  the  table. 

Fig.  2.  The  under-board  or  desk. 

F.  A  circle  of  iron,  through  the  middle 
of  which  protrudes  that  pai-t  of  the  axis 
marked  II.    (In  fig.  4.) 

Of  Mezzotinto  Scraping. — This  art, 
which  is  of  late  date,  is  recommended  by 
tlie  amazing  ease  with  wluch  it  is  exe- 
cuted, especially  by  those  who  under- 
stand di'awing. 

Mezzotinto  prints  are  those  which  h^ve 
no  patching,  or  strokes  of  the  graver,  but 
whose  lights  and  shades  are  blended  to- 
gether, and  appear  like  a  drawing  in  In- 
dian-ink. They  are  different  from  aqua 
tinta;  but  as  both  resemble  Indian-ink, 
the  difference  is  not  easily  described : 
Mezzotinto  is  applied  to  portraits  and 
historical  subjects  ;  and  aqua  tinta  is  used 
only  for  landscape  and  ai'chitecture. 

The  tools  necessary  for  meziotinto 
scraping  are  the  grounding-tool,  burnish- 
ers, and  scrapers. 

To  lay  the  mezzotinto  ground, lay  your 
plate,  with  a  piece  of  flannel  under  it, 
upon  your  table,  hold  the  grounding- 
tool  in  your  hand  perpendicularly ;  lean 
upon  it  moderately  hard,  continually 
rocking  your  hand  in  a  right  line  from 
end  to  end,  till  you  have  wholly  covered 
the  plate  in  one  dii'ection :  next  cross  the 
strokes  from  side  to  side,  afterwards  from 
corner  to  corner,  working  the  tool  each 
time  all  over  the  plate,  in  every  direction, 
almost   like   the  points  of  a   compass : 


taking  all  possible  care  not  to  let  the  tod 
cut  (in  one  direction)  twice  in  a  place. 
TWs  done,  the  plate  will  be  full,  or,  in 
other  words,  all  over  rough  alike,  and 
would,  if  it  were  printed,  appear  com- 
pletely black. 

Having  laid  the  ground,  take  the  scrap- 
ings of  black  chalk,  and  with  a  piece  of 
rag  rub  it  over  the  plate ;  or  you  may 
smoke  it  witli  candles, as  beforedirected, 
for  etching. 

Now  take  your  drawing,  and  having 
rubbed  tlie  black  with  red-chalk  dust, 
mixed  with  flake-whitt,  proceed  to  trace 
it  on  the  plate. 

To  form  the  lights  and  shadows,  take 
a  blunt  needle,  and  mark  out  the  outline 
only  ;  then  with  a  scraper  scrape  off  the 
lights  in  every  part  of  the  plate,  as  clean 
and  smootli  as  possible,  in  proportion  to 
the  strength  of  the  lights  in  your  drawing, 
taking  care  not  to  hurt  your  outlines. 
.  The  use  of  the  burnisher  is  to  soften  or 
rub  down  the  extreme  light  parts  after  the 
scraper  is  done  with  ;  ,such  as  the  tip  of 
the  nose,  forehead,  linen,  &c.  which 
otherwise,  when  proved,  appear  rather 
misty  than  clear. 

Anotlier  method  used  by  mezzotinto 
scrapers,  is,  to  etch  the  outlines  of  the 
original,  as  also  the  folds  in  drapery, 
making  the  breadth  of  the  shadows  by 
dots,  which  having  bit  to  a  proper  depth 
with  aqua  fortis,  they  take  offtlie  groand 
used  in  etching,  and  having  laid  the  mez- 
zotinto ground,  proceed  to  scrape  as 
above. 

When  your  plate  is  ready  for  taking  a 
proof  or  impression,  send  it  to  the  coppep 
plate  printer,  and  get  it  proved.  When 
the  proof  is  dry,  touch  it  with  white 
chalk  where  it  should  be  lighter,  add 
with  black  chalk  where  it  should  be  dark- 
er ;  and  when  the  print  is  retouched, 
proceed  as  before,  tor  the  lights ;  and  for 
the  shades  use  a  small  grounding-tool,  as 
mucli  as  you  judge  necessary  to  bring  it 
to  a  proper  colour ;  and  when  you  have 
done  as  much  as  you  think  expedient, 
prove  it  again;  and  so  proceed  to  prove 
and  touch  till  it  is  entirely  to  your  mind. 

Of  engraving  in  ^iqiia  Tinta. — Aq^ua 
TiNT.A.  is  a  method  of  producing  prints 
very  mi\ch  resembling  drawings  in  Indi- 
an-ink. 

The  principle  of  tlie  process  consists 
in  corroding  the  copper  with  aqua  Ibrti.s, 
in  such  a  manner  that  an  impression  from 
it  has  the  appearance  of  a  tint  laid  on  the 
paper.  This  is  effected  by  covering  the 
copper  with  a  powder  or  some  substance 
which  takes  a  granulated  form,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  aqua  fortis  fi-om  acting  where 
the  particles  adhere,  and  by  this  mean? 


'F^ 


ENG 

causes  it  to  corrode  the  copper  partially, 
and  in  the  interstices  only.  Wlicn  the.se 
particles  are  extremely  minute-  and  near 
to  eacli  other,  the  impression  from  tlie 
plate  appears  to  the  nuked  eye  exactly 
like  a  wash  of  Indian-ink ;  but  when  they 
are  larger,  the  granulation  is  more  dis- 
tinct, and  as  this  may  be  varied  at  plea- 
sure, it  is  capable  of  being  adai)tcd  with 
great  success,  to  a  variety  of  purposes 
and  subjects. 

This  powder,  or  granulation,  iij  called 
the  aqua  ti>it<i  grain,  and  there  are  two 
general  modes  of  producing  it. 

We  shall  fust  describe  what  is  called 
the  penvi/er-grain,  because  it  was  the  first 
that  was  used. 

Having  etched  the  outline"*X)n  a  copper- 
plate, prepared  in  the  usual  way  by  the 
coppersmith  (for  which  see  the  article 
etcliing),  some  substance  must  be  finely 
powdered  and  sifted,  which  will  melt  with 
heat,  and  when  cold  will  adhere  to  the 
plate,  and  resist  the;  action  of  aqua  fortis. 
The  substances  which  have  been  used  for 
this  purpose,  either  separately  or  mixed, 
are  asphdtum,  Burgundy -pitch,  rosin,  gum- 
copal,  gum-mastich  ;  and  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  all  the  resins  and  gum-resins 
will  answer  the  purpose.  Common  rosin 
has  been  most  generally  used,  and  an- 
swers tolerably  \vell ;  though  gum-copal 
makes  a  grain  that  resists  the  aqua  fortis 
better.  „-— ■- 

The  substance  intended  to  be  used  for 
'he  g-rain,  must  now  be  distributed  over 
the  plate  as  equally  as  possible  ;  and  dif- 
ierent  metiiods  of  performing  this  essen-  I 
tial  part  of  the  operation  have  been  used 
by  different  engravers,  and  at  dirterent 
times. 

The  most  usual  way  is  to  tic  up  some 
of  i-lie  powder  in  a  piece  of  muslin,  and 
strike  it  against  a  piece  of  stick,  held  at 
a  considerable  height  above  the  plate  ;  by 
this,  the  powder  that  issues  falls  geiitly, 
and  .settles  ((juidly  over  the  plate.  Every 
one  nuist  have  observed  how  uniformly 
hair  powder  settles  upon  the  furniture  af- 
ter the  operation  of  the  JKilr-dresser. 
This  may  alford  a  hint  towards  the  best 
iTiode  of  pcrtbrming  this  part  of  the  pro- 
cess. The  powder  must  fall  upon  it  from 
a  considerable  height,  and  there  must  be 
a  sufficiently  i;irge  cloud  of  the  ilust  form- 
ed. The  plate  being  covered  equally  over 
with  the  dust,  or  jj-twder,  the  operator  is 
next  to  proceed  to  H\  it  uj^on  the  plate, 
by  healing  it  gently,  so  as  to  melt  the  par- 
ticles. This  may  be  tficcted  by  holding 
under  the  plate  lighted  pieces  of  brown 
paper  rolled  yp,  and  moving  them  al¥<ut 
till  every  part  of  the  powder  is  melted ; 
tbis  will  oe  known  by  its  chM;yc  of  co- 


ENG 


lour,  which  will  turn  brownish.  It  roust 
now  be  sufiered  to  cool,  when  it  ma\  be 
examined  with  a  magnifier,  and  if  the 
grains  of  particles  appear  to  be  uniform- 
ly  distribuled,  it  is  ready  tor  the  next 
part  of  the  process. 

The  design  or  drawing  to  be  engraved 
must  now  be  examined,  and  buch  parts 
of  it  as  are  perfectly  white,  are  to  be  re- 
marked. Those  corresponding  parts  of 
the  plate  must  be  covered,  or  stopped-out 
as  it  is  called,  with  turpentine-varnish, 
diluted  with  turpentine  to  a  proper  con- 
sistence to  work  freely  with  the  pencil, 
and  mixed  with  lamp-black  to  give  it  co- 
lour ;  for  if  transpaient,  the  touches  of  the 
pencil  would  not  be  so  distinctly  seen. 
The  margin  of  the  plate  must  also  be  co- 
vered with  varnish.  When  the  stopping- 
out  is  sufficiently  dry,  a  border  of  wax 
must  be  raised  round  the  plate,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  etching,  and  the  aqua 
fortis  properly  diluted  with  water  poured 
on.  ibis  is  called  blting-in,  and  is  the 
part  of  the  process  which  is  most  uncer- 
tain, and  which  requires  the  greatest  de- 
gree of  experience.  When  tlie  aqua  for- 
tis has  lain  on  so  long  that  the  plate,  when 
printed,  would  produce  the  lightest  tint 
in  tiie  drawing,  it  is  poured  oW,  and  the 
plate  washed  with  water,  and  dried. 
When  it  is  quite  dry,  the  lightest  tints  iu 
the  <lrawing  are  stopped  out,  and  the 
aqua  fortis  poured  on  as  before,  and  the 
same  process  is  repeated  as  often  as  there 
are  tints  to  be  produced  iu  the  plate. 

Although  many  plates  are  etched  en- 
tirely by  this  method  of  sto])ping-out  and 
biting-in  alternately,  yet  it  may  easily  bf 
conceived,  tha,t  in  general,  it  would  h^\ 
very  difficult  to  stop  round,  and  leave  out 
all  the  finishing  touches,  as  also  the  leaves 
of  trees  and  many  other  objects,  which  it 
would  be  impossible  to  execute  with  the 
UGcessary  degree  of  freedom  in  this  man- 
ner. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty,  anothei- 
very  ingenious  process  has  been  invented, 
by  which  these  touches  are  laid  on  the 
plate  with  the  same  ease  and  expedition 
as  they  are  in  a  drawing  in  Indian-ink, 
V\x\e  washed  whiting  is  mixed  with  a  little 
treacle  or  sugar,  and' diluted  with  water 
in  the  pencil,  so  as  to  woi'k  freely,  and 
this  is  laid  on  the  plate  covered  with  the 
aqua-tint  ground,  in  the  same  manner  and 
on  the  same  parts  as  ink  on  the  drawing. 
\\  hen  this  is  dry,  the  whole  plate  is  var- 
nished over  with  a  weak  and  thin  varnish 
of  turpentine,  asphaltum,  or  mastich,  and 
ti'.cn  sunered  to  dry,  when  the  aqua  fortis 
is  poured  on.  The  varnish  will  immedi- 
ately brcalc  in  upon  the  parts  where  the 
trracle  mixture  was  laid,  and  expose  all 


ENG 


ENG 


those  places  to  tlia  action  of  the  acid, 
while  the  rest  of  the  plate  remains  se- 
cure. The  effect  of  this  vrill  be,  that  all 
tlie  touches  or  places  where  the  treacle 
vas  used,  Avill  be  bit-in,  deeper  than  the 
rest,  and  will  have  all  the  precision  and 
firmness  of  touches  in  Indian-ink. 

After  tlie  plate  is  completely  bit-in,  the 
bordering'-wax  is  taken  off,  by  heating  the 
plate  a  little  witli  alighted  piece  of  pa- 
per ;  and  it  is  then  cleared  from  the 
ground  and  varnish,  by  oil  of  turpentine, 
and  wiped  clean  with  a  rag  and  a  little 
fine  whiting,  when  it .  is  ready  for  tlie 
printer. 

The  principal  disadvantages  of  this 
method  of  aqua-tinting  are,  that  it  is  ex- 
^  ti'emely  difRciUt  to  produce  the  requii-ed 
degree  of  coarseness  or  fineness  in  the 
grain,  and  that  plates  so  engraved  do  not 
print  many  impressions  before  they  are 
worn  out  It  is  therefore  now  very  sel- 
dom used,  though  it  is  occasionally  of 
service. 

We  next  proceed  to  describe  the  se- 
cond method  of  producing  the  aqua 
tint  ground,  which  is  generally  practised. 
Some  resinous  substance  is  dissolved  in 
spirits  of  wine,  as  common  resin.  Bur- 
gundy-pitch, or  mastich,  and  this  solu- 
tion is  ])oured  all  over,  the  plate,  which  is 
tlien  held  in  a  slanting  direction  till  the 
superfluous  fluid  drains  off;  audit  is  laid 
down  to  dry,  which  it  does  in  a  few  mi- 
nutes. If  t!)e  plate  be  tlien  examined  with 
the  magnlfiei',  it  will  be  found  that  the 
spirit,  in  evaporating,  has  left  the  resin  in 
a  granulated  s\ate,  or  rather,  that  the  lat- 
ter has  cracked  in  every  direction,  still 
adhering  firmly  to  the  copper. 

A   grain   is   thus  produced  with   the 
greatest  ease,  which  is  extremely  regular 
and    beautiful,   and    much    superior   for 
most  purposes  to  tliat  produced  by  the 
former  method.     After  the  grain  is  form- 
ed, ever)'  part  of  the  process  is  conducted 
in  the  same  manner  as  above  described. 
Having  thus  given  a  general  idea  of  the 
art,  we  sliall  mention  some  particulars  ne- 
cessary to  be  attended  to,  in  order  to  en- 
sui-e  success  in  the  operatiaK.".  The  spi- 
rits of  wine  used  fop^e.'S^diution,  must  be 
higlily  rectified,  aiurdf.i.tHe  best  quality. 
•,.<I^in,i  Burgundy -pitch,  '•  and    gum-mas- 
v^;trcli,M^'hen  dissolved  ini, spirits  of  wine, 
."-'''^raduce  grains  of  a  different  appearance 
--'    and  figure,  and  are  sometimesused  sepa- 
rately, and  sometimes  mixed  in ,  different 
proportions,  according  to  the  tastg^f  the 
artist,    some    using  one  substa^^:  and 
some  another.     In  order  to  produce  '  a 
coarser  or  finer  grain,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  a  greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  resin ; 
and  to  ascertain  the  proper  proportions  : 
VOL.    I, 


several  spai-e  pieces  of  copper  must  Jbe 
provided,   on  which  the  liquid   may  be 
poured,  and  tlie  grain  examined,  before 
it  is  applied  to  tlie  plate  to  be  engraved- 
After  the  solution  is  made,  it  must  stand 
still  and  undisturbed  for  a  day  or  two,  till 
all  the  impurities  of  the  resin  have  settled 
to  the  bottom,  and  the  fluid  is  cjuite  pel- 
lucid.    Xo   other   method   of   freeing  it 
from  those  impiu-ities  has  been  found  to 
answer;    straining  it    tlirough    linen    or 
muslin,  only  fills  it  witl^  hah-s,  which  are 
ruinous  to  the  grain.     The  room  m  which 
the  liquid  is  poured  on  the  plate,  must  be 
perfectly  still  and  free  fi-om  dust,  which, 
whenever  it  falls  on  the  plate  while  wet, 
causes  a  white  spot,  which  it  is  impossi- 
ble  to  remove  without  laying  the  grain 
a-fresh.     The  plate  must  also  be  previ- 
ously  cleaned,  with  the  greatest  possible 
care,  with   a    rag   and  whiting,   as   the 
smallest  stain  or  particle  of  grease  pro- 
duces a  streak  or  blemish  in  the  grain- 
All  these  attentions  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  tolerably  regular  grain ; 
and,  after  every  thing  that  can  be  done  by 
the  most  experienced  artists,  still  there 
is  much  uncertainty  in  the  process.  They 
are    sometimes   obliged   to    lay   on  the 
grains  several  times,  before  they  procure 
one  sufficiently  regular.     The  same  pro- 
portions of  materials  do  not  always  pro- 
duce the  same  effect,  as  it  depends  in 
some  degi'ee  on  their  qualities  ;  and  It  is 
even   materially  altered  by  the  weather. 
These  difficulties  are  not  to  be  surmount- 
ed, but  by  a  great  deal  of  experience ; 
and  those  who  are  daily  in  the  habit  of 
practising  the  art,  are  frequently  liable  to 
the  most  unaccountable   accidents.    In- 
deed it  is  much  to  be  lamented,  that  so 
elegant  and  useful  a  process  should  be  so 
extremely  delicate  and  uncertain. 

It  being  necessary  to  hold  the  plate  in 
a  slanting  direction,  in  order  to  drain  off 
the  superfluous  fluid,  there  x^ill  naturally 
be  a  greater  body  of  the  liquid  at  the  bot- 
tom than  at  tiie  top  of  the  plate.  On  this 
account,  a  grain  laid  in  this  way  is  always 
coarser  at  the  side  of  the  plate  that  was 
held  lowermost.  The  most  usual  way  is, 
to  keep  the  coarsest  side  for  the  fore- 
ground, that  being  generally  tlie  part 
which  has  the  deepest  shadows.  In  large 
landscapes,  sometimes  various  parts  are 
laid  .;Aj-ith  different  grains,  according  to 
the, nature  of  tlie  subject. 

TSi'e  finer  the  grain  is,  t^e  more  nearly 
do^'the  jrapression  resedible  Indian-ink, 
and;theHfitfcr  it  is  for  imitating  drawings  : 
but  very  fine  grains  have  sevei'al  disad- 
vantages ;  for  they  are  apt  to  come  off 
before  the  aqua  fortis  has  lain  on  long 
■enough  to  produce  the  desired  depth  j 
s  s  "      .       - 


ENG 


ENG 


and  as  the  plate  is  not  corroded  so  deep, 
it  sooner  wears  out  in  printing ;  whereas, 
coai'ser  grains  are  firmer,  the  acid  goes 
deeper,  and  the  plate  will  throw  ofla  great 
many  more  impressions.  The  reason  ol" 
all  this  is  evident,  when  it  is  considered, 
that  in  the  fine  grains,  the  particles  arc 
small  and  near  each  other,  and  conse- 
quently the  aqua  Ibrtis,  which  acts  late- 
rally as  well  as  downwards,  soon  undei*- 
xnines  the  particles,  and  causes  them  to 
come  off.  If  left  too  long  on  tlie  plate, 
the  acid  would  eat  away  the  grain  entirely. 
On  these  accounts,  therefore,  the  mo- 
derately coarse  grains  are  more  sought 
after,  and  answer  better  the  purpose  of 
the  publisher,  than  the  fine  grains  which 
Xvere  formerly  in  use. 

Although  there  are  considerable  diffi- 
culties in  laying  properly  the  aqua  tint 
frain,  yet  the  corroding  the  copper,  or 
iting-in,  so  as  to  produce  exactly  the 
tint  requii-ed,  is  still  more  precarious  and 
uncertain.  AH  engravers  allow  that  no 
positive  rules  can  be  laid  down,  by  which 
the  success  of  this  pi'ocess  can  be  se- 
cured ;  nothing  but  a  great  deal  of  expe- 
rience and  attentive  observation  can  ena- 
ble the  artist  to  do  it  with  any  degree  of 
certainty. 

There  are  some  hints,  liowever  which 
may  be  of  considerable  importance  to 
the  person  who  wishes  to  attain  the  prac- 
tice of  this  art.  It  is  evident,  that  the 
longer  the  acid  remains  on  the  copper, 
the  deeper  it  bites,  and  consequently  the 
darker  will  be  the  shade  in  the  impres- 
sion. It  may  be  of  some  use,  therefore, 
to  have  several  bits  of  copper  laid  with 
aqua  tint  grounds,  of  the  same  kind  to  be 
used  in  the  plate,  and  to  let  the  aqua  for- 
tis  remain  for  different  lengths  of  time  on 
each ;  and  then  to  examine  the  tints  pro- 
duced in  one,  two,  three,  four  muiutes, 
or  longer.  Obsei'vations  of  this  kind,  fre- 
quently repeated,  and  with  different  de- 
gi'ees  of  strength  of  the  acid,  will  at 
lengtli  assist  the  judgment,  in  guessing 
at  tlie  tint  which  is  produced  in  the  plate. 
A  magnifier  is  also  useful  to  examine  the 
grain,  and  to  observe  the  depth  to  which 
it  is  bit.  It  must  be  observed,  that  no 
proof  of  the  plate  can  be  obtained  till  tiie 
whole  process  is  finished.  If  any  part 
jipi)eai"s  to  have  been  bit  too  dark,  it  must 
be  burnished  down  with  a  steel  burnisli- 
er ;  but  this  requires  great  delicacy  and 
good  management  not  to  make  the  shade 
streaky ;  and  as  the  beauty  and  diu-abi- 
lity  of  the  grain  is  alwajs  somewhat  in- 
jured by  it,  it  should  be  avoided  as  much 
as  possible. 
Those  parts  which  arc  not  dark  enough 


must  have  a  fresh  grain  laid  over  them, 
and  be  stopped  round  with  \arnish,  and 
subjected  again  to  the  aqua  fortis.  This 
is  called  re-biting*,  and  requires  peculiar 
care  and  attention  The  plate  must  be 
very  well  cleaned  out  with  turpentine  be- 
before  the  grain  is  laid  on,  which  should 
be  pretty  coarse,  otherwise  it  will  not  lay 
upon  the  heights  only,  us  is  necessary, 
in  order  to  produce  the  same  grain.  If 
the  new  grain  is  different  fi-om  the  former, 
it  will  not  be  so  clear  nor  so  firm,  but 
rotten. 

We  have  now  given  a  general  account 
of  the  process  of  engraving  in  aqua  tint, 
and  we  believe  that  no  material  circum- 
stance has  been  omitted,  that  can  be  com- 
municated without  seeing  the  operation  : 
but  after  all  it  must  be  confessed,  that  no 
printed  directions  whatever,  can  enable 
a  person  to  practise  it  perfectly.  Its  suc- 
cess depends  upon  so  many  niceties,  and 
attention  to  circumstances  apparently  tri- 
fling, tliat  the  person  who  attempts  it 
must  not  be  surprized,  if  he  does  not  suc- 
ceed at  first.  It  is  a  species  of  engraving 
simple  and  expeditious,  if  every  thing 
goes  on  well ;  but  it  is  very  precarious, 
and  the  errors  which  are  made,  are  recti- 
fied with  great  difficulty. 

It  seems  to  be  adapted  chiefly  for  imi- 
tation of  sketches,  washed  drawings,  and 
slight  subjects  ;  but  does  not  appear  to 
be  at  all  calculated  to  produce  prints  fi-om 
finished  pictures,  as  it  is  not  susceptible 
of  that  accuracy  in  the  balance  of  tints, 
necessary  lor  tins  piupose  Nor  does  it 
appear  to  be  suitable  for  book-plates,  as 
it  does  not  print  a  sufficient  number  of 
impressions.  It  is  therefore  not  to  be  put 
in  competition  with  the  other  modes  of 
engraving.  ■  If  confined  to  those  subjects 
for  which  it  is  calculated,  it  must  be  al- 
lowed to  be  extremely  useful,  as  it  is  ex- 
peditious, and  may  be  attained  with  much 
less  trouble,  than  any  other  mode  of  en- 
graving. But  even  this  circumstance  is  a 
source  of  mischief,  as  it  occasions  tlie 
production  of  a  multitude  of  prints,  that 
have  no  other  efi'ect,  than  that  of  vitiating 
the  public  taste. 

Engraving  in  aqua  tint,  was  invented 
by  Le  Prince,  a  French  artist,who  kept  his 
process  a  long  time  secret,  and  it  is  said 
lie  sold  his  piints.at  first  as  drawings  ;  but 
lie  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  only 
with  the  powder-grain,  and  the  common 
method  of  stopping-out.  The  prints  which 
he  produced  are  still  some  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  th^  art.  Mr.  Paul  Sandby, 
was  the  first  who  practised  it  in  England, 
and  it  was  by  him  communicated  to  Mr- 
Jukes.    It  is  now  practised  very  general 


ENG 


ENG 


ly  all  over  Europe  ;  and  also  in  the  Uni- 
ted States. 

The  following  description  of  an  appa- 
ratus to  prevent  tlie  inconvenience  which 
artists  experience  from  the  fumes  in  aqua 
tinta  engraving,  may  be  useful. 

In  the  art  of  aqua  tinta  engra\'ing,  the 
artists  experience  much  inconvenience 
from  the  quantity  of  fumes  or  niti'ous  gas 
liberated  b)'  tlie  action  of  the  acid  upon 
the  copper. 

To  remedy  this  the  following  arrange- 
ment, has  been  proposed  by  Mr.  Corne- 
lius Varley. 

Get  2  frame  made  of  any  kind  of  wood, 
three  or  four  inches  deep,  covered  with 
a  plate  of  glass,  and  open  at  one  side. 
Let  the  side  opposite  to  this,  have  a  round 
opening,  communicating  by  means  of  a 
common  iron  pipe,  with  the  ash  pit  of  any 
little  stove  or  other  fire  place,  shut  up 
fi-om  all  other  access  of  air,  but  what 
must  pass  through  the  pipe  Any  fumes 
arising  from  such  a  frame,  will  be  carried 
into  the  iron  pipe,  by  the  current  of  air, 
required  to  maintain  combustion  in  the 
stove  ;  and  will  by  this  means,  be  cai-ried 
Up  the  chimney,  wherever  it  may  be,  in- 
stead of  being  allowed  to  fly  about  the 
apartment.  The  pipe  may  be  very  con- 
veniently used,  by  caiTying  it  down 
through  the  table  to  the  floor,  and  thence 
along  to  the  chimney,  wherever  it  may  be; 
and  when  the  frame  is  not  wanted,  the 
pipe  at  any  one  of  the  joinings,  may  be 
made  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  hinge, 
by  which  to  turn  up  the  frame  against  the 
wall,  where  it  may  be  secui-ed  while  out 
of  usei  by  a  button,  or  any  similai-  con- 
trivance. 

ENGRAVFNG  OX  WOOD.  Engiav- 
ing  on  wood  is  a  process  exactly  the  re- 
verse to  engraving  on  copper.  In  the  lat- 
ter, the  sti'okes  to  be  printed  are  sunk,  or 
cut  into  the  copper,  and  a  rolling-press 
is  used  for  printing  it ;  but  in  engraving 
on  wood,  all  the  wood  is  cut  away,  except 
the  lines  to  be  printed,  which  are  left 
standing  up  like  types,  and  the  mode  of 
printing  is  the  same,  as  that  used  in  letter- 
press. 

The  wood  used  for  this  purpose  is 
generally  boxwood,  which  is  planed 
quite  smooth.  The  design  is  then  drawn 
upon  the  wood  itself  with  black-lead, 
and  all  the  wood  is  cut  away  with  gra- 
vers and  other  proper  tools,  except  the 
lines  that  are  drawn.  Or  sometimes 
the  design  is  di-awn  upon  paper,  and 
pasted  upon  the  wood,  which  is  cut  as 
before.  This  art,  is  of  considerable  dif- 
ficulty, and  there  are  very  few  who  prac- 
tise it.  It  is,  however,  useftd  for  books,  j 
as  the  printing  of  it  is  cheaper  tlian  that  ) 


of  copper-plates.  It  cannot  be  applied 
equally  well  to  all  the  purposes  to  which 
copper-plate  engiaving  is  applicable. 

The  art  of  engi-aving  on  wood,  has 
been  successfully  practised  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  and  particularly  in  Phjladel- 
phi» 

ENGRAVING  or  ETCHINGon  Glass, 
Glass  resists  the  action  of  all  the  acids, 
except  the  fluoric  acid.  By  this,  however, 
it  is  corroded  in  the  same  manner,  as  cop- 
per is  by  aqua  fortis ;  and  plates  of  glass 
may  be  engi-aved,  in  the  same  manner  as 
copper. 

There  are  several  methods  of  perform- 
ing  this.  We  shall  first  describe  the 
mode  of  etching,  by  means  of  the  fluoric 
acid  in  the  state  of  gas.  Ha\-ing  covered 
over  the  glass  to  be  etched  with  a  tbm 
coat  of  virgin-wax  (which  is  only  common 
bees-wax  bleached  white,)  di*aw  the  de- 
sign upon  it,  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
etching  on  copper.  Then  take  somef^uor 
spar,  commonly  called  Derbyshire  spar 
pound  it  fine,  and  put  it  into  a  leaden 
vessel,  pouring  some  sulphuric  acid  over 
it.  Place  the  glass  with  the  etched  side 
lowermost  over  this  vessel,  two  or  three 
inches  above  it.  Apply  a  gentle  heat  to 
the  leaden  vessel;  this  will  cause  the 
acid  to  act  upon  the  fluor  spar,  and  dis- 
engage  the  gas,  which  will  corrode  the 
glass.  When  it  is  sufliciently  corroded, 
remove  the  wax  by  oil  of  turpentine. 

This  etching  may  be  also  performed  by 
raising  a  margin  of  bordering-wax  all 
round  the  glass,  in  the  same  manner  as  on 
copper,  and  pouring  on  the  Uquid  fluoric 
acid,  which  acts  upon  the  glass. 

A  third  method  of  etching  on  glass  is 
as  follows :  Ha^-ing  put  the  wax  on  the 
glass,  draw  your  design,  and  raise  a  mar- 
gin all  round  it.  Then  put  pounded  fluor 
spar  with  some  sulphiu-ic  acid,  diluted 
with  water,  upon  the  glass.  The  sulphu- 
ric acid  will  disengage  the  fluoric,  which 
will  be  absorbed  by  the  water,  and  cor- 
rode tlie  glass. 

By  following  the  processes  above  men- 
tioned,  we  have  succeeded  in  etching  on 
glass,  bottles,  chemical  apparatus,  &c. 

This  art  is  also  practised  in  the  United 
States.  The  principles  of  the  process  ' 
consists,  1st,  in  the  disengagement  of  the 
fluoric  acid  from  the  spar,  which  is  eflTect- 
ed  in  consequence  of  the  sulphiu'ic  acid, 
having  a  greater  affinity  for  the  lime,  of 
the  fluate  of  hme,  (fluor  spar  ;)  and  2ndly, 
the  action  of  the  fluoric  acid  gas,  on  the 
silica  of  the  glass.  Owing  to  the  action 
of  tills  acid  on  glass,  glass  retorts  can  ne- 
ver be  used ;  but  for  the  pui-pose  of  dis- 
tilling the  acid,  either  leaden  or  block  tin 
retorts  are  employed.     The  application 


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EPR 


of  fluoiic  acid  to  etcliing,  has  been  Im- 
proved by  Mr.  Aikin  ;  an  account  of  the 
apparatus  he  employs,  may  be  seen  ii^ 
Tilloch's  Philosophical  Magazine.  The 
liquid  fluoric  acid,  if  it  be  preferred,  must 
be  kept  in  a  bottle,  lined  with  wax,  or  in 
a  leaden  or  block  tin  vessel. 

EPSOM  SALT.— This  is  a  magnesian 
salt,  which  consists  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
magnesia,  called  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
and  is  used  for  the  pi  e))aration  of  magne- 
sia. It  is  obtained  by  evaporating  the  wa- 
ters of  Epsom ;  lieiice  its  name.  It  is 
rarely  used  in  medicine,  thougli  it  is  ca- 
thartic ;  but  is  used,  more  generally,  f<u' 
the  purpose  before  mentioned.  To«  ob- 
tain magnesia,  the  salt  is  dissolved  in^va- 
ter,  and  half  ils  weight  of  potash  is  add- 
ed, which,  by  combining  with  tlie  sulphu- 
ric acid  into  sulphate  of  potash,  ])recipi- 
tates  the  earth  in  the  form  of  a  wl\itc  pow- 
der. This  powder  is  collected,  washed, 
and  dried,  and  then  forms  the  magnesia 
of  the  shops.     See  MAG>{EstA.  • 

ESSENTIAL  OILS.  See  Oils,  Es- 
sential; also  Distilling. 

ESSENTIAL  OIL  VARNISHES.  See 
Varnish. 

ETCHING,  is  a  manner  of  engraving 
on  copper,  in  which  the  lines  or  strokes, 
instead  of  being  cut  with  a  tool  or  graver, 
are  corroded  in,  with  aqua  fortis. 

It  is  a  much  later  invention  than  the  art 
of  engraving,  by  cutting  the  lines  on  the 
copper,  and  has  many  advantages  over  it 
for  some  purposes,  though  it  cannot  su- 
persede the  use  of  the  graver  entirely,  as 
there  are  many  tilings  that  cannot  be 
etched  so  well  as  they  can  he  graved. 

In  almost  all  the  engravings  on  copper, 
that  ai'e  executed  in  the  stroke  manner, 
etching  and  graving  ai-e  combined,  the 
plate  being  generally  begun  by  etching, 
and  finished  with  the  graver.  Landscapes, 
architecture,  and  machinery,  are  the  sub- 
jects that  receive  most  assistance  from 
the  art  of  etching;  for  it  is  not  so  applica- 
ble to  portraits  and  historical  designs. 

We  shall  first  describe  the  various  in- 
sti'uments  and  materials  used  in  tiie  art. 

Ccppir-platts  may  be  had  i-eady  prepar- 
ed at  the  coppersmiths,  by  those  who,  re- 
■  side  in  large  towns  ;  but,  wlien  this  can- 
not be  had,  procure  apiece  of  pretty  thick 
sheet-copper  from  a  brarier,  rather  larger 
than  your  drawing,  and  let  liim  jjlaiiish  it 
well;  then  take  a  piece  of  pumice-stone, 
and  with  water  rub  it  all  one  way,  till  tiie 
surface  is  as  smootli  and  level  as  it  can 
be  made  by  that  means  :  a  piece  of  char- 
coal  is  next  used  with  water,  for  polish- 
ing it  still  fiU'ther,  and  removing  the  deep 
tcralches  made  by  the  pumice-stone ;  and 


it  is  then  finished  with  apiece  of  charcoal 
of  a  finer  grain,  with  a  little  oil. 

Etching-points,  or  needles,  are  pointed 
instruments  of  steel,  about  an  incli  long, 
fixed  in  handles  of  hard  wood,  about  six 
inches  in  length,  and  of  the  size  of  a 
goose-quill.  They  should  be  well  tem- 
pered, and  very  accurately  fixed  in  the 
centre  of  the  handle.  They  must  be 
brought  to  an  accurately  conical  point,  by 
rubbing  upon  an  oil-stone,  with  wliich  it  is 
also  very  necessary  to  be  provided.  Se- 
veral of  these  points  will  be  necessary. 

A  parallel-ruler  is  necessary  for  draw- 
ing parallel  straight  lines  with.  This  is 
best  when  faced  with  brass,  as  it  is  not 
tJien  so  liable  to  be  bruised  by  accident. 

Compasses  are  useful  ibr  strikhig  cir- 
cles and  measuring  distances. 

.'2qua  fortis,  or  what  is  better,  spirits 
of  nitre  (nitrous  acid),  is  used  for  corro- 
ding  the  copper,  or  bititig-in,  as  it  is  call- 
ed. This  must  be  kept  in  a  bottle  with  a 
glass  stopple,  for  its  fumes  destroy  corks. 
A  stopple  made  of  wax  will  serve  as  a  sub- 
stitute, or  a  cork  well  covered  with  wax. 

Bordering-viax,  for  surrounding  the 
margin  of  the  copper-plate,  when  the 
aqua  fortis  is  pouring  on.  This  may  be 
bought  ready  prepared,  but  it  may  be 
made  as  follows. 

I  Take  one-third  of  bees-wax,  to  two- 
thirds  of  pitch  ;  melt  them  in  an  iron  la- 
dle, and  pour  them,  Avhen  m;:lted,  into 
welter,  lukewarm ;  then  mould  it  with  your 
hand  till  it  is  thoroughly  incorporated, 
and  all  the  water  squeezed  out.  Form  it 
into  rolls  of  convenient  size. 

Turpentine-varnish  is  used  for  covering 
the  copper-plate  with,  in  any  part  wlicre 
you  do  not  wisli  the  aqua  fortis  to  bite. 
This  may  be  diluted  to  a  proper  consist- 
ency with  turpentine,  and  mixed  with 
lamp-black,  tjiat  it  may  be  seen  better 
wlien  laid  upon  the  plate. 

Etching-ground,  is  used  for  covci'ing  the 
plate  all  over  with,  jjrevious  to  drawing 
the  lines  on  it  with  the  needles.  It  is  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner. 

Take  of  virgin-wax  and  asjihaltum, 
each  twenty  ounces,  of  black-pitch  and 
JSurgimdy-intcl),  eacii  half  an  ounce ; 
melt  tlie  wax  and  pitcli  in  a  new  cartlien- 
warc  glazed  pi])kin,  and  add  to  them,  by 
degrees,  the  asphaltum,  finely  powdered. 
Let  tiie  whole  boil  till  such  tune  as  that, 
by  taking  a  drop  upon  a  plate,  it  will 
break  when  it  is  cold,  on  bending  it  dou- 
ble t\\'o  or  three  times  between  the  fin- 
gers. The  varnisli  being  then  enotigh 
boiled,  must  be  kiken  ofl"  from  the  fire, 
and  letting  it  cool  a  little,  nuist  l)e  poured 
into  warm  watei-,  tiiat  it  mav  work  the 


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more  easily  with  the  hands,  so  as  to  form 
into  balls  for  use. 

It  must  be  observed,  first,  that  the  fire 
be  not  too  violent,  for  fear  of  bm'ning  the 
ingredients  ;  a  slight  simmering-  will  be 
sufficient;  secondly,  tiiat  while  the  as- 
phaltum  is  putting'  in,  nnd  even  after  it  is 
mixed  with  them,  the  ingredients  should 
be  stirred  contiimally  with  a  spatula ;  and 
thirdl}',  tliat  the  water  into  which  this 
composition  is  thrown,  should  be  nearly 
of  the  same  degree  of  warmth  witl)  it,  to 
'  prevent  a  kind  of  cracking-,  which  hap- 
pens when  the  water  is  too  cold. 

Tlie  varnish  ought  always  to  be  harder 
in  summer  than  winter,  and  it  will  be- 
come so,  if  it  be  suffered  to  boil  longer,  or 
if  a  greater  proportion  of  the  asphaltum 
be  used.  The  experiment  above  men- 
tioned, of  the  drop  suffered  to  cool,  will 
determine  the  degree  of  hardness  or  soft- 
ness, that  may  be  suitable  to  the  season 
when  it  is  used. 

To  lay  the  ground  for  etching,  proceed 
in  the  following  manner  :  Having  cleaned 
'  the  copper-plate  with  some  fine  whiting 
k  and  a  linen  rag,  to  free  it  from  all  grease, 
fix  a  liand-vice  to  some  part  of  it,  wliere  no 
work  is  intended  to  be,  to  serve  as  a  han- 
dle tor  managing  it  by,  when  warm.  Rc.u 
up  some  coarse  brown  paper,  and  liglit 
one  end  ;  then  hold  the  back  of  tlie  plate 
over  the  burning  paper,  moving  it  about 
until  every  part  of  it  is  equally  heated,  so 
as  to  melt  the  etching-ground,  which 
shoidd  be  wrapped  up  in  a  bit  of  taffety, 
to  prevent  any  dirt  that  may  happen  to  be 
among  it,  from  mixing-  with  what  is  melt- 
ed upon  the  plate.  If  the  plate  be  large, 
it  will  be  best  to  heat  it  over  a  chafing-- 
dish  with  some  clear  coals.  It  must  be 
heated  just  sufficient  to  melt  the  ground, 
but  not  so  mucli  as  to  burn  it.  When  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  etching.ground 
has  been  rubbed  upon  the  plate,  it  must 
be  dabbed,  or  beat  gently,  while  the  plate 
is  hot,  with  a  small  dabber  made  of  cot- 
ton, wrapped  up  in  a  piece  of  taffety ;  by 
which  operation,  the  ground  is  distributed 
inore  equally  over  tlie  plate,  than  it  could 
be  by  any  other  means. 

When  the  plate  is  thus  uniformly  and 
thinly  covered  with  the  vamish,  it  must 
be  blackened  by^ft^king  it  with  a  wax- 
taper.  For  this-  purpose,  twist  together 
three  or  four  pieces  of  wax-taper,  to 
make  a  larger  flame,  and  while  the  plate 
is  still  warm,  hold  it  with  the  varnished 
side  downwards,  and  move.the  smoky 
part  of  the  lighted  taper  over  its  surface, 
till  it  is  made  almost  quite  black  ;  taking 
care  not  to  let  the  wick  touch  the  var- 
nish, and  that  the  latter  get  no  smear  or 
ytain.  In  laying  the  etching-ground,  great 


care  m\ist  be  taken  that  no  particles  of 
dust  or  dirt  of  any  kind  settle  upon  it,  as 
that  w  ould  be  found  very  troublesome  in 
etching;  the  room,  therefore,  in  which  it 
is  laid,  should  be  as  still  as  possible,  and 
free  from  dust.  The  ground  being  now- 
laid,  and  suffered  to  cool,  the  next  opera- 
tion is  to  transfer  the  design  to  the  plate. 

For  this  purpose,  a  tracing  on  oiled  pa- 
per, must  now  be  made,  from  the  design 
to  be  etched,  with  pen  and  ink,  having  a 
very  small  quantity  of  ox's  gall  mixed 
with  it,  to  make  the  oiled  paper  take  it ; 
also  a  piece  of  ihin  paper,  of  the  same 
size,  must  be  rubbed  over  with  red  chalk, 
powdered,  by  means  of  some  cotton.  Then 
la}'ing  the  red  chalked  paper,  with  its 
chalked  side  next  the  ground,  on  the 
plate,  put  the  tracing  over  it,  and  fasten 
them  both  together,  and  to  the  plate,  by  a 
little  bit  of  the  bordering-wax. 

When  all  this  is  prepared,  take  a  blunt 
etching  needle,  and  go  gently  all  over  the 
lines  in  the  tracing ;  by  which  means  the 
chalked  paper  will  be  pressed  against 
the  ground,  and  the  lines  of  the  tracing 
will  be  transferred  to  the  ground :  on  ta- 
king off  the  papers,  they  wUl  be  seen  dis- 
tinctly. 

The  plate  is  now  prepared  for  drawing 
through  tlie  lines  which  have  been  mark- 
ed upon  the  ground.  For  this,  the  etch- 
ing-points or  needles  ai-e  employed,  lean- 
ing hard  or  lightly,  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  sti-ength  required  in  the  lines. 
Points  of  different  sizes  and  forms  ai-e  :il- 
so  used,  for  making  lines  of  different 
thicknesses,  though  commonly,  this  is  ef- 
fected by  the  biting-in  with  the  aqua  for- 
tis. 

A  margin,  or  border  of  wax,  must  now 
be  formed  all  round  the  plate,  to  hold  the 
aqua  fortis  when  it  is  poui-ed  on.  To  do 
this,  the  bordering-wax  already  describ- 
ed, must  be  put  into  lukewarm  water  to 
soften  it,  and  render  it  easily  worked  by. 
the  hand.  When  sufficiently  pliable,  it^ 
must  be  drawn  out  into  long  rolls,  and  ■ 
put  round  the  edges  ofthe  plate,  pressing- 
it  down  firm,  and  forming  it  with  the  iiri-; 
gers  into  a  neat  wall  or  margin.,.  A  spout 
must  be  formed  in  one  corner,  tp.  pour  off 
the  aqua  fortis  b)',  afterwards.- 

Tlie  nitrous  acid  (spirits  of  nitre)  is 
now  to  be  diluted  with  four  or  five  times 
as  much  water,  or  more  (according  as  you 
wish  the  plate  to  be  bit  quick  or  slow), 
and  poured  upon  the  plate.  In  a  few  mi- 
nutes, minute  bubbles  of  air  will  be  seen 
filling  all  the  lines  that  have  been  di-a.wn 
on  the  copper,  which  are-  to  be  removed 
by  a  feather  ;  and  the  plate  must  be  now 
and  tlien  swept,  as  it  is  called,  or  kept 
free  from  air-bubbles.  By  the  more  or  less 


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rapid  production  of  these  bubbles,  you 
judge  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  acid 
acts  upon  the  copper.  The  biting-in  of 
the  plate,  is  the  most  uncertain  part  of  tlie 
process,  and  nothing  but  veiy  gi'eat  ex- 
])erience  can  enable  any  one  to  tell  when 
the  plate  is  bit  enough,  as  you  cannot  ea- 
sily see  the  thickness  and  depth  of  the 
line  till  the  ground  is  taken  oH". 

When  you  judge,  from  the  time  the 
acid  has  been  on,  and  the  rapidity  of  the 
biting,  that  those  lines  which  you  wish  to 
be  the  faintest,  are  as  deep  as  you  wish, 
you  pour  off  the  aqua  fortis  by  the  spout, 
wash  the  plate  with  water,  and  dry  it,  by 
blowing  with  bellows,  or  by  the  fire,  tiik- 
ing  care  not  to  melt  the  ground- 

Those  lines  that  are  not  intended  to  be 
bit  any  deeper,  must  now  be  stopped  up 
Avith  turpentine-varnish,  mixed  with  a  lit- 
tle lamp-black,  and  laid  on  with  a  camel's- 
liair  pencil ;  and  when  this  is  thoroughly 
dry,  the  aqua  fortis  may  be  poured  on 
again,  to  bite  the  other  lines  that  are  re- 
quired to  be  deeper. 

This  process  of  stopping-oiitand  biting- 
in,  is  to  be  repeated  as  often  as  there  are 
to  be  lines  of  different  degrees  of  thick- 
ness, taking  care  not  to  make  any  mistake 
in  stopj)ing-out  wrong  lines. 

It  is  also  necessary  fo  be  particularly 
careful  to  stop-out  with  the  varnish,  those 
pai'ts  from  which  the  ground  may  hajipen 
to  have  come  off  by  the  action  of  the  acid, 
otherwise  you  will  have  jiarts  bit  that 
were  not  intended,  which  is  called  foul- 
biting. 

When  the  bitlng-in  is  quite  finished,  the 
next  operation  is  to  remove  the  border- 
ing-wax  and  the  ground,  in  order  that 
you  may  see  what  success  you  have  had  ; 
for  till  then,this  cannot  be  known  exactly. 

To  take  off  the  bordering-wax,  the 
plate  must  be  heated  by  a  piece  of  lighted 
paper,  which  softens  the  wax  in  contact 
with  tlie  plate,  and  occasions  it  to  come  off 
quite  clean. 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  now  poured  upon 
the  gi'ound,  and  the  plate  is  rubbed  with 
a  bit  of  linen  rag,  which  removes  all  the 
ground.  Lastlj ,  it  is  cleaned  off  with 
whitening. 

The  success  of  the  etching  may  now  be 
known  ;  but,  it  is  necessary  to  get  an  im- 
pression taken  upon  ])aper,  by  a  copper- 
plate printer.  Tins  impression  is  called  a 
proof. 

If  any  parts  are  not  bit  so  deep  as  were 
intended,  the  process  may  be  repeated, 
provided  the  lines  are  not  too  faintly  bit 
to  admit  of  it.  This  second  biting-in  the 
same>  lines,  is  called  re-biting,  and  is  dcnie 
as  follows  :  McK  a  little  of  the  etching- 


jgrourtd  on  a  square  piece  of  copper,  and^  ^iifhcn  you  are  ready  to  etch,  warm,  and 


dab  it  a  little,  to  get  some  on  the  dabberj 
then,  having  cleaned  out,  with  whiting, 
the  lines  that  are  to  be  re-bit,  heat  the 
plate  gently,  and  dab  it  very  lightly  with 
the  dabber.  By  this,  the  parts  between 
the  lines  will  be  covered  with  the  ground, 
but  the  lines  themselves  will  not  be  filled 
up,  and  consequently  will  be  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  aqua  fortis.  This  is  a 
very  delicate  process,  and  must  be  per- 
fumed with  great  care.  The  rest  of  the 
l)late  must  now  be  varnished  over,  the 
bordering  wax  put  on  again,  and  the  bit- 
ing repeated  m  the  same  manner,  as  at 
first 

If  any  part  should  be  bit  too  deep,  it  is 
more  difficult  to  recover  it,  or  make  it 
fainter  :  this  is  generally  done  by  burnish- 
ing the  part  down,  or  rubbing  it  with  a 
piece  of  charcoal.  This  will  make  the 
lines  shallower,  and  cause  them  not  to 
print  so  black. 

Siiould  any  smallparts  of  the  lines  have 
missed  altogether  in  the  biting,  they  may 
be  cut  with  the  graver ;  which  is  also 
sometimes  employed  to  cross  the  lines  of 
the  etching,  and  thus  to  work  up  a  more 
finished  efrect. 

Dry-pointing,  as  it  is  called,  is  another 
method  employed  for  softening  the  harsh 
effects  usually  apparent  in  an  etching. 
This  is  done  by  cutting  with  the  etching- 
ponit  upon  the  copper,  without  any 
ground  or  varnish.  Tiiis  does  not  make 
a  very  deep  line,  and  is  used  for  covering 
the  light,  wheee  very  delicate  tints  and 
soft  shadows  are  wanting. 

By  varying  these  processes  of  etching, 
graving,  and  dry-pointing,  as  is  thought 
necessary,  the  plate  is  worked  up  to  the 
full  effect  intended ;  and  it  is  then  sent  to 
the  writing  engraver ^  to  grave  what  letters 
may  be  required  to  be  put  upon  it. 

The  etching  upon  sword  or  knife  blades 
is  given  in  the  Laboratory,  as  follow  : 

To  pnpare  the  Etch-u-atrr.  Take  mer- 
cury and  aqua-fortis,  put  them  together 
into  a  glass,  till  the  mercury  is  dissolv- 
ed, and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

To  viake  the  Ground.  Take  three  oun- 
ces of  red  lead,  one  ounce  of  white  lead, 
half  an  ounce  of  chalk,  all  finely  pounded; 
grind  these  together  with  varnish,  and 
anoint  your  iron  ;  let  it  dry  in  the  sun,  or 
before  a  slow  fire,  and  with  a  pointed  steel, 
or  needle,  draw  or  write  on  it  what  you 
please  ;  ai»d  then  etch  it  with  the  above 
prepared  water. 

Jhwther  Water  to  (tch  ivith.  Take  two 
ounces  of  verdigrise,  one  ounce  of  burnt 
alum,  and  .  one  ounce  of  dissolved 
salt :  boil  this  mixture  in  one  quart  of 
vinegar,  till  it  is  half  boiled  away  ;  and 


ETC 


EXT 


pour  it  with  a  spoon,  or  glass  cup,  over 
your  work  ;  hokl  it  over  the  fire  to  keep 
it  warm,  and  repeat  this  till  you  find  it 
etched  deep  enough. 

To  etch  100  or  more  Knife  Blades  at  once. 
Grind  red  lead  with  linseed  oil,  or  var- 
nish ;  with  tliis  wipe  your  blades  all  o\er, 
and  let  them  dry  well,  and  harden  :  then 
write  or  draw,  witli  a  pointed  bodkin, 
whatever  you  will :  then  put  them  at  some 
distance  from  each  other,  into  a  glass  or 
■well  glazed  pot  or  pan ;  dissolve  some 
vitriol  in  hot  water,  pour  it  over  the  blades, 
and  lute  the  glass  or  pot ;  set  it  over  a 
gentle  coal-fire  ;  let  it  boil  for  some  time, 
and  then  let  it  cool ;  then  take  your  blades, 
out;  scrape  the  red  lead  off,  and  you 
will  find  the  etching  to  your  satisfaction. 
To  make  Blue  Letters  on  Siuord-blades, 
Take  the  blade ;  hold  it  over  a  charcoal 
fire  till  it  is  blue ;  then,  with  oil  colours, 
write  what  letters  you  will  upon  the  blade, 
and  let  them  dry ;  when  dry,  take  good 
strong  vinegar;  make  it  warm,  and  pour 
it  all  over  the  blade  ;  this  will  take  off 
the  blue  colour ;  then  wet  your  oil  colour 
with  fresh  water,  and  it  will  come  off 
easily,  and  the  letters  drawn  therewith 
remain  blue. 

ETCHING,  on  Stone.  A  method  of 
etching  on  calcareous  substances,  which 
may  be  termed  a  chemical  mode  of  multi- 
plying hatched  drawings,  has  also  been  re- 
cently discovered  in  England,  or  recently 
imported  fi-om  Germany'-  and  some  very 
spirited  sketchy  etchings  have  been  exe- 
cuted in  this  way  by  the  president  West, 
and  Messrs.  Fuseli,  Cosway,  Barry,  and 
some  other  members  of  the  Iloyal  Acade- 
my. Messrs.  Corbould  Stubbs,  and  C. 
Heath  are  also  among  those  whp  have 
successfully  practised  this  new  art.  "The 
materials  were  supplied  by  a  gentleman 
not  now  in  England :  the  knowledge  of 
the  exact  proportions  of  the  ingredients 
of  which  they  consisted,  was  not  impart- 
ed to  those  who  made  use  of  them,  nei- 
ther is  it  believed  to  have  been  imparted 
to  any  one  else ;  but  tlie  materials  them- 
selves being  known,  the  proportions  may 
presumptively  be  ascertained  by  a  little 
experience. 

The  stone  was  of  a  species  resembling 
that  fine-gi-ained  stone,  of  a  yellowish  co- 
lour, whicii  is  found  in  large  quantities  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Bath,  and  is  called 
Bath  stone.  The  etchings  were  of  two 
kinds ;  those  performed  with  a  crayon, 
and  those  performed  with  pen  and  ink. 
The  craj'on  was  a  mixtui-e  of  white  wax 
and  lampblack,  with  a  small  quantity  of 
shell-lac.  The  ink  consisted  of  shell-lac, 
borax,  and  water ;  and  the  stones  which 
•received  the  crayons,  were  ground  to  a 


surface  somewhat  less  smooth  than  those 
which  were  prepared  for  the  reception  of 
the  ink. 

The  method  of  etching  is  merely  draw- 
ing on  the  stone  with  these  materials. 
The  mystery,  or  secret,  which  any  che- 
mist would  easily  develope,  resides  in  the 
nrianner  of  printing  these  drawings,  and  is 
simply  as  follows. 

The  ink  is  to  be  prepared  as  printer'ss 
ink  is  commonly  prepared,  namely, 
ground  up  with  oil ;  and  the  paper,  which 
is  to  receive  the  impression,  must  be 
damped  in  the  usual  manner.  The  etch- 
ed stone  is  then  to  be  wetted  by  immer- 
sion in  water;  when  it  is  taken  out,  and 
while  it  is  still  wet,  the  ink  being  careful- 
ly applied  on  its  surface,  without  violent 
friction,  by  means  of  a  printer*s  ball,  (such 
as  is  used  in  letter-press  printing,)  will  be 
found  to  adhere  only  where  the  stone  has 
been  hatclied  by  the  ai'tist,  with  the  cray- 
on or  ink,  the  antipathy  of  oil  to  water  ef- 
fectually preventing  it  from  sticking  any 
where  else.  The  paper  is  now  to  be 
placed  as  in  letter-press  printing,  and  a 
pressure,  which  need  not  be  very  violent, 
applied  either  by  means  of  a  roller,  pass- 
ed over  the  back  of  the  paper,  or  other- 
wise, a  blanket  of  finer  woollen  cloth  be- 
ing interposed  between  the  roller  and  pa- 
per. 

Etching  on  stone  has  been  practised  in 
this  city;  but  no  progress,  with  respect  to 
its  use,  has  yet  been  made. 

ETCHING,  on  Glass.  See  Engrav- 
ING,  on  Glass. 

EXTRACT.  This  is  nothing  more 
than  the  inspissated  juice,  or  decoction, 
of  vegetables  .  Thus,  liquorice  ball  is  the 
extract  of  liquorice  wood,  prepared  by 
making  a  decoction  of  the  wood,  and  eva- 
porating it  to  a  solid  or  hard  consistence. 
Extractive  matter,  in  the  language  of  che- 
mists, is  a  peculiar  substance,  supposed  to 
be  of  the  immediate  materials  of  vegeta- 
bles. .  According  as  water,  spirit,  or  alco- 
hol is  employed  to  extract  the  virtues,  or 
particular  parts  of  vegetables,  the  extract 
obtained  from  the  decoction,  or  infusion, 
is  either  a  watery  or  spirituous  one ; 
hence,  in  the  language  of  chemistry, 
such  extracts  as  are  obtained  by  water 
are  principally  guminy,  or,  properl) ,  ex- 
tractive matter;  and  such  as  are  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  alcohol,  are  prin- 
cipally resinous.  Thus  we  iiave  the  ex- 
tract of  bark,  and  tlie  resin  of  bark, 
formed  in  this  manner.  The  use  of  di- 
luted alcohol,  or  spirit,  forms  an  extract 
which  contains  both  a  giun  and  a  resin ; 
such  extracts  are  called  gum-i'esins. 

The   colouring   matter  of   vegetables 
resides    in   a   gum,    a  resin,   or   other 


EXT 


EXT 


principle;  and  frequently  to  oblaln  it,  ei- 
tlier  vvaler,  water  and  alcohol,  or  alcohol 
alone,  is  necessary,  as  the  menstruum. 
Considering  either  one  or  the  other,  or 
that  extract  itself  forms  a  great  portion  of 
tJic  colouring  matter  of  vegetables,  in  or- 
der to  apply  the  colouring  matter  to  stuffs, 
a  proper  solvent  should  be  used;  and  a 
particular  mordant,  suited  to  the  stuff  and 
tlie  colour,  is  uidispensably  necessary.  See 
Dyeing. 


Thus,  if  a  solution  of  alum  be  added  O 
any  extract  dissolved  in  water,  a  copious 
coloiu-ed  precipitate  is  formed,  insoluble 
in  water,  and  consisting  of  extract  or  co- 
louring matter,  intimately  combined  with 
alumine,  whilst  the  supernatent  fluid  is 
rendered  nearly  colourless.  Some  of  the 
metallic  salts  have  also  this  effect;  by  the 
metallic  oxyd  combining  with  the  colour- 
ing matter. 


F. 


FAR 


FAR 


FALLOWING  of  Land.     See  Acri 

CULTURE. 

FARMING,   System  of.      See   Agri 

CULTURE. 

FARUIERY.  The  art  and profecslon  of 
the  farrier,  or  farriery,  which  has  compre- 
hended from  the  earliest  to  the  present  pe- 
riod,  the  medical  and  surgical  care  of  tlie 
horse,  as  well  as  that  of  manufacturing 
and  fitting  hinv  with  shoes.  These  me- 
chanics, as  labourers  of  iron,  were  origi- 
nally termed  terriers,  from  the  latin  word 
ferfum,  iron,  and  their  craft  fcrriery. — 
This  term  remains  yet  in  general  use,  to 
its  fullest  extent,  and  not  inaptly  ;  since, 
notwithstanding  the  laudable  attempts  of 
many  enlightened  men,  at  various  periods, 
the  Clacksmiths  in  America  form  a  very 
large  majority  of  horse  surgeons,  and 
physicians.  Nor  is  this  defect  peculiar  to 
this  country,  but  prevails  in  a  great  de- 
gree throughout  Europe.  The  term  Vete 
rinarv,  was  originally  used  by  the  Latins, 
(^y't^etlus)  and  has  a  more  extensive  im- 
port Jian  our  farriery,  coniprehending 
tlie  care,  both  in  healthi  and  in  a  state  of 
disease,  of  all  those  animals,  domesticated 
for  the  laborious  service,  or  food  of  man. 
AVe  have  chosen  to  treat  the  subjects,  se- 
parately ;  and  having  already  under  the 
head  of  Animals  Domestic,  given  an 
account  of  the  diseases  incident  to  those 
of  other  species,  with  the  best  mode  of 
cure ;  we  proceed  now  to  the  horse ; — 
and,  as  our  limits  will  not  admit  of  a  trea- 
tise on  the  iinntoviy  of  this  useful  animal, 
we  are  obliged  to  content  ourselves  with  a 
concise  treatise  on  the  diseases  to  which 
lie  is  subject,  and  of  the  mode  of  cure, 
adopted  by  the  best  Veterinarians.  Ovu- 
work  beiiig  in  the  form  of  a  dictionary,  we 
shall  pursue  this  plan,  and  give  the  disea- 


ses in  their  alphabetic  order,  as  prefera- 
ble to  any  other,  viz,. 

Of  Abscess. — The  treatment  of  an 
abscess  consists  either  in  resolving"  it  by 
absorption,  or  evacuating  the  matter.  The 
fii'st  is  <3ie  most  preferable  method,  and 
should  always  be  attempted  in  the  inci- 
pient state  of  abscess,  when  ihere  is  pro- 
bability of  success  The  most  efliectual 
means  for  promoting  resolution  by  ab- 
sorption, are,  Vn.  general  bleeding,  with  a 
view  to  lessen  tlie  inflammatory  action  of 
the  system  ;  tdpiSal  applications  to  Die  af- 
fected part,  such  as  scarifying,  bleeding 
with  leeches,  and!  cold,  applications,  such 
as  solutions  of  ««'gari>f  lead,  with  v.'ater, 
vinegar.  Sec  purgatives  and  clysters, 
should  also  be  emjiloyed  ;  and  the  horse 
should  be  kept  on  low  diet,  and  all  warm 
applications  to  be  absiained  from,  as  they 
tend  to  promote  suppuration- 

These  remedies,  when  used  sufficiently 
early,  will,  in  general,  succeed  in  discuss- 
ing an  incipient  abscess  ;  but  should  they 
fail,  and  the  abscess  be  advanced  in  size, 
and  the  formation  of  pus ;  then  the  con- 
tents must  be  evacuated,  and  the  treat- 
ment changed  to  the  direct  opposite  of 
what  we  have  recommended  f<n-  resolving 
the  abscess  by  absorption.  Accordingly, 
general  and  local  bleedings,  are  to  be 
avoided  ;  no  purgatives  should  be  given, 
and  tlie  patient's  strengtJi  ought  to  be 
supported,  as  much  as  possible,  with  full 
and  nourishing  food,  to  enable  it  to  sus- 
tain the  loss  it  is  about  to  sutler.  The 
matter  also  should  be  evacuated  by  a 
small  ojiening  made  in  the  most  depend- 
ing part  of  the  abscess;  and  not  continued 
from  end  to  end,  as  was  formerly  the 
practice;  and,  in  consequence  of  which, 
great  irritation  was  induced,  and  the  pa- 


FAR 


FAR 


uent  sometimes  destroyed.  And  should 
tUe  abscess  be  very  lar^,  it  will  be  more 
adviseable  to  evacuate  the  matter  by  de- 
grees, allovring  the  small  orifice  to  close, 
and  the  abscess  to  fill  again,  and  thus  to 
repeat  the  evacuation  till  it  be  wholly 
emptied,  than  to  discharge  all  the  matter 
at  once,  by  which  great  irritation  and  dan- 
ger may  be  brought  on. 

Of  the  Apoplexy,  or  Staggers. — The 
Staggers  is  a  disease  ot  the  brain,  arising 
from  an  unusual  determination  of  blood  to 
the  vessels  of  this  organ,  by  which  its  ope- 
rations become  greatly  disturbed.  It  is 
mostly  produced  from  full  feeding,  and 
too  little  exercise :  but  it  may  also  take 
place  from  an  accumulation  of  water  in 
the  ventricles  of  the  brain  Its  sjinptoms 
are  at  first  drowsiness,  the  horse  being 
much  disposed  to  sleep,  dulness  and  hea- 
vinesis  of  the  e}-es,  loss  of  appetite,  and 
costiveness,  witli  full  and  slow  pulse. 
The  disease  is  now  termed  tlie  sleeping 
staggers ;  but,  if  the  proper  treatment  for 
its  removal  be  omitted  at  this  stage,  an 
inflammation  of  the  brain  ensues,  the 
horse  becomes  delirious,  he  plunges  vio- 
lently, falls  down  as  if  exliausted,  and 
again  starts  up  with  \\  ildness  ;  and  now 
the  disease  is  distinguished  by  the  term 
mad-staggers,  and  generally  terminates  in 
death.  It  should  here,  however,  be  ob- 
served, tliat  the  latter  disease  is  not  al- 
ways preceded  by  the  former,  it  beine 
somet'unes  the  primary  one  affecting  tJie 
animal. 

As  tl»e  staggers  is.  In  general,  the  ef- 
fect of  a  plediora,  or  too  great  a  fullness 
of  blood  in  the  system,  bleeding  largely  is 
necessarily  the  most  efficacious  remedy. 
When  this  is  done  early  in  tiie  disease,  a 
cure  is  often  effected ;  but,  if  the  symp- 
toms should  not  abate  in  ten  or  twelve 
hours,  the  operation  should  be  ag:un  had 
recourse  to.  One  of  the  following  purga- 
tive draughts  should  also  be  given  ;  and, 
with  a  view  to  divert  tlie  blood  from  the 
head,  a  rowel  may  be  placed  under  the 
jaw.  This  treatment  will,  most  com- 
mcmly,  be  effectual;  but,  should  it  other- 
wise liappen,  and  tliat  the  delirious  or 
mad-staggers  succeed,  opening  the  tem- 
pore arteries,  and  allowing  tliem  to  bleed 
co'wusly,  and  also  blistering  the  head,  are 
tlie  most  hkeiy  means  to  produce  benefit. 

FurgatiTe  nraught.  No.  1— Barbadoes 
A'oes,  7  dr.  Casiile  Soap,  2  dr.  Water,  1 
pint.     Mix  for  one  draught. 

Purgative  ^Mi.  2 — Aloes,  6  drachms. 
Myrrh  and  (linger  of  each,  2  dr.  Castile 
Soap,  3  dr.  Simple  Mint  Water,  1  pint. 
Mix  for  one  dose- 

'l"he  operation  of  these  purges  may  be 
assisted  by  a  glyster.  Slnuld  this  not  suc- 
VOL.  I. 


ceed  in  relieving  the  animal,  it  will  be  ad- 
viseable to  have  recotu^e  to  one  of  the 
two  following  formulae. 

No.  1 — Foetid  Spirit  of  Ammonia,  1  oz. 
Camphor  1  dr.  Slint  Water,  1  pint.  Mix 
for  one  dose. 

No.  2 — Spirits  of  Hartshorn,  1  oz. 
Powdered  Valerian  6  dr.  Mint  Water,  1 
pint.     Mis  for  one  dose. 

Of  Inflammation  of  the  Bladder — The 
bladder  is  liable  to  have  its  internal  mu- 
cous  coat  generally  inflamed,  which  some- 
times terminates  fatally.  When  this  dis- 
ease exists,  the  bladder  is  incessantly  eva- 
cuating the  urine,  owing  to  tlie  irritation 
produced  by  the  want  of  tlie  mucous  se- 
cretion, which  is  now  suspended,  and 
which  before  protected  the  sensible  mem- 
brane of  tlxe  bladder  from  the  stimulus  of 
that  fluid. 

The  cure  of  this  disease  consists  in 
bleeding  the  animal ;  fomenting  the  parts 
contiguous  to  the  inflamed  bladder ;  in- 
jecting into  this  organ  warm  water ;  also 
throwing  this  fluid  up  the  rectum,  and 
keeping  the  animal  at  rest,  and  warmly 
clothed.  Diuretics  should  be  particularly 
abstained  from,  lest,  by  passing  into  the 
bladder,  they  may  continue  or  augment 
the  disease. 

Of  Palsy  of  the  B ladder. -^The  fundus 
of  the  bladder  is  sometimes  deprived  of  its 
power  of  contraction,  owing  to  injuries  or 
li-acture  of  die  spme,  in  consequence 
of  which,  the  spinal  marrow  being  pressed 
upon,  and  the  nen-es  going  from  it  losing 
their  capability  of  sensation,  and  of  ex- 
citing voluntary  mption,  the  parts  to  which 
these  nerves  are  distributed  are  necessa- 
rily rendered  insensible  and  motionless. 
This  is  the  case  in  palsy  of  the  bladder  ; 
this  organ  is  no  longer  under  the  control 
of  die  \\  ill,  nor  does  tlie  urine  it  contains 
excite  any  degree  of  ii-ritation  ;  its  sides 
remain  distended  with  the  contents,  nor 
can  these  be  evacuated  but  by  the  assist- 
ance of  the  catheter. 

A  cure  can  therefore  be  expected  ohly 
by  first  remo\-ing  the  cause  ;  and  as  frac- 
tures of  any  consequence  in  the  spine  of 
the  horse,  generally  and  speediiv  end  fa- 
tally, it  is  almost  useless  to  attend  mi- 
nutely to  the  affection  of  the  bladder. 
The  urine  may  occasionally  be  dj-awn  off 
by  means  of  a  catlieter  ;  but  the  original 
injury  should  be  the  principal  object  of 
reparation.  This  disease  is  liable  to  be 
mistaken  for  inflammation  of  the  neck  of 
the  bladder,  as  in  both  diese  affections,  on 
urine  being  passed,  the  bladder  continues 
alike  distended ;  but  it  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  latter  disease,  first,  by 
the  cu'cum stance  of  some  injury  having 
happened  to  the^spine^of  the  horse;  and 
T    t 


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FAK 


secondly,  by  the  ease  with  which  the  ca- 
tlieter  can  be  intibduced  hrougli  llic 
neck  into  the  bhidder,  and  which  is  more 
difficult  to  be  aecompiished  in  inflamma- 
tion ot  that  part. 

Of  Inflantnir.tion  of  the  jYeck  of  the 
Jiladder. — This  disease  is  fiequcnt  in  the 
horse,  but  it  scuj'cely  ever  is  met  with 
in  ncires,  owinj,'  to  the  shortness  and 
greater  capacity  of  ilie  fctnde  urethra, 
and  whioli  would  require  an  extraoi'di- 
nary  degree  of  inflammation  so  to  close 
up  the  orifice  of  the  bladder  as  to  prevent 
tlie  flowing-  of  its  contenis 

When  tliis  disease  is  present-  in  the 
horse,  scarcely  any  urine  is  voided,  and 
on  examination,  the  bladder  will  be  ihund 
distended  wiiii  tliis  fluid;  ibr  now  the 
neck  of  the  biadder  being  in  full  conti'ac- 
tion  from  the  inflammatory  action  wiiich 
is  going  on,  the  passage  from  that  or- 
gan is  nearly  obstructed.  But  as  we 
before  observed,  care  should  be  taken 
that  this  disease  be  not  mistaken  for  jml- 
sy  of  the  fundus  of  the  bladder,  and 
which  may  bediscrimir.aied  in  the  man- 
ner mentioned  when  speaking  of  the  pal- 
sy of  that  o'-gan.  And  (hat  it  may  not 
be  confounded  witli  y;alsy  of  the  neck  of 
the  bladder,  in  which  disease  the  urine 
passes  ii.  drops,  tlie  stau.  c/f  ilie  bladder 
should  be  ascertained  ;  wlien,  if  found  to 
be  distended,  inflammation  of  its  neck 
may  be  concluded  upon  as  the  existbig 
disorder. 

'1  he  treatment  of  this  disease  requires 
much  management  and  nicety,  and  pre 
sents  tv/o  principal  objects  f)r  acctnn- 
plishnien',  viz.  first,  the  evacuation  of  the 
urine  from  the  over-dister.ded  bladder; 
and,  secondly,  the  suppression  ot  tiie  in- 
flammation  in  the  neck  of  that  organ, 
causing  llie  obstruction.  The  means  to 
be  employed  tor  efiecting  the  latter  pur- 
pose being  similar,  whether  the  disease 
exists  in  a  iiorse  or  mare,  we  shall  de- 
scribe them  first : — Bleeding  should  be 
imniediately  used,  as  in  otiier  inflamma: 
tory  cases,  and  for  the  same  purpo.se, 
viz.  lo  lessen  Die  action  of  the  blo<;d- 
vessels,  and  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
blood  in  the  diseased  part.  Fomenta- 
tions ought  also  lo  be  emplo3ed,  and 
warm  water  should  be  frequently  inject- 
ed into  tiic  rectum.  The  aiiimal,  at  the 
sam«  time,  should  be  kept  warmly 
clothed,  ctnd  at  rest,  and  sliould  have  hall 
a  pint  of  c:«8tor  oil  administered  to  him, 
to  obviate  costiveness. 

Now,  to  evacuate  the  urine,  which 
is  a  principal  point  to  gain  in  this  disease, 
as  it  greatly  relieves  the  :  ITected  organ, 
and  also  the  animal,  the  following  me- 
thods should  be  employed.    If  the  pa- 


tient be  a  mare,  which  we  have  said 
is  rarely,  the  case,  less  difficulty  occurii 
m  drawing  oflf  the  obsirucied  ui  ine,  and 
this  may  be  accomplished  by  introducingf 
a  catheter  gently  througii  tiie  urethra 
into  the  bladder ;  but  if  this  mode  fail,  it 
\vill  then  be  necessary  to  puncture  the 
bladder ;  which  should  be  done  with  a 
.small  ti'ochar  entered  through  the  vagina, 
contiguous  to  the  urinary  passage.  The 
operation  of  evacuating  the  contents  of  the 
male  bladder  will  be  attended  with  more 
difficulty,  owing  to  the  greater  length  and 
narrowness,  and  also  the  curvature  of. the 
urethra  in  the  horse ;  which  cu'cum- 
stances  render  the  introduction  of  an  in- 
strument int6  the-  bladder  tiirough  this 
long,  narrow,  arid  crooked  canal,  diffi- 
cult to  be  perfonned.  .Hence  it  will  be 
necessary,  iir.st  to  introduce  a  catheter 
of  gum  elastic,  which  will  pass  through 
all  the  crooked  and  winding  parts  of  the 
passage. 

This  oper.ition  being  certainly  attended 
with  far  less  danger  than  punclunng  the 
bladder,  should  theveibre  be  preferred  ; 
but  when  it  is  necessaiy  to  perform  the 
latter  operation,  the  trochar  should  be 
made  to  penetrate,  either  near  to  the  pii-' 
bis,  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  an  open- 
ing into  tlie  eavi-iy  of  the  abdomen,  or 
through  the  rectum,  about  an  inch  or  little 
more  up  that  iniestine.  It  will  scarcely 
be  necessary  to  observe,  that,  in  all  these 
cases,  the  means  must  also  be  used  for 
abating  and  sujjpressing  the  inflamma- 
tion, which  is  the  cause  ot  the  obsUuctionj 
as  already  directed. 

Of  Botts. — I'he  stomach  of  thfe  horse, 
from  being  partly  insensible,  is  therefore 
incapable  of  s\  mpathizing  with  the  other, 
])aits  of  the  fram-j,  as  in  the  Iniman  sub- 
ject ;  and,  tor  the  same  leason,  it  is  sel- 
dom liable  to  disease.  It  is,  however, 
sometimes  disordered  by  an  accumulation 
of  worms,  termed  botts,  which  fitsten  on 
(he  insensible  membrane  lining  the  sto- 
mi^ch,  by  two  dense,  sharp  hooks,  and 
which  at  times,  will  detach  thems-iive? 
spontaneously. 

Those  Worms  are  hatched  by  the 
warmth  of  ihe  stomach,  from  eggs  de- 
posited b)  the  horse-fly  in  the  suimner 
sea.  on,  and  wiiicli  the  h.orse,  in  biiinphis 
hair,  cm  which  tliese  eggs  are  laid,  licks 
ujj  and  sw  allows.  They  are  to  be  found 
ni  mo.st  horses,  and  particularly  at  a  ccr 
lain  time  of  tlie  year,  and  in  general  are 
not  hurtful;  but  they  sometimes  increase 
greatly  in  number,  ai.vl,  insinuating  them- 
selves between  the  coats  of  the  stomach, 
greatly  hulispose  this  organ,  and  prevent 
the  horse  from  tliviving.  In  this  case  lit- 
tle can  be  effected  by  jnedicines  ;  but  the 


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FiVJR 


tollo\nng'  aloetic  purge  will  succeed  in 
detaching- such  of  tliese  insects  as  are  al- 
ready nearly  loosened  fiom  the  stomach. 
Purge. — Aloes  (Barbadoes)  6dr.  Pow- 
dered ginger,  1  dr.  S^Tup  to  foiin  one 
ball 

Of  Broken  Iflnd. — A  horse  labouring 
under  great  difficulty  of  biealiiing,  with 
heaving  flanks,  and  his  expiration  being 
mucli  slower  than  h.is  inspii-ation,  is  said, 
and  not  in;.pLjy,  to  be  broken-winded  ; 
and  hence  die  inspi;ation  of  a  broken- 
winded  horse  i^  accomplished  in  one-third 
of  the  time  occupied  in  expir.'ion,  which 
pai-ticularly  distinguishes  this  disease 
'■      iVom  the  former  one. 

A  horse,    as  will  be  hereafter    seen, 
has  a  conipaiatively  small  sluuiach,  and 
therefore  should   be  i'td  often,  and  with 
only   an    a,:portioned   quaniity    at    each 
time  :  but  when  he  is  forced  to  fast  roj 
any  conside-'able  time,  and  then  allowed 
to  eat  at  pleas'-u-e,  he  generally  feeds  vo- 
raciously, so  as  to  over-distend  his  sto- 
mach ;  when,  if  he  be  smar'ly  exeicised, 
it  is  extremely  probable  that  bioken-wlud  ■ 
will  be  the  consequence.     From  the  na- . 
ture  of  this  disease  a  cure  is  not  to  be  ex- ; 
pected;  and  all  that  can  be  done  is,  by  i 
regulating-  the  animal's  diet,  to  modcj-ate  j 
the  inconveniences  of  the  disease  :  tl.us  ' 
to  prevent  pressure  against  tlie  lungs,  and  i 
^'hich   must   inci-ease   the    difficulty   of 
breathing,  the  horse's  stomacii  should  be 
preserved  from  over  disteiuion  as  much  ; 
&s  possible :  this  is  to  be  eftected  by  giv- 
ing  the  horse  but  little  hay  or  water  at  a  ; 
time,  and  feeding  him    with  nourishing  ■ 
substances   which   occupy    but  a  small  ■■ 
space  ;  such  as  corn,  carrots,  beans.  Sic. 
and  he  should  be  worked  generally  on  an 
empty  stomach.  j 

Bfoken  Knees. — The  method  of  treating  | 
this  accident  is  described  generally  under ; 
the  aiticle  Wounds,  being  nothing  moe 
th.in  a  contused  and  lacerated  wound ;  ; 
but  as  it,  occurs  frequently,  and  if  not 
skilfully  treated,  greatly  lessens  the  va- ; 
lue  of  a  Horse,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  be  ' 
in<ire  p;u-ticuiar  on  the  subject.   The  first 
tiling  to  be  done  is  to  cleanse  the  wound  j 
perfectly,  and  if  it  be  at  all  deep  or  exten-  j 
sive,  or  much  bruised,  a  Goulard  Poultice  j 
(see  Physic)  is  to  be  applied,  by  means  of 
t  '.e  leg  of  a  worsted  stvjcking,taking  ca:  e  to 
renew  it  twice  a  day,  that  it  may  be  con- 
st,    stantiy  soft   and  moist ;  this,  in  two  or 
three  days,  will  give  the  wound  a  ht-aling 
appearance,  and  cause   a  white  healthy 
^      matter  to  How ;  it  may  then  be  discqn- 
*      tinued,  and  the  Digestive  Ointment  ap- 
plied.    Should  the  matter  assume  a  bad 
appearance,  losing  its  white  colour,  be- 
coming thin,  and  smelling^  rather  offen* 


sively,  something  stronger  will  be  reqtii- 
site,  such  as  tiie  Detergent  Lotion,  made 
hot;  and  if,  after  thts,  the  new  flesh 
grows  too  luxuriantly,  rising  above  the 
skin,  apply  the  Caustic  Powder,  and  a 
cbnsiderabie  degree  of  p"ossni-e,  by  mems 
of  a  linen  roller  or  bandap-e,  and  a  bolster 
of  lint.  By  this  ti-eatment  the  wound  will 
soon  heal.  But  we  must  not  stop  heie; 
(for  unless  the  swelfuig  is  completely  re- 

■  moved,  and  the  hai-  regenerated  of  its 
'.  c  rigir.al  coloMi-  and  ■-niootliness,  the  hcrse 
'woi'.ld  be  considered  of  very  lit*le  value. 
'  As  soon,  theiefoi-e,  as  the  wound  is  com- 
.  pletely  healed,  if  any  svvelling  is  discern- 

able,  apply  the  ioUowing  luiiment,  so  as 
to  excite  a  moderate  degree  of  vesica- 
tion, or  blistering,  and  repeat  it  after  this 
eiiect  lias  parfsctly  subsided.  Should  the 
swelling  feei  hard  and  callous,  and  be  of 

■  coaside;-able  size,  the  strong  blister,  No. 
2  ov  No.  3,  vvia  be  pi-efurabie. 

i  The  Linnnent. — Powdered  Cantharides, 
'  2  dr.  Campiioi,  ^  oz.  Spirit  of  Wine, 
!  4  oz.  Mix  them  in  a  bottle,  and  let  it 
stand  in  a  warm  place  about  a  week  or 
.  ten  days,  shaking  the  bottie  frequently ; 
:  then  strain  thi  ough  blotting  paper,  and 
!  it  is  fit  lor  use. 

It  often  happens,  after  the  wound  is 
peri'ectiy  healed,  that  a  small  scar  or 
mark  will  be  observable,  and  though  the 
pan  may  be  free  from  any  hardness  or 
swelling,  the  value  of  the  horse  will  be 
gi-eatly  lessened  by  this  appearance.  A 
\arieiy  of  ointments  have  been  recom- 
mended for  promoting  the  growth  of  hair 
on  the  part,  and  thereby  removing  the 
blemish  :  the  following  I  have  found  more 
effectual  than  any  of  them. 

Ointment  for  Broken  Knees. — Ointment 
of  Wa.\,  2  oz.  Camphor,  2  dr.  Oil  of 
Rosemary,  1  dr.     Mix. 

Tiie  colour  of  this  ointment  should  be 
suited  to  that  of  contiguous  hair,  which 
will  so  conceid  the  blemish,  that  it  \\ill 
not  be  observed,  unless  the  part  is  strict- 
ly examined ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the 
ointment  will  cause  the  hair  to  grow  up 
gradually,  until  the  mark  is  completely 
removed.  If  the  horse  is  of  a  bay  colour, 
the  legs  and  knees  are  generally  black- 
ish ;  in  tiiat  ease  mix  a  little  ivory  black 
wiih  die  ointment ;  if  a  chesnut  colour, 
Armenian  bole  may  be  mixed  with  it. 

Bruises. — In  recent  bruises,  fomenta- 
tions are  the  most  essential  remedies. 
When  they  are  violent,  a  considerable 
degree  of  inflammation  may  be  expected 
to  Vapervene ;  it  will  then  be  proper  to 
give  a  laxative  ball,  and  to  bleed  mode- 
rately near  the  affected  part. 

li"  abscesses  form  in  consequence  of  a 
bruise,  discharging  large   quantities  'oi" 


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matter,  particularly  if  the  matter  is  of  a 
bad  colour  and  of  an  offensive  smell,  the 
wound  also  appearing  dark-coloured  and 
rotten,  indicating  approaching  mortifica- 
tion ;  the  horse's  strength  must  be  sup- 
ported by  allowing  liim  a  large  quantity 
of  com,  and  if  he  can  be  made  to  eat 
malt,  it  will  be  found  still  more  effectual. 
If  the  appetite  goes  off  he  must  be  drench- 
ed with  good  water  gruel,  and  strong 
infusion  of  malt ;  it  will  be  necessary  also 
to  give  the  cordial  ball  (see  Physic)  for 
mortifica'ion,  once  or  twice  a  day.  Stimu- 
lating appUcations  to  the  part,  campho- 
rated spirit  and  oil  of  turpentine,  equal 
parts,  are  of  great  use. 

Should  a  hard  callous  swelling  remain 
in  consequence  of  a  bruise,  the  following 
embrocation  is  to  be  well  rubbed  into  the 
part  twice  a  day,  and  if  it  does  not  suc- 
ceed in  removmg  it,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  a  blistering  plaster. 

Embrocation  for  Bruises. — No.  1.  Cam- 
phor, ^oz.  Oil  of  Turpentine,  1  oz.  Soap 
Liniment,  1^  oz.     Mix. 

No.  "3  Tincture  of  Cantharides,  1  oz. 
Oil  of  Origanum,  2  dr.  Camphorated 
Spirit,  6  dr.     Mix. 

No.  3.  Muriate  of  Ammonia,  1  oz.  Dis- 
tilled Vinegar,  8  oz.  Spirit  of  Wine,  6oz. 
Mix. 

Canker. — This  disease  may  exist  in  any 
of  the  feel  of  a  horse,  but  it  is  more  ge- 
nerally found  afiecling  the  liind  feet  of 
that  anim.d  ;  and,  trom  this  circunislance, 
it  is  not  improbable,  that  grease  may 
greatly  assist  in  its  production ;  for  the 
extremely  offensive  and  ptnelrating  dis- 
charge from  the  heels  of  a  gie.svd  liorse, 
constantly  triciiiing'  down  ou  tiiC  trog,  and 
keeping  it  moist  and  soft,  must,  at  length, 
render  it  vmtit  for  peiforming  its  func- 
tions ;  when  contracuon,  with  iis  conse- 
quences, will  take  place,  and  bo'.h  dis- 
eases united  will  terminate  in  caulker 

But  the  fore -feet  ai-e  also  exposed  to 
grease,  contraction,  and  thrush,  and  why 
not  be  equally  affected  by  canker  \  To 
tliis  I  answer,  the  fore -feet  certainly  are 
exposed  to,  and  are  actualix  uften  afflict- 
ed with  the  abo\  e  diseases,  but  owing  to 
their  healing  more  weight,  and  conse- 
quently having  greater  uressure  than  the 
hind  fect,  th»  former  ofler  greater  resist- 
ance to  the  progress  of  disease,  and  con- 
sequently rarely  run  on  to  canker. 

From  the  nature  of  i  brush,  it  is  evi- 
dent it  must  tend  to  produce  canker  ;  for 
tilt  dis<.!iarge  from  tiie  ck  ft  of  the  frog 
dcstroving  tlie  hardness,  and  with  it  tlie 
functions  "if  1  his  organ,  .lie  contraction, 
or  cause  of  disease,  becomes  aggravated, 
till  the  whole  of  the  frog  is  destroyed ; 


when  Uie  destruction  extends  to  the  hor- 
ny  sole,  and  this  is  likewise  rendered  soft 
and  rotten  ;  and  now  the  foot  is  in  a  state 
of  canker. 

This  disease,  when  allowed  to  proceed 
too  far,  is  generally  incurable,  the  capa- 
bility being  destroyed  with  the  sensible 
secreting  sole,  for  producing-  a  new  hor- 
ny  sole,  and  the  coffin-bone  is  now  unco- 
vered. To  effect  a  cure,  the  diseased 
fungous  parts  must  be  cut  away,  till  the 
blood  fieely  flows  ;  the  foot  sliould  now 
be  dressed  with  tlie  following  liniment, 
and  the  dressings  be  kept  on  by  means  of 
a  bar  shoe  ;  nor  should  it  be  forgotten 
that  pressure  will  be  one  of  the  best  re- 
medies for  curing  this  disease.  The  dres- 
sings ought  to  be  renewed  once  each  dayj 
so  as  to  cut  off  any  fresh  fungous  matter 
that  may  arise. 

StrotJg  Liniment. — Oil  of  tui"pentine,  1  ^ 
oz.  Sulphuric  acid,  ^  oz.  Mix  slowly 
tar,  3  oz.    Mix. 

jyjild  Liniment. — Chrystallized  verde 
gris  powdered,  loz.  Honey,  2oz.  Pow- 
dered bole  and  alum,  of  each,  ^oz 

Of  the  Cataract — In  llii^  disease  at  first 
an  opaque  small  point  only  can  be  per- 
ceived in  the  centre  of  the  lens  by  look- 
ing into  the  eye  ;  gradually,  but  slowly 
this  point  of  opacity  increases,  till  at 
length  it  extends  through  tlie  whole  sub- 
stance of  the  lens,  causing  it  to  appeal- 
white  or  yellow,  and  inducing  blindness. 
For  the  rays  of  light  behig  wholly  ob- 
structed by  the  lens,  now  rendered  opaque 
and  impenetrable  by  inflammation,  are 
not  permitted^  to  reach  the  retina,  where 
alone  they  can  make  an  impression,  and, 
consequently,  vision  is  totally  precluded. 
In  the  human  subject  this  obstruction  is 
frequently  removed,  and  sight  restored, 
by  tlie  extraction  or  depression  of  the 
diseased  opaque  lens:  but  this  cannot  be 
so  well  done  in  the  horse,  it  being  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  fix  his  eye  so  as  to 
perform  the  operation  with  success :  and 
further,  should  the  lens  be  successfully 
extracted  or  dejiressed,  and  the  wound- 
ed parts  heal,  it  would  be  next  to  an  im. 
possibility  to  keep  the  proper  glasses  ap- 
plied to  his  eye  ;  without  which,  his  vision 
must  be  confused,  and  rendered  more  in. 
jurious  than  total  blindness. 

Catarrh,  or  Common  C'o/rf.— -This  dis- 
ease consists  in  an  inflammation  of  the 
membrane  lining  (he  wind-pipe,  and  is 
attended  with  a  cough,  discliarge  at  the 
nostrils,  and  frequ<;iitly  some  fever. 

It  will  be  necess-ory  at  first  to  bleed  mo- 
derately, with  the  view  of  keeping  down 
the  fever ;  also  give  wai-m  bran  mashes  ; 
blister  the  throat,  keep  the  horse  wai-mly 


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clad,  purge  and  give  the  following  fever 
powder  once  a  day  till  the  horse  gets 
better. 

Fever  Po-wder. — Antimonial  powder,  3 
dr.  Camphor,  1  dr.  To  be  mixed  tor  one 
dose. 

Of  Chronic  Cough. — When  recent  colds 
are  improperly  treated,  or  neglected,  a 
constant  and  tiresome  cough  is  apt  to  be 
the  consequence,  which  greatly  distresses 
the  animal,  and  remains  for  a  considerable 
time  after  the  inflammatorj'  aftection  has 
subsided. 

To  remove  it,  first  blister  the  throat, 
keep  the  horse  moderateh'  warm,  give 
him  regular  exercise,  and  the  following 
ball,  once  each  day,  till  the  horse  begins 
to  recover. 

Bail — Tartarized  antimony,  1^  dr. 
Aloes  Barbadoes,  IJdr.  Castile  soap, 
1^  dr.     Syrup  to  form  one  ball. 

Corns,  are  generally  the  consequence 
of  bad  shoeing,  or  improper  management 
of  the  foot,  and  may  therefore  be  avoided 
by  attending  to  have  that  process  proper- 
ly performed — but  when  they  do  occur, 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  red  part  or 
corn,  with  a  drawing  knile,  and  to  apply 
the  shoe  so  that  the  tender  part  may  not 
receive  any  pressure :  when  it  has  been 
neglected  we  sometimes  find  matter  form- 
ed in  this  part  which  often  breaks  out  at 
tlie  coronet ;  in  this  case  it  is  necessary 
to  make  an  opening  for  the  matter  in  the 
angle  between  the  bur  and  crust.  The 
sore  is  to  b^giressed  with  compound 
tincture  of  b^lom,  and  the  cavity  to  be 
loosely  iilled  with  digestive  oiiUment, 
which  is  to  be  kept  in  by  means  of  a  bur 
shoe.  Tow,  dipped  in  tar  and  applied  to 
;lie  diseased  part  previous  to  iicaiing,  is 
considered  useful. 

Club — This  term  implies  a  swelling  on 
■the  back  part  of  the  back,  wincli  some- 
times occasions  lameness.  Blistering  and 
rest  are  the  only  remedies.  It  is  fre- 
quently necessary,  however,  to  apply  two 
or  three  bhsters  before  the  swelling  is  per- 
fectly reduced. 

Cutting  oj  the  Feet,  or  Knees. — This  is 
often  produced  by  improper  shoeing. 
Should  this  be  the  case,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  shoe  should  be  removed,  and  placed 
in  a  proper  position.  Sliouldit,  iiowever, 
arise,  as  is  sometimes  the  pase,  from  an 
improper  position  or  formation  of  the  foot, 
the  toe  not  being  in  a  line  with  the  point 
of  the  shoulder,  inclining  either  inward 
or  outward  :  In  the  latter  case,  we  gene- 
nerally  find  that  the  inner  quarter  of  the 
hoof  is  lower  than  the  other,  and  that  the 
faulty  position  of  the  foot  depends  upon 
tliis  inequality  ot  the  quarters.    The  re- 


medy, in  this  case,  consists  in  lowering 
the  outer  quarter,  and  making  the  inner 
branch  of  the  shoe  thicker  than  the  other. 
When  the  toe  inclines  inward,  it  renders  a 
horse  liable  to  cut  on  the  inside  of  the 
knee,  at  the  lower  part  uf  the  joint ;  this 
is  termed  the  speedy  cut,  and  is  consider- 
ed as  a  dangerous  failing  in  a  horse,  the 
violence  of  the  pain  which  tiie  blow  occa- 
sions, sometimes  causing  him  to  fall  very 
suddenly. 

The  remedy  for  this  is  to  keep  the  toe 
as  short  as  possible,  that  being  the  part 
which  inflicts  the  wound  ;  and  to  alter  the 
improper  position  of  the  foot. 

Cutting  frequently  depends  upon  weak- 
ness, or  fatigue  ;  and  is,  therefore,  very  lia- 
ble to  happen  to  young  horses  when  rid- 
den hard  over  heavy  ground.  The  only 
remedy  in  this  case  is,  to  avoid  the  cause 
until  the  legs  acquire  more  strength,  or 
to  protect  the  wounded  part  with  leather, 
or  a  bpot,  as  it  is  termed.  Whenever  a 
horse  cuts,  it  is  adviseable  to  ascertain 
what  part  it  is  that  inflicts  the  wound; 
and  this  may  often  be  done  by  applying 
tar  to  the  wounded  part ;  this  will  of  course 
adhere  to  the  part  of  the  hoof  or  shoe 
which  comes  into  contact  with  the  wound. 
Should  it  be  the  edge  of  the  shoe,  whicii 
is  seldom  the  case,  the  cause  may  be  easi- 
ly removed  by  the  fariier ;  whatever  part 
of  the  hoof  it  may  be,  it  should  be  rasped 
away  as  much  as  can  be  done  wdth  safety, 
and  particular  attention  paid  to  the  pon- 
tion  of  the  other  foot,  which,  if  improper, 
should  be  improved  as  much  as  it  can  be 
by  shoemg. 

Diabetes,  or  Excess  of  Staling. — This 
disease  consists  in  an  excessive  secretion 
of  urine,  and  is  much  more  frequent  in  the 
human  subject  than  in  the  horse.  It  is  at- 
tended willi  great  heut,  and  violent  thirst ; 
but  drinking  is  found  to  be  productive  of 
mischief,  and  therefore  the  use  of  water 
andotlier  fluids  should  be  abstained  from 
as  much  as  possible ;  and  as  vegetables 
are  known  to' be  favourable  to  tlie  produc- 
tion of  uiine,  these  also  should  be  pre- 
cluded from  use  during  the  continuance 
of  the  disease. 

The  cure  of  diabetes  is  effected  by  con- 
fining the  patient  to'  the  use  of  animal 
food  ;  but  as  the  horse  has  a  dislike  to  feed 
upon  flesh,  broths  may  at  first  be  given ; 
when,  after  a  time,  he  will  be  brought  to 
take  in  solid  animal  food,  and  thus  the 
disease  will  be  gTadually  suppressed. 

The  following  balls  have  been  success- 
fully used  in  cases  of  diabetes  : 

No.  1. 
Opium  ....'....     1  drachm. 
Powdered  ginger,    ....    2      do. 


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Yellow  Peruvian  bark,      .    .      J  ounce. 
Syrup,  enough  to  form  the  ball  for  one 

dose.  ' 

JVo.  2. 
Emetic  tartar,   .....     2  drachms. 
Opium,      .......     1      do. 

To  be  made  into  a  ball  for  one  dose. 

No.  3. 

S.ilt  of  hartshorn,  ....     2  drachms. 

Opium,     . ^     do. 

Powdered  g-jng'er,  .     ...     1        do. 
LjquOiice  powder,       ...    3        do. 

To  bt  made  into  a  ball  for  one  dose. 

Di  in  hcea,  cr  Excessive  Purging. — The 
intcaii'ies  arc  liable  to  be  excited  into  an 
excessive  uction  by  the  exhibition  of  too 
great  a  quaniiiy  of  purgative  medicine, 
when  cunsLaiit  piirgini;-, iiiHumuiation,  and 
death,  are  often  ihe  consequence.  Tiiis 
more  frequently  is  tiie  case  than  is  admit- 
ted or  known ;  for  practitioners,  who  are 
in  the  habit  of  giving  large  d  /ses  of  puig- 
ing  medicines  to  horse's,  either  do  not 
kjiow  the  danger  of  suc!i  practice,  or  wJh 
not  I'.dmit  it;  and  after  tlie  deatJi  of  th- 
patient,  some  other  cause  thtm  ilie  riglit 
one  is  sure  to  be  assigned  for  the  deotruc- 
tion  of  the  animal.  Between  h)ur  and  se- 
ven diachnis  of  aloes  ouglit  to  be  the  dose 
for  purging  a  lioise ;  and,  if  it  be  necessa- 
ry to  repeat  the  dose,  several  days  should 
intervene,  lest  the  etiiict  be  retidered  loo 
severe  The  animal's  drink  should  not 
be  given  to  liim  cold,  during  the  .opera- 
tion of  the  medicine  ;  and  litb  body  ought 
to  be  clothed,  and  the  stable  in  which  he 
stands  kept  n>oderately  warm.  AVith 
this  treatment  no  clanger  can  accrue,  arid 
in  a  very  few  days  the  horse  will  be  fit  for 
work. 

But  if,  on  the  contrary,  a  large  dose  of 
purging  medicine  be  administered,  or  a 
proper  treatnient  nut  observed  dui'ing 
the  operation  of  the  medicine,  and  tliat 
excessive  pinging,  witli  inflhUiinatio:!,' 
have  taken  place,  recouise  must  be  imme- 
diately Iiad  to  -.he  1i)liowing  treatment  :— 
>'irst,  ther,  tlie  horse  should  be  kept 
warm  ;  and,  with  t!ie  view  of  removing 
the  irritation  witii  tiie  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease, starch  clysters  siiould  be  us.,d  :  by 
these  tlie  iuHamcd  intestine  will  be  fo- 
moited,  and  the  ren.aining  aloes  washed 
away  ;  nor  ouglit  astringent  medicines  to 
be  exliibiled  tili  this  eifect  be  produced. 
OpiuiTi  may  ni;W  be  adniini.steied  in  the 
quantity  of  half  a  drat  hm  twice  a  d.ay; 
and,  at  tlie  same  lune,  it  shi;u!d  be  endea- 
vouied  to  determine  the  blood  as  much 
as  pu-ssible  to  the  surface  of  the  body : 
this  is  to  be  eflected  by  employing  embro- 
cations of  oil  of  tur])entine,  by  blisters, 
and  even  by  firing:  the  animal's  extremi- 
ties, also,  should  be  frequently  well  rub- 


bed, and  his  body  kept  warmly  clothed  : — 
and  further,  the  horse  shouicl  be  allowed 
to  remain  at  perfect  rest,  les;  tlie  action 
of  his  intestines  may  be  increased  by  exer- 
cise, and  the  disease  consequently  be  ag- 
giavated.  With  this  treatnr.eiit  the  ani- 
mal may  be  saved ;  but  it  more  frequently 
happens,  that  either  the  proper  remedies 
are  not  employed  t>ufficieni!y  in  time,  or 
tlie  inflammation  has  gone  on  so  rapidly, 
that  mortification  and  death  speedily  tate 
place,  no'.withstauding  all  the  fit  means 
\ov  preventing  them  were  used. 

Tt  should  be  observed,  that,  in  this  dis- 
ease,  the  coecum  and  colon  are  qiost  gene- 
rally the  seat  of  inflammatioi.,  which,  af 
first,  is  coi  fin.'d  tu  tiie  mucous  membrane 
of  these  intestines,  but  afiei  ward»  extends 
to  their  muscular  and  even  peritoneal 
coats. 

Injlatnmation  of  the  fiyf.— When  the 
eye  is  inflamed,  it  loses  part  of  its  beauti- 
ful'transparency,  appearing  then  as  if  co- 
vered with-  a  film  ;  the  lids  are  partially 
clo.sed,  and  ihe  haws  become  more  visi- 
ble— Siiould  the  infiamniation  have  been 
brought  on  by  some  external  injury,  and 
p.i"ticularly  if  it  is  not  very  conside'-able, 
the  eye  lotion  will  be  sufficient  to  remove 
It,  but  in  more  violent  cases  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary also  to  bleed  moderately  and  give 
a  laxative  ball;  by  these  means  inflamma- 
tion ansing  from  external  injury  may 
generally  be  cured  in  a  short  time.  The 
eves  of'.en  become  ii^flamcd  in  conse- 
(piencc  of  coUl  and  fevei||^n  which  cases 
the  cjuse  is  to  be  chie^lr  .ittended  to  ; 
when  that  is  removed  tlie  inflammation 
usually  ceases. 

The  most  commcm  cause  of  this  com- 
plaint is  high  feeding,  without  a  due  pro- 
pottion  of  exercise-  These  cases  require 
great  Care  and  attention,  for  unless  proj)er 
remedies  are  employed  on  the  first  at- 
tack, the  di-sease  (though  it  appe:as  to  go 
oil  )  will  be  frequently  returning,  and  in 
all  prol>ability  eventually  produce  blind- 
ness. The  first  remedy  to  be  emplojed 
on  this  occasion,  is  bleeding,  and  the 
quantity  of  blood  that  is  drawn  shotdd  be 
proportionate  to  the  violence  of  tiie  in- 
flammation, and  the  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal. Sliould  the  vessels  on  the  white 
part  of  the  eye  and  Inner  part  of  the  eye- 
iiils  appear  to  be  distended  witli  blood, 
great  advantage  will  be  derived  from  sca- 
rifying the  latter  with  a  lancet.  A  laxa- 
tive ball  is  to  be  given,  and  the  bowels  af- 
terwards kept  in  a  lax  slate  by  means  of 
bran  maslies.  I  have  found  a  setoii 
placed  immediately  under  \he  e\e,  a  very 
useful  remedy  ;  but  unless  the  operation 
is  nicely  performed,  it  frequently  leaves 
an  unpleasant  mark  behind,  which  would 


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lead  a  person,  experienced  in  horses,  to 
suspect  that  the  eye  had  been  diseased, 
and  might  therefore  diminish  the  vahie  of 
the  horse. 

A  shade,  so  adapted  as  to  preser>'e  the 
eye  from  th3  irritation  of  dust  and  light, 
will  be  found  useful.  This'ki'id  of  in- 
flammation g^enerully  comes  on  rather 
suddenly,  sometimes  attacking  only  one 
eye,  at  others  both  are  affected  ;  as  there 
is  no  apparent  cause  for  tliis  sudden  at- 
tack of  inflammation,  the  groom  very 
commonly  attributes  it  to  seeds  or  dust 
having /alien  from  the  rack  into  the  eye, 
and  very  little  attention  is  paid  to  it 
Notwithstanding  tins  neglect,  the  disease 
frequently  goes  off,  and  in  some  cafes  its 
disappearance  is  nearly  as  sudden  as  its 
attack ;  in  a  short  time,  however,  it 
again  appears  as  unexpectedly  as  at  first, 
and  ^gain  perhaps  goes  off;  in  this  un- 
certain way  it  may  continue  a  considera- 
ble time,  the  eyes  sometimes  appearing 
transparent,  and  free  from  inflammation, 
at  others,  waiery,  inflamed,  and  opaque 
on  the  surface;  at  lengtli  the  internal 
parts  of  the  eye  are  affected,  and  a  cata- 
ract sometimes  produced. 

It  has  been  supposed,  that  the  diseases 
of  a  horse's  eye  are  frequently  hereditary, 
or  dependent  on  some  natural  defect  in 
the  structure-  I  do  not  know  how  far 
this  opinion  may  be  true,  but  never  hav- 
ing seen  a  case  wliich  seemsd  to  corrobo- 
rate it,  I  am  not  inclined  to  give  it  much 
credit ;  it  is  notary  improbable,  however, 
that  the  eyes  of^ome  horses  may  be  na- 
turally weak,  and  more  liable  to  become 
inflamed  when  exposed  to  the  exciting 
causes  of  inflammation^  than  such  as  are 
originally  endued  with  a  proper  degi'ee  of 
strength  ;  but  it  appears  to  me  that  where 
this  weakness  or  aptitude  to  disease  ex- 
ists, it  is  more  frequently  the  efiect  of 
some  injury  which  tliis  tender  and  deli- 
cate organ  has  sustained,  than  a  defect  of 
.Xature.  Wlien  the  eye  becomes  inflitm 
ed,  it  is  necessarj'  to  enquire  into  the 
cause  of  the  inflammation  ;  if  it  arises  from 
any  mechanical  injury,  and  is  not  verj' 
considerable,  there  is  a  probability  of  its 
being  speedily  removed,  by  m^an.s  of  the 
remedies  I  have  pointed  out ;  but  if  the 
inflamma'.iun  has  arisen  without  any  ap 
parent  cause,  depending,  perhaps,  upon 
pletiiora,  ur  redundancy  of  blood  in  the 
system,  tliere  will  be  some  chance  of  a  ra- 
dical cure,  provided  ti'e  proper  remedies 
are  en'ployed  sufficiendy  esvly ;  but,  if 
they  are  neg'ecied  at  the  commencenM:nt 
of  the  disease,  though  the  h.flammaticn, 
after  some  time,  appears  to  go  off,  andthe 
eye,  to  a  superficial  observer,  seems  to 
have  recovered,  yet  the  disease  treqxipnUy 


returns,  and  ultimately  occasions  blind* 
ness.  Should  the  disease  have  occurred 
before,  and  particularly,  if  the  former  at- 
tack was  violent,  there  is  still  less 
chance  of  its  behig  removed,  and  all 
our  remedies  may  prove  inefl'ectual :  in 
this  case,  the  Alterative  No.  3,  may  be 
tried.  It. frequently  happens,  that  when 
both  eyes  are  inflamed,  and  a  complete 
calui-act  forms  in  one  of  them,  the  other 
becomes  perfectly  sound  and  strong.  It 
must  be  observed,  that  when  a  horse  has 
sufiered  more  than  once  from  this  disease, 
and  is  in  low  condition,  evacuations  must 
not  be  made  too  freely  ;  there  are  few  ca- 
ses, however,  where  moderate  bleeding, 
and  a  laxative  ball,  are  not  required. 
With  respect  to  topical  applications,  or 
those  remedies  which  are  applied  imme- 
diately to  the  eye,  I  must  confess  that  I 
have  not  seen  much  benefit  derived  from 
them,  exce])t  when  the  inflammation  lias 
aba.ed  considerably,  and  there  remains  an 
opacity  or  filni  on  the  siuface,  a.nd  then 
ccmmoc  salt,  finely  jiowdered,  has  often 
proved  useful ;  but,  if  the  eye  has  been  "m 
this  state  for  some  time,  and  the  opacity 
is  very  considti-able,  white  vitriol  finely 
powdered  and  mixed  with  honey,  is  a 
more  effectual  remedy.  Whenever  the 
eyes  are  weak,  or  in  a  state  of  inflamma- 
tion, the  vapours  which  arise  from  foul 
litter,  should  be  carefully  guarded 
against ;  indeed,  it  Is  by  no  means  an  im- 
probable conjecture,  that  when  the  eyes 
are  weak,  these  irritating  vap«urs  may  of- 
ten prove  the  exciting  cause  of  inflamma- 
tion. 

There  is  a  cartilaginous  body  connected 
witii  the  eyes  of  horses,  commonly  term- 
ed the  haw.  Whenever  the  eye  is  drawn 
into  the  socket,  (which  the  horse  has  the- 
power  of  doing,  by  means  of  a  muscle 
that  does  not  exist  in  the  Imman  subject) 
the  haw  is  iorced  over  the  eye,  so  that 
when  dust  happens  to  adhere  lo  the  sur- 
f.ice  of  the  eye,  he  is  enabled,  by  means 
of  this  cartilage,  to  wipe  it  off;  and  as 
light  is  painfiil  to  t!)e  animal  when  the  eye 
is  in  a  state  of  inflammation,  we  generally 
find  that  organ,  on  siich  occasions,  dra  vn 
more  than  usual  into  the  socket,  andcon- 
se(|U».ntly  the  haw  becomes  conspicuous 
on  its  3U"iace.  Fariiers  in  this  case,  con- 
sider the  hav,'  (IS  an  unnatural  excres- 
cence, and  the  cause  of  the  disease,  they 
fr  quentiy  therefore  cut  it  ofl".  Ti-e  once 
ceil  brated  Mr.  Taplin,  cor.sidered  the, 
hasv  as  a  preternatural  enlargementof  the 
corners  of  the  eye. 

Fever. — 'I'he  fevers  of  horses  fcear  very- 
little  3!.ulogy  to  those  of  che  human  body, 
and  require  a  ditiereni  treatment.  Wri- 
ters on  Farriery  have  described  a  great 


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raiiety  of  fevers,  but  their  obsen'ations 
appear  to  have  been  drawn  from  the 
works  of  medical  autliors,  niul  their  rea- 
soning- seems  entirely  analog-icaL  I  can 
distinguish  only  two  kinds  of  fever,  the 
one,  an  idiopathic  or  orijjhial  disease,  and 
therefore  properly  termed  si7nplt;  the 
otlier  dependent  on  internal  inflammation, 
and  very  justly  denominated  xyviptomatic 
fever  :  for  example,  if  tiie  linij^s,  bowels, 
or  stomach  were  inttamcd,  the  wliole  sys- 
tem would  be  thrown  into  disorder,  and 
a  sym])tomatic  fever  produced;  but  if  a 
collapse  of  the  perspirable  vessels  hap- 
pens to  take  place,  the  blood  will  accu- 
mulate in  the  interior  parts  of  the  body, 
and  -.houg-h  inflammation  is  not  pro 
duced  by  it,  the  unequal  distribution  of 
the  blood  ah^ie  will  occasion  that  de- 
ran£jcn;ent  in  the  system  which  consti- 
tutes the  simple  fever.  The  simple  fever 
does  not  occur  so  frequently  as  the 
symptomatic,  nor  is  it  by  any  means 
so  formidable  in  its  appearance,  yet 
it  is  necessary  to  gl\e  it  the  ear- 
liest attention,  for  miless  nature  re(5eives 
timely  assistance,  she  will  be  sometimes 
unable  to  get  rid  of  tiie  load  wliich.  op- 
presses her;  and  tiie  blood  will  accumu- 
late in  tiie  interior  part  of  the  body,  until 
inflammation  in  some  of  the  viscera  is  pro- 
duced, and  a  dang^erous  disesise  estab- 
lished. The  following'  are  the  symptoms 
of  sim])le  fever  : — Shivering-,  succeeded  by 
loss  of  appetite,  dejected  appearance, 
ijuick  pidse,  hot  mouth,  and  some  de- 
gree of  debility ;  the  horse  is  generally 
costive,  and  voids  his  urine  with  difficulty. 
Sometimes  the  disease  is  accompanied 
with  quickness  of  breathing,  and  in  a  few 
rasi  s  with  pain  in  the  bowels,  or  symp- 
toms of  cholic. 

As  soon  as  a  horse  is  attacked  by  this 
disease,  let  him  be  bled  freely,  and  if  cos- 
tiveness  is  one  of  the  symptoms,  give  a 
pint  of  castor  oil,  or  the  oil  of  olives,  and 
let  a  glyster  of  warm  water  gruel  be  in- 
jected; the  fever  powder  is  to  be  given 
once  in  twelve  hours,  and  continued  until 
its  diiu'etic  effect  becomes  considerable. 
"Warm  water  and  mashes  are  to  be  fre- 
quently offered  in  small  quantities  ;  warm 
clothing,  fVc(iuent  hand-rubbing,  and  a 
liberal  allowance  of  litter  are  also  neces- 
sary ;  and  wiien  the  fever  runs  liigh,  it 
is  adviseable  to  insert  rowels  about  the 
chest  and  belly,  in  order  to  prevent  in- 
flammation from  taking  place.  When 
the  disease  a])j)ears  to  be  going  off,  the 
horse  looking  more  lively,  and  llie  appetite 
i-eturning,  let  him  be  led  out  for  a  short 
time  in  some  warm  situation,  and  give 
now  and  then  a  malt  mash  for  the  purpose 
cid"  recovering  his  strengtlK 


Fever  powder. — No.  1.  Powdered  nitre, 
1  oz.  Camphor  and  tartarized  antimony, 
of  each  2  dr.     Mix  for  one  dose. 

No.  2.  Powdered  nitre,  1  oz.  Unwash- 
ed calx  of  antimony,  2  dr.  Mix  for  one 
dose. 

No-  3.  Antimonial  powder,  3  dr.  Cam- 
phor, 1  dr.    Mix  for  one  dose. 

■  Symptomatic  Fever. — The  symptomatic 
fever  is  generally  occcasioned  by  higli 
feeding,  close  stables,  and  a  want  of  pro- 
l)er  exercise ;  sometimes,  how  ever,  a 
sudden  transition  from  a  cold  to  a  hot 
len)pcratuie  is  evidently  the  caiis^  of  it  ; 
in  this  respect  it  is  difleroit  from  the 
.sintple  fevei',  which,  as  before  observed, 
sometimes  arises  from  exposing  a  horse 
suddenly  to  a  cold  air,  when  he  has  been 
accusloined  to  a  warm  sUd^le.  Horses 
that  are  taken  froln  camp  or  grass,  and 
l>ut  suddenly  into  warm  stables,  are  ex- , 
tremelv  liable  to  those  internal  inflamma- 
tions on  wiiich  s}  mptomalic  fever  depends, 
and  many  thousands  fall  victims  to  this 
kind  of  irealnient- 

When  a  fever  is  symptomatic,  it  is  not 
preceded  by  shivering,  nor  is  it  so  sud- 
den in  its  uitack  as  tlie  simple  fever ;  but 
when  it  is  not  subdued  by  an  early  ajipli- 
cation  of  roiTiedies,  the  symjitoms  gra- 
dually increase  in  violence,  until  they  pre 
sent  a  very  formidable  appearance.  When 
the  disease  however  is  occasioned  bv  great 
and  long  continued  exertion,  it  gxiierally 
comes  on  suddenly,  and  the  complaint  has 
a  very  dangerous  appeai'ance  in  its  cai"- 
licsL  stage.  • 

The  symptomatic  fever  has  many 
symptoms  in  common  with  the  simple  fe- 
ver, which  are,  loss  of  appetite,  quick 
pulse,  dejected  appearance,  hot  mouth, 
and  debility ;  and,  if  to  these  are  joined 
difficulty  of  breathing,  and  quick  working 
of  the  flanks,  with  coldness  of  the  legs  and 
ears,  we  may  conclude  that  an  hiflamma- 
tion  of  the  lungs  is  the  cause  of  the  fevei-. 
If  the  horse  hangs  down  his  head  in  the 
manger,  orlt;aiis  back  upon  his  collar  vitli 
a  strong  appearance  oi'being  drowsy,  the 
eyes  ajijiearuig  watery  and  inHamed,  it  is 
probable  tiuit  the  i".-\er  depends  upon  an 
accumulation  of  biood  in  ihe  vessels  of 
the  brain,  and  thai  the  staggers  are  ap- 
proaching :  in  this  case,  however,  the 
pulse  is  not  always  qu.ck^ned ;  somethnes 
indeed,  I  Juve  found  it  uiuisnally  slow. 

When  the  symjuonis  of  fiiver  are  join- 
ed witii  a  yellowness  of  the  eyes  and 
mouth,  an  inflamniation  of  tiie  liver  is  in- 
dicated. Should  an  intlunnnation  of  the 
bowels  be  the  cause,  tlie  horse  is  violently 
griped.  An  infiainniaiion  of  the  kitlneys 
will  also  produce  fever,  and  is  distinguish- 
ed by  %  suppression  of  urine,  and  an  ina- 


FAR 


F.\R 


"bility  to  bear  pressure  upon  the  loins. 
When  inflammation  of"  the  bladder  is  the 
cause,  the  horse  is  fi-equently  stalin 
voiding'  only  very  small  quantities  of 
urine,  and  that  with  considerable  pain. 
Extensive  wounds,  and  particularly  those 
of  joints,  will  also  produce  symptomatic 
fever.  Sometimes  several  of  the  internal 
parts  are  in  darned  at  the  same  instant, 
and  indeed,  when  inflammation  has  exist- 
ed for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  it  is 
seldom  confined  to  the  organ  m  which  it 
originated  ;  the  disease  spreads  to  other 
viscera,  and  when  more  than  one  organ  is 
inflamed,  the  symptoms  will  generally  be 
complicated ;  still,  however,  the  essential 
remedies  are  the  same,  that  is  to  sa\',  co- 
pious and  early  bleeding,  purging,  with 
rowels  and  blisters. 

The  Frog— The  frog  is  a  very  important 
part  to  be  known ;  for,  fi-om  its  good  or 
bad  treatment,  arises  more  of  the  sound- 
ness or  lameness  of  horses'  feet,  than 
from  all  the  other  parts  of  the  foot  be- 
sides. 

Its  shape  is  wedge-like,  with  a  cleft  be- 
hind :  it  is  composed  of  a  very  tough,  elas- 
tic kind  of  horn  ;  and  is  intended  to  em- 
brace the  ground,  serving  thereby  as  a 
stop  when  the  horse  is  in  motion.  But, 
perhaps,  its  principal  use  is  to  keep  the 
heels  of  the  foot  expanded,  and  thereby 
prevent  contraction,  which  almost  always 
produces  lameness,  sooner  or  later.  The 
latter  function  the  fi-og  always  performs, 
while  it  is  in  health,  and  while  the  heels  of 
the  shoe  are  not  allowed  to  be  so  thick  as 
to  raise  it  above  pressure  with  the 
ground :  for,  by  continuing  the  pressiire  it 
leceives  from  the  ground  to  the  pai-ts 
above,  tliese  are  necessarily  expanded  la- 
terally, and  contraction  of  the  quai"ters 
consequently  prevented.  But  if  it  be  cut 
away,  as  is  frequently  and  erroneously 
done  in  shoeing ;  or  if  the  heels  of  the 
shoe  applied  to  the  foot  be  made  too 
thick,  or  turned  up ;  in  either  case  the 
frog  being  no  longer  in  contact  with  the 
ground,  there  can  be  no  pressure  on  the 
toot  above ;  and  the  quarters  of  the  crust, 
acted  upon  by  heat,  dryness,  and.  perhaps 
ill-made  shoes,  necessarily  contract ;  and 
the  bottom  of  the  foot,  instead  of  beuig 
nearly  a  circle  in  shape,  the  heels  being  as 
far  asunder  as  the  toe  is  from  the  back  of 
the  frog,  and  which  is  the  true  and  natu- 
ral shape  of  a  horse's  foot  before  it  is 
changed  by  disease  and  bad  shoeuig,  be- 
comes of  partly  an  oval  shape,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  quarters  appearing  but 
short,  in  comparison  to  that  from  the  toe 
to  the  back  of  the  foot . 

Of  the  Grease — This  is  an  inflammalion, 

TOl.    I. 


swelling,  and  consequent  discharge  at- 
tacking the  skin  covering  the  heels  of 
horses  :  it  is  brought  on  ^by  sudden  and 
great  changes  of  temperature,  and  pre- 
vails  only  in  the  winter,  and  most  in  the 
wet  season.  It  is  never  known  to  attack 
horses  that  have  not  been  domesticated; 
nor  does  it  commence  during  the  time 
horses  are  at  grass.  Horses  of  a  hght  co- 
lour, and  particularly  where  the  legs  are 
wliite,  are  much  more  liable  to  be  affect- 
ed with  grease,  than  are  horses  with  dark 
coloured  legs  ;  and  hence  it  would  appear, 
that  the  skin  bearing  hght  coloured  hair, 
is  more  delicate  and  susceptible  of  injury 
than  skin  covered  with  dark  or  black 
hair ;  and  this  supposition  is  further  cor- 
roborated by  seeing  that  the  hair  growing 
from  new  formed  skin,  and  which  is  less 
perfectly  qrganized  than  tlie  old,  is  al- 
ways white :  tlie  hind  legs  also  are  more 
frequently  greased  tlian  the  fore  legs,  ow- 
ing to  their  greater  distance  from  the 
heart,  and  the  cii'culation  in  them  being 
consequently  weaker. 

The  change  of  temperature  causing 
gi-ea>e,istliat  which  a  horse  undergoes  in 
being  removed  fi'om  a  cold,  wet  situation, 
to  a  warm  one  :  thus,  horses  taken  from 
grass  or  camp,  and  put  into  warm  stables, 
will  often  be  greased  in  a  very  few  days 
afterwards,  and  particularly  if  the  proper 
methods  be  neglected  for  preventing  it ; 
for  the  heels  being  mostly  wet  while  the 
horses  were  abroad,  and  consequently 
subject  to  bear  a  greater  degree  of  cold 
than  could  have  affected  them  had  they 
remained  dry,  now  tliat  tlie  horses  are 
changed  from  this  cold  situation  into  a 
wai-m  one,  they  become  inflamed  by  the 
increased  heat  of  the  stable,  and  grease  is 
tlie  consequence.  To  prevent,  then,  as 
much  as  possible,  tlie  change  of  tempera- 
tiu'e  producing  gi-ease,  the  following  rules 
should  be  obsened  on  removing  horses 
from  camp  or  grass  into  stables.  First, 
the  stable  doors  and  windows  should  be 
throwni  open  during  the  day,  to  prevent 
the  toogi-eat  accumulation  of  heat,  which 
may  afterwMrds  be  gradually  increased, 
and  the  stables  ought  also  to  be  kept  par- 
ticularly clean :  the  diet  of  the  horse 
should  be  gi-adually  increased;  his  legs 
well  hand  rubbed ;  and,  above  all,  the 
horse  ought  to  be  regulai-ly  exercised 
each  day,  which,  together  with  the  fric- 
tion, will  promote  the  circulation  in  the 
heels,  and  promote  absorption  of  any  fluid 
which  may  be  determined  to  these  parts. 

The  symptoms   of  grease    are,    swel- 
ling of  the  legs,  attended  w  itli  heat ;  soon 
after  tliis,  the  inflamed  skin,  covering  thie 
heels,  becomes  cracked,  and  an  oflensive 
u  u 


FAR 


FAR 


discharge  also  takes  place.  Tlie  horse, 
after  having  stood  still  for  some  lime, 
walks  lame  at  first,  owing  to  the  pain  he 
suffers  from  the  tearing  asunder  the 
cracks,  and  which,  during  his  rest,  were 
beginning  to  unite.  The  discharge  in- 
creases in  qviantity  and  oirensiveness,  but 
does  not  cause  ulceration  ;  the  cracks 
above  mentioned,  being  merely  the  natu- 
ral secretion  of  the  skin  covering  the 
horse's  heels,  but  increased  and  chang- 
ed by  the  inflammatory  action  going  on  in 
the  vessels  of  the  parts. 

To  cure  this  disease,  it  will  be  necessa- 
ly  to  begin  with  poultices  and  fomenta- 
tions of  warm  water,  which  should  be 
frequently  applied  to  the  affected  parts, 
with  ihe  view  of  removing  the  inflamma- 
tion. The  following  diuretic -ball  should 
be  occasionally  given,  to  promote  absorp- 
tion ;  and,  with  the  same  intention,  exer- 
^  cise  ought  also  to  be  frequently  had  re- 
'  .  course  to.  When  the  inflammation  has 
subsided,  which  is  often  obstinate,  and 
not  to  be  suppressed  for  four  or  five 
weeks,  astringent  medicines  may  be  used 
Ibr  the  purpose  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
discharge:  those  mostly  used,  are  blue 
vitriol  and  alum,  which  may  be  applied 
alternatelj',  either  dissolved  in  water  or 
finely  powdered.  Exercise  and  a  diuretic 
ball,  (after  proper  intervals)  may  still  be 
continued,  and  wUi  accelerate  the  cure; 
and  that  the  applications  may  have  the 
better  eflect,  the  liair  should  be" kept  close 
cut,  and  the  skin  frequently  washed  with 
warm  water  and  soap. 

Diuretic  Ball — Venice  turpentine  1  oz. 
Castile  soap  2  oz.  Powdered  anise-seeds, 
enough  to  give  consistence — to  be  divided 
into  tiu'ee  balls. 

Sometimes,  in  grease,  the  skin  becomes 
of  an  unusual  thickness,  from  tlie  great 
quantity  of  fluid  wliich  is  determined  into 
it  by  the  inflamed  action ;  and  numerous 
excrescences,  termed  grapes,  from  their 
seeming  to  gi-ow  out  in  bunches,  appear 
on  it :  when  this  is  the  case,  tliese  excres- 
cences should  be  removed  by  the  actual 
cautery. -Grease  is  apt  to  produce  another 
and  more  dangerous  disease,  called  can- 
ker ;  and  for  wliicli  see  title  Canker,  for 
the  inflammation  of  grease  increases  the 
growtli  of  the  hoof;  and  the  frog  being, 
in  consequence,  raised  too  far  from  tlie 
ground  to  admit  longer  of  pressure,  and 
also  being  in  a  continual  state  of  moisture 
from  tlie  greasy  matter  of  the  heels  run- 
ning down  upon  it,  canker  is  die  conse- 
quence 

Of  Casting  the  Hair — Horses  cast  their 
hair  once  a  year,  some  in  autumn,  but  the 
greatest  number  in  spring ;  and  as  there  is 


a  gi'cat  change,  attended  with  some  debi- 
lity, to  be  observed  in  the  animal  during 
the  time  he  is  throwing  oflT  the  old  hair, 
particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  him 
at  that  period. 

Tlie  weakness  he  then  shews,  and  his 
consequent  liability  to  be  aflected  by  cold, 
in  all  pl'obability  arises ;  the  first,  from  the 
great  proportion  of  blood  which  is  deter- 
mined from  tlie  other  parts  of  the  frame 
towards  the  skin  for  supplying  the  growth 
of  the  new  hair;  and  the  second  circum- 
stance, or  susceptibility  of  cold,  from  the 
unprotected  condition  of  the  sensible  skin 
during  the  interval  between  casting  the 
old  hair  and  the  growth  of  the  new,  and 
which  must  render  it  more  liable  to  be  af- 
fected by  the  cold. 

During  this  period,  then,  the"  horse 
should  be  kept  more  warmly  clad  than 
before,  and  his  diet  ought  to  be  full  and 
nourishing. . 

Hide  bound. — This  term  implies  a  tight- 
ness of  the  skin,  which  feels  as  if  it  were 
glued  to  tlie  rilos,  the  coat  having  at  the 
same  time,  a  rough  unhealthy  appearance. 
This  complaint  is  generally  occasioned  by 
worms,  or  want  of  attention  in  the  groom ; 
it  occurs  sometimes,  however,  witliout 
any  manifest  cause ;  in  such  cases  give 
the  Alterative  Ball,  No.  1,  every  morning, 
until  moderate  purging  is  produced,  and 
if  this  does  not  succeed,  try  the  Alterative 
No.  2,  which  is  to  be  given  every  morning 
for  eight  or  ten  days,  taking  care  to  assist 
its  operation  by  warm  cloathing,  good 
grooming,  and  regular  exercise.  Tiie 
exei'cise  sliould  not  be  confined  to  walk- 
ing, but  may  be  earned  so  far  as  to  ex- 
cite a  moderate  perspiration.  Great  care 
must  afterwards  be  taken  that  he  does 
not  get  cold;  let  him  be  taken  into  the 
stable  while  warm,  and  immediately 
clotiied  ;  when  the  legs  and  head  have 
been  well  cleaned,  remove  tlie  cloth  and 
continue  to  rub  the  body  with  large  wisps 
of  clean  straw,  until  it  is  quite  dry. 

1  cannot  forbear  mentioning  here  a  re- 
medy that  is  employed  in  some  parts  of 
Staflordshire  for  this  complaint,  as  it 
clearly  evinces  how  necessary  it  is  to  res- 
cue tills  valuable  animal  from  the  barba- 
rous and  absurd  treatment  of  illiterate 
Blacksmiths.  --\n  account  of  this  opera- 
tion was  sent  me  by  a  gentleman  who  saw 
it  practised  a  few  months  ago.  "The 
head  and  legs  of  the  horse  being  secured, 
two  men  (one  on  each  side)  pull  the  iiide 
from  the  ribs  in  about  fifty  places,  with 
pincers."  Tlie  proprietor  of  this  unfortu- 
nate animal  must  surely  liave  been  desti- 
tute of  common  sense  or  humanity,  to  al- 
low an  ignorant,  unfeeling  Farrier  to  per- 


FAR 


FAR 


form  so  cruel  and  fruitless  an  operation. 

iterative  Bulls — No.  1.  Barbadoes 
Aloes,  1  oz  Castile  Soap,  9  dr.  Powdered 
Ginger,  6  dr.  Syrup  enough  to  form  the 
mass,  to  be  divided  Into  four  doses. 

Xo.  2-  Tartarized  Antimony,  2J  oz. 
Powdered  Ginger,  1^  oz.  Opium,  ^  oz,. 
Syrup  enoug'h  to  form  the  mass,  to  be  di- 
vided into  eight  balls. 

Inflammation. — It  was  supposed  by  the 
celebrated  Boerhaare,  and  other  Physiolo- 
gists of  his  time,  that  inflammation  de- 
pended on  a  viscidity  of  tlie  blood,  which 
rendered  it  unfit  for  circulating  in  tiie 
finer  vessels,  and  that  hence  arose  ob- 
structions, and  those  appearances  by 
which  the  disease  is  characterized  Tliis 
opinion,  however,  has  obtained  very  little 
credit  with  modern  Physlolo.^sts,  and  is 
now  universally  rejected,  it  haying  been 
proved,  that  blood  drawn  from  an  animal, 
labouring  under  inflammation,  is  more 
fiuid,  and  remains  fluid  longer,  than  that 
which  is  taken  from  the  same  animal 
when  in  health. 

The  most  prevailing  opinion  at  present 
respecting  inflammation  is,  I  believe,  tliat 
it  consists  in  an  increased  action  of  the 
heart  and  arteries,  when  general ;  whereby 
the  blood  circulates  with  unusual  veloci- 
ty, throwing  the  whole  system  into  de- 
rangement; and  when  local,  or  existing  in 
a  paiticular  part,  the  increased  action  is 
in  like  manner,  confined  to  the  vessels  of 
that  part. 

When  a  part  is  mflamed,  there  arises  in 
it  an  unusual  degree  of  heat,  generally 
attended  with  considerable  tension  and 
swelling;  the  sensibility  and  irritability 
are  always  increased,  and  produced  by  it 
in  parts  where  it  did  not  before  exist  ;  in 
bones  and  tendons,  for  example,  scarcely 
any  sensibility  can  be  perceived  when  they 
are  in  a  state  of  health;  but,  when  injlavi- 
ed,\\.  is  roused  to  an  alarming  degi'ee,  and 
the  most  dangerous  consequences  may 
ensue  fi-om  it. 

Inflammation  has  four  modes  of  termi- 
nation :  the  first  is  termed  resolution  ;  that 
is,  when  the  disease,  after  going  a  certain 
length,  gradually  disappears  again ;  the 
second,  suppuration ;  that  is,  when  matter 
is  formed,  or  an  abscess  produced ;  the 
tliird  is  named  effusion,  which  implies  an 
extravasation  either  of  blood,  coagulable 
lymph,  or  serum :  and  the  ifourth,  gan- 
grene or  mortification,  by  which  is  meant 
the  death  of  tlie  inflamed  part. 

Inflammation  of  the  external  parts  is 
generally  occasioned  by  some  mechanical 
injury,  such  as  wounds,  bruises,  &c. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  arises  from  inter- 
nal inflammation,  or  symptomatic-iever. 


and  Is  then  to  be  considered  as  an  efTort 
of  Natm-e  to  cure  the  internal  disease. 
Thus  we  sometimes  find  in  fevers,  absces- 
ses tiking  place  on  the  surface  of  liie  bo- 
dy, whereby  the  fever  is  considerably  di- 
minisb.ed,  and,  in  general,  terminates  fa- 
vourably. 

Inflammation  is  often  produced  by  ple- 
thora, or  redundancy  of  blood  in  tlie  bo- 
dy; in  which  case  it  is  so.metimes  gene- 
pal,  the  whole  arterial  system  having  its 
action  increased  :  this  also  may  be  consi- 
dered as  an  efijrt  of  Nature  to  get  rid  of 
the  superfluous  blood,  and  in  such  cases 
she.  must  be  assisted  by  copious  bleed- 
ing. It  more  commonly  happens,  however, 
that  the  redundant  blood  is  determined  to 
some  particular  part,  occasioning  local 
inflammation;  very  frequently  falling 
upon  some  of  the  internal  organs,  and  the 
lungs  are  peculiarly  liable  to  suffer  ;  from 
this  soLU'ce,  indeed,  the  most  dangerous 
fevers  arise.  The  eyes  also  are  very  apt 
to  suffer  when  a  horse  becomes  pletlioi-ic, 
to  wliich  cause,  I  believe,  almost  ail  the 
diseases  of  that  delicate  organ  ^ay  be  at- 
j  tributed- 

In  the  treatment  of  external  inflamma- 
tion, we  should  endeavour  to  bring  it  to 
tiie  most  favourable  termination,  that  is, 
resolution  ; — unless  when  it  arises  from  an 
effort  of  Nature  to  cure  some  internal  dis- 
ease ; — it  is  then  desirable  to  bring  it 
speedily  to  suppuration.  The  remedies 
to  be  employed  for  resolvmg  inflamma- 
tion, are,  local  or  general  bleeding,  pur- 
gatives, fomentations,  poultices,  or  tlie 
Saturnine  lotion,  made  warm  ;  sometimes, 
indeed,  I  have  seen  cold  applications  used 
with  success,  such  as  Sal  Ammoniac  dis- 
solved in  Vinegar,  Goulard,  &c 

When  inflammation  takes  place  In  ten- 
dinous pai-ts  or  joints,  the  saturnine  poul- 
tice has  been  found  an  useful  remedy,  and 
in  tlie  latter  case  I  have  often  found  blis- 
ters exti'emely  efficacious.  As  in  tliese 
cases  the  inflammation  generally  proves 
more  troublesome,  and  as  the  pain  which 
it  occasions  is  often  so  considerable  as  to 
produce  Symptomatic  fever,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  employ,  without  loss  of  lime, 
the  most  prompt  and  efficacious  means  for 
its  reduction  ;  with  this  view  we  excite  ar- 
tificial inflammation  in  the  contiguous  skin 
and  cellular  membrane,  which  are  parts 
of  far  less  importance  in  the  animal  eco- 
nomy, than  joints  or  tendons,  and  capable 
of  bearing  a  considerable  degi'ee  of  in- 
flammation, without  much  inconvenience 
to  the  animal :  this  is  done  by  means  of 
rowels  and  blisters,  and  the  inflammation 
thus  excited,  will  tend  in  a  considerable 
degree  to  diminish  that  which  is  going  on 


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In  Uie  more  important  part.  Sliould  we 
fail  in  our  endeavours  to  resolve  iiiflam- 
matiou,  it  will  probably  terminate  in  sup- 
puration ;  and  when  it  appears  that  the 
disease  does  not  abate  by  tlie  use  of  the 
remedies  we  have  recommended,  an  assi- 
duous application  of  fomentations  and 
poultices,  will  expedite  the  suppui-ative 
process,  and  aflbrd  ^reat  relief  to  the  ani- 
mal. When  the  inflammation,  or  rather 
the  swelling  which  it  occasions,  arrives  at- 
this  state,  it  is  termed  an  Mscess;  in 
which,  when  the  suppuration  is  complete, 
and  it  contains  matter,  a  fluctuation  may 
be  felt  upon  its  being  pressed  by  two  fin- 
gers alternately.  This  point  being  ascer- 
tained, an  opening  is  to  be  made  with  a 
lancet  or  knife,  in  such  a  way  that  the 
matter  may  be  completely  evacuated,  and 
a  future  accumuUition  prevented ;  it  is 
then  to  be  dressed  with  digestive  liniment 
or  ointment.  Should  tlie  wound  appear 
indisposed  to  heal  when  this  treatment  has 
been  pursued  for  a  short  time,  discharg- 
ing a  thin  offensive  matter,  and  wanting 
that  red  appeai-ance  by  which  the  healing 
process  is  indicated,  the  detergent  lotion 
(see  Physic)  will  soon  remove  those  unfa- 
vourable appearances  ;  the  discharge  will 
become  whiter  and  thicker,  and  red  gi-anu- 
lationsof  new  flesh  will  sprout  up ;  should 
tjiese  granulations  however,  become  luxu- 
riant, constituting  what  is  commonly  term- 
ed jbroat/^s/j,  they  are  to  be  kept  down  by 
means  of  the  caustic  powder.  It  some- 
times happens,  tliat  when  a  part  is  inflam- 
ed and  swollen,  instead  of  going  on  vo 
suppuration,  it  degenerates  into  a  hard 
and  almost  insensible  tumour ;  this  de- 
pends on  the  inflammation  having  termi- 
nated in  effusion  of  coagulable  lymph,  and 
is  to  be  removed  by  stimulating  embroca- 
tions or  blisters. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. — Tliis  is  a 
very  dangerous  disease,  and  one  to  which 
horses  are  extremely  liable  ;  the  frequen» 
cy  of  its  occurrence  is  occasioned  by  im- 
proper management,  and  not  by  any  natu- 
ral defect  in  the  constitution  of  the  ani- 
mal; it  may  tlierefore  be  prevented  by 
proper  attention  in  the  groom.  Medical 
writers  make  a  distinction  between  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs,  and  of  the  pleu- 
ra, or  the  membrane  wliich  covers  those 
organs,  calling  the  former  Peripneutnony, 
and  the  latter  Pleurisy;  this  distinction, 
however,  is  not  necessai-y  in  veterinary 
nosologj',  since  we  never  find  those  parts 
affected  separately  in  the  horse.  The 
progress  of  this  disease  is  often  very  ra- 
pid, and  unless  proper  remedies  are  em- 
ployed at  an  early  period,  it  Irequently 
terminates  fatally. 

Its  approach  is  indicated  by  the  follow- 


ing s3Tnptoms :  loss  of  appetite,  an  ap- 
pearance of  dullness,  and  disinclination  to 
motion,  unusual  quickness  in  the  motion 
of  the  flanks,  hot  mouth,  and  sometimes  a 
cough.  If  tlie  disease,  by  adopting  an  in- 
ert, or  improper  mode  of  treatment,  is 
suffered  to  proceed,  all  these  symptoms 
will  increase  ;  respiration  will  become  ex- 
tremely quick  and  laborious,  the  pulse 
more  frequent,  and  at  the  same  time 
weak.  A  striking  appearance  of  uneasi- 
ness and  anxiety  may  be  observed  in  the 
animal's  countenance  :  tlie  nostrils  ex- 
panded, the  eyes  fixed,  and  the  head  in- 
cHning  downward ;  the  legs  and  ears  be- 
come cold,  and  the  debility  is  so  consi- 
derable, that  he  is  incapable  of  moving  in 
the  stall  without  gi-eat  difficulty ;  he  ne- 
ver lies  down  unless  so  much  weakened  • 
as  to  be  incapable  of  standing.  The  dis- 
ease, however,  is  not  always  so  rapid  in 
its  progress  as  we  have  here  described  it, 
and  not  unfrequently  a  considerable  re- 
mission may  be  observed,  wlucli  is  occa- 
sioned probably  by  an  effusion  of  .serum 
or  water  having  taken  place  in  the  chest, 
and  this  remission  is  sometimes  so  conspi- 
cuous, that  we  are  led  to  give  a  fiivoura- 
ble  prognosis;  the  horse  beginning  to 
feed  again,  and  the  pulse  becoming  less 
frequent.  But  this  flattering  appearance 
often  proves  fallacious,  the  di.sease  soon 
returns  with  accumulated  force,  and  p\its 
a  period  to  the  animal's  life.  I  have  seen 
cases,  where  bleeding  lias  not  been  per- 
formed with  sufficient  freedom,  in  which 
the  inflammation  being  checked  in  some 
degree,  at  length  terminated  in  a  plenti- 
ful effusion  of  water  in  the  chest ;  when 
this  happens,  the  horse  returns  to  his 
Ibod,  looks  more  lively,  and,  in  short,  the 
symptoms  of  fever  in  a  great  measure  dis- 
appeai-.  There  remains,  notwithstanding, 
an  unusual  quickness  in  respiration,  gene- 
rally accompanied  with  a  cough ;  the 
hind  legs  swell,  and  the  horse  very  rarely 
lies  down ;  a  rough  vmhealthy  appearance 
may  also  be  observed  in  the  coat,  the  skin 
feeling  as  if  stuck  to  the  ribs,  and  the  ani- 
mal continues  in  a  state  of  weakness  ;  af- 
ter some  time  the  inflammation  generally 
returns,  and  then  speedily  ends  in  death. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  tl)e  inflamma- 
tion terminates  in  suppuration,  in  this 
case  also  the  fever  is  in  some  degree  les- 
sened, and  the  horse  begins  to  feed  a  lit- 
tle ;  but  he  still  remains  in  a  very  feeble 
state,  has  a  weak  cough,  and  discharges 
fetid  matter  from  his  nostrils ;  at  length 
tlic  disease  again  becomes  violent,  and 
soon  puts  a  period  to  his  sufferings. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  \ylien  tins 
dangerous  disease  is  observed,  is  to  bleed 
copiously,  even  till  the  horse  begins  to 


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famt  from  loss  of"  blood.  I  have  seen  six 
quarts  drawn  at  one  operation,  and  with 
the  best  effect ;  sometimes  indeed  the 
disease  will  be  completely  subdued  by 
tlius  bleeding  freely  at  its  commencement. 
Should  the  horse  be  costive,  or  even  if 
the  bowels  are  in  a  natural  state,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  give  a  pint  of  castor  oil,  and 
inject  a  glyster  of  water  gruel ;  it  will 
then  be  necessary,  in  oi'der  to  divert  the 
inflammation  from  this  important  organ, 
to  insert  rowels  about  the  chest  and  belly, 
and  to  blis^r  the  sides  extensively.  Let 
the  legs  be  kept  warm  by  almost  constant 
hand-rnbbing, — and  warm  cloathing  must 
never  be  omitted.  Nothing  is  moi*e  per- 
nicious in  this  complaint  than  compelling 
the  animal  to  breathe  the  impure  air  and 
stimulating  vapours  of  a  close  stable;  this 
is  indeed  so  obvious  a  troth,  that  it  would 
be  unnecessary  to  mention  it,  were  it  not 
a  constant  practice  with  grooms  on  tliis 
occasion  to  stop  every  crevice  they  can 
find  by  which  pure  air  might  be  admitted, 
and  the  noxious  exhalations  suffered  to 
escape. 

If  the  disease  does  not  appear  to  abate 
iu  twelve  hours  after  the  bleeding,  parti- 
cularly if  it  has  become  more  violent,  let 
that  operation  be  repeated,  and  with  the 
same  freedom  as  at  first;  we  need  not  be 
apprehensive  at  this  early  period  of  the 
disease,  of  any  dangerous  debility  ensu- 
ing from  the  loss  of  so  much  blood ;  on 
the  contrary,  it  will  tend  to  reestablish 
strength,  by  subduing  the  inflammation 
on  which  the  fever  depends.  It  has 
been  foimd  necessary  to  bleed  several 
times,  and  that  very  plentifully ;  but  it 
must  be  recollected,  that  when  the  fe- 
ver has  existed  for  some  time,  and  has 
nearly  exhausted  the  horse's  strength, 
bleeding  seldom  does  good,  and  in  some 
instances,  I  believe,  has  been  the  means 
of  hastening  death.  When  suppuration 
takes  place  in  the  lungs,  though  there  is 
little  probability  of  saving  the  animal,  his 
life  may  be  {prolonged  by  giving  frequent- 
ly good  water  gruel  and  infusion  of 
malt -.-^ Opium,  salt  of  hartshorn,  and 
other  cordials,  will,  also  be  of  service.  I 
have  generally  given  the  following  ball  on 
those  occasions,  and  though  I  have  never 
seen  a  horse  recover  after  extensive  sup- 
puration had  taken  place  in  the  lungs,  yet 
these  remedies  have  certainly  afforded 
considerable  relief 

Salt  of  hartshorn,  IJ  dr.  opium,  1  dr. 
powdered  aniseeds,  i  oz.  and  syrup 
enough  to  fbrm  the  ball  for  one  dose. 

When  the  mode  of  treatment  here  re- 
commended is  adopted  before  the  disease 
has  gained  much  ground,  it  will  general- 
ly   succeed    completely ;    considerable 


weakness  will  of  course  remain  after  the 
fever  has  been  removed,  but  that  also 
will  gi-adually  go  off,  if  proper  attention 
be  paid  to  the  horse's  diet  and  exercise. 
When  the  appetite  begins  to  return,  it 
will  be  adviseable  to  give  small  quanti- 
ties of  oats  that  have  been  steeped  in 
boiling  water ;  good  water  gruel  will  also 
be  found  serviceable  in  recruiting  his 
strength ;  the  sweetest  parts  should  be 
selected  from  the  hay,  and  given  frequent- 
ly in  small  quantities.  Malt  is  an  excel- 
lent restorative  on  these  occasions,  but 
must  not  be  given  too  freely.  When  the 
weather  is  favourable,  let  the  horse  be 
led  out  for  a  short  time  every  day  ;  or  if 
a  small  paddock  can  be  procured,  and 
the  season  of  the  year  will  admit  of  it,  he 
may  be  turned  out  for  a  few  hours  every 
day,  while  the  sun  shines,  taking  care 
that  he  is  well  cloathed  during  that 
time ;  by  these  means  he  will  gradually 
recover  his  original  strength. 

Inflammation  of  the  Boiuels. — This  dis- 
ease is  not  so  frequent  as  the  preceding, 
thougli  equally  dangerous  and  generally 
more  rapid  in  its  progress.  Inflamma- 
tion may  attack  either  the  peritoneal  coat 
of  the  intestine,  or  that  delicate  membrane 
which  forms  the  internal  or  villous  coat : 
in  the  former  case  the  disease  will  be  at- 
tended with  costiveness,  but  in  the  latter 
a  violent  purging  is  the  most  conspicu- 
ous sjTnptom ;  but  which  ever  of  these 
coats  is  first  attacked,  the  inflammation, 
in  a  short  time,  generally  spreads  to  the 
other. 

The  peritoneal  inflammation  begins 
witli  an  appearance  of  dullness  and  unea- 
siness in  the  horse  ;  the  appetite  is  consi- 
derably diminished,  or  is  entirely  lost,  and 
the  pulse  becomes  more  frequent;  the 
pain  and  febrile  sjmptoms  gradually  in- 
crease ;  he  is  continually  pawing  with  his 
fore  feet,  and  frequently  endeavours  to 
kick  his  belly;  he  lies  down  and  sudden- 
ly  rises  again,  and  looks  roimd  to  his 
flanks,  strongly  expressing  by  his  counte- 
nuiice  the  violence  of  the  pain  he  suffers; 
his  urine  is  commonly  high  coloured,  and 
in  small  quantity,  and  sometimes  voided 
with  considerable  pain;  he  is  generally 
costive,  and  the  pulse  remarkably  small 
and  quick;  the  legs  and  ears  become  cold, 
respiration  is  very  much  disturbed,  and 
sometimes,  from  the  violence  of  the  pain 
and  the  animal's  struggling,  profuse  per- 
spii-ation  breaks  out ;  at  length  mortifica- 
tion takes  place,  and  is  quickly  succeeded 
by  death.  Sometimes  the  progress  of 
this  disease  is  remarkably  rapid;  in  one 
instance  I  have  seen  a  complete  mortifi- 
cation take  place  in  the  course  of  twelve 
hours,  and  that  very  extensively. 


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FAR 


When  only  the  internal  coat  of  the  in- 
testines is  inflamed,  there  is  {generally  a 
violent  purging,  accompanied  with  fe- 
brile symptoms;  these,  however,  are  sel- 
dom so  considerable  as  in  pci-itoneal  in- 
flammation, nor  docs  the  animal  appeal' 
to  be  in  so  much  pain.  This  disease  is 
commonly  produced  by  the  improper  use 
of  physic,  or  by  neglecting  a  horse  dur- 
ing the  operation  of  a  purgative. 

In  the  treatment  of  peritoneal  inflam- 
mation, early  and  copious  bleeding  is  the 
most  important  remedy.  The  efficacy  of 
artificial  inflammation  on  the  surface  of 
the  body  is  remarkably  conspicuous  in 
this  disease ;  and  I  have  seen  even  the  ac- 
tual cautery  applied  to  the  skin  of  the  ab- 
domen with  manifest  advantage.  As  a 
substitute  for  this  severe  remedj',  I  would 
recommend  covering  the  back  with  fresh 
sheep  skins,  which  will  soon  excite,  and 
keep  up  for  a  considerable  time,  a  copious 
perspiration  on  the  part ;  the  whole  of  the 
abdomen  or  belly  should  have  the  mus- 
tard embrocation  assiduously  rubbed 
upon  it,  the  stimulating  effects  of  which 
may  be  promoted  by  covering  the  part  af- 
terwards with  sheep  skins  or  warm 
cloathing.  Rowels  also  may  be  inserted 
about  the  chest  and  belly,  putting  into 
them  blistering  ointment  instead  of  tur- 
pentine, or  the  common  digestive,  which 
is  usually  employed  for  the  purpose. 
Should  the  horse  be  costive,  which,  as 
we  have  before  observed,  is  almost  al- 
ways the  case,  give  a  pint  or  twenty 
ounces  of  castor  oil,  and  let  glysters  of 
fine  water  gruel  be  injected.  He  should 
be  allowed  to  drink  plentifully  of  warm 
infusion  of  linseed,  or  warm  water  alone ; 
while  hand  rubbing  to  the  legs,  with  a 
liberal  allowance  of  litter,  should  not  be 
forgotten.  If  the  disease  does  not  abate 
in  six  hours  after  the  bleeding,  the  ope- 
ration must  be  repeated,  and  if  the  cos- 
tiveness  continues  ten  or  twelve  hours  af- 
ter tile  oil  has  been  taken,  give  anotiier 
dose,  and  repeat  the  glyster.  If  the  dis- 
ease continues,  and  increases  in  violence, 
after  all  these  remedies  have  been  proper- 
ly  applied,  there  will  be  but  little  proba- 
bility of  recovery ;  particularly  if  the 
pulse  has  become  so  quick,  weak,  and 
fluttering,  as  to  be  scarcely  felt;  or  if 
tliere  appears  to  be  a  remission  or  cessa- 
tion of  pain,  or  the  horse  becomes  deli- 
rious. These  are  always  fatal  symptoms, 
denoting  that  moitification  is  taking 
place,  which  is  the  certain  harbinger  of 
death  ;  but  should  the  pain  continue  af- 
ter the  above  remedies  have  been  fairly 
tried,  the  anodyne  glyster  may  be  inject- 
c<l. 

Witli  respect  to  the  causes  of  perito- 


neal inflammation,  the  most  usual  ap- 
pears  to  be  high  feeding  and  want  of  ex- 
ercise ;  it  is  not  unfrequently  occasioned, 
iiowever,  by  putting  a  horse  suddenly 
into  warm  stables  when  taken  fiorn  camp 
or  grass.  Tl)e  fatal  consequences  of  this 
management  was  often  experienced  in  the 
army,  I  believe,  (though  a  different  cause 
was  assigned,)  before  the  veterinary  art 
liad  made  sufficient  progress  to  point  out 
its  impropriety  and  danger. 

In  some  instances  the  disease  appears 
to  have  been  produced  by  the_distensioi\ 
wjiich  the  intestines  have  suffered  in  fla- 
tulent cholic  or  gripes,  where  that  com- 
plaint has  been  neglected  or  improperly 
treated,  or  where  the  spastn  has  been  so 
violent  as  to  resist  the  operation  of  every 
remedy. 

An  inflammation  of  the  villous  or  inter- 
nal coat  of  the  intestine,  we  have  before 
observed,  is  commonly  occasioned  by  giv- 
ing too  strong  physic,  or  by  inattention 
during  its  operation,  and  is  generally  ac- 
companied with  profuse  purging;  in  this 
case  a  different  treatment  is  required 
from  what  we  have  recommended  for  pe- 
ritoneal inflammation,  and  bleeding  must 
not  be  employed,  unless  the  pulse  is  much 
accelei-ated  and  the  febrile  symptoms 
considerable ;  the  oil  also  must  be  omit- 
ted. Here  the  mustard  embrocation,  and 
sheep  skins  to  the  back  and  belly,  are 
eminently  useful. 

It  is  of  consequence  to  make  the  horse 
drink  freely  of  fine  water  gruel,  or  lin- 
seed tea,  which,  if  he  refuses  to  drink- 
must  be  given  with  a  horn.  If  the  dis- 
ease continues,  notwithstanding  these  re- 
medies have  been  carefully  employed,  let 
the  anodyne  glyster  be  injected,  and  if 
that  fails,  give  the  anodyne  or  the  re- 
stringent  draught.  It  sometimes  happens 
when  a  horse  has  taken  physic,  that 
gripes  and  violent  sickness  occi;r  before 
the  purging  takes  place  ;  in  this  case,  by 
means  of  a  glyster,  a  plentiful  exhibition 
of  thin  water  gruel,  and  exercise,  we 
shall  produce  an  evacuation  and  relieve 
the  animal.  Peritoneal  inflammation  h.as 
sometimes  been  mistaken  for  flatulent 
cholic  or  gripes,  but  their  appearances 
are  very  different,  and  they  may  easily 
be  distinguisiied  by  referring  to  the  an- 
nexed table,  in  wiiich  their  symptoms 
ai'e  contrasted. 

Jiestriiigent  draught — Opium,  1  dr. 
Prepared  chalk,  ^  oz.  Compound  pow- 
der of  tragacanth,  1  oz.  Mint  water  1 
pint. 

Anodyne  draught — 0])ium  IJ  dr.  Wa- 
ter gruel,  1  quart.     Mix  for  one  dose. 

Mustard  Embrocation.  Camphor,  1 
OZ.  Oil  of  turpentine  and  water  of  puic 


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FAR 


ammonia,  each,  2  oz.  Flour  of  mustard, 

8  oz.     To  be  made  into  a  thin  paste,  and 

rubbed  for   a  considerable  time  on  the 

part. 

^inodyne  Glyster. — Opium,  ^  oz.    Water 

Gruel,  3  pints      Mix  for  one  injection. 

»A  table,  sheviing  the  difftrence  betiveen  Fla- 
tulent Cliolic  or  Gripes,  and  Injiarmna- 
tion  of  the  BoKvels.  ^ 

Symptoms  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 
1.  Pulse  very  quick  and  small. 
2  Lies  down  and  suddenly  rises  again, 

seldom  rolling  upon  his  back. 

3.  Legs  and  ears  generally  cold. 

4.  In  general  attacks  gradually,  is  com- 
monly preceded,  and  always  accompa- 
nied by  symptoms^  of  fever. 

5.  No  intermissions  can  be  obsei-ved. 

S}-mptoms  of  flatulent  cholic. 
1.  Piilse  natural  though  sometimes  a 
little  quickened.        > 

2  Laes  down  and  rolls  upon  his  back. 

3.  Legs  and  ears  generally  warm. 

4.  Attacks  suddenly,  is  never  preceded 
and  seldom  accompanied  by  arty  symp- 
toms  of  fever. 

5.  There  are  frequently  short  inter- 
missions. 

Inflammation  of  the  Stom,ach.~T\\e 
stomach,  like  the  intestines,  may  be  in- 
flamed either  on  its  external  or  internal 
surface.  When  the  external  coat  is  the 
seat  of  disease,  the  symptoms  are  nearly 
the  same  as  those  by  which  Peritoneal  in- 
flammation of  the  intestines  is  indicated, 
and  the  same  treatment  is  required;  tlie 
only  difference  observable  in  the  symp- 
toms is,  that  in  this  case  the  pain  seems 
to  be  more  acute  and  distressing  than  in 
the  other:  the  same  difference  may  be 
observed  between  the  large  and  small 
intestines,  the  latter  being  possessed  of 
more  sensibility  than  the  former 

When  inflammation  attacks  the  perito- 
neal coat  of  the  stomach,  it  very  soon  dif- 
fuses itself  to  the  small  intestines  and 
neighbouring  viscera  ;  or  if  tlie  small  in- 
testines be  its  original  seat,  it  frequently 
spreads  to  the  stomach,  and  sometimes  to 
the  large  intestines  also.  In  examining 
)iorses,  therefore,  that  have  died,  of  these 
diseases,'\ve  seldom  find  the  inflammation 
confined  to  one  partitular  organ  ;  it  more 
commonly  happens,  indeed,  that  the 
whole  of  the  abdominal  viscera  will  exhi- 
bit morbid  appearances,  but  in  different 
degrees ;  those  most  contiguous  to  the 
part  first  diseased  having  suffered  consi- 
derably, while  such  as  are  more  remote 
from  it  are  perhaps  scarcely  altered ;  for 
we  can  generally  distinguish  the  original 
seat  of  the  inflammation. 

An  inflammation  of  the  Internal  or  Vil- 
lous coat  of  the  stomach  is  not  %  verv 


common  disease,  and  is  generally  occa- 
sioned either  by  poisons  or  strong  medi- 
cines that  have  been  swallowed,  or  bv  that 
species  of  worms  termed  Bolts.  When 
poisons,  or  strong  medicines  incautiously 
given,  are  the  cause,  it  will  of  course  come 
on  suddenly  ;  the  pulse  will  be  extremely 
quick,  and  so  weak  that  it  can  scarcely 
be  felt ;  the  extremities  will  become  cold, 
and  there  will  be  a  peculif.r  dejected  ap. 

pearance  in   the  animal's  countenance, 

respiration  will  be  disturbed  :  sometimes 
there  will  be  a  cough,  and  always  a  high 
degree  of  debility.  The  treatment  of  this 
disease  consists  in  gi\'ing  oily  or  mucila- 
ginous liquids  freeh',  such  as  decoction  of 
linseed,  gum  ai-abic  dissoh  ed  in  water, 
&.C  and  at  the  same  time  medicines  that 
are  capable  of  decomposing  or  destroying 
the  poison  :  for  tills  purpose  I  believe  the 
sulphurated  potash  is  useful  in  doses  of 
half  an  ounce,  provided  the  poison  be  ei- 
ther  mercurial  or  arsenical.  Clysters  are  to 
be  injected,  and  if  the  disease  is  accom- 
panied with  purging,  they  should  be  com- 
posed of  strong-  linseed  decoction  or  wa- 
ter gruel  I  saw  five  cases  of  inflamed 
stomach  at  one  time,  (all  occasioned  by 
poison) — the  above  treatment  was  pur- 
sued, and  four  out  of  the  five  perfectly- 
recovered. 

That  inflammation  which  botts  produce 
in  the  stomach,  is  indicated  by  symptoms 
sometimes  different  from  those  just  de- 
scribed :  indeed  it  may  more  properly  be 
considered  as  ulceration  of  the  stomach 
than  inflammation,  since,  upon  examining 
horses  that  have  died  of  this  complaint,  I 
have  always  found  ulcers  of  considerable 
size-  This  disease  generally  comes  on 
gradually  :  the  horse  becomes  hide-bound, 
has  a  rough  unhealthy  coat,  gradually 
loses  flesh  and  strength,  though  he  conti- 
nues to  feed  well,  and  has  a  frequent  and 
troublesome  cough.  The  disease  per- 
haps will  continue  in  this  state  for  some 
time,  and  no  serious  consequences  are 
apprehended  ;  its  cause  and  seat  are  sel- 
dom suspected,  medicines  are  given  to  re- 
move the  cough,  with  common  altera- 
tives for  the  purpose  of  improving  his  con- 
dition. 

In  some  instances  these  insects  are 
spontaneously  detached,  and  expelled 
through  the  intestines  :  in  such  cases,  if 
the  stomach  has  not  been  much  hurt  by 
them,  it  will  gradually  recover,  and  the 
horse  be  restored  to  his  original  strength 
and  condition.  When  this  does  not  oc- 
cur, these  worms  produce  so  much  mis- 
chief in  the  stomach,  as  to  throw  the 
whole  system  into  disorder.  The  lungs 
are  particularly  liable  to  sympathise  with 
the  stomach  m  this  case,  and  fi-equently 


FAR 


FAR 


become  inflamed  in  consequence.  The  in- 
flammation thus  produced  in  the  lungs 
is  extremely  obstinate,  and  though  it  may 
be  checked  in  some  degree  by  bleeding, 
and  the  other  remedies  we  have  recom- 
mended for  that  disease,  yet  as  the  cause 
cannot  often  be  removed,  it  generally,  I 
believe,  terminates  fatally.  Tliis  sympto- 
matic inflammation  of  the  lungs  may  be 
distinguished  liom  the  idiopatTiic  or  ori- 
ginal, by  tlie  following  criterion  : — It  is 
generally  preceded  by  an  luihealthy  ap- 
pearance in  the  coat,  and  a  troublesome 
cough ;  tlie  animal  seldom  beurs  bleeding 
well,  the  loss  of  any  considerable  quanti- 
ty of  blood  causing  a  ra.\ml  diminution  of 
strength  ;  whereas,  in  the  idiopathic  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs,  the  strength  of 
the  pulse,  as  well  as  the  whole  system, 
is  often  increased  by  bleeding. 

With  respect  to  the  remedies  for  this 
disease,  those  recommended  for  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs  are  the  best ;  but 
when  the  stomach  has  been  considerably 
injured,  there  is  little  prospect  of  success. 
Infusion  of  malt  has  been  recommended 
ibrthe  purpose  of  inducing  bots  to  disen- 
gage tliemselves ;  (See  Index,  Jiots.)  I 
must  confess,  however,  that  I  have  never 
seen  any  thin.^  eficctually  remove  them, 
though  they  frequently  come  off  sponta- 
.  neously,  particulai-ly  in  Spring,  1  have 
.  taken  occasion  to  examine  the  bodies  of 
several  horses  which  had  been  destroyed 
'in  this  way  :  in  all  of  them  there  was 
mortification  and  suppxn-ation  of  the 
lungs,  which  ap])eared  to  haVe  been  the 
proximate  cause  of  death,  but  on  opening 
the  stomach  an  immense  number  of  bots 
was  found,  many  of  them  attached  to 
the  sensible  part,  and  to  the  pylorus  or 
beginning  of  the  intestine  ;  in  every  in- 
stance there  were  ulcers  of  considerable 
size  found  ;  in  some  tiie  coats  of  the  sto- 
mach had  been  nearly  destroyed.  It  ap- 
peared very  clearly,  I  think,  in  all  these 
cases,  that  the  disease  of  the  stomach 
was  antecedent  to  that  of  the  lungs. 

g  It  must  not  be  supposed,  from  what  has 

f  been  said  on  this  subject,  tliat  bots  cannot 
exist  in  the  stomach  without  producing 
all  this  mischief;  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  often  found  in  healthy  horses  that  have 
been  shot  or  otherwise  destroyed,  and  it 
has  been  known  that  such  horses  have 
,  sttflTered  no  ap])arent  inconvenience  from 

/  tliem  during  life.  In  all  these  instances, 
however,  they  have  been  attached  to  the 
upper  or  insensible  coatof  tlie  stomach. 

Ivfiamonation  of  the  Kidneys. — This  dis- 
ease does  not  occiu*  very  frequently,  and 
is  often  occasioned,  I  believe  by  an 
immoderate  use  of  strong  diuretic  medi- 
cines.   At  the  fii'St  attack  of  this  com- 


plaint the  horse  constantly  stands  as  if  hft 
wanted  to  stale,  sometimes  voiding  a  small 
quantity  of  high  coloured  or  bloody  urine; 
when  tlie  inflammation  becomes  more 
considerable,  a  suppression  of  urine  and 
fever  generally  take  place ;  if  the  loins  are 
pressed  upon,  the  animal  shrinks  from  it, 
and  appears  to  feel  great  pain.  In  the 
first  place,  bleed  freely,  then  give  a  pint 
or  twenty  ounces  of  castor  oil,  throw  up 
glysters  of  warm  water,  and  cover  the 
loins  with  sheep  skins,  having  previously 
rubbed  upon  them  the  mustard  embroca- 
tion ;  should  these  remedies  fail  of  pro  - 
curing  relief,  repeat  tlie  bleeding,  and 
should  the  oil  not  have  operated  suffici- 
ently, let  another  dose  be  given.  All  di- 
uretic medicines  s^^e  to  be  carefully 
avoided. 

Inflaonmation  of  the  Liver — This  dis- 
ease is  indicated  by  a  yellowness  of  the 
eyes  and  mouth,  red  or  dark  coloui-ed 
urine,  great  weakness,  and  fever,  gene- 
rally accompanied  with  dian-hoca  or  pur- 
ging, and  sometimes  witli  costrveness ; 
the  horse  has  a  very  languid  appearance, 
and  is  almost  constantly  laying  down. 
Sometimes  the  progress  of,this  complaint 
is  very  rapid,  speedily  terminating  in 
deatli ;  at  others  it  proceeds  more  slowly, 
the  animal  lingering  for  a  considerable 
time  ;  in  this  case  it  not  unf  requently  ter- 
minates in  dropsy,  or  inflammation  of  the 
bowels.  A  case  we  recently  met  with, 
terminiUed  in  this  wii}'.  It  is  often  com- 
plicated with  other  internal  diseases,  caus- 
ing some  variety  in  the  symptoms, 

Bleeding  can  only  be  emiiloyed  with 
s-afety  at  the  commencement  of  this  dis- 
ease; .ifterwards  it  generally  does  harm, 
by  inducing  a  dangerous  degree  of  deb?ti- 
ty.  The  sides  should  be  blistered,  and  if 
there  be  no  purging,  the  Ball  No.  1,  given, 
once  in  twelve  hours,  until  it  occasions 
moderate  purging;  but  if  the  bowels  are 
already  in  a  lax  state,  the  Ball,  No.  2  or 
3,  will  be  better  adapted  to  the  complaint, 
and  is  to  be  given  in  tlie  same  way. 

The  Hall— No.  1.  Calomel,  ^  dr.  Bar- 
badoes  aloes,  1  dr.  Castile  soap,  2  dr. 
rhubarb,  ^  oz.  Syrup  enough  to  fbrm  the 
Ball  for  one  dose. 

No.  2 — Opium,  ^  dr.  to  1  dr.  calomel, 
1  dr.  Castile  soap,  2  dr.  Syrup  enough  to 
form  the  Ball  for  one  dose. 

No.  3 — Opium  and  calomel,  of  each,  I 
dr.  emetic  tartar,  2  dr.  liquorice  powder, 
3  dr.  Syrup  enough  to  form  the  Ball  for 
one  dose- 

Of  .Jaundice — Tliis  disease  sometimes 
exists  independent  of  inflammation  of  the 
liver,  and  may  be  distinguished  from 
it  by  the  absence  of  fever  and  debility, 
wliich  always  attend  the  former  diaoi-der. 


FAR 


FAR 


Its  principal  symptom  is  yellowness  of 
the  moutii  and  eyes,  with  purging-.  The 
cure  consists  in  giving  once  a  day  to  the 
horse,  till  he  begins  to  recover,  the  follow- 
ing ball. 

Ball — Opium  1  dr.  calomel,  1  dr.  Sy- 
rup to  form  one  ball. 

fistula  in  the  xnithers. — This  disease 
generally  originates  in  a  bruise  from  the 
saddle,  and  is  at  first  simply  an  abscess, 
which  by  early  attention  and  proper  treat- 
ment may  be  easily  cured  ;  but  when  ne- 
glected it  degenerates  into  a  fistulous 
sore,  proves  exti'emely  difficult  of  cure, 
and  cannot  be  removed  without  very  se- 
vere treatment. 

As  soon  as  the  injury  is  discovei'cd,  fo- 
mentations should  be  applied  in  order  to 
promote  suppuration,  and  when  matter  is 
formed  let  the  tumour  be  opened,  so  that 
its  contents  may  be  completely  evacuated, 
and  a  future  accumulation  jarevented  ;  the 
sore  may  then  be  healed  by  di'essing  it 
daily  with  digestive  liniment  or  ointment ; 
but  should  these  prove  ineffectual,  apply 
the  detergent  lotion  until  the  soi-e  as- 
sumes a  red  liealthy  appearance,  and  the 
matter  becomes  whiter  and  of  a  thicker 
consistence.  When  tlie  disease  has  been 
neglected  in  its  first  stage,  and  the  mat- 
ter suffered  to  penetrate  among  the  mus- 
cles, aflecting  the  ligaments  or  bones  of 
the  withers,  it  becomes  necessary  to  adopt 
a  more  severe  treatment.  The  sinusses 
or  pipes  are  to  be  laid  open  with  a  knife, 
and  if  it  is  practicable,  a  depending  open- 
ing is  to  be  made,  that  the  matter  may  run 
oil  freely;  the  sore  is  then  to  be  dressed 
with  the  following  ointment,  which  is  to 
be  melted  and  poured  into  the  cavity  while 
veiy  hot. 

The  sore  is  not  to  be  dressed,  until  the 
0  sloughs  which  this  ointment  occasions 
have  separated  from  the  living  parts; 
which  generally  happens  two  or  three 
days  after  tlie  operation.  If  the  surface  of 
the  sore  looks  red  and  healthy,  and  the 
matter  appears  to  be  whiter  and  of  a  bet- 
ter consistence,  a  repetition  of  this  painful 
operation  \\\\\  not  be  required,  the  diges- 
tive liniiTient  or  ointment  being  sufficient  to 
complete  the  cure ;  but  should  the  sore  still 
retain  an  unhealthy  appearance,  and  the 
matter  continue  thin  and  of  a  bad  colour, 
the  hot  dressing  must  again  be  applied. 

The  ointment — No.  1.  Ointment  of  ni- 
trated quicksilver,  4  oz.  Oil  of  turpen- 
tine, 1  oz.     Mix. 

No.  2.  VerdigTis,  ^  oz.  Oil  of  turpen- 
tine, 1  oz.  Ointment  of  yellow  resin,  4  oz. 
Mix. 

Flatultnt  Cholic,  Gripes,  or  Fret. — This 
disease  generally  attacks  rather  suddenly, 
VOL.    I. 


and  is  brought  on  by  various  causes ; 
sometimes  it  is  occasioned  by  drinking  a 
large  quantity  of  cold  water  when  Uie 
body  has  been  heated,  and  the  motion  of 
the  blood  accelerated  by  violent  exercise. 
In  horses  of  delicate  constitutions,  that 
have  been  accustomed  to  hot  stables  and 
warm  clothing,it  may  be  brought  on  mere- 
ly by  drinking  water  that  is  very  cold, 
though  they  have  not  been  previously  ex- 
ercised. Bad  hay  appears  to  be  another 
cause  of  the  complaint ;  but  it  frequently 
occurs  without  any  apparent  cause,  and 
then  probably  depends  upon  a  spasmodic 
action  of  the  stomach  or  bowels,  occa- 
sioning a  constriction  of  the  intestine, 
and  a  confinement  of  air.  The  air  which 
is  thus  confined,  does  not  appeal*  to  be 
produced  by  fermentation  of  the  contents 
of  the  intestine ;  but  I  have  been  informed, 
that  the  air  which  is  confined  in  the  intes 
tines  of  persons  who  have  died  of  the  dis- 
ease termed  Tympany,  consists,  in  great 
measure,  of  azotic  or  nitrogene  gas,  which 
could  not  have  been  the  product  of  fer- 
mentation, rhis  opinion  will  appear  still 
more  probable,  when  we  consider  the  im- 
mense quantity  of  air  that  is  sometimes 
discharged  from  the  human  stomach,  even 
after  its  contents  h^ve  been  expelled  by 
vomiting. 

The  pain    and  uneasiness   which  this 
complaint  occasions  are  so   considerable 
as  to  alarm  those  who  are  not  accustom- 
ed to  see  it,  and  lead  them  to  be  appre- 
hensive of  dangei'ous  consequences  ;  but 
if  properly  treated,  it  may  be  easily  and 
.  expeditiously  removed.     It   begins    with 
an  appearance  of  uneasiness  in  the  horse, 
j  frequently  pawing  the  litter,  he  voids  a 
small  quantity  of  excrement,  and  makes 
I  fruitless  attempts  to  stale ;  the  pain  soon 
;  becomes  more  violent,  he  endeavours  to 
;  kick  his  belly,  and  looks  round  to   his 
'  flanks,  expressing  by  groans  the  pain  he 
i  labours  under ;  at  lengtlv  he  lies  down, 
i  rolls  about  the  stall,  and  falls  into  a  pro- 
fuse perspiration.     After  a  short  time  he 
generally  gets  up,  and  appears  for  a  mi- 
nute or  two  to  be  getting  better,  but  the 
pain  soon  returns  and  the  succeeding  pa- 
roxysm is  genei'ally  more  violent  than  the 
former — the  pulse'is   seldom  much  acce- 
lerated, nor  are  there  any  symptoms  of 
fever.     The  disease  will  sometimes^o  off 
•  spontaneously  ;  it  more  commonly  hap- 
i  pens,   however,   when  proper   remedies 
'  are  not  employed,  that  the  air  continues 
i  to  accumulate,  and  so  distends  the  intes- 
!  tine,   as  to  produce  inflammation  of  its 
j  coats  :  the  distension  has  sometimes  been 
so  considerable  as  to  rupture  the  intestine, 
whereby  tlie  horse  is  speedily  destroyed. 


X  X 


FAR 


FAR 


As  soon  as  this  disease  is  observed,  let 
one  of  the  following  draughts  be  given, 
and  a  glyster  injected,  composed  of  six 
quarts  of  waier  gruel  or  warm  water,  and 
8  oz.  comition  salt.  If  ihe  disease  has  ex- 
isted for  severalsjiours,  and  lue  pain  ap- 
pears to  be  very  considerable,  particularly 
if  the  pulse  has  become  quick,  ii  will  be 
adviseable  to  bleed  to  tiiree  cjuaris,  with  a 
view  to  prevent  inflammation  and  remove 
the  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  intestine. 
If  the  disease,  however,  i.s  perceived  on 
its  first  attack,  tlie  draught  and  glyster 
will  generally  be  sufficient  to  cure  it ;  but 
should  no  relief  be  obtained  by  these 
means  in  an  hour  or  two,  let  the  dr.iught 
be  repeated,  and  let  the  belly  be  rubbed 
lor  a  considerable  timewith  tlie  fnustard 
embrocation,  biiould  the  disease  be  so 
obstmate  as  to  resist  even  these  reme- 
dies, which  will  scarcely  ever  happen, 
give  a  pint  of  castor  oil,  with  IJ.  oz.  tinc- 
ture of  opiiuii:  as  soon  as  the  horse  gets 
up,  let  him  be  rubbed*  perfectly  dry  by- 
two  persons,  one  on  each  side,  and  idler- 
wards  let  him  be  well  clothed.  It  is  ne- 
cessary in  this  complaint  to  provide  a 
large  quantity  of  hiler,  lor  tl>c  ])U!pose  id' 
preventing  tiie  horse  from  injuring  himself 
during"  the  violence  of  the  paioxysm. 

The  Draught.  No.  1.  Balsam  ofcai/ivi,  1 
oz.  Oil  of  juniper,  2  dr.  Spirit  of  nitrous 
ether.  1  oz.  Simple  mint  water,  1  pint. 
JMix  for  one  dose. 

No.  2.  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz.  .Mix 
with  the  yolk  of  an  c^gt  .and  add  gradu- 
ally — peppermint  water,  1  pint.  Spirit  of 
nitrous  ether,  ^  oz.     Mix  tor  one  dose. 

No.  3.  Camphor,  2  dr.  Oil  of  turpen- 
tine, i  oz.  Mint  water,  1  pint.  Mix  for 
one  dose. 

As  this  complaint  is  liable  to  occur  du- 
ring a  journey,  in  situations  where  the 
above  reniedies  cannot  be  readily  pj'o- 
ciurd,  I  have  annexed  a  formuJa  for  a  ball, 
for  the  convenience  of  those  who  are  in 
the  habits  of  travelling.  It'  this  ball  is 
wra)>ped  up  closely  in  bladder,  it  may  be 
kepr  a  cons'iderable  time  without  losing 
its  vivtues- 

The  Ball — .Castile  soa]),  3  dr.  Cam- 
phor, -dr.  Ginger,  1^  dr.  Venice  tur- 
pentinc,  6  dr.  To  be  niude  into  a  ball  for 
a  dwse. 

Disi^oses  of  the  Foot  — The  most  fre- 
quent cause  of  lameness  in  the  foot  in,  a 
contraction  of  tiie  horny  matter  that 
composes  Ihe  ho<<f,  (.Generally  aecom- 
pa'iied  with  an  increased  concavity  and 
thicvness  of  the  sole.  The  cavity  of  the 
lioof  being  thus  dimmi.ihed,  the  sensible 
foot  sut^iMs  a  greater  or  K  .ss  degree  of 
compression,   which,  occasions  in  it  in- 


flammation and  lameness.  When  we  ex- 
amine tlie  bottom  of  a  contracted  foot,  in- 
stead of  being  circular,  it  will  be  found 
of  an  oblong  form,  the  heels  and  frog  w'jU 
.ippear  as  'if  they  had  been  squeezed  to- 
getlier.  Sometimes  the  trog  lias  become 
rotten,  and  discharges  an  oHensive  mat- 
ter. 

'Ihe  sensible  foot  may  also  be  compres- 
sed and  inflamed  by  an  increased  thick- 
ness, and  a  consequent  loss  of  elasticity 
in  the  hoof  and  sole,  and  in  this  case 
there  is  seldom  any  considerable  altera- 
tion observed  in  the  external  form  of  the 
foot. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  horses  that 
go  perfectly    sound,  though  their   hoofs 
are  much  conliacted  ;  on  the  other  hand 
we  often  see  severe  lameness  produced 
by  a  slight  degree  of  contraction.     In  at- 
tempting to  cure  this  disease,  the  first 
step  to  be  taken  is  to  remove  carefully 
with  a  knife  all  ,tiie  rotten  parts  of  the 
frog,  and  apply  tar  to  those  which  are 
sound :  a  small  quantity  should  also  be 
poured    into   thp  cleft  of  the  frog;  this 
will  promote  the  secretion  of  horny  mat- 
ter, and  if  assisted  by  pressure,  will  in- 
crease the  solidity  of  that  which  is  al- 
ready formed.     'I'iie  quarters  and  heels 
are  then  to  be  rasped,  particularly  at  the 
coronet,  and  the  superfluous  piuls  of  the 
sole  lemoved  with  a  butteris  ahd  draw- 
ing knife.     The  toe  is  to  be  shortened  as 
nuich  as  can  be  converiiently  done,  and 
if  the   heels  are  too  high,  that  is,  if  the 
crust  at  the  heels  is  too  deep,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  reduce  it  with  the  butteris 
and  rasp.     It  frequently  hajjpens,  how- 
ever, in  feet  of  this  description,  that  the 
heels  are  too  low,  in  such  cases  they  must 
be  carefully  preserved,  and  when  a  shoe 
is  applied,  it  should  be  made  thicker  at 
the  heel  than  at  the  toe,  and  somewhat 
longer   th.in   that    recommended    for   a 
sound  foot- 
When  a  conti'acted  hoof  has  been  thus 
treated,  the  next  tldng  to  be  done  is  to 
keep  the  foot  as  moist  as  possible,  and 
expose  tile  frog  constantly  to  pressure, 
either  by  means  of  the  artificial  frog,  oi- 
by  reducing  the  crust  at  the  heels.  When 
these  remedies  have  been  persevered  in 
for  a  short  lime,  the  frog  will   have  ac- 
quired a  certain  degree  of  hardness  and 
solidity  ;  it  will  then  be  proper  to  turn 
the   horse   out  huo  some  soft   meadow 
ground,  without  shoes,  taking  care  that 
the  bottom  of  tie  foot  is  occasionally  re- 
duced, so  that  the   frog  may  constantly 
receive  pressure.     If  the  foot  is  examined 
after  a  short  time,  it  will  be  found  that 
all  the  new  formed  hoof  at  the  quarters 


FAR 


FAR 


and  heels,  that  is  all  the  horn  that  has 
been  produced  at  those  parts  suice  the 
remedies  were  first  employed,  instead  of 
growing  down  nearly  in  a  perpendicular 
direction,  or  obliquely  inward,  is  forced 
outward  in  its  descent,  so  that  the  cavity 
of  the  hoof  will  be  considerably  enlarged, 
and  the  compression  of  the  internal  parts 
removed.  Wlien  the  horse  has  been  at 
grass  a  suilicient  time  for  the  new  hoof 
to  grow  completely  down,  the  shape  of 
the  foot  will  be  found  much  altered  ;  the 
heels,  instead  of  being  narrow,  will  be 
open  and  expanded,  the  P'rog  will  be  con- 
siderably widened,  a: id  not  squeezed  lo- 
gether  as  before,  and  tlie  oblong  form 
will  be  changed  to  one  that  is  more  cir- 
cular; in  short,  when  tlie  frog  during 
this  time  has  been  properly  exposed  to 
pressure,  and  the  quarters  so  rasped  as 
to  be  rendered  sufficiently  flexible,  the 
hoof  will  be  found  very  similar  in  iti  foi'm 
to  that  of  a  Colt. 

In  cases  whei-e  a  Contraction  of  the  hoof 
has  already  produced  inflammaUoii  and 
lameness,  particularly  If  "iie  iameness  is 
not  recent,  it  will  be  adviseabie  to  bliscer 
the  pasterns  previous  to  'auning  the  horse  | 
out,  and  wi»en  the  ir.iiammation  is  very 
considcrabio,  a  laxative  ball,  with  a  cool- 
ing diet,  will  be  serviceable.  The  cruel 
operation  of  drawing  or  tearing  oH'  the 
sole  has  been  recommended  as  a  remedy 
for  contracted  feet,  but  very  little  reflec- 
tion will  convince  any  one  of  i  s  incflica- 
cy  ;  whenever  it  has  been  supposed  ti»  do 
good,  the  benefit  has  probably  aristn  from 
the  long  run  at  grass  tli.it  becomes  neces- 
sary after  it,  and  then  the  advantage 
might  liave  been  equal,  perha])s  greater, 
had  the  operation  been  omitted.  It  has 
been  observed  before,  that  in  contracted 
hoofs  tiiere  is  generally  an  increased  con- 
cavity in  the  sole,  whence  we  may  rea- 
sonably conclude  that  it  opposes  the  con- 
tracting causes,  though  in  the  end  it  is 
not  capable  of  preventing  the  contraction 
from  taking  place.  Upon  a  hor.se  that  has 
been  lame  from  this  disease  a  considera- 
ble time,  it  is  diffictdt,  if  not  impossible, 
to  perl'orm  a  radical  cure  ;  in  sucii  cases 
I  have  several  times  succeeded  in  remov- 
ing the  lameness,  but  the  internal  parts 
had  become  so  irritable,  or  their  organi- 
zation had  been  so  altered,  that  very  mo- 
derate work  would  cause  the  lameness  to 
return.  Wlien  the  lameness  is  not  so  con- 
siderable as  to  render  tlie  horse  totally 
unfit  for  work,  it  will  be  adviseable  to  ap- 
ply a  shoe  that  is  thicker,  wider,  and  lon- 
ger at  the  heels  than  that  recommended 
for  a  sound  foot,  and  if  the  fiog  is  tender 
and  rotten,  the  bar-shoe  will  be  found 


serviceable  (Plate  3,  Fig.  7.)  It  will  be 
useful  also  to  keep  the  hoof  as  moist  as 
possible,  by  making  tlie  horse  sta.id  in 
wet  clay  four  or  fi\e  hours  during  the 
day. 

In  examining  the  feet  of  Horses  afrer 
death,  that  hu.ve  been  thus  tieated,  we 
find  generally  that  the  laminse  have  been 
destroyed,  the  form  of  the  coffin  bene  al- 
tered and  its  size  diminished,  or  the  la- 
teral cartilages  ossified :  m  some  case? 
however,  no  appearance  of  disease  can 
be  perceived  on  the  internal  p:.  ts  of  the 
ti;'jt.  Wiien  the  disease  has  gone  so  far 
.IS  to  injure  the  iaminx,  cartilages  or  cof- 
fin bone,  there  is  not  a  possibility  of  re- 
moving it,  which  shews  hew  necess.  ly 
it  is  to  attend  to  the  feet  of  horses  more 
than  is  commonly  done ;  and  that  when- 
ever any  alteration  is  perceived  to  be  go- 
ing on  in  the  shape  of  the  foot,  when  the 
heels  appear  to  be  getting  narrower,  the 
frog  squeezed  together  and  discharging 
matter,  in  consequence  of  the  compres- 
sion which  the  sensible  frog  suffers,  it 
surely  must  be  of  importance  to  adopt 
such  measures  as  will  not  only  prevent 
the  disease  from  going  any  farther,  but 
will  also  restore  the  foot  to  its  natural 
healthy  state,  for  when  it  has  gone  so  far 
as  to  produce  absolute  lameness,  the  cure 
is  by  no  means  Ct-.rtain.  How  frequently 
do  we  meet  with  horses  that  are  said  to 
be  tender  in  the  feet !  and  how  subject 
are  they  tt)  fall  in  consequence  of  this 
tenderness,  which  generally  anses  from 
contraction  of  the  crust !  In  tliis  case  the 
sensible  frog  is  extremely  irritable  and 
inflamed,  and  the  horny  frog  which  na- 
ture designed  for  its  protection  being  soft 
or  rotten,  and  inadequate  to  its  function, 
every  blow  that  it  receives  must  of  course 
give  the  animal  very  considerable  pain, 
and  I  have  known  many  valuable  horses 
thrown  down  in  this  way;  since  however 
high  and  wide  the  heel  of  the  shoe  may 
be,  the  frog  will  be  subject  to  occasional 
blows  from  sharp  projecting  stones. 
Whenever  therefore  any  of  those  symp- 
toms make  their  appearance,  and  when- 
ever the  foot  se-.ms  to  be  undergoing  an 
alteration  in  form,  immediate  recourse 
should  be  had  to  the  moue  oi' prevention 
we  have  pointed  out. 

The  next  disease  to  be  noticed  is  the 
flat  and  convex  sole,  or,  as  it  is  more 
commonly  termed,  tlie  pumice  foot  This 
disease  most  commonly  occurs  in  heavy 
draft  horses,  and  seems  to  ai'ise  from  a 
weakness  of  the  crust ;  for  when  the  sole 
btcomes  flat  o:  convex,  the  cruat  also 
loses  1..S  proper  form  and  becomes  flatter, 
appearing  as  if  it  had  been  incapable  of 


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FAR 


supporting'  the  animal's  weight,  and  had 
therefore  given   way,  allowing  tlie  inter- 
nal foot  to  press  so  upon  the  sole  as  to 
give  it  llie  appearance  we  observe.    This 
explanation  of  the  disease  will  pcrhai)s 
appear  better   founded,  if  we   consider 
that,  when  a  horse  is  drawing  a  lieavy 
load,  not  only  his  own  weight,  but  great 
part  of  that  which  he  is  drawing  also,  is 
thrown  tiltimalely  upon  liis  feet,  and  as 
the  fbic  feet  support  by  far  the  greatest 
share,  it  is  not  at  all  astonishing  tliat  tlie 
crust    should  sometimes   give    way ;  for 
though  it  possesses  sufficient  strengtli  tbr 
the  i^urposes  of  the  anmal  in  a  state  of 
nature,  yet  that  strength  is  limited,  and 
not  always   adequate  to  the  heaVy  bur- 
thens  wliich  the    ci'ust   has  to    sustain. 
When  the  sole  becomes  flat  or  convex,  it 
is  rendered  also  thinner  than  it  is  natu- 
rally, and  sometime^  so  much  so  as  to 
yield  easily  to  tht;  pressure  of  the  finger  ; 
the  sole  in  this  state  is  of  course  incapable 
of  afl'ording  sufficient  protection  to  tlie 
sensible  sole,  wliich    is  tlien    closely   in 
contuct  with  it;  and  if  it  be  exposed  to 
pressure,  lameness   must  be   tlie  conse- 
quence     It  is  almost  superfluous  to  ob- 
serve that  the  flat  shoe  would  be  ill  adapt- 
ed to  a  foot  of  Uii.c  description;  it  be- 
comes necessary  in    liis  case  to  apply  one 
that  is    concave  on  its  internal  surface, 
that  the  soie   may  not  receive  any  prcs- 
siu'e  from  it,  and  of  sufficient  w  idth  to 
protect  llie  soie  as  mucli  as  can  be  done 
from    Jie   pressure    of  the    ground.     In 
Plate  .3,   Fig  6,  this  slioe  is  represented, 
in  which  v.  may  be  observed,  that  although 
the  iiiteniat  surfuce  is  concav^ ,  still  there 
is  a  flat  surface  fi^r  the  crust  to  beat  upon. 
In  attempting  to  cure  this  disease,  it  is 
first  necessary   to  take    ofl   the   horse's 
shoes,  and  to  make  him  stand  on  a  flat 
hard  si^rface ;  this  kind  of  pressure  will 
harden  the  soles,  and  in  the  end  render 
them  thicker,  particularly  if  tar  be  Ire- 
quently  applied  to   ihem      I  cannot  say 
that  1  have  ever  seen  the  disease  radical- 
ly cured  by  this   treatment,  but  I   have 
known   consideiable    advantage    derived 
from  it,  especially  in  one  case,  where  tlie 
soles,  from  beiiig  convex  and  very  thin, 
became  fiat  and  sufficiently  firm  to  bear 
moderate  [Jicssurc  without  inconvenience 
to  the  horse. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  horses,,  par- 
ticularly  amonj>'  those  that  are  well  bred 
for  the  turf,  whose  pasterns  arc  remark 
ably  long  and  oblicjiie  in  their  position, 
while  the  heels  are  very  low,  and  the  toe 
of  considerable  length  ;  if  thin  heeled 
shoeg  were  ajiplied  to  feet  of  this  descrip- 
tion, or  if  the  toes  were  not  kept  short, 
the  horse  would  b^  very  liable  to  lame- 


ness, from  the  extraordinary  pressure  to 
which  the  ligaments  and  back  sinews 
would  be  exposed ;  the  heels  therefore 
of  such  horses  are  to  be  carefully  prer 
served,  and  the  toes  kept  as  short  as  pos- 
sible. The  shoes  which  are  applied 
should  be  made  sufficiently  thick  and 
long  at  the  heel  to  make  up  for  the  de- 
ficiency of  horn  in  that  part,  in  order  to 
relieve  the  ligaments  and  back  sinews, 
and  with  the  same  view  the  toe  should  be 
made  rather  thin,  and  of  the  best  steel. 

'I'here  is  another  kind  of  deformity 
sometimes  observable  in  the  foot,  that  is, 
the  hoof  loses  that  oblique  form  repre- 
sented in  Plate  3,  Fig.  9.  and  approaches 
towards  the  perpemlicular,  (Fig,  3,)  at 
the  same  time  the  heels  beconie  very 
high ;  in  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
duce the  cru9t  at  the  heels,  and  apply 
the  thin  heeled  shoe. 

Gangrene—  When  inflammation  runs 
very  high,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  hi 
violent  bruises,  or  deep  and  extensive 
wounds  of  the  lacerated  kind,  it  may  ter- 
minate in  gangrene  or  mortification,  which 
is  generally  attended  with  danger;  in 
this  case  the  matter  dischaigcd,  instead 
of  being  white  and  thick,  consists  of  a 
dark  coloured  fluid,  of  a  peculiar  oflcn- 
sive  smell ;  the  constitution  is  generally 
afl'ected,  the  pulse  becoming  quick,  weak, 
and  sometimes  iri-egular,  the  appetite 
goes  off,  and  there  is  a  great  degree  of 
(lebility.  Should  the  infiammation  termi 
nate  in  this  way,  if  it  arises  from  a  wound, 
let  it  be  dressed  with  (hgvstive  liniment, 
oil  of  turpentine,  or  canijihorated  spirit 
of  wine ;  the  diseased  parts  should  be 
scarified,  and  fomentations  applied  al- 
most incessantly,  until  the  mortified  parts 
appear  to  separate,  and  the  matter  loses 
in  great  measure  its  offi;nsi\e  smell,  ap- 
pearing wliilL*r  and  more  thick.  Wlieii 
the  horse  is  weakened  by  the  disease, 
and  loses  his  ajopctite,  ])aiticularly  if 
there  is  a  copious  discharge  from  the 
wound,  one  or  two  of  tiic  following  cor- 
dial balls  are  to  be  given  daily  : 

No  1.  Yellow  Fei-uvian  bark,  1  oz. 
(iinger,  powdered,  2  dr.  Opium,  1  dr. 
Oil  of  carraways,  20  divips.  Syrup  enough 
to  make  the  ball  f.)r  one  dose. 

No.  2.  Yellow  I'eruvutn  bark,  Joz. 
Powdered  snake  root,  2  dr.  Powdered 
cassia,  lAdr.  Oil  of  cloves,  20  drops. 
Syrup  enough  to  form  the  ball  tor  one 
dose. 

Jiemark. — Tl-.e  opium  in  the  ball.  No. 
1,  is  to  be  omitted  when  the  horse  is  cos- 
tive, or  if  it  appears  to  take  off  his  ap- 
petite  ;  but  when  the  disease  is  accom- 
panied with  a  purging^,  it  is  extremely 
useful. 


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FAR 


When  any  of  the  internal  parts  are  in- 
flamed, i.  fever  is  general!}'  produced,  the 
violence  of  wliich  will  depend  upon  tlie 
importance  of  the  inflamed  org-a.n,  as 
well  as  upon  the  extent  of  the  inflanuna- 
tion ;  some  of  the  internal  parts  being- 
more  essential  to  life  than  others,  and 
when  inflamed  occasioning  of  course 
g-reater  derani^eraent  in  the  system  The 
only  J a'Dour able  terminations  to  which  in- 
ternal inflammation  can  be  brought,  are 
resolution  and  efTusion;  and  as  the  firstis 
Ijy  far  the  most  desirable,  the  most  vigo- 
rous Rieasures  should  be  adopted  in  or- 
der to  effect  it ;  the  most  important  re- 
medy in  tiiose  cases  is  copious  bleeding, 
and  the  earlier  it  is  employed  tlic  more 
effectual  will  it  prove:  tlie  next  remedy 
is  external  infiainrnntion,  artificially  ex- 
cited by  means  of  rowels  and  blisters. 
'I'he  fever  powder,  and  occasional  glys- 
ters,  are  of  considerable  sen'ice. 

Of  Glanders. — This  is  the  most  destruc- 
tive disease  aflhcting  the  horse,  being 
iiighly  contagious,  and  almost  universal- 
ly fatal.  The  symptoms  are  a  swelling 
of  the  glands  under  the  throat,  and  a  dis- 
charge of  purulent  matter  from  the  nos- 
trils :  most  commonly  the  discharge  is 
confined  to  one  nSfetril,  and  the  inflam- 
mation is  also  limited  to  the  gland  on 
that  side.  Soon  after  tliis,  the  membrane 
lining  tlie  inside  of  the  nose  ulcerates,  as 
may  be  seen  by  looking  into  the  nostril, 
and  tlie  discharge  becomes  of  a  worse 
colour,  and  feiid;  tiie  ulceration  now 
spreads  :  the  thin,  delicate,  feony  parts 
of  the  nose  are  destroyed  by  the  virus, 
which  is  increased  in  quantity  and  viru- 
lence, and  the  whole  system  of  the  ani- 
mal being  at  length  affected,  the  vital 
Functions  gradually  fail,  and  death  closes 
the  progress  of  this  cruel  disease  :  but 
its  progress  to  destruction  is  more  or  less 
rapid  in  different  horses  :  some  it  kills  in 
a  comparatively  sliort  time,  while  other 
horses  not  only  sustain  their  condition, 
but  are  also  able  to  endure  work  long 
after  Ihcy  have  been  undoubtedly  glan- 
dered.  This  practice,  hov,e\er,  of  pre- 
serving glandered  horses  while  they  are 
capable  of  affording  servi'^.e,  and  which 
but  a  mistaken  interestedness  of  the 
owner  can  approve,  is  highly  injurious 
to  the  nation  at  large,  and  therefore  ought 
not  to  be  permitted. — A  horse  labouring 
under  glanders  may  be  considered  a  ma- 
cliine  which  is  constantly  generating  and 
scattering  around  him  the  glanderous 
poison  ;  every  thing  to  which  he  applies 
his  nostrils  has  this  poison  deposited  on 
it ;  the  manger  and  rack  from  which  he 
eats,  the  pail  in  which  he  di'inks,  the 
collar,  bridle,  and  clothes  he  may  have 


on,  all  are  infected ;  even  the  parts  of 
the  stable  that  are  contiguous,  but  vvilh 
whicli  he  may  not  have  had  absolute  con- 
tact, are  not  exempt  from  the  infection  of 
tliis  dreadful  disease :  the  glanderous 
matter  on  the  membrane  ofliis  nose,  car- 
ried forth  by  the  air  whicli  he  expiies  in 
breatliing,  vitiates  the  atmosphere  aioand 
him,  and  spreads  tlie  seeds  of  furtlier  iii- 
fection  to  a  distance  from  the  animal. 

\t  present  there  is  no  effectual  remedy 
ktiown  for  preventing  or  cvu-ing  th.is  dis- 
ease :  from  a  corresponding  appearance 
between  some  of  its  symj)lon)s  with  those 
of  the  venereal  disease,  and  seeing  the 
effects  of  mercvu'y  in  curing  the  latter, 
various  preparations  of  quicksilver,  m 
different  doses,  have  also  been  given  to 
the  horse,  witii  the  view  "of  cuung  the 
glanders,  but  not  witii  the  same  happy 
effect.  This  failure,  however,  should 
not  preclude  the  hope  that  a  specific  re- 
medy for  at  least  suppressiiiaf  the  mor- 
tality of  the  distemper,  may  not,  ere  long, 
be  dlscovcitrd.  The  cow-pock  was  not 
thought  of  as  being  an  inlahible  pi'even- 
tive  aguinst  the  mortality  of  the  small- 
pox, and  a  successful  remed\  against  tliis 
virulent  and  frequently  fiital  disorder  was 
beginning  to  be  despaired  of,  until  the  sa- 
gacious Jenner  made  the  immortal  disco- 
very ;  a  discovery  wiiich,  in  some  mea- 
sure, atones  to  hitmanity  for  the  unparal- 
lelled  destruction  of  the  species,  commit- 
ted by  the  tlien  existintr  ruinous  and  bar- 
harous  war.  it  is  probable  that  a  certain 
])reventive  against  the  mortality  of  the 
glanders  also  exists  in  some  milder  and 
more  original  disease,  and  only  waits  a 
few  lucky  circumstances  to  be  discovered 
by  some  sagacious  observer.  It  was 
thought  the  cow-poCk  would  have  had 
the  desired  effect,  jind  accordingly  tlie 
hoi-se  Avas  inoculated  with  it,  but  wiuout 
success, 

iLls  adm.itted  that  glanders  is  general- 
ly_  spread  by  contagion ;  but  it  is  also 
supposed,  cases  occur  wiicre  this  disease 
arises  spontaneously.  The  h'.tter  suppo- 
sition, however,  rests  meieh'  in  sugges- 
tion, where  the  disease  cannot  be  traced 
to  a  contagious  source  ;  but  considering 
the  subtlety  and  virulence  of  the  poison- 
ous matter  generated  and  constantly  de- 
posited by  a  liorse-  infected  with  the  glan- 
ders, it  is  not  unreasonuble  to  believe 
that  this  disease,  in  all  cases,  is  produced 
by  contagion,  A  neglected  coid,  ill  cur- 
ed strangles,  and  tlie  breathing  impure 
air,  have  been  thought  to  be  productive 
of  glanders  ;  but  is  it  not  possible  that  in- 
cipient  glanders  might  have  been  mis- 
taken for  the  two  first  diseases ;  and  that 
in  the  case  of  breathing*  foul  air,  the  aui- 


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FAR 


mal  might  have  received  the  infection  into 
his  system  prior  to  being  placed  in  so 
noxious  a  situation.  Tliese  however,  are 
suggestions  also,  unproved  l)y  fuels,  which 
can  aione  enable  us  to  draw  certain  con- 
clusions witli  i-egard  to  diseases ;  and 
thes'  are  oftei-c-d  here,  principally,  with 
the  vifv  of  I'.ducing  practitioners  of  ta- 
lent and  ubservation  to  direct  theii'  views 
to  the  discovciy  of  a  preventive  against 
the  n^ortaliiy  of  ihis  dreadful  disease. 

Until,  however,  a  remedy  be  discover- 
ed fur  preventing  or  curing  the  glanders, 
every  horse  certainly  known  to  be  infect- 
ed wicli  this  disease,  excepting  such  as 
may  be  left  witli  skilful  practitioners  f()r 
experiment,  oughvtobeimmtdiaU.'|y  kept 
sep.ivate,  with  tiie  vie  w  of  preventing  the 
extension  of  tl.e  co!it;igion  to  other  hor- 
ses ;  but  care  slioukl  be  had,  that  a  cold 
or  slranjrles  be  not  mistaken  for  glanders, 
and  the  horse  be  improperly  doomed  to 
seclusion.  To  prevevil  sucii  error,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  discriminate  between  the 
sjrnptoms  of  the  difliirent  diseases  :  in  a 
cold,  there  is  mosily  some  fever  with  a 
cougli,  and  the  discharge  at  the  nose  is 
generally  from  both  nostrils,  which  are 
never  ulcerated.  In  the  glanders,  parti- 
cularly in  its  er.rly  stages,  there  are  nei- 
ther cougli  nor  fever;  the  disch.arge  is 
mostly  confined  to  one  noi^tril,  and  there 
is  always  ulceration  after  a  certain  time. 
Again,  strangles  difie.-  from  glanders  in 
this  ;  that  the  inflamed  glands  imdcr  the 
throat  soon  run  to  suppuration  in  the  for-, 
mer  disease;  and,  di^cllarging  their  mat- 
ter, the  animal  gets  well ;  whilst,  in 
glanders,  these  glands  are  scarcely  ever 
K.nown  to  inflame  actively  and  suppurate. 

'iVhen  then  a  hoise  is  observed  to  have 
a  discharge  at  the  nose,  lie  sliould  lie  in- 
stantly seiniratcd  fi'om  all  otlier  horses, 
until  the  nature  of  the  discharge  be 
known  ;  when,  if  it  proceed  from  glan- 
ders, the  animal  should  be  kept  sepa- 
rate, and  destroy  tire  things  he  was 
most  likely  to  have  infected,  as  the 
collar,  nose -bag,  &.c.  and  it  will  be  re- 
([uisite  afterwards  to  wash  clean  the  rack, 
manger,  and  other  places  on  which  he 
may  have  deposited  glanderous  matter; 
and  to  ensurii  safey  against  .further  con- 
tagion, a  coat  "v  two  of  lime  should  be 
given  to  the  stable  inside. 

Lampas. — When  the  bars  or  roof  of 
the  horse's  mouth,  near  tlie  front  teetli, 
become  level  wiin,  or  hi(;iicr  than  the 
teeth,  he  is  sajil  to  liave  the  Lampjs,  and 
this  is  supposed  to  prevent  his  feeding. 
Farriers  burn  down  this  swoln  part  witli 
a  red  hot  iron  made  for  the  purpose.  I 
believe  this  operation  is  performed  much 
more  frequently  than  is  necessary,  but  I 


have  never  seen  any  bad  consequences 
arise  from  it. 

Locked  Jfiw— This  disease,  fortunate- 
ly does  not  occur  very  often,  and  general- 
ly terminates  fatally.  It  begins  with  a 
difficulty  in  mastication ;  at  length  the 
jaws  become  so  completely  and  immove- 
ably  closed,  that  neilner  medicines  nor 
food  can  be  got  into  the  stomach :  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  are  generally  in  a 
state  of  rigid  contraction,  and  the  animal 
appears  to  siifier  great  pain ;  it  is  often 
bi  ought  on  by  trifling  causes,  such  as 
wounds  of  the  foot,  inflammation  of  the 
tail,  from  docking  or  nicking,  &c.  and 
sometimes  it  attacks  with(,ut  any  appa- 
ren.  cause.  Various  remedies  have  been 
tried  in  this  complaint,  but  1  do  not  think 
any  efTcciual  mode  of  treatment  has  yet 
been  discovesed;  immersion  in  cold 
water,  or  even  snow,  is  said  to  produce 
a  leniporary  relaxation  of  those  muscles 
by  which  the  jaws  are  closed.  Opium 
and  camphor  have  been  strongly  recom- 
mended. I  have  lately  been  informed  of 
a  case  in  which  a  combination  of  these 
medicines  completely  succeeded.  In  Ame- 
rica and  the  West  India  Islands,  where 
the  disease  is  much  more  frequent  than 
it  is  in  this  climate^ strong  stimulants 
have  been  found  efiectual ;  it  would  be 
adviseable  tlierefore  to  try  the  same  plan 
on  horses  should  opium  and  camphor  fail. 
T!ie  best  stimulants  for  this  pur|)ose  are 
spirits  of  hartshorn,  ether,  opium,  and 
brandy- 

In  every  case  of  locked  jaw,  the  injur- 
ed part  si  ould  be  burnt  with  a  led  hot 
iron,  and  if  no  particular  part  is  injured, 
the  same  ap]ilication  should  be  freely 
made  in  the  nick. 

Lymph,   Coi:gulablc  Effusions  of.     See 

iNrt-A-VIMATIO-V. 

J\iiilUndtrs  liiid  SalUnders. — When  a 
scui-l'y  i:vupti<)n  appears  on  the  iKiste.  ior 
part  of  the  knee  joint,  it  is  ttrn.ed  J\Ld- 
lenders,  and  when  the  same  kind  of  dis- 
ease happens  on  the  anterior  of  the  hock 
joint,  it  is  named  SalUnders.  Should  these 
complaints  occasion  lameness,  it  will  be 
proper  to  give  in  the  first  place  a  dose  of 
physic  ;  let  the  iiuir  be  carefully  clipped 
ofVlrom  the  diseased  part,  and  let  ail  the 
scurf  be  washed  off  with  soap  and  warm 
water  ;  a  cure  may  then  be  soon  eileeted 
by  applying  the  foUowing  oinlnient  twice 
a-day  : 

'yv.e  Ointment. — No-  1.  Ointment  of  wax 
or  spermaceti,  2  oz.  Olive  oil,  1  o-!.  C'am- 
phor  and  oil  of  rosemary,  of  each,  1  dr. 
Acetated  water  of  litharge,  2  dr.     Mix. 

No.  2.  Ointment  of  nitrated  quick-sil- 
ver, olive  oil,  of  each,  1  oz.     Mix. 

No.  3.  Oil  of  turpentine,  ^  oz.    Vitri- 


FAR 


FAR 


oUc  acid,  1  dr.  Mix  cautiously,  and  add 
of  oil  of  bay,  3  oz.     Mix. 

Mange — This  disease  is  seldom  met 
with,  except  in  stables  where  scarcely 
any  attention  is  paid  to  the  horses,  and 
where  their  food  is  of  the  worst  quality : 
it  is  certainly  very  contagious,  and  may 
in  that  way  attack  horses  that  are  in 
good  condition.  It  is  known  to  exist  by 
the  horse  constantly  rubbing  or  biting 
liimself,  so  as  to  remore  the  hair,  and 
some  t.nes  produce  ulceration ;  the  hair 
of  the  maJie  and  tail  frequently  falls  off, 
and  small  scabs  are  observable  about 
the  roots  of  that  which  remains.  The 
mange  is,  I  beheve,  a  local  disease,  and 
requii-es  only  the  following  ointment  or 
lotion  for  its  removal :  in  obstinate  cases, 
however,  it  may  be  adviseable  to  try  the 
effect  of  the  loUowing  klterative. 

JMange  Ointment. — No  1.  Sulphur,  vi- 
vum,  finely  powdered,  4  02.  Oil  of  tur- 
pentine, 3  oz.     Hog's  lurd,  6oz.     Mix. 

No.  2.  Oil  of  turpentine,  4oz.  Strong 
vitriolic  acid,  A  oz.  Mix  cautiously,  and 
add  tram  oil,  6  02..  Sulphur  vivum,  4  oz 
Mix. 

jifange  Lot'tcn — White  hellebore,  pow- 
dered, 4  ox.     Boil  in  3  pints  of  water  to 

1  quart,  then  add  muriate  of  quicksilver, 

2  dr.  that  has  been  previously  dissolv- 
ed in  3  drams  of  Muriatic  acid.  • 

.  ilterativefor  Mange. — M  uriate  of  quick- 
silver, 4oz.  Tartarizcd  antimony,  3  oz. 
Powdered  aniseeds,  6oz.  Powdered  gin- 
ger, 2  oz.  Syrup  enough  to  foruj  the 
mass,  to  be  divided  into  sixteen  balls, 
one  of  which  is  to  be  given  every  morn- 
ing. 

Should  they  appear  to  diminish  or  take 
off  tlie  appetite,  or  create  a  poi'ging,  the}' 
must  be  discontinued  two  or  three  days. 

Mortification.     See  Gangrene. 

Of  Opiithahny. —  I  his  consists  in  an 
inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva,  or  mem- 
brane lining  the  eye-Uds,  and  reflected 
over  the  ftn-e  part  of  the  eye  ;  it  first  at- 
tacks the  part  lining  the  lids  ;  then  that 
on  the  white,  or  opake,  coat  of  the  eye  ; 
and,  lastly,  the  portion  spread  over  the 
tiMUsparent  cornea.  In  the  former  parts 
it  produces  great  redness  and  fuUness  of 
the  blood-vessels,  as  may  be  seen  by  gen- 
tly drawing  either  lid  from  tlie  eye; 
while  in  the  latter,  or  transparent  part  of 
tlie  eye,  a  dullness,  or  film-like  appear- 
ance, is  the  consequence.  The  tears  are, 
at  the  same  time,  so  much  increased  as  to 
flow  over  the  face ;  tlie  lids  are  partly 
closed,  to  exclude  some  of  the  light,  and 
which  would  now  be  p.Jntid  and  injuri- 
ous '.0  tlie  eye,  rendered  irritable  by  tlie 
inilamiaation  ;  and  the  more  effectually 
to  avoid  irritation  from  abroad,  the  ani- 


mal draws  the  diseased  eye  farther  into 
the  orbit,  by  means  of  the  retractor  mus- 
cle,  which,  at  the  same  time  that  it  effects 
this  motion,  forces  the  haw,  as  we  before 
observed,  outwards,  to  increase  the  pro- 
tection of  the  eye.  Some  persons  mis- 
taking the  haw  for  an  excrescence  pro- 
duced by,  or  producing,  the  disease,  used 
to  cut  it  away,  and,  consequently,  de- 
prived the  horse's  eye  of  a  material  part 
of  its  defence  ;  but  now  its  use  beginning 
to  be  understood,  it  is  rarely  removed, 
except  by  the  most  uninslructed  practi- 
tioners. 

When  the  above  symptoms  are  caused 
by  blowap  or  other  accidents,  a  cure  is 
soon  effected  by  bleeding,  and  giving  the 
followi-ig  laxative  balls  twice  or  three 
times,  after  an  interval  of  a  few  days  be- 
tv.een  each,  and  keeping  the  animal  at 
rest,  and  on  a  cooling  diet :  and  should 
any  speck,  or  appeaiance  of  opacity,  re- 
main on  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye, 
after  the  intiammation  has  subsided,  a 
little  finely  powdered  salt  blown  on  the 
part  through  a  quill,  once  or  twice  a  day, 
will  gently  sdmulate  the  absorbent 
vessels,  and  sho4"tly  remove  the  opa- 
city. 

Poll  £w/7.— The  poll  evil,  so  called 
from  taking  place  in  the  poll,  or  upper 
part  of  tlie  neck  close  to  tlie  head,  arises 
from  bruises,  or  bicws  on  the  part,  and 
is,  at  first  simply  an  abscess  ccMifined  to 
the  cellii'ar  membrane  between  the  mus- 
cles of  the  part ;  and  may,  in  this  stage, 
be  easily  cured  by  early  and  proper  treat- 
ment, like  other  abscesses :  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  the  disease  be  neglected,  as 
is  mo:-e  commonly  the  case,  till  the  mat- 
ter find  its  way  totiie  ligaments  and  bones 
underneath,  it  then  becomes  much  more 
difficult  of  ctu-e,  and  requires  a  severer 
treatment. 

In  this  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  lay 
open  the  different  sinuses  ;  and  also,  when 
there  is  op-portunify,  to  make  a  depend- 
ing  opening  for  the  ma'.ter  to  discharge  it- 
self b}'.  The  fjllowing  corrosive  and 
highly  stimulating  ointment  should  then 
be  poured  into  the  cavity,  while  hot,  with 
the  view  of  destroying  the  diseased  sur- 
faces of  the  sinuses,  and  also  producing 
a  healthy  intiammation,  and  matter  for 
filling  up  and  healing  the  cavities.  This 
mode  of  ti  eatment,  though  severe,  is  yet 
the  ii'ost  likely,  if  judiciously  proceeded 
in,  to  effect  a  cure  of  this  veiy  obstinate 
disease  ;  and  should  it  be  found  that  ap- 
plying it  once  has  not  been  sufBcient  to 
desuoy  totally  the  diseased  parts,  it  will 
be  requisite  to  repeat  it ;  after  which  the 
sore  may  be  di-essed,  as  a  common  abscess, 
with  digestive  ointment. 


FAR 


FAR 


Ointment.  ,011  of  turpentine  1  oz.  Ver- 
digiis  ^  oz.  Ointment  of  yellow  resin, 
3  oz.     Mix 

Qtiittor. — Tliis  disease  generally  arises 
fioni  a  wound  or  bruise  in  the  corcnet, 
and  if  neglected,  penetrates  under  tlie 
lioof,  forming  sinuses  in  various  directions. 
'I'he  most  effectual  method  of  treating 
those  complaints  is  to  ascertain,  in  the 
first  place,  the  direction  and  extent  of  the 
sinuses,  and  tiien  to  force  into  them  witii 
u  strong  probe  h'^'>ie  cvystailized  verdi- 
gris, rolled  up  in  ti»in  blotlhig  or  silver  pa- 
per. This,  tliougli  apparently  a  severe 
remedy,  will  he  found  very  eifectuai. 
Subliniiate  and  arsenic  have  bee|>str()ngiy 
recommended  as  remedies  for  the  quittor, 
indeed  it  is  ])rob;ible  that  any  caustic  ap- 
plication would  effect  a  cure  ;  but  I  have 
succeeded  so  well  with  the  chrystalliz-ed 
verdigris,  that  1  have  not  been  induced  to 
try  those  medicines  When  a  corn  has 
been  neglected  and  suffered  to  break  out 
at  the  coronet,  or  when  the  ibot  has  been 
wounded,  or  pricked,  as  it  is  termed,  Ijy 
the  farrier  in  slioeing,  and  this  is  not  dis- 
covered until  matter  appears  at  the  coro- 
Det;  though  these  nuay  be  considered  as 
cases  of  'piiitor,  a  different  treatment  is 
required  from  that  we  h^'e  just  de- 
scribed; in  those  cases  the  cure  greatly 
deper.ds  on  m;dciiig  an  opening  for  the 
matter  in  the  bottom  of  the  fool,  where 
tlie  nail  which  inflicted  the  injury  enter- 
ed; or  if  produced  by  a  corn,  the  opening 
must  be  made  in  the  angle  between  the 
bar  and  crust,  at  e,  fig.  1,  plate  3.  The 
best  dressing  on  those  occasions  is  the 
compound  tincture  of  benxoin  and  diges- 
tive ointment;  a  potdlice  is  sometimes  re- 
quired to  soften  the  horny  matter,  and 
subdue  any  inflammation  that  may  exist 
in  the  foot. 

Ring- Hemes.  Are  bony  excrescences 
about  the  small  pastern  bone,  near  the 
coronet,  or  an  o.ssifK-alion  o'f  the  cartila- 
ges of  the  loot.  H  observed  in  its 
incipient  state,  a  blister  will  probably 
be  of  service ;  but  when  of  longer 
standing  and  large,  the  actual  caute- 
ry will  also  he  necessary  :  this  remedy, 
however,  is  by  no  mean.s  uniformly  suc- 
cessful, the  corni)laiiit  being  frequently 
incin-able,  and  if  it  has  proceeded  so  f;ir 
as  to  cause  a  atiff  joint,  there  is  no  chance 
of  recovery.    . 

Kojiii.g.  This  disease  takes  its  name 
from  a  peculiar  sovmd  in  respiration,  par- 
ticularly when  the  horse  is  put  into  a 
brisk  trot  ol"  galh.!]).  It  seems  to  arise 
from  lymph  that  has  been  elfuscd  in  the 
wi:)dpi])e  or  it  j  br:inches,  which  beeorhing 
solid,  obsli-ucts,  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gTe<;,  the  passage  of  air.     As  a  remedy 


for  this  compljunt,  blistering  tlie  whole 
length  of  the  windpipe  hiks  oeen  recom- 
mended ;  I  believe,  however,  that  it  is  al- 
ways incurable 

huddle  Galls  — The  skin  under  the  sad- 
dle is  frequently  liable  to  be  so  injured  as 
to  run  into  inflamed  tumours  called  sad* 
die  galls  or  warbles. 

These  are  sometimes  troublesome,  if 
not  attended  to  in  time  ;  but  by  an  early 
application  of  some  repelling  solution,  as 
sugar  of  lead  and  w atcr,  or  vinegy,  the 
tumour  n\ay  be  soon  discussed:  n,  how- 
ever, matter  has  formed,  it  should  be  eva- 
cuated by  the  lancet,  and  the  sore  after- 
wards healed  as  on  ordinary  occasions. 

Sand  Cracks. —  the  crust  of  some  horses 
is  liable,  in  the  dry  season,  to  be  afl'ected 
w\\.\\  fissiues,  which  generally  run  from 
ihe  coronet  downwards:  they  are  to  be 
Ibund  mostly  at  the  sides  of  the  crust  aj)- 
proaching  the  heels.  AVhen  they  do  not 
enter  dee])  they  produce  scarcely  any  in - 
convenionce  to  the  animal;  but  on  the 
contrary,  if  they  descend  to  the  sensible 
parts  of  the  foot,  they  necessarily  cause 
great  pain  and  lameness,  anil  require 
much  attention  to  remove  them. 

As  excessive  dryness  of  the  crust  ap- 
pears to  be  one  of  the  causes  jn-oducing 
sand-cracks,  moisture  is  evidently  neces- 
9ar}  to  prevent  them,  and  also  to  assist 
the  cure  where  they  do  exist;  and  witii 
this  view  tlie  crust  so  cracked  should  be 
kept  constantly  moist,  either  in  the  stable, 
or  by  turning  the  horse  out  mto  moist 
gj-ound  But  first  it  wiil  be  necessary  to 
thin  the  quarter,  and  after  opening  the 
line  of  crack  with  a  drawing-knife,  to  ap- 
ply a  hot  iron  with  the  view  of  exciting  in- 
flammation, by  which  a  matter  will  be 
discharged,  which  will  tend  to  All  up  the 
crack,  and  defend  the  iiUernal  parts;  gra- 
dually, as  the  hoof  grows  downwards, 
the  crack  will  disaj^pear,  and  a  cure  be 
effected ;  but  in  the  intci  im  the  edge  of 
the  crust  below  the  crack  should  be  so 
rasped  as  not  to  come  in  pressure  witli 
the  shoe. 

Sitjl.sts. — Owing  to  iajvuies  from  the 
saddle,  callosities  are  apt  to  form  in  the 
skin  beneath,  which  are  termed  sitfasts. 

They  slicndd  be  dres.sed  with  some  .sti- 
mulating ointment,  until  Uie  callous  j)art 
can  be  rcmoveil,  when  ihe  sore  may  be 
treated  in  the  usual  way 

Spavin. — A  s]):ivin  is  a  swelling  on  the 
inside  of  the  hock,  and  is  of  two  kinds : 
the  first  is  termed  a  bone  spavin,  consist- 
ing of  a  bony  excrescence ;  the  other  a 
b  'gov  blood s\y^y\n.  Tlie  former  often  oc- 
casions lameness  just  before  it  makes  its 
appearance,  and  then  can  be  discovered 
only  by  feeling  the  part,  which  will  be 


FAR 


FAR 


found  unusually  Iiot  and  tendef.  If  a 
ulisier  is  applied  at  this  period  of  the  dis- 
ease, it  will  g'enerally  prove  successful ; 
but  when  the  disease  has  existed  for 
some  time,  the  cure  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult. In  such  cases  the  actual  cautery 
should  be  applied,  and  the  following  day 
a  strong  blister ;  afier  this  two  or  three 
months  rest  (at  gi-ass)  are  absolutely  ne- 
cessary 

The  bo^  spa\"ui  does  not  so  often  occa- 
sion lameness  as  tlie  other,  except  when  a 
horse  is  wcM'ked  hard,  which  generally 
causes  a  temporary  lameness,  removeable 
by  i-est ;  but  it  does  not  often  admit  of  a 
radical  cure,  for  though  it  is  frequently 
removed  b\'  two  or  tliree  blisters,  it  gene- 
rally returns  when  the  horse  is  made  to 
perform  any  considerable  exertion. 

lying  up  the  vein  which  passes  over 
the  inside  of  the  hock  has  been  consider- 
ed the  most  eflectual  remedy,  from  a 
supposition  that  the  lameness  was  caused 
by  an  enlargement  of  that  vessel ;  this, 
operation,  however,  cannot  be  necessary, 
since  it  has  been  proved  that  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  vein  is  always  an  effect^  and 
not  a  cause  of  the  disease. 

Splents. — Owing  to  too  much  weight 
being  frequently  placed  on  the  bones,  tlie 
connecting  ligament,  inadequate  to  sup- 
port tlie  bui'den,  begins  to  be  torn ;  and 
nature,  to  prevent  dislocation,  brings  on 
inflammation,  which  produces  ossific  mat- 
ter ;  and  by  it  unites  the  small  and  great 
metacai-pal  bones  together.  So  far,  this 
process  can  scarcely  be  called  a  disease ; 
the  elasticity  however,  of  this  part,  no 
longer  exists  :  but  it  commonly  happens 
that  a  mere  imion  of  the  bones  is  not 
all ;  the  ossific  matter  continues  to  be 
thrown  out,  till  a  considerable  body  of  en- 
largement takes  place,  producing  pain 
and  lameness.  In  this  case  the  object 
should  be  to  remove  the  extraneous  bony 
jnatter  by  exciting-  its  absorption,  by  the 
application  to  the  part  of  the  following 
blistering  ointment ;  when,  if  a  cure  is 
not  eft'ected  in  a  few  days,  it  will  be  ne- 
cessaiy  to  lire  the  splent,  and  to  blister  it 
again.  This  diseased  enlargement,  term- 
ed splent,  from  the  bone  concerned,  takes 
place,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  on  the  in- 
side of  the  leg,  owing  to  the  pernicious 
habit  of  turning  up  the  outside  heel  of 
the  shot: ;  iind  which,  by  throwing  a 
more  liian  ordinary  degree  of  weight  on 
tlie  inside  splent-bone,  produces  the  con- 
sequences already  described. 

Blistering  Ointment. — Spanish  flies  pow- 
dered, 1  oz- ;  oil  of  turpentine,  1  oz. ; 
and  hog's-lard,  4  oz.     Mix  them  together. 

In  applying  a  blister,  the  hair  of  the 
part  sliould  be  cut  close,  and  the  ointment 
VOL.    I. 


well  rubbed  in ;  the  horse's  head  should 
also  be  tied  up,  to  prevent  him  biting  or 
injuring  the  blistei  ed  surface ;  and  the 
discharge,  when  it  begins  to  exude,  ori.:i'llt 
to  be  gently  and  frequently  removed  by 
means  of  a  sponge  and  wai-m  water,  so 
as  to  preserve  the  skin  from  blemishes. 

Strains. — This  is  a  subject  with  which 
every  sportsman  ought  to  be  well  ac- 
quainted, s'mce  his  horses  ai*e  particular- 
ly liable  to  such  accidents.  Strains  may 
affect  either  the  muscles,  ligaments,  or 
tendons.  Muscular  strains  consist  in  an 
inflammation  of  the  muscles  or  flesh,  oc- 
casioned by  \-iolent  and  sudden  exertion. 
When  ligaments  are  the  seat  of  this  dis- 
ease, there  is  generally  some  part  of 
them  ruptured,  whereby  very  obstinate 
and  sometimes  permanent  lameness  is 
produced  ;  in  this  case  also  inflammation 
is  the  symptom  whicb  first  requires  our 
attention.  But  tendons  are  the  parts 
most  frequently  affected,  particularly  the 
flexors  of  the  fore  leg,  or  back  sinews,  as 
they  are  commonly  termed.  Tendinous 
strains  are  commonly  supposed  to  con- 
sist in  a  relaxation  or  preternatural  ex- 
tension of  the  tendon,  and  the  remedies 
that  have  been  recommended,  are  sup- 
posed to  brace  them  up  again.  How- 
ever plausible  this  opinion  may  be,  it 
certamly  is  very  erroneous ;  indeed  it 
has  been  proved  by  experiment,  that  ten- 
dons ai'e  neither  elastic  nor  capable  of  ex- 
tension, and  from  investigating  then*  struc- 
ture and  economy,  we  learn,  that  were 
they  possessed  of  these  quaUties  they 
would  not  answer  the,,  purpose  for  which 
they  were  designed.  From  an  idea  that 
a  strain  in  the  back  sinews  depends  on  a 
relaxaUon  of  the  tendons,  many  practi- 
tioners  have  been  apprehensive  of  danger 
from  the  use  of  emollient  or  relaxing  ap- 
plications, than  which  nothing  can  be 
more  useful  at  the  beginning  of  the  disease. 

Tendinous  strains  consist  in  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  membranes  in  which  ten- 
dons are  enveloped,  and  the  swelling 
which  takes  place  in  these  cases  depends 
on  an  effusion  of  coagulable  lymph,  from 
the  vessels  of  the  inflamed  part.  Inflam- 
mation being  the  essence  of  a  strain,  we 
are  to  employ  such  remedies  as  are  best 
calculated  to  subdue  it,  and  should  any 
swelling  remain,  it  is  to  be  removed  by 
stimulating  the  absorbent  vessels  to  in- 
creased action. 

Strain  of  the  Shoulder. — This  disease  is 
by  no  means  so  frequent  as  it  is  supposed 
to  be,  lameness  in  the  feet  being  often 
mistaken  for  it ;  the  difference,  however, 
is  so  well  marked,  that  a  judicious  ob- 
server  will  never  be  at  a  less  t*  distin'- 
guish  one  from  the  other. 
T  y 


^' 


FAR 


FAR 


A  shoulder  sti-ain  is  an  infiammatlon  of 
some  of  tlie  muscles  ol"  ihe  showider, 
most  commonly,  I  beiieve,  tliose  by  whicli 
the  limb  is  connected  with  the  body. 
Tlie  iumeiiess  which  J.is  accident  occa- 
sions coir.ea  on  rathei-  suddenly ,  and  is  ge- 
nerally considerable,  \^'iltn  the  horse 
attempts  to  walk,  the  t-jc  oi  tlie  afiected 
side  is  geierally  drawn  ulon<j  the  ground, 
from  the  pain  which  avi  extension  of  tlie 
limb  occasions:  in  vioLnt  cases  he  ap- 
pears to  be  incupuljie  of  extending  it. 

Wjien  lameness  arises  fix>m  a  disease 
of  tlie  foot,  it  is  generally  gradual  in  its 
:.ttuck,  unless  oco:irtion<;d  by  an  accident- 
al woimd,  and  does  not  at  all  hinder  the 
cxtei--;ion  of  the  limb;  an  unu^iual  heat 
and  tenderness  may  also  be  perceived  in 
the  foot,  and  as  »he  horse  stands  in  tite 
staoie,  the  affecl'xl  foot  will  be  put  for- 
ward; that  it  may  bear  as  little  as  possi- 
ble of  tlie  -.veight  of  the  Ijody. 

The  first  remedy  lo  be  emjiloyed  on 
those  occasions  is  bleeding  in  the  shoul- 
der or  plate  vein,  then  give  a  laxative 
ball,  and  if  ihe  injury  is  considerable,  let 
a  rowel  be  put  in  the  chest;  by  means  of 
these  remedies,  and  rest,  the  disease  will 
generally  be  removed  in  a  short  tin'ie;  a 
cooling  opening  diet,  witli  perfect  rest, 
will  also  be  necessary.  When  the  in- 
flammation and  lameness  begin  to  abate, 
the  horse  should  be  turned  into  a  loose 
stall,  and  after  a  week  or  two  he  may  be 
suffered  to  walk  out  for  a  short  lime  eve- 
ry day,  but  should  tliis  appear  to  increase 
the  lameness,  it  must  be  discontinued. 
The  intention  of  moderate  exercise,  after 
the  inflammation  is  in  great  measure  sub- 
dued, is  to  ctfl-ct  an  absorption  of  any 
lymph  that  may  have  been  eiliised,  and  to 
bring  the  injured  muscles  gj-adually  into 
action; 

After  an  accident  of  this  kind,  particu- 
larly when  it  has  been  violent,  the  horse 
shoidd  not  be  worked  in  any  way  lor  a 
considerable  time,  as  the  lameness  is  veiy 
apt  to  recur,  unless  the  injured  parts  have 
had  sutllcient  refet  to  recover  their 
strength.  If  lie  can  be  allowetl  t^vo  or 
three  months'  ran  at  grass,  it  will  be 
found  extremely  conducive  to  his  lecove 
rv,  provided  he  is  iireventcd  from  gallop 
iiig  or  exerimg  himself  too  much  when 
fust  turned  out;  it  is  necessary  also  to 
choose  a  situation  where  there  are  no 
ditches  ui  which  he  may  get  bogged. 
\Vith  respect  to  embrocations,  and  other 
external  applications,  they  are  certainly 
useless,  unless  the  exUnuil  parts  arc  af- 
ft'cted,  and  then  fiinientations  nuiy  be  em- 
ployed with  advantage. 

Strain  of  the  Stijle. — In  this  case  the  sti- 
fle joint  will  be  found  unusually  hot,  ten- 


der, and  sometimes  swollen.  The  remp- 
diee  are  fomentations,  ,a  rowel  in  the 
thigli,  and  a  dose  of  physic.  When  by 
these  means  the  inflammation  of  tlie  joint 
has  abated  considerably,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  swellii.g  and  lameness  continue, 
the  embrocation  for  strains,  or  a  blister, 
should  be  applied. 

Strains  in  tliC  hock  joint  require  the 
same  treatment. 

Strain  of  the  Hip  Joint  fcovimonly  term- 
ed IVhirl  Jione,  or  Round  Bone)  —When 
lameness  occurs  in  the  hind  leg,  the  cause 
«>f  which  is  too  obscure  for  the  farrier's 
comprehension,  he  generally  pronounces 
it  to  be  a  strain  in  the  round  or  whirl 
bone,  and  with  all  tliat  aft'eclation  of  mfal- 
libility,  so  commonly  observed  in  those 
gentlemen.  I  have  seen  several  cases  of 
lamtness  which. were  supposed  to  be  oc- 
casioned by  an  injury  of  this  part,  but  af- 
ter attentive  examination  an  incipient  spa- 
vin was  found  to  be  the  cause.  I  would 
advise  therefore  in"  such  cases,  that  tlie 
hock  joint  be  cai'efully  examined,  and  if 
unusual  heat  or  lendernes  be  observed  on 
the  se:it  of  spavin,  it  is  probable  that  the 
lameness  aiises  from  that  cause,  and  tliat 
it  may  be  removed  by  the  application  of  a 
blister.  I  have  met  with  several  horses 
tliat  liad  been  severely  burnt  and  blister- 
ed in  the  hip,  when  the  hock  was  evident- 
ly the  seat  of  the  disease. 

Strain  of  the  Flexor  Tendon  or  Back 
Sinew  — A  strain  of  the  back  sinew  de- 
pends, as  we  have  before  observed,  on  an 
inflanmiation  of  the  membranes  in  which 
it  is  enveloped,  (see  plate  9,  ana  the  back 
sinew,  Ob  the  membranes,)  and  is  some- 
times complicated  with  a  rupture  of  the 
ligaments  which  are  situated  immedi;itely 
under  the  sinews.  See  plate  10.  When 
the  lameness  and  swelling  are  considera- 
ble, bleed  in  the  shoulder  vein,  and  give 
a  dose  of  physic ;  then  let  the  saturnine 
poultice  be  apjilied,  so  as  to  extend  from 
the  hoof  to  the  knee,  and  let  it  be  fre- 
quently moistened  with  the  saturnine  lo- 
tion.— When  the  inflammation  and  lame- 
ness have  abated  considerably,  ami  a 
swelling  still  remains,  apply  the  embro- 
cations for  strains,  rubbing  it  well  on  the 
part  twice  or  three  times  a  day;  if  this 
does  not  succeed,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  a  blister ;  it  will  be  adviseable  also  to 
turn  the  horse  loose  into  a  large  stable  or 
barn,  and  to  give  him  this  kind  of  rest  for 
a  considerable  time :  Should  he  be  worked 
too  soon  after  the  accident,  the  part  is 
very  liable  to  be  injured  again,  particular- 
ly when  it  has  been  violent.  Should  the 
swelling  continue,  notwithstanding  these 
renr.edies  have  been  carefully  employed, 
particularly   if  it  feel  callous  and   hard. 


FAR 


FAR 


unci  it  be  perfectly  free  from  inflamma- 
tion, it  will  be  necessary  to  apply  the  ac- 
tual cautery  (vide  firing);  this  operation, 
however,  must  never  be  performed  vvliile 
any  inflammation  remains.  These  swell- 
ings sometimes  prove  so  obstinate,  that 
even  repeated  blistering-  and  the  actual 
cautery  prove  ineffectual;  as  soon,  how- 
ever, as  the  inflammation  which  caused 
them  is  completely  removed,  they  sel- 
dom occasion  lameness,  yet  they  will  not 
admit  of  any  violent  exertion  in  the  part, 
nnd  are  tlierefore  always  an  impediment 
to  speed. 

Saturnine  Lotion. — Acetated  lead,  4  oz. 
vinegar  and  water,  of  each  1  pint;  mix 
them  well. 

Saturnine  Poultice. — J  of  a  peck  of  fine 
bran,  to  be  made  into  a  thin  paste  with 
hot  saturnine  lotion ;  to  this  add  as  much 
linseed  meal  as  will  give  it  a  proper  con- 
sistence. 

Embrocation  for  Strains. — Oil  of  rose- 
mary and  camphor,  of  eacli  2  dr.  soft  soap, 
1  ox.  and  spirit  of  whie,  2oz.  To  be  mix- 
ed together. 

^inother. — Soft  soap,  s})irit  of-  wine,  oil 
of  turpentine,  and  ointment  of  elder,  of 
each  4  ounces.     Mix  it  together. 

Strangles. — This  disease  generally  at- 
tacks young  horses  between  s  the  ocl  and 
5th  year  of  their  age,  and  consists  in  an 
inflammation  and  Sivelling  of  the  glands 
imder  the  throat,  accompanied  witli 
cough  and  a  discharge  of  white  tliick 
matter  from  the  nostrils ;  somclimes  there 
are  likewise  a  soreness  of  the  throat,  and 
difficully  in  svv'allowing.  The  inflamed 
glands  commonly  suppurate  in  a  short 
time  and  burst,  dLscliargingalarge  quan- 
tity of  matter ;  wlien  this  lias  taken  ])lace, 
tlie  cough  and  oUier  symptoms  generally 
go  off,  the  sore  gi'adually  heals,  and  the 
horse  speedily  recovers.  In  some  cases 
the  strangles  assume  a  more  fbrinidable 
appearance,  are  attended  with  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  fever,  and  the  throat 
i.s  sometimes  so  much  inflamed,  that  the 
horse  is  incapable  of  swallowing  either 
food  or  water ;  but  however  violent  tlie 
attack  may  be,  I  huve  always  foimd  that 
by  adopting  a  proper  mode  of  treatment, 
every  unpleasant  symptom  may  be  easilj' 
removed,  and  a  speedy  recoverv  effected. 
It  is  not  a  very  uncommon  circumstance 
for  the  strangles  to  attack  young  horses 
while  at  grass,  and  then  they  are  iie- 
quently  not  perceived  until  Nature  has 
nearly  effected  a  cure. 

The  approach  of  strangles  may  be 
known  by  a  dulness  of  countenance,  wa- 
tery eyes,  cough,  and  a  slight  degree  of 
swelling  in  tlie  glands  under  the  jaw.  As 
soon  as  they  are  discovered,  let  the  hair 


be  carefully  clipped  off  from  the  inflamed 
glands  and  contiguous  parts  of  the  throat ; 
let  a  large  poultice  be  then  applied  to  the 
throat,  in  doing  which  it  is  necessary  to 
take  care  that  it  is  so  secured  as  to  be 
constantly  in  contact  with  tlie  throat,  for 
unless  this  is  attended  to,  the  poultice 
w  ill  be  but  of  little  service.  I  have  gene- 
rally found  that  by  rubbing  a  small  quan- 
tity  of  some  stimulating  ointment  on  the 
inflamed  glands,  previous  to  the  applica- 
tion of  each  poultice,  suppuration  has 
been  considerably  promoted :  for  this  pur. 
pose  the  following  formula  will  be  found 
useful : 

Camphor,  2  dr.  Oil  of  Origanum,  1  dr. 
Spermaceti  ointment;  2oz.     Mix. 

When  matter  is  completely  formed  in 
the  glands,  which  may  be  known  by  the 
tumour  becoming  lai-ger,  and  by  the  skhi 
feeling  tense,  and  somewhat  elastic,  au 
opening  should  be  made  with  a  lancet, 
and  its  contents  evacuated ;  lliis  plan  is 
certainly  pi'eferable  to  that  of  waiting 
until  it  bursts  spontaneously,  as  the  ani- 
mal is  instantly  relieved  by  it,  and  the 
cure  more  speedily  effected.  To  evacu- 
ate the  matter  perfectly,  it  is  necessary 
to  use  moderate  pressme  with  the  fin- 
gers, and  when  this  has  been  done,  let  a 
piece  of  lint,  dipped  in  digestive  liniment, 
be  inserted,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
the  lips  of  tlie  wound  open,  and  allowing 
the  matter  to  escape  freely  ;  the  poultice 
is  to  be  continued  until  the  swelling  is 
perfectly  reduced.  When  Strangles  at- 
tack the  internal  parts  of  the  throat  so  as 
to  render  the  hotse  incapable  of  swallow- 
ing, and  particularly  if  the  external  swel- 
ling is  not  considerable,  it  will  be  advise- 
able  to  apply  a  blister,  and  keep  tlie 
bowels  open  with  glysters.  It  is  very  ne- 
cessary, in  every  case  of  strangles,  to 
steam  the  head  well,  that  is,  to  put  hot 
bran  mashes  into  the  manger  frequently, 
so  that  the  horse  may  inhale  the  vapours. 

It  is  of  consequence  to  distinguish  cases 
of  incipient  strangles  from  common  colds  ; 
in  the  latter  bleeding  is  an  useful  remedy, 
but  in  the  former  I  believe  it  does  much 
harm,  by  interrupting  a  process  of  nature. 
I  cannot,  by  any  argument,  shew  why 
bleeding  should  be  improper  in  tlie  Stran- 
gles ;  indeed,  if  our  practice  were  guid- 
ed by  theory  only,  we  should  be  led  to 
consider  it  as  a  case  of  common  inflam- 
mation, and  consequently  adopt  that 
mode  of  treatment  which  would  tend  to 
remove  it  most  exjjeditiously  and  prevent 
suppuration,  and  with  this  view  Me  should 
have  recourse  to  bleeding  and  purga- 
tives ;  experience,  however,  certainly  sane- 
tions  a  different  treatment,  and  has,  I 
tlunk,  fully  proved  the  propriety  of  using 


FAR 


FAR 


every  means  for  encouraging  suppura- 
tion. I  have  seen  several  huiicli-ed  cases 
in  which  this  plan  has  been  pursued,  and 
Jiot  one  of  them  terminaicd  unfiivour- 
ably.  Should  a  cough  or  any  unpleasant 
symptom  remain  after  the  strangles  are 
healed,  let  the  following  alteiative  ball  be 
given  every  morning,  until  moderate 
purging  is  produced,  and  if  it  is  found 
necessary,  let  it  be  repeated  after  an  in- 
terval of  four  or  five  days.  It  is  almost 
superfluous  to  add,  that  great  attention 
must  be  paid  by  the  groom ;  the  head, 
neck,  and  chest,  as  well  as  the  body, 
should  be  cloathed,  warm  water  should 
be  given  frequently  in  small  quantities,  a 
large  quantity  of  litter  should  be  allowed, 
Sfind  hand-i-ubbing  to  the  legs  should  never 
be  omitted 

Jilterative  Ball — Barbadoes  aloes,  1^ 
dr.  Emetic  tartar  and  Castile  soap,  of 
each,  2  dr,  I'o  be  made  into  a  ball  for 
one  dose 

Suppression  of  Urine. — Horses  are  oftei\ 
attacked  with  a  difficulty  in  staling  or 
making  water,  sometimes  amounting  to  a 
total  suppression  of  that  excretion  ;  this 
most  commonly  arises  from  spasm  in  the 
neck  of  the  bladder,  or  from  hardened 
excrement  in  the  rectum  or  latter  part  of 
the  intestines.  When  this  happens  let 
glysters  of  warm  water  be  injected  until 
all  the  hard  excrement  is  discharged, 
then  give  the  following  ball. 

Nitre,  1  oz.  Camphor,  2  dr.'  Linseed 
meal  and  syrup  enough  to  form  the  ball 
for  one  dose. 

Should  there  be  any  appearance  of 
fever,  or  should  the  horse  appear  to  feel 
pain  when  the  loins  are  pressed  upon,  it 
is  probable  that  the  kidneys  are  inflamed, 
— in  such  cases  the  ball  would  be  im- 
pi-oper  (vide  inflarrimation  of  the  kid- 
neys. 

Surfeit. — This  absurd  term  is  given  by 
larriers  to  a  disease  of  the  skin,  consist- 
ing in  small  tumours  or  knobs  which  ap- 
pear suddenly  in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  sometimes  in  consequence  of  drink- 
ing largely  of  cold  water,  when  the  body 
is  unusually  warm  :  it  appears  frequently 
without  any  manifest  cause.  It  may  be 
easily  cured  by  bleeding  moderately,  or 
giving  a  laxative  ball ;  sometimes,  in- 
deed, it  goes  off  witliout  any  medical  as- 
feistance.  There  is  anotlier  disease  of  the 
skin  of  the  same  name,  which  is  gene- 
rally more  obstinate,  and  attacks  horses 
that  are  hide-bonnd  and  out  of  conditio;) ; 
in  this  a  great  number  of  very  small 
scabs'  may  be  felt  in  various  ])arts  of  the 
body ;  the  horse,  is  frequently  rubbing 
himself,  and  sometimes  the  hair  falls  ofi" 
from  the   parts  which   he  rubs.     This 


complaint  approaches  to  the  nature  o{ 
mange,  and  requires  the  same  treat* 
ment,  assisted  by  a  generous  diet,  good 
grooming,  and  regular  exercise. 

Tlwrougli.Pin. — By  this  term  is  meant 
a  swelling  both  on  the  inside  and  outside 
of  the  hock  joint.  When  one  of  the  tu- 
mours is  pressed  with  the  fingers,  the 
fluid  which  it  contains  is  forced  into  that 
on  the  opposite  side.  From  this  conmiu- 
nication  between  the  two  swell'ings  the 
disease  has  probably  obtained  its  name. 

It  is  generally  a  consequence  of  hard 
work,  and  therefore  diflicult  to  cure  ;  the 
only  remedies  are  blisters  and  rest. 

Thrush. — This  disease  consists  in  a  dis- 
chai'ge  of  foetid  matter  from  the  cleft  of 
the  frog,  which  part  is  generally  rotten 
and  so  soft  as  to  be  incapable  of  afl()rd- 
ing  suflicient  protection  to  the  sensible 
frog  which  it  covers ;  hence  arises  that 
tenderness  of  the  foot  which  is  so  often 
observed.  When  this  complaint  attacks 
the  fore  feet,  it  is  seldom,  if  ever,  i\n  ori- 
ginal disease,  but  merely  a  symptom  or 
an  effect.  The  cause  is  generally  a  con- 
traction of  the  horny  matter  at  the  quar- 
ters and  heels,  by  which  the  sensible 
frog  is  compressed  and  inflamed  ;  the  dis- 
charge which  takes  place  is  a  conse- 
quence of  this  inflammation,  and  may  be 
considered  as  an  ineffectual  eflbrt  of  na- 
ture to  cure  it.  The  discharge,  how. 
ever,  certainly  diminishes  the  inflamma- 
tion, and  prevents  it  from  becoming  so 
considerable  as  it  otherwise  would  ;  for  it 
often  happens  when  it  has  been  stopped 
by  the  injudicious  application  of  astrin- 
gents, or  when  it  ceases  spontaneously, 
that  the  inflammation  becomes  violent, 
extends  to  the  other  parts  of  the  foot, 
and  occasions  severe  lameness,  which  ge- 
nerally is  relieved  or  removed  by  a  return 
of  the  discharge  :  biU  we  are  not  to  infer 
from  this  that  an  attempt  to  cure  thrushes 
is  improper  ;  it  only  shews  that  it  is  ne- 
cessary in  the  first  place  to  remove  the 
cause  of  the  disease.  With  this  view  tlie 
quarters  are  to  be  rasped,  and  the  hoofs 
kept  constantly  moist  by  making  the 
horse  stand  in  clay  some  part  of  the  day, 
taking  care  to  keep  the  frog  dry  by  means 
of  tar.  When  by  these  means  we  have 
succeeded  in  removing  in  some  measure 
the  compression  and  consequent  inflam- 
mation of  the  sensible  frog,  it  will  be  ad- 
viseable  to  apply  some  astringent  to  the 
frog,  which,  if  assisted  by  pressure  and 
tar,  will  render  that  part  firm  and  solid, 
and  the  discharge  will  of  course  cease 
when  the  inflammation  leaves  the  sen- 
sible frog. 

The  best  astringent  for  tiiis  purpose 
is    a  solution   of  white    or  blue  vitriol, 


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FAR 


aUiin,  &c.  There  are  some  cases,  how- 
ever, of  thrushes  which  though  occasion- 
ed by  compression  ol'  the  sensible  frog,  it 
is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  eradi- 
cate. I  have  examined  feet  with  this  dis- 
ease after  death,  and  have  found  the  con- 
cave part  or  cleft  of  the  sensible  frog  in  a 
stale  of  ulceration,  whicii  of  course  ren- 
dered it  incapable  of  secreting  horny 
matter,  and  proved  a  constant  source  of 
thrushes. 

With  respect  to  those  Thrushes  wliirh 
attack  the  hind  feet,  and  wliicli  some- 
times, thougli  rarel.v,  happen  also  in  the 
fore  feet,  independently  of  the  above 
cause,  a  different  treatment  is  required. 
"When  the  discharge  has  existed  for  a 
considerable  time,  by  stopping  it  hastily 
we  frequently  produce  inflammation  and 
swelling  of  the  legs;  still  it  is  necessary 
to  check  the  disease,  since,  if  neglected, 
it  sometimes  degenerates  into  that  dan- 
gerous disease  termed  canker.  It  is  ad- 
viseable,  therefore,  in  such  cases,  to  krep 
l!ie  bowels  open  by  the  following  laxa- 
tive ball,  given  every  morning  until  the 
desired  effect  is  produced,  and  repeated 
occasionally, — The  best  application  for 
the  frog  is  tar,  and  one  of  the  above  as- 
tringents ;  other  remedies,  however,  have 
been  strongly  recommended,  among 
which  are  powdered  lime,  ^lel  Egypli- 
acum,  tincture  of  Myrrh,  &c.  and  other 
Astringents.  This  treatment  will  be  greatly 
ajsisted  by  two  or  three  hours  exercise 
every  day,  and  frequent  hand-rubbing  to 
the  legs. 

J^xative  Ball. — Take  aloes,  2  dr.  C;^.- 
tile  soap,  3  dr.  To  be  made  into  a  ball 
for  one  dose. 

Warbles.     See  Saddle  Galls. 

]Vi)}d. Broken.     See  Broken  Wind. 

Jl'indgttlls — Consist  in  an  enlargement 
of  the  mucous  sacs,  which  are  placed  be- 
hind the  flexor  tendons  for  the  jjui-pose  of 
facilitating  their  motion  Tiie  swelling 
appears  on  each  side  die  back  sinew,  im- 
mediately above  the  fetlock  joint ;  if  punc- 
tm-ed  they  discharge  a  fluid  resembling 
joint  oil;  indeed,  ihey  frequently  commu- 
nicate with  the  cavity  of  the  jouit,  and 
therefore  cannot  be  opened  without  dan- 
ger of  producing  an  incurable  lameness. 
Blisters  are  the  only  applications  likely  to 
be  of  service,  and  these  seldom  effect  a 
cure  unless  assisted  by  rest.  This  com- 
plaint does  not  often  occasion  lameness, 
and  is  therefore  seldom  much  attended 
to  ;  but,  as  it  is  almost  always  a  conse- 
quence of  hard  work,  and  often  renders  a 
horse  unfit  for  much  labour,  it  diminishes 
his  value  considerably. 

I  have  sometimes  applied  rollers,  or 
bandages  to  llie  legs  with  good   effect, 


keeping  them  constantly  moist  witli  the 
following  embrocation  : 

Muiiate  of  ammonia,  1  oz.  muriatic 
acid,  A  o%-  water,  1  quart.     Mix. 

li'onns — There  are  three  kinds  of 
worms  found  in  horses  The  most  com- 
mon and  mischievous  reside  in  the  sto- 
mach, and  are  named  Bots.  They  are  of 
a  reddish  colour,  and  seldom  exceed 
three-fouitlis  of  an  incli  in  length  :  at  one 
extremity  they  h:.ve  two  small  iiooks,  by 
which  they  attach  tliemselves,  and  the 
belly  seems  to  be  covered  v.iUi  very  small 
feet.  TLey  are  found  adjiering  to  the 
coat  of  the  stomacli,  and  do  great 
injury  to  this  important  organ,  keep- 
ing up  a  constant  irritation,  an.d  there- 
by occasioning  emac-atinn,  a  rough  star- 
ing coat,  hide-bound,  and  a  cough.  I 
have  met  with  s-.'veral  instances  of  tiieir 
destroying  the  horst-  by  lilceratjng  the 
stomacli  in  a  considerable  degree  ;  and 
cases  are  i-ecorded  wl)ere  ihej-  have  pe- 
netrated quite  througii  tlie  stomach.  It  is 
astonishing  with  what  force  these  worms 
adhere,  and  how  tenacious  ihey  ai'e  of 
life  :  they  have  been  found  to  resist  the 
sti'ongesl  poisons;  nor  have  we  \et disco- 
vered any  medicine  capable  of  destroying* 
them,  or  of  detaching  them  from  their  si- 
tuation. It  seems  probable  that  this  worm, 
like  the  caterpillai-,  undergoes  several 
changes ;  it  is  said  to  be  originally  a  fly, 
wliich  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  horse's 
coat,  causes  an  itchi'g  which  induces  him 
to  bite  the  part ;  in  this  way  lie  is  suppos- 
ed to  swallow  some  of  the  eggs,  which,  bv 
the  heat  of  the  stomach,  are  brought  to 
maturity,  and  produce  bots.  When  the 
bots  are  fit  to  assume  the  chrysalis  state, 
they  are  spontaneously  detached,  and  gra- 
dually pass  ofl'  with  the  faces.  This  is 
the  most  rational  account  we  have  of  their 
production. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  fly  from 
which  bots  are  produced,  crawls  into  the 
anus  of  horses,  and  deposits  its  eggs 
there;  that  the  worms,  when  hatched, 
soon  find  tlieir  way  farther  up  the  intes- 
tines, and  often  penetrate  into  the  sto- 
mach. This  account  is  literally  copied  by 
a  late  writer  f  RydingJ  on  Veterinarv  Pa- 
thology; but,  it  appears  to  me  rather 
strange,  that  any  one  who  has  considered 
the  structure  of  the  horse's  intestines, 
should,  for  a  moment  give  credit  to  it. 
It  seems  impossible  indeed,  for  tJiis  worm 
to  crawl  from  the  anus  to  the  stomach, 
and  as  far  as  my  observation  goes,  they 
are  never  found  residing  in  the  intestines; 
sometimes  we  find  two  or  three,  but  they 
are  evidently  proceeding  towards  the  anus 
to  be  expelled.  I  have  before  observed, 
tliat  I  am  not  acquainted  with  any  medi- 


FAR 


FAR 


cine  that  is  capable  of  (letacliing-  or  dcs- 
stroying  these  worms,  though  I  liavc  fre- 
ffiientlj'  tried  the  strougLst  mercurial  pre- 
parations, and  many  ])o\verf'ul  medicines. 

I  have  tried  the  yellow  emetic  mercu- 
ry, or  vitriolated  quicksilver,  as  recom- 
mended by  the  writer  just  mentioned,  as 
well  as  e%'ery  other  mercurial  preparation, 
but  never  saw  a  single  hot  expelled  by 
them ! 

A  pint  of  Castor  oil,  given  after  this 
d()se  of  mercury,  would  prove  useful. 

The  next  worm  we  iiave  to  describe,  is 
very  slender,  of  a  blackish  colour,  and 
seldom  exceeds  two  inches  in  length  ; 
they  arc  never  found' in  the  stomach,  and 
very  rarely  in  thesmall intestines,  the  lar- 
gest part  of  the  canal  being  generally  the 
place  of  their  residence:  here  they  prove 
a  constant  source  of  irritation,  occasioning 
loss  of  condition,  a  rough  uniiealthy  look- 
ing coat,  and  freqnentiy  a  trouolesomc 
cough.  A  variety  of  alterative  medicines 
liave  been  proposed  for  the  destruction  of 
these  worms,  and  some  of  them  are  sup- 
posed to  be  infallible  ;  1  believe,  however, 
that  none  of  them  are  possessed  of  much 
efficacy,  and  ought  not  therelbre  to  be  de- 
pended upon. 

The  following  are  the  Alteratives  to 
which  I  allude  : — Savin,  rue,  box,  iKthiops 
mineral,  antimony,  sulphur,  emetic  tartar, 
calomel,  and  vitriolated  quicksilver ;  the 
two  last,  if  given  with  aloes,  so  as  to  purge 
hiiskly,  and  particularly  the  cahmiel,  are 
excellent  remedies:  but  given  merely  as 
Alteratives,  they  do  no  good. 

1  have  generally  found  the  following 
Ball  very  eiiectual,  giving,  the  preceding 
night,  fiom  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of 
•■alomel.  I  have  often  mixed  the  calomel 
with  the  bail,  and  found  it  equally  effica- 
cious; tlie  f()rmer  method,  however,  is 
generally  preferred. 

^(7// — liarbadoes  aloes,  6  dr.  powder- 
cd  ginger,  1^  dr.  oil  of  wormwood,  20 
drops,  i)repared  natron,  2  dr.  Syrup 
ciHuigh  to  tijrm  the  ball  for  one  dose. 

It  is  oiten  necessary  to  re])eat  this  me- 
dicine ;  but  tliL-rc  should  always  be  an  in- 
terval often  days  between  each  <lose. 

The  third  kind  of  woini  is  of  a  wliilish 
colour,  frequently  seven  or  eight  inches  in 
length,  and  generally  found  in  the  lower 
partof  tlie  snnill  intestines.  Thise  worms 
are  not  so  common  as  the  other,  but  ap- 
pear to  consume  a  considerable  qviatitit)' 
of  chyle,  or  the  nutritious  parts  of  the 
fijixl ;  they  may  be  got  ritl  oi'  by  the  same 
means  that  wehavc  recommended  for  the 
small  blackish  worm. 

We  may  always  be  satisfied  of  the  ex- 
istence of  worms  in  the  intestines,  when  a 
w  hilish  or  light  straw  coloured  powder  is 


observed  immediately  beneath  the  anus. 
I  have  sometimes  succeeded  in  destroying 
worms,  by  giving  one  drachm  and  a  lialf 
of  aloes  every  morning,  until  purging  was 
produced 

Wounds. — The  first  necessary  operation 
in  wounds  is  to  remove  cai-efully  all  dirt 
or  other  extraneous  mutter,  and  if  the 
wound  be  made  with  a  clean  cutting  in- 
strument, and  not  complicated  with 
bruising  or  laceration,  the  divided  parts 
are  to  be  neatly  sewed  together.  Where 
it  can  be  done,  a  roller  kept  constantly 
moist  with  the  saturnine  lotion,  diluted 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  is  to  be 
applied,  in  order  to  assist  in  retaining  the 
parts  in  their  situation ;  this  roller  is  not 
to  be  removed  for  several  days,  that  the 
divided  parts  may  have  time  to  unite,  and 
that  the  wound  may  heal  by  the  first  in- 
tention, as  surgeons  term  it,  unless  con- 
siderable swelling  and  inflammation  come 
on,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove 
the  roller,  and  apply  fomentations.  This 
kind  of  union,  however,  can  seldom  be 
accomplished  in  horses,  from  the  dlHicid- 
ty  of  keeping  the  wounded  parts  suffici- 
ently at  rest,  and  from  their  wounds  be- 
ing generally  accompanied  with  contusion 
or  laceration  ;  yet  it  should  be  always  at- 
tempted where  it  appears  at  all  practica- 
ble. Fomentations  and  warm  digestives 
then  become  necessarj',  in  order  to  pro- 
mote the  formation  of  matter  in  the 
wound :  slieuld  considerable  swelling" 
and  inflammation  arise,  moderate  bleed- 
ing iienr  the  aOecled  part,  and  a  laxuiivc 
medicine,  or  even  a  dose  of  plnsic,  are 
strongly  to  be  recominended,  ami  a  poul- 
tke,  if  the  situation  of  the  part  be  sucli 
as  to  admit  of  its  application,  will  be  found 
of  g!\at  use.  As  soon  as  the  swelling 
and  iiitlamiTiation  sliall  h:;ve  been  re- 
moved tlie  fomentations  and  pouliice  are 
no  longer  necessary,  and  the  tii^-.stive 
ointment  only  is  to  be  applied  :  should  tiie 
wound  ai)pear  not  d'-sposed  to  l.cal,  dis- 
charging a  thin  oHensive  mjitler,  apply 
the  dftergent  lotion  previous  to  the  di- 
gestive ointment.  V\'iien  the  granula- 
tions become  too  luxu-iaut,  that  is,  wlien 
what  is  commonly  tenrLd  proud  flesh, 
makes  its  appearance,  the  caustic  powder 
is  to  be  sprinkled  on  the  wound. 

Slight  V  ounds  g'eneraily  heal  with  very 
little  trouble,  and  sometimes  withoui  the 
interference  of  art;  and  it  is  fi'oui  this 
circumstance  that  many  nostrums  hare 
ac(|uired  umnerited  iv;)uia\iv)n.  In  wounds 
of  this  kind,  tincture  of  myrrh,  or  com- 
poiuid  tincture  of  bezoin  may  be  uscvl. 

Whenever  a  considerable  blood-vessel 
is  wounded,  and  the  hemorrhage  is  likely 
to  prove  troublesome,  our  first  object  is  to 


F-IR 


FAR 


stop  tlie  bleeding';  whichi  if  the  wound 
be  in  a  situation  that  will  admit  ot"  the  ap- 
plication of  a  roller  or  bandage,  may  be 
easily  effected ;  for  pressure  properly  ap- 
plied is  generally  the  best  remedy  on 
those  occasions,  and  far  more  effectual 
than  the  most  celebrated  styptics.  !n  some 
cases  it  becomes  necessary  to  tie  up  the 
bleediii^f  vessels  ;  this  is  rather  a  ditBcult 
operatioji,  and  not  often  necessary. 

Punctured  Wounds,  or  such  as  are 
made  with  sharp-pointed  instruments, 
are  generally  productive  of  more  inflam- 
mation than  those  that  have  at  first  a 
more  formidable  appearance :  and  if 
such  wounds  happen  to  j^enetrate  into  a 
joint  or  thie  cavity  of  the  chest  or  belly, 
the  worst  consequences  are  to  be  appre- 
hendedi  unless  it  be  skilfully  treated. 

When  a  joint  has  been  wounded,  the 
5}Tiovia  or  joint  oil  may  be  obsen"ed  to 
flow  from  the  wound.  The  first  thing  to 
be  done  in  those  cases,  is  to  close  the 
opening  that  has  been  made  into  the 
joint,  tor  as  long  as  it  remains  open  the 
inflammation  will  go  on  increasing,  and 
the  pain  will  be  so  violent  as  to  produce  a 
synripiomatic  fever,  which  has  often 
proved  fatal.  The  most  effectual  method 
ot  closing  the  woiuid  is  by  applying  the 
actual  cautery  ;  this  will  appear  probably 
a  ver)  strange  remedy  to  those  who  have 
not  seen  its  eflect,  yet  it  is  certainly  tlie 
most  efficacious  that  can  be  employed, 
although  only  applicable  where  the 
wound  is  of  the  punctured  kind  and 
small ;  for  when  a  large  wound  is  made 
into  the  cavity  of  a  joint,  and  particularly 
if  it  is  of  the  lacerated  kind,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  close  it  effectually,  and  death  is 
frequently  the  consequence.  As  soon  as 
the  opening  has  been  closed,  it  is  of  im- 
portance to  guard  against  the  inflamma- 
tion that  may  be  expected  to  arise,  or 
to  remove  it  if  already  present.  For  this, 
bleeding  and  purging  are  the  most  ef- 
fectual remedies.  A  rowel  in  any  conve- 
nient part  near  the  aflected  joint  will  be 
found  useful  also.  Sliould  tue  joint  be 
much  swollen,  the  blister,  Xo.  2,  will 
prove  very  efficacious,  and  far  superior 
to  fomentations  or  poultices. 

Wounds  about  the  foot,  from  stubs, 
over-reaching,  &g.  often  prove  trouble- 
some when  neglected ;  as  soon  as  thev 
9j-e  perceived,  care  should  be  taken  that 
no  dirt  gets  into  them — the  detergent  lo- 
tion and  digestive  ointment  are  the  most 
useful  applications  on  those  occasions. — 
{See  Phannaciipceia.)  When  the  foot  is 
wounded  in  shoeing,  the  nails  being 
driven  into  the  sensible  parts,  the  com- 
pound tincture  of  benzoin  is  to  be  appli- 
ed.   When  tlieir  tendons  or  their  mem- 


branes are  wounded,  conside^ble  inflam- 
mation is  likely  to  take  place,  which  is 
to  be  removed  by  fomentation  and  the  sa- 
turnine poultice;  purging  is  also  of  great 
use  in  those  cases,  ar.d  when  tlie  wound 
is  large,  and  iufiammatiou  runs  high, 
bleeding  likewise  may  be  necessarv. 

In  extensive,  laceraied,  or  contused 
wounds,  the  inflammation  sometimes  ter- 
minates in  mortification  (vide  inflamma- 
tion) ;  in  such  cases  fomentations  are  to 
be  frequently  applied,  and  the  horse's 
sti-engtii  supported  by  means  of  malt,  and 
the  cordial  ball  for  mortification. 

Having  thus  treated  on  most,  if  not  all 
the  diseases  of  hoi-ses,  with  the  best 
modes  of  cure,  adapted  to  each,  we  shall 
now  give  an  approved  treatise  on  Physic, 
containing  various  formul2e  for  Purges, 
DiureticSj  Alteratives,  Laxatives,  Blisters, 
Fomentations,  Poultices,  Rowels,  and 
Gl\  stcrs,  taken  from  a  work  published  by 
a  Professor  of  the  Veterinary  Art,  viz. 

Of  Pkysic — In  purging  horses  great 
cai'e  and  attention  are  necessary,  their 
bowels  being  particularly  irritable,  and  lia- 
ble to  inflammation  The  physic  common- 
ly  gi%"en  is  certainly  too  strong;  and  I  am 
convinced  that  many  horses  have  been  de- 
stioyed  by  the  immoderate  doses  that 
have  been  recommended  by  writers  on 
Farriery  ;  when  this  happens,  the  mischiet' 
is  generally  attributed  to  the  coarseness 
or  impurity  of  the  medicine,  and  tlie 
Druggist  is  undeservedly  censured.  A 
modern  author  has  ingeniously  availed 
himself  of  this  prejudice,  to  explain  the 
violent  eficcts  which  his  Carthatic  pre- 
scriptions have  sometimes  produced.  I 
must  presume,  however,  to  suggest,  that, 
these  effects'  were  more  probably  occa- 
sioned by  the  excessive  quantity  than  by 
the  impurity  of  the  purgative  ingredients. 

It  is  ad\iseable  to  prejiarc  a  horse  for 
physic  by  giving  him  bran  mashes  for 
a  day  or  two  ;  this  t.  ill  gently  relax  the 
bowels,  and  remove  any  indurated  fceces 
that  may  be  lodged  in  them,  it  will  also 
tend  to  facilitate  the  operation  of  the  me- 
dicine. 

When  a  hcjse  is  purged  for  the  first 
time,  it  is  prudent  to  give  a  very  moderate 
dose;  were  the  comnioa  quantity  given  to 
one  of  weak,  irritable  bov.'cls,  there  would 
be  danger  not  only  of  prodn.cing-  great  de- 
bility,- and  thereby  of  counteracting  the 
intention  of  tlic  medicine,  but  hkewise  ot 
destroying  the  animal,  by  bringing  on  an 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  ;  and  this  is  by 
no  means  an  unusual  occiuTence.  Should 
the  fii-st  Ball  not  operate  sufficiently,  a 
stronger  may  be  given  after  an  interval  of 
a  few  days. 

The  morning  is  the  best  time  for  gfiving' 


FAR 


FAR 


a  purgative,  the  liorse  having  ])rcviously 
fasted  two  or  three  hoiirs.  It'  he  is  dis- 
posed to  drink  after  taking  the  Bui),  give 
a  moderate  quantity  of  warm  water, 
wliich  will  promote  its  solution  in  the 
stomach,  and  consequenily  expedite  the 
operation  :  during"  this  day  the  horse  is  to 
be  kept  in  the  siable,  and  fed  with  bran 
mashes  and  a  moderate  tjuanlily  of  ha}'; 
he  may  be  allowed  also  to  drink  plenti- 
fully of  warm  water,  and  if  he  refuses  it 
in  this  state,  let  it  be  olVered  nearly  cold. 
'l"he  following-  morning  he  is  to  be  exerci- 
sed, and  at  this  lime  tlie  medicine  will  ge- 
reriiUy  begin  to  oporale.  Should  the  pur- 
ging appear  to  be  sufficieni,  he  need  not 
be  taken  out  a  second  time,  but  when  the 
desired  etlect  does  not  reailily  take  place, 
trotting  exercise  will  tend  to  promote  it ; 
during-  this  day  also,  he  is  to  be  carefully 
supplied  with  bran  mashes  and  warm  wa- 
ter: warm  cloathing,  more  particularly 
when  out  of  the  stable,  must  not  be  omit- 
ted ;  the  next  day  the  purging  will  gene- 
rally have  ceased,  and  then  a  small  quan- 
tity of  corn  may  be  allowed.  When  i)hy- 
sic  does  not  operate  at  the  usual  time,  tlie 
horse  appealing  sick  and  griped,  relief 
may  generally  be  obtained  by  givhig  a 
^lyster  of  water  gruci,  and  making  him 
<lriiik  freely  ot  warm  water,  assisted  by 
rxercise.  When  the  purging  continues 
longer  tlian  usual,  and  the  horse  ;ippcars 
to  be  con'  iderably  weakened  by  the  eva- 
cuatioii.  lot  tlie  astringent  ball  be  given. 

It  will  be  observed,  perhaps,  that  some 
ingredients,  coiiunonly  thought  necessary 
in  pliysic,  have  been  omitted  in  the  fol- 
lowing fbrmuiDe. — These  medicines  have 
been  proved,  however,  to  be  perfectly 
useless.  Jaiajj,  though  given  to  the 
amount  of  four  ounces,  will  produce  very 
little  purgalive  ciT'ect  ii\ion  a  horse,  nor 
will  salts  or  cream  of  tartar ;  rhul^arb, 
Iiowever  la,rge  the  dose,  will  not  operate 
a•^  a  purgative,  though  it  maybe  useful  in 
moderalti  d^^ses  as  a  stomachic. 

No.  1 — Ijarbiidocs  aloes,  5  dr.  prepared 
natron,  2  dr.  aromatic  powder,  1  dr.  oil  of 
oaru-xvays,  10  drops.  Syrup  enough  to 
form  the  R:dl,one  dose. 

No.  '2 — Earhiuloes  aloes,  7  dr.  Castile 
so.p,  i  OL.  |)ow(.Lered  ginger,  I  dr.  oil  of 
caraways,  10  drops.  S\rup  enough  to 
form  the  Ball,  one  dose. 

i<n.3 — liarbadoes  aloes.  1  o?.. prepared 
natron,  2  dr.  aromatic  powder,  1  dr.  oil  of 
anise-seeds,  50  drops.  Syrup  enough  to 
form  the  Ball  for  one  dose. 

The  B.all,  No.  2,  I  have  generally  found 
sufficient  for  strong  horses,  and  have 
scaicc'y  ever  had  occasion  to  go  farther 
than  j^o.  3. — Should  any  one,  however,  be 
dgsu'ous  of  stronger  medicine,  it  may  rea- 


dily he  procured  by  adding,  one  or  t«  o 
drachms  of  aloes,  or  one  drachm  oi  calo- 
mel to  the  Bail  No.  3  ;  but  1  must  not  omit 
to  oJ)serve,  that  there  appears  to  me  to  be 
a  considerable  danger  in  making  the  ad- 
dition. 

jy'run'tics — Tliese  are  medicines  which 
jjy  stimulating  the  kidneys,  increase  the 
secretion  of uiinc.  'I'h.e  following  formu- 
la I  have  found  both  convenient  and  tfh- 
cacious. 

No.  1. — Castile  soap,  4  oz.  powdered 
rosin  and  nitre,  of  each,  2  oz.  oil  of  juni- 
per, A  oz.  Linseed  jiowder  and  syrup 
enouiyh  to  give  it  a  pro])er  consistence,  to 
be  divided  into  six  Halls  for  strong,  or 
eight  i'or  weak  delicate  horses. 

\o.  2. — Castile  soap,  4  oz.  A'enice  tur- 
pentine, 2  oz.  Powdered  anise-seeds 
enough  to  give  it  a  i)roper  consistence,  to 
be  divided  into  six  balls. 

Jjlteradves. — These  are  medicines 
which  produce  their  efiects  almost  insen- 
sibly ;  tne  following  formulae  will  be  found 
efHcacious  : 

.'.'/tcrative  P'iivcIers.-^l:io.  1.  Levigated 
antimony,  6  oz.  rlovver  of  sulphur,  8  oz. 
Mix  for  eiglit  doses. 

No.  2. —  Powdered  rosin,  4  oz.  nitre,  3 
oz.  tartarized  antimony,  1  oz.  Mix  for 
eight  doses. 

No.  3. — Unwashed  calx  of  .intimony,  2 
oz  calomel,  2  dr.  jiowdered  anise-seeds, 4 
oz.   Mix  for  eight  doses. 

Should  a  Ball  be  thought  more  conve- 
nient than  a  powder,  the  change  may  be 
easily  made  by  the  addition  of  syrup  and 
linseed  powder. 

A  dose  of  the  Alterative  Powder  should 
be  given  every  evening  with  the  corn  un- 
til  the  whole  quantity  (that  is  eight  doses) 
are  used. 

Laxatives — This  term  Is  applied  t;* 
opening  medicines,  that  operate  very  mild- 
ly, and  produce  so  gentle  a  stimulus  upon 
the  intestine,  as  merely  to  hasten  the  ex- 
ptdsion  of  their  present  contents,  without 
increasing  their  secretions.  Castor  oil 
seems  to  be  the  best  nu-dicine  of  litis  kind, 
though  the  oil  of  olives  and  linseed,  will 
produce  nearly  the  i-ame  effect;  tiie  dose 
of  the  former  is  about  a  pint,  but  the  lat- 
ter may  be  given  to  a  pint  and  a  lialf. 
When  a  laxative  ball  is  required,  the  fol 
lowing  will  be  fouiul  useful  : 

Succotrinc  aloes,  ^  oz.  Castile  soaji,  3 
dr.  Syrup  enough  to  form  the  Ball  for  one 
dose. 

Jilisters — Previous  to  (he  application  ot 
a  blister,  the  hair  should  be  cut  from  the 
part  as  closely  as  possible,  the  blistering- 
ointment  is  to  be  well  rubbed  on  it,  an<l 
afterwards  a  small  quantity  is  to  be  si)rcad 
over  the  J^art  with  a  warm  knife.     Svhcri 


FAR 


FAR 


the  blister  begins  to  operate,  as  the  horse 
is  very  apt  to  bite  the  part,  which,  if  suffer- 
ed, might  produce  a  permanent  blemish; 
it  is  necessary  therefore  to  guard  against 
this  accident  by  putting  what  is  termed  a 
cradle  about  his  neck,  or  by  tying  him  up 
to  the  rack.  "When  the  legs'  are  blistered, 
the  litter  is  to  be  entirely  swept  away,  as 
the  straw  might  irritate  the  blistered 
parts. 

Blistering  Ointment. — No.  1.  Spanish 
flies,  powdered,  J  oz.  oil  of  turpentine,  1 
oz.  ointment  of  waX  or  hog's  lard,  4oz. 
ajix. 

Xo.  2.  Oil  of  turpentine,  1  oz.  To  which 
add  gradually,  vitriolic  acid,  2  dr.  hog's 
lard,  4  ox  Spanish  flies,  powdered,  1  02,. 
Mix. 

No.  3.  Common  tar,  4  oz.  vitriolic  acid, 
2  dr.  oil  of  origanum,  ^oz.  hog's  lard,  2 
oz,.  Spanish  flies,  powdered,  1^  or  2  oz. 
Mix. 

Remark. — The  Blister  No.  3,  is  remark- 
ably useful  in  removing  enlargements  of 
the  back  sinews  or  wiiidgalls.  Sublimate 
is  often  recommended  as  an  ingredient  in 
blisters,  but  it  is  very  apt  to  ulcerate  tlie 
skin,  and  leave  a  permanent  m;irk  or  ble- 
mish ;  I  have  therefore  omiiied  it  in  the 
above  formula;  but  in  cases  of  bone  spa- 
vin, in  which  severe  blistering  is  necessa- 
ry, it  may  be  employed  with  advant;^ge. 

Ffnnentationi — Fomentations  are  com- 
monly made  by  boiling  wormwood,  south- 
ernwood, camomile  flowers,  and  bay 
leaves  in  water,  so  as  to  make  a  strong 
decoction,  wiiich  being  suau.ed  off",  is  to 
be  applied  as  hot  as  it  can  be,  witiiout 
giving  pain  to  the  animal,  by  means  of 
large  flannel  cloths.  The  efficacy  of  fo- 
mentations depends  in  great  measure  on 
their  use  being  continued  for  a  considera- 
ble time  together,  and  being  frequently 
repeated 

Poultice. — The  following  mixture  will 
be  found  usetul  as  a  common  poultice  ; 
fine  bran  1  quart;  pour  on  it  a  sufticient 
quantity  of  boiling  water,  to  make  atliin 
paste ;  to  this  add  of  linseed  powder 
enough  to  give  it  proper  consisterice- 

Bouels. — When  these  are  used  with  a 
view  of  relieving  internal  inflammation  or 
fever,  it  will  be  found  useful  to  apply  blis- 
tering omtment  instead  jf  turpentine,  or 
the  digestive  commouiy  made  use  of,  for 
this  will  produce  a  considerable  degiee 
of  inflammation  in  a  short  time 

Clysters. — A  variety  of  compositions 
have  been  recommended  tor  glysters,  by 
those  who  have  written  on  the  subject, 
there  being  scarcely  an  ai'ticle  in  the  Ma- 
teria Medica,  that  has  not  been  occasion- 
ally employed  in  this  way.  1  have  found, 
however,  from  considerable  experience, 

VOL.    I. 


that  for  a  common  glyster,  water-gruel  is 
as  eflicacious  as  the  most  elaborate  com- 
position ;  when  that  cannot  be  readily  pro- 
cured, 1  have  been  in  the  habit  oi'  using 
warm  water,  and  without  perceiving  any 
difference  in  the  eft'ect.  Where  a  purga- 
tive glyster  is  required,  from  four  to  eight 
ounces  of  common  salt  may  be  added  j 
and  if  an  anodyne  be  wanted,  or  an  astrin- 
gent, let  half  an  ounce  of  opium  be  dis- 
solved in  a  quart  of  water-gTuel.  The 
best  method  of  administering  glysters  is, 
by  means  of  a  bladder  and  pewter  pipe. 
If  a  glyster  is  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
emptying  the  large  intestines,  or  of  purg- 
ing, the  quantity  of  liquid  should  not  be 
less  tlian  a  gallon,  or  six  quarts  :  but, 
when  it  is  used  as  an  anodyne  or  astrm- 
gent,  from  a  quart  to  three  pints  of  liquid 
will  be  sufticient. 

JUteratives. — Medicines  that  gradually 
change  the  system  from  a  diseased  to  a 
healthy  state ;  the  medicines  commonly 
used  as  alteratives,  are  given  in  very  small 
doses,  so  that  their  effeci.  is  scarcely  per- 
ceptible; nor  do  they  prevent  a  horse 
from  continuing  his  usual  work,  or  ren- 
der it  necessary  to  make  any  alteration  ia 
liis  diet.  They  are  of  three  kinds ;  name- 
ly, laxative,  diuretic,  and  diaphoretic. 

Liix.itive  Alteratives. — No.  1.  Barba- 
does  aloes,  ten  drachms ;  Cas'.ilc  soap,  one 
ounce ;  aniseed,  powdered,  one  ounce  and 
an  hulf ;  oil  of  cloves,  twenty  drops;  and 
syrup  enough  to  foim  the  mass  lor  four 
balls,  one  to  be  gi^en  every  morning,  un- 
til the  bowels  are  moderately  opened. 

No  2. — B.trbadoes  aloes,  one  ounce; 
calomel,  one  drachm  and  an  half;  golden 
sulphur  of  antimony,  half  an  ounce ;  pow- 
dered carraway  seeds,  one  ounce ;  and  sy- 
rup enough  to  form  the  mass  to  be  divided 
into  tour  balls,  and  given  like  the  preced- 
ing No.  1. 

No.  3. — Flower  of  sulphur,  six  otinces ; 
tartarized  antimony,  sis  drachms;  mix 
for  six  doses.  This  may  be  given  in  the 
form  of  powder  daily :  few  horses  will  re- 
fuse it  in  their  corn. 

No.  4. — Liver  of  antimony,  three  ounces ; 
cream  of  tartar,  four  ounces  :  Mix  for  six 
doses ;  one  to  be  given  daily,  or  until  the 
boweis  are  properly  opened. 

Diuretic  Alttratives — No.  1.  Yellow  ro- 
sin,'puudeied,  SIX  drachms;  nitre,  half 
an  ounce  :  Mix  for  one  dose,  to  be  given 
daily. 

Nio.  2— Flower  of  sulphur,  and  liver  of 
ar.timop.y,  of  each  half  an  ounce ;  nitre, 
ihiee  di'iichnis  :  Mix  for  one  dose,  to  be 
given  daily. 

No.  3.— Prepared  natron,  or  soda,  re- 
duced  to  powder  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
one  ouace ;  Castile  soap,  six  drachms  ; 
z  z 


FAR 

powdered  resin,  two  ounces ;  liquorice 
powder,  half  un  ounce;  Barbadocs  tur, 
enougli  to  form  a  mass  for  six  balls,  one 
to  be  giiven  daily. 

Diaphoretic  Alteratives. — No.  1.  Anti- 
mony, finely  levigated,  one  ounce  :  To  be 
given  daily  in  the  horse's  corn. 

No.  2. — Unwashed  calx  of  antimony, 
three  drachms  ;  powdered  aniscseed,  one 
ounce  and  an  half:  Mix  for  two  doses, 
one  to  be  given  daily. 

No.  3. — Tartarized  antimony,  one 
drachm  ;  strong  muriat  of  quicksilver, 
twelve  grains ;  arrow  root,  powdei'ed, 
half  an  ounce ;  grains  of  paradise,  two 
drachms ;  oil  of  caraway,  ten  drops ;  and 
S}Tup  enough  to  form  the  ball  for  one 
dose. 

Remark. — This  is  an  excellent  remedy 
in  obstinate  cutaneous  complaints ;  as 
surfeit,  farcy,  &c.  The  quantity  of  mu- 
riat of  quicksilver  should  be  gradually 
increased ;  but,  if  it  occasion  sickness, 
griping  or  purging,  or  if  it  make  the 
mouth  sore,  it  must  be  discontinued  a 
short  time,  and  afterwards  given  in  dimi- 
nished doses.  This  remark  ap])lies't()  all 
the  preparations  of  mercury,  when  given 
as  alteratives. 

Solid  Caustics,  Strong.—  No  1.  Actual 
Cautery,  or  Red  Hot  Iron.  This  remedy 
though  apparently  so  severe,  is  often  pro- 
ductive of  the  happiest  ettccts,  when  all 
other  applications  have  failed. 

No.  2.   Pure  Potash,  with  lime. 

3.  Nitrated  silver  or  lunar  cavistic. 

4.  Nitrated  copper. 

Mild  caustics  solid. 

No.  I,  Acetated  copper  or  distilled  ver- 
digris. 

No.  2.  Vitriolated  copper,  or  blue  vi- 
triol. 

No.  3.  Red  nitrated  quicksilver,  or  red 
precipitate. 

No.  4    Burnt  alum.  t 

5.  Common  verdigris. 

Remark — The  strong  caustics  are  ge- 
nerally sold  in  a  convenient  form  for  ap- 
plication ;  but  the  mild  require  to  be  fine- 
ly powdered  and  sprinkled  on  the  ulcer. 
They  are  sometimes  mixed  witli  digestive 
ointment  to  increase  their  power. 

Cordial  Balls — No.  1.  Powdired  carra- 
way  seeds,  six  drachms  ;  ginger,  2  dr. ;  oil 
of  cloves,  20  drops.  Honey  or  treacle 
enough,  to  form  the  ball  for  one  dose. 

No.  2.  Powdered  aniseed  six  drachms; 
powdered  cardamoms,  iwo  dr. ;  powder- 
ed cassia,  one  dr.  Essential  oil  of  Cunv- 
min  seed,  twenty  drops.  To  be  made  in- 
to a  ball  with  honey,  for  one  dose. 

No.  3. — Powdered  carraway  seeds  half 
an  ounce  ;  grains  of  paradise,  3  draciims; 
aromatic  powder,  1  dj'achm ,  oil  of  carra- 


FAR 

I  way,  20  drops.  To  be  made  into   a  ball 
witli  honey  tor  oni-  dose. 

Detergent  Lotions — No.  !•  Vitriolated 
copper,  one  ounce;  vitriolic  acid,  twelve 
drops;  water,  four  ounces.     Mix. 

No.  2. — Nitrous  acid,  one  oimce  ;  vitri- 
olated copper,  half  an  ounce ;  water,  eight 
ounces.     Mix. 

Digestive  Ointment — This  ointment  is 
used  to  promote  suppuration  in  wounds, 
or  ulcers :  — 

Hogs  lard,  four  ounces ;  bees  wax,  one 
ounce  ;  Venice  turpentine,  three  ounces  ; 
red  nitrated  quick  silver,  finely  powder- 
ed, two  ounces.  Melt  the  three  first  over 
a  slow  fire,  and  wliile  the  mixture  is  li- 
quid,  but  nearly  cold,  stir  in  liie  powder. 

Goulard  Lotion,  extract  of  lead — This 
is  made  from  litharge  and  vinegar,  by 
simmering  them  together  over  a  gentle 
fire,  until  the  vinegar  has  dissolved  as 
much  as  it  is  capable  of  It  is  a  very  use- 
ful application  in  cases  of  external  infiam- 
mation,  and  may  be  used  either  as  a  lo- 
tion, or  in  tlie  form  of  poultice. 

Goulard  lotion,  is  made,  by  mixing  half 
an  ounce  of  the  extract  to  a  pint  of  water, 
— Wiien  intended  for  the  eyes,  tiiere 
shoidd  be  not  less  than  a  quart  of  water. 

Goulard  poultice,  is  made  by  mixing  as 
much  of  the  lotion,  with  bran.  Linseed 
meal,  or  any  proper  materials,  for  poul- 
tice, as  will  give  it  a  proper  consistency. 

Eye  Waters — No.  1.  Extract  of  salurn, 
one  tea  spoonful ;  camphorated  s|)irit,  two 
tea  sjiooiifuls  ;  elder  flower  water,  half  a 
pint :  Mix. 

No.  2. — Vitriolated  zinc,  one  drachm  ; 
w.ater,  one  pint :  Mix. 

No.  3— Vitriolated  zinc  and  acetated 
lead,  of  each  one  drachm  ;  water,  twelve 
ouTiccs :  Mix. 

No.  4. — Opium,  one  drachm ;  water, 
four  ounces:  Mix. 

Saturnine  Lotion.     See  Goulard  Lotion. 

Saturnine  Poultice.  See  Goulard  Poul- 
tice. 

In  tlie  commencement  of  this  treatise, 
we  premised  tiiat  our  limits  would  not 
admit  of  a  complete  anatomical  descrip. 
tion  of  the  horse.  Desirous,  liowever,  to 
give  as  full  an  illustration  of  tiiis  import- 
ant science  as  a  regard  to  the  nature  of 
our  work  will  admit,  we  have  given  three 
plates,  ''sec  plates,  title  Furriery,)  with 
lull  explanations;  namely,  No.  1,  exhibit- 
ing the  complete  skeleton  of  a  horse, 
shewing  every  bone.  No.  2,  representing 
tiie  intestines  of  the  hor.se,  as  they  ap- 
pear in  their  natural  situation,  when  the 
abdomen  is  laid  open.  No.  .",  shewing 
the  fi)ot  in  its  various  forms,  and  contain- 
ing, also,  drafts  of  some  of  the  most  mo- 
dern and  approved  shoes 


r,\,  1. 


F  A  U  R  1   E   K  Y  .  ^,^,^^ 


Fi^.2. 


Fj\7  . 8 


Fi(/  ij' 


•.jfe      Fig.p 


\         FU.  3 


;""'^  *(     llif  Hcefu 'narhd  ■!■>  in   ihtScitlt' 


/■■*: 


FAR 


FAR 


And  as  much  of  the  lameness  to  which 
tiiis  useful  animal  is  subject,  proceeds  from 
ueg-ligence  in  shoeing,  we  beg  leave  to 
imp'.'ss  upon  all  horsemen  the  impor- 
tance of  the  following  observations  on  that 
subject. 

On  the  Practice  of  Shoeing. — Previously 
to  giving  directions  for  the  proper  accom- 
plishment of  this  important  object,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  premise,  that  the  mode  ot 
shoeing  most  commonly  practised  has  a  de- 
structive tendency,  and  produces  such  a 
variety  of  diseases,  that  w?  seldom  meet 
with  a  foot  that  has  not  lost,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  its  orig-inr.l  shape ;  it  must  be 
obvious,  therefore,  that  one  kind  of  shoe 
cannot  with  propriety  be  recommended 
for  general  application,  and  that  it  is  ne- 
cessary on  all  occasions  to  adapt  it  care- 
fully to  the  state  of  the  foot.  This  con- 
istitutes  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  art 
of  slioeing,  and  from  neglecting  this  pre- 
caution, shoes  of  the  best  form  have  often 
occasioned  lameness. 

In  fig.  1,  plate  3,  is  represented  a  colt's 
hoof  in  a  state  of  nature,  of  which  no  part 
has  ever  been  cut  away,  nor  ever  been 
shod;  this  we  have  given  as  a  standard 
of  perfection,  fi'om  which  the  goodness  of 
feet  in  general  may  be  judged  of;  for 
surely  no  one  will  liesitate  for  a  moment 
in  adiiniiting  that  the  natural  form  is  the 
best  it  can  possibly  possess. 

In  fig.  2,  of  the  same  plate,  is  shown  a 
perfect  foot,  properly  prepured  for  the 
shoe ;  in  this  foot,  the  superfluous  horn 
has  been  cut  away,  and  an  even  surface 
made  for  tlie  shoe  to  bear  upon. 

W  we  examine  tlie  feet  of  an  hundred 
coks,  it  will  be  found  that  more  than 
ninety  of  them  are  of  the  same  form.  It 
is  true  that  some  m.iy  have  grown  more 
luxuriantly  than  others,  whereby  the 
crust  will  be  deeper,  and  the  bottom  part 
may  have  been  partially  brokeUj  so  as  to 
give  the  foot  a  ragged  and  uneven  appear- 
ance, still  the  essential  shape  is  the  same, 
and  when  this  superfluous  horn  has  been 
removed,  it  will  be  found  that  the  bottom 
of  the  foot  will  be  nearly  circular,  the  sole 
concave,  the  bars  distinct,  the  frog  and 
heels  open  and  expanded. 

Li  preparing  a  iiorse's  foot  for  the  shoe, 
the  lower  part  is  to  be  reduced,  when 
luxuriant,  which  is  generally  the  case, 
more  particularly  at  the  toe,  and  this  is  to 
be  done  by  means  of  a  buttress  or  rasp: 
tlie  loose  scaly  parts  of  the  sole  are  like- 
wise to  be  removed,  so  as  to  preserve  its 
concavity,  and  a  small  cavity  is  to  be  made 
with  a  diawing  knife,  between  the  bar  and 
crust,  to  prevent  tlie  slioe  from  pressing 
on  that  part,  and  occasioning  corns ;  it  is 
however  necessary  in  doing  this,  to  Vake 


particular  care  that  the  connection  be- 
tween the  bar  and  crust  is  not  destroyed 
or  weakened,  which  would  of  course  ren- 
der the  bar  useless. 

The  junction  of  the  bar  and  crust  af- 
fords a  firm  bearing  for  the  heel  of  the 
shoe,  and  is  to  be  rasped  perfectly  flat, 
and  so  low  as  to  be  exactly  on  a  level 
with  the  frog,  that  they  may  beai-  equally 
on  a  plain  surface,  before  the  shoe  is  ap- 
phed;  indeed,  the  whole  of  the  bottom  of 
the  crust  is  to  be  made  perfectly  flat  and 
even  at  the  same  time  with  the  rasp,  that 
the  shoe  may  bear  equally  on  every  part 
of  it.  Faniers  should  never  he  allowed 
to  do  this  by  means  of  a  hot  shoe,  which 
is  too  freqently  the  case.  If  any  ragged 
parts  are  observed  in  the  frog,  they  are  to 
be  carefully  removed  with  a  knife,  for,  if 
suffered  to  remain,  they  might  afford  a 
lodgement  for  dirt  and  gravel.  Tlius  do 
we  prepare  a  foot  for  the  shoe,  and  to  a 
foot  of  this  description,  I  mean  one  that  is 
sound  and  perfect,  or  that  has  not  suffer- 
ed any  material  alteration  in  its  form  from 
improper  shoeing,  the  shoe  (fig.  8,  plate 
3)  is  to  be  applied. 

The  toe  of  a  shoe,  for  a  middle  sited, 
horse,  is  about  an  inch  in  width,  and  half 
an  inch  in  depth  or  thickness ;  the  heels 
about  half  an  inch  in  widtli,  and  three 
eighths  in  depth.  The  wearing  part  of 
the  toe  is  to  be  made  of  steel,  and  it  may 
be  observed,  that  the  nails  are  brought 
very  near  to  the  toe,  but  not  quite  round 
it;  for  when  that  is  done,  there  must  also 
be  a  groove  made,  which  considerably 
weakens  that  part,  and  almost  all  horses 
wear  principally  at  the  toe.  Both  sm'- 
faces  of  the  shoe  are  perfectly  flat,  and 
the  heel  of  the  shoe  rests  upon  the  junc- 
tion of  the  bar  and  crust,  beyond  which 
it  should  never  extend. 

It  will  be  supposed,  perhaps,  that  a 
shoe  which  is  flat  on  that  surface  next 
the  foot,  will  be  apt  to  produce  lameness 
by  pressing  on  the  sole ;  but  let  it  be  re- 
collected, that  this  shoe  is  recommended 
only  for  a  sound  foot,  in  which  the  sole  is 
always  a  little  conc.ive,  so  that  it  cannot 
possibly  receive  any  pressure  from  a  flat 
shoe :  it  may  be  said  also,  that  when  the 
nails  are  placed  so  far  from  the  heels,  the 
shoe  will  not  be  sufficiently  secure,  and 
will  be  frequently  loosened;  but  as  the 
shoe  bears  equally  on  every  part  of  the 
crust,  this  objection  cannot  have  any 
weight.  It  must  be  granted,  however, 
that  when  a  foot  is  pared  in  the  common 
way,  that  is,  when  tiie  heels  have  been 
opened,  and  the  shoe  so  applied,  that  near- 
ly an  inch  of  the  heel  has  no  bearing  upon 
the  crust;  that  if  the  nails  were  placed  so 
far  Irom  the  heels,  as  I  have  recoiOJDen4'' 


FAR 


FAR 


ed,  the  shoe  would  be  very  insecure ;  for, 
asmucliot  it  as  had  no  bearing  upon  the 
crust,  would  operate  occasionally  as  a  le 
ver  in  raising  the  nails,  and  consequently 
the  shoe  would  frequently  be  loosened. 
Farriers  therefore  fiml  it  necessary,  when 
the  foot  has  been  tlius  pared,  and  the 
shoe  applied  in  this  way,  to  place  the 
nails  in  the  quarters,  by  wliich  the  shoe 
is  certainly  rendered  more  sccui-e  than  it 
would  be,  had  they  been  placed  nearer  the 
toe. 

Many  disadvantages,  however,  attend 
this  metliod.  In  the  first  place,  by  plac- 
ing the  nails  in  the  quarters,  they  prove  a 
considerable  obstacle  to  the  expansion  of 
the  heels,  and  as  the  crust  is  generally 
much  thinner  at  the  quarters  than  at  tlie 
toe,  the  sensible  parts  are  more  liable  to 
be  wounded ;  but  this  does  not  apply  to 
the  hind  teet,  in  which  the  crust  of  the 
quarters  is  generally  thicker  than  that  of 
the  toe.  When  a  horse  over-reaches,  if 
any  part  of  the  shoe  has  no  bearing  upon 
the  crust,  it  is  very  liable  to  be  struck  by 
the  toe  of  the  hind  foot,  and  shoes  are  of- 
ten forced  off  in  this  way;  to  this  may  be 
added,  the  insecurity  of  such  a  shoe  when 
a  horse  is  rode  on  a  deep  or  heavy  grovmd. 

It  will  probably  be  observed  oi'  liie  shoe 
which  I  have  recommended,  that  it  is  in- 
consistent with  the  principle  which  has 
been  laid  down  respecting  the  necessity 
of  the  frog's  receiving  pressure.  I  be- 
lieve it  is  an  incontrovertible  fact,  that  un- 
less the  frog  receives  a  certain  degree  of 
pressure,  it  will  become  soft  and  incapa- 
ble of  aflbrding  sufficient  protection  to 
the  sensible  frog  which  it  covers;  that 
the  heels  will  gradually  contract,  and  the 
natural  form  of  the  foot  will  be  destroyed, 
for  1  have  proved  by  experiment,  that  the 
bars  alone  are  not  sufficient  to  pi  event  con- 
traction, though  they  certainly  oppose  it 
with  considerable  force;  but  it  does  not 
follow  from  this,  that  it  is  necessary  for 
the  pressure  to  be  constant,  nor  do  I  be- 
lieve that  a  shoe  which  allows  the  frog  to 
bear  upon  tiie  ground,  when  he  stands 
upon  a  plane  hard  surface,  can  be  always 
applied,  even  to  sound  feet,  without  incon- 
venience- There  can  be  no  doubt,  that  a 
horse  in  a  slate  of  nature  has  his  frog  al- 
most always  in  contact  with  the  ground, 
and  then  of  course  he  feels  no  inconve- 
nience from  it;  but  when  burthens  are 
placed  upon  his  back,  and  he  is  driven 
about  upon  liard  roads,  he  is  certainly  in 
very  different  circumstances,  and  if  the 
frog  in  such  cases  were  constantly  ex- 
posed to  this  severe  pressure,  it  would 
sometimes,  I  believe,  occasion  lameness. 

In  the  foot,  prepared  for  the  slioe,  (fig- 
2,  plate  3,)  the  frog  and  heels  are  on  a 


kvel,  and  if  placed  on  a  plane  hard  sur- 
face, would  bear  equally ;  by  applying  the 
ihoe,  (fig.  8,  plate  3,)  the  frog  would  be 
raised  tliree-cighths  of  an  inch  from  the 
i;ioiind;  so  that  when  the  horse  is  going 
upon  a  hard  surface,  where  he  would  be 
most  liable  to  feel  inconvenience  li<rtn  the 
pressure  on  the  frog,  it  receives  none  ;  but 
upon  soft  yielding  ground  the  frog  cer- 
tainly receives  pressure,  and  without  giv- 
ing the  animal  any  pain.  To  a  horse  tliat 
travels  or  works  regularly,  and  is  occa- 
sionally taken  upon  soft  ground,  I  believe 
tile  pressure  the  frog  receives  iti  this  way, 
!  is  quite. sufficient  to  preserve  the  foot  in  a 
state  of  health  ;  but  when  a  horse  is  kept 
\  almost  constantly  in  the  stable,  standing 
•  upon  hot  litter,  particularly  in  hot  and 
dry  weather,  his  feet  will  certainly  be  un- 
dergoing an  alteration  in  their  form,  and 
;  will  be  in  a  progressive  state  towards  dis- 
ease. 

I      In  those  cases,   however,   contraction 
of  the  hoof  may  be  elf'ectually  prevented 
■  by  means  of  the  patent  artificial  frog,  in- 
vented by  -Mr.  Coleman,  professor  of  the 
Veterinary   College.     By    this   ingenious 
:  contrivance  a  horse's  frog  may  receive  suf- 
'.  ficient    pressure,    in    whatever    circum- 
I  stances  he  may  be  placed,  to  prevent  con- 
;  traction,  and  keep  the    foot  sound    and 
.healthy,   without    the    inconvenience   of 
;  wearing  thin  heeled  shoes  ;  but  it  must 
!be  remembered  that  whenever  the  IVogis 
jmuch  exposed  to  pressure,  wiiether  it  be 
'  by  applying  the  patent  frog,  or  by  the  thin 
heeled  shoe,  and  reducing  the  crust  at  the 
heels,   it  is   necessary  the  quarters  and 
heels  should  possess  a  proper  degree  of 
pliancy;  if  they  are  rigid  and  inflexible,  it 
is  evident  that  the  sensible  frog  and  carti- 
lages would  be  placed  between  two  fixed 
points,  and  they  would  consequently  be 
biiiised    and    inflamed.     I    have   indeed 
seen  several  cases  of  lameness  produced 
in  this  way ;  whenever  the  hoof,  therefore, 
appears  to  be  too  di  y  and  strong,  or  to 
have  lost  its  natural  elasticity,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  rasp  the  quarters  and  keep  the 
whole  hoof  moist,  cither  by  apph  ing  se- 
veral folds  of  flannel  round  the  coronet, 
constantly  wetted,  or  by  making  the  horse 
stand  in  soft  clay,  four  or  five  hours  dur- 
ing the  day;  by  these  means  the  natural 
flexibility  of  the  iiorn  wouUl   be  restored, 
and  the  heels  and  quarters    yield  in   a 
small  degree,  whenever  the  horse's  weight 
was  thrown  upon  the  frog. 

Having  said  as  much  as  appears  to  be 
requisite  of  the  method  of  shoeing  a  sound 
foot,  I  shall  proceed  to  describe  those  dis- 
eases of  the  foot  which  render  a  different 
kind  of  shoe  necessary.  In  the  first  place 
it  will  be  proper  to  observe,  that  when  a 


FAR 


FAR 


horse,  even  with  a  sound  foot,  has  worn 
shoes  that  are  very  thick,  or  turned  up  at 
the  lieels,  particularly  if  at  the  same  time 
the  crust  at  the  heels  has  been  suffered  to 
grow  so  hig-h  that  the  frog  is  kept  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  ground,  it 
would  be  very  improper  to  reduce  the 
heels  suddenly,  so  as  lo  allow  tiie  frog  to 
receive  piessure,  since  .the  back  sinews 
would  in  that  case  be  injured,  and  lame- 
ness might  ensue.  In  feet  of  this  descrip- 
tion it  is  necessary  to  remove  from  the 
toe  all  that  can  be  done  without  exposing 
the  pai't  too  much,  and  to  lower  the  heels 
gradually :  the  toe  of  the  shoe  should 
be  made  rather  thin,  and  of  the  best 
steel. 

The  shoe  for  draught  horses  should  be 
made  flat  on  both  surfaces,  provided  the 
sole  is  of  a  proper  form  and  tiiickness,  but 
if  flat  or  convex,  and  consequently  too 
thin,  which  is  often  the  case  hi  horses  of 
this  description,  the  internal  surface  of 
the  shoe  must  be  concave;  still  the  exter- 
nal surface  should  be  flat,  for  the  convex 
shoe,  which  is  commonly  used  for  draught 
horses,  prevents  them  from  treading  se- 
curely, and  renders  them  incapable  of 
exerting  the  whole  of  their  strength. 

Of  the  Age  of  a  Horse — The  age  of  a 
horse  may  be  discovered  by  certain  marks 
in  the  front  teetii  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
the  tushes,  until  the  eighth  year,  about 
which  time  they  are  generally  worn  out. 
An  experienced  person,  can  hovv'ever,  af- 
ter that  period,  judt^e  oflhe  age,  with  some 
degree  of  acciu-acy,  by  the  countenance 
and  general  appearance  of  the  animal,  as 
well  as  by  the  length  of  the  teeth,  and 
form  of  (he  tushes. 

Between  the  second  and  third  year,  a 
colt  begins  to  change  his  sucking  teeth, 
as  they  are  termed,  for  others  of  a  larger 
size,  and  of  a  different  form  and  colour. 
The  suckiiigteeth  are  small,  of  a  delicate 
white  colour,  some  of  them  perfectly 
smooth  on  the  upper  surface  ;  others  have 
a  small  narrow  cavity  on  that  surface, 
but  very  unlike  those  marks  of  the  per- 
manent teeth  by  \vhich  we  judge  of  the 
age.  The  member  of  teeth  in  the  front  of 
the  mouth  are  12, 6  in  the  lower,  and  6  in 
the  upper  jaw.  (We  take  no  notice  of  the 
molares  or  grinders,  as  tliey  are  not  con- 
cerned with  this  subject.)  When  a  colt 
is  three  years  old,  we  may  observe  that 
the  four  front  sucking  teeth  arc  lost,  and 
that,  instead  of  tliem,  four  others  have 
sprung  up,  of  a  very  different  appearance, 
being  larger,  of  a  darker  colour,  and  hav- 
ing a  considerable  cavity  on  the  upper 
surface,  and  a  small  dark  coloured 
groove  in  front;  these  are  termed  Horse's 
or  permanent  teeth.    Between  the  tliii'd 


and  fourth  year,  the  four  teeth  next  these 
are  lost,  and  replaced,  in  the  way  we  have 
just  described,  by  horse's  teeth;  so  that 
when  a  colt  has  completed  his  fourth 
year,  there  are  eight  horse's  teeth  observ- 
able, and  only  four  colt's  teeth,  one  at  each 
extremity,  or  corner,  as  it  is  termed  : 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  year,  these 
also  fall  out,  and  are  succeeded  by  horse's 
teeth.  The  corner  teeth  of  the  horse,  par- 
ticularly of  the  under  jaw,  are  different 
from  the  rest,  being  smaller  and  of  a  shell- 
hke  appearance,  their  cavities  are  chiefly 
within,  the  upper  surface  being  a  mere 
edge,  but  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  year 
they  are  larger,  and  more  like  the  other 
teeth.  It  is  generally  between  the  fourth 
and  fifth  year  that  the  tushes  make  their 
appearance,  though  sometimes  earlier. — 
The  tushes  are  four  in  number,  and  situa- 
ted about  an  inch  from  the  corner  teeth  ; 
at  first  they  are  small,  terminate  in  a 
sharp  point,  are  rather  convex  on  their 
external  surface,  but  within  have  two 
concavities  or  grooves,  separated  by  a 
ridge.  These,  as  well  as  the  teeth,  are 
gradually  imdergoing  an  aUevation  in 
their  form,  becomhig  longer,  and  losing 
the  concavities  on  the  internal  surface. 
About  the  seventh  year  ^le  concavity  is 
considerably  diminished,  and  in  old  hor- 
ses the  surface  becomes  convex,  the  tush 
acquires  a  round  form,  and  the  extremity, 
instead  of  being  sharp,  is  quite  blunt,  as 
if  the  point  had  been  broken  oft,  and  the 
new  surface  afterwards  polished.  We 
must  now  return  to  the  teeth,  the  appear- 
ances of  wliich  we  have  described,  as  far 
as  tlie  completion  of  the  fifth  year  of  a 
horse's  age.  After  this- period,  we  judge 
of  the  age  by  the  size  of  those  cavities 
which  we  have  described  on  the  upper 
surfice  of  the  tooth ;  for  the  friction  to 
whicii  that  surface  is  almost  constantly 
exposed,  gradually  wears  it  down,  and  at 
length  tiie  cavity  or  mark  is  totally  oblite- 
rated. Tlie  marks  in  the  upper  teeth  most 
commonly  remain  until  the  twelfth  year, 
sometimes  longer,  but  those  in  the  under 
teeth  are  worn  ovit  about  the  end  of  the 
eighth  year;  we  shall  therefore  confine 
our  description  now,  to  the  under  jaw. 

As  the  two  front  teeth  are  the  first  that 
make  their  appearance,  it  is  obvious  that 
their  marks  will  be  lost  sooner  th^n  those 
of  the  other  teeth ;  and,  if  we  examine  the 
mouth  of  a  horse  that  iias  just  completed 
liis  fifth  year,  we  shall  find,  tliat  they  are 
nearly,  and  sometimes  quite  worn  out; 
those  in  the  adjoining  teeth  are  about 
half  their  original  size,  while  the  marks  of 
the  corner  or  end  teeth  are  perfect.  At 
the  end  of  the  sixth  year,  the  only  cavi- 
ties observable,  are  in  the  cornel"  teeth. 


FEA 


lEA 


and  these  are  about  halftliciroriginalsi/.e; 
tlie  tooth  has  at  this  period  lost  its  shell- 
like a]>pearance  which  wg  have  before  des- 
cribed, and  IS  notditVerent  tioni  the  other 
teeth,  except  in  huving  a  mark  or  cavity 
on  its  upper  surface.  At  the  end  of  the 
seventh  year,  tlic  marks  of  the  corner 
teeth  also  are  obliterated,  and  then  the 
horse  is  said  to  be  aged.  We  often  find, 
howeverj  that  the  marks  of  the  corner 
teeth  ai'e  not  totally  effaced  at  this  pe- 
riod, a  small  dark  coloured  spot  may  be 
observed  in  most  horses,  until  about  the 
end  of  the  eighth  year;  from  this  period 
we  have  no  criterion  by  which  the  ai^e 
inay  be  ascertained ;  but,  it  is  said,  that 
the  marks  of  the  upper  teeth  will  enable 
us  to  judge  of  the  age  until  the  thirteenth 
year,  \hc  marks  of  the  front  teeth  being- 
worn  out  when  he  becomes  eight  years 
old,  those  of  the  adjoining  teeth  at  ten, 
and  the  corner  teeth  at  twelve  ;  but  I  can- 
not say  how  far  these  mai'ks  can  be  de- 
pended upon. 

TASCETS,  in  the  art  of  making  glass, 
are  irons  thrust  into  the  mouths  of  bottles, 
in  order  to  convey  them  to  the  annealing- 
tower.     See  Glass. 

FAWN  COLOUil.  ;rhls  colour  is  giv- 
en to  stufts,  by  common  sumach,  which 
inclines  to  green,  or  by  using  other  vege- 
table substances.  Soot  is  also  employed 
to  communicate  a  fawn  colour  to  wool, 
which  is  more  or  less  deep,  according  to 
the  fjuantitj'  used.     See  Dyeing. 

TEA  THERS,  dveing  of.  See  Dyeing, 

FEATHERS.  'The  feathers  of  bh-ds 
make  a  considerable  article  of  commerce, 
particularly  those  of  the  ostrich,  heron, 
swan,  ]5cacock,  g(joso',  ?<.c.  for  plumes,  or- 
naments of  the  head,  filling  of  beds,  and 
writing  pens. 

There  are  scarcely  any  birds,  but  what 
bed-feathers  may  be  prociu'cd  from,  par- 
ti" iilarlytlu)se  of  the  domestic  kind  ;  yet 
s  >ans,  geese  and  ducks,  are  those  that 
iurnish  mo.st,  and  the  best. 

The  feathers  of  dead  birds  are  in  the 
least  esteem,  upon  account  of  the  blood 
in»bibc<i  by  the  quill  ;  wiiich  pulrifying, 
communicates  an  offensive  smell  to  the 
feather,  and  takes  some  time  to  evapo- 
rate; for  which  reason,  live  birds  should 
not  be  stripped  till  their  feathers  arc  ripe. 

The  best  feathers  should  be  white, 
downy,  void  of  large  stents,  fresh  and 
sweet.  Care  should  be  taken,  tliat  no 
sand  be.  intermixed,  v.hich  is  frec|uenlly 
pracli.-,ed  to  increase  the  weight. 

Feathers'  nmst  be  freed  fiom  their  ani- 
m;d  oil,  before  they  are  fit  to  put  into 
beds ;  otherwise  tiiey  become  infected 
with  insects,  or  smell  offensively. 

Tlie  common  process  is;  to  bake  them ; 


but  in  thus  treating  tliem,  they  are  olkii 
singed :  the  following  method  does  not 
seem  liable  to  any  objection,  and  promi- 
ses to  be  a  useful  addition  to  our  stock  of 
economical   knowledge. 

I'ake  for  every  gallon  of  clean  water, 
one  pound  of  quicklime;  mix  them  well 
together,  and  whcti  the  undissolved  lime 
is  precipitated  in  fine  powder,  pour  ofl'lhe 
clear  lime  water  for  use  at  the  time  it  is 
wanted. 

Put  the  feathers  to  be  cleaned,  in  ano- 
ther tub,  and  add  to  ihem  a  quantity  of 
the  clear  lime  water,  sufficient  to  cover 
the  feathers  about  three  inches,  when  well 
immersed  and  stirred  about  therein.  The 
fiiathers,  when  thoroughly  moii-tened, 
will  sink  down,  and  should  i-emain  in  the 
lime  water  three  or  four  days;  af;er  which 
tlie  foul  liquor  should  be  separated  from 
the  feathers  by  laying  them  on  a  sieve. 

The  feathers  should  be  afterwards 
well  washed  in  clean  water,  and  dried 
upon  nets  :  the  meshes  about  the  fine- 
ness of  cabbage  nets. 

The  feathers  must  from  time  to  time 
be  shaken  upon  the  nets,  and  as  they  dry, 
will  fall  through  the  meshes,  and  are  to 
be  collected  for  use.  The  admission  of 
air  will  be  serviceable  in  the  dryhig  :  the 
whole  process  will  be  completed  in  about 
three  weeks.  After  being  prepared  as 
abovementioned,  they  will  only  require 
beating  for  use. 

FELT,  in  commerce,  is  a  sort  of  stufl' 
deriving  all  its  consistence  from  being  ful- 
led, or  wrought  with  lees  and  size,  with- 
out either  sjiinningor  weaving. 

Felt  is  either  made  of  wool  alone,  or  of 
wool  and  hair. 

FERMENIATION,  VINOUS.  With- 
out troubling  the  reader  with  matter 
■purely  theoretical,  we  shall  merely  ob- 
serve, that  this  process  implies  a  change 
in  saccharine  fluids,  by  whicii  the  sugar 
is  converted  into  spirituous  or  intoxicat- 
ing liquor,  capable  of  affording  alcohol 
by  distillation.  The  circumstances  ne- 
cessary to  facilitate  fermentation,  arc,  be- 
sides the  presence  of  saccharine  matter 
and  water,  an  increase  of  temperature. 
Thus  an  infu.sion  of  malt,  which  contains 
much  sugar,  by  fermentation  js  converted 
into  beer  or  malt  liquor;  the  juice  of  tlie 
grape  into  wine;  and  the  greater  part  of . 
vegetable  .substances,  when  previously 
prepared,  such  as  rye,  corn,  tlie  refuse 
of  sugar  and  several  vegetable  juices,  as 
of  the  apple,  by  th  same  process,  is 
ciianged  into  a  spiritimns  liquor,  or  com- 
pound, which  by  distillation  yields  spirit, 
or  alcohol.  The  phenomena  of  fermen- 
tation, l)eing  characterized  by  the  dis- 
engagement, of  carbonic  acid  gas,  in  9on- 


FILE 


FILE 


sequence  of  a  change  among  the  elemen- 
tary principles,  is  alwa3's  apparent  when 
the  matei'ials,  of  which  the  ferment  con- 
sists, is  in  such  proportion  as  to  effect 
that  change.  In  a  word,  it  may  be  gene- 
rally observed,  that  saccharine  matter 
promotes  the  vinious  fermentation,  muci- 
lage, the  acetous ;  and  gluten,  the  pu 
trcfactive :  the  first  producing  spirit,  tlie 
second,  vinegar,  and  the  third,  ammonia. 
See  Brewing,  Alcohol,  Brandy, 
Wine,  &c. 

FERMENTED  LIQUORS.— Fluids  ob- 
tained or  changed  by  the  process  of  the 
vinous  fermentation,  by  which  the  pro- 
duct is  i-endered  intoxicating,  are  called 
fermented.  We  shall  therefore  reicr 
to  the  articles,  Beer,  Brewing,  Cy- 
der, Wine,  &c.  for  information  on  this 
subject. 

FERNAMBOUC  WOOD.— See  Bra 
ziL  Wood.     Dyeing. 

FERRETS,  among  glass-makers,  the 
iron  with  which  the  workmen  try  tiie 
melted  metal. 

FERRETTE,  in  glass  making,  a  sub- 
stance which  serves  to  colour  glass.  See 
Glass. 

FEURSTEIN.— See  Flint. 

FILES  of  ston^'mare,  invented  by  G. 
Cumberland  Esq.  who  in  a  letter  to  Mr. 
Nicholson  on  the  subject  of  making  files 
from  clay,  says — 

That  to  have  applied  so  soft  a  sub- 
stance as  cla}'  to  the  purpose  of  lograting 
the  hardest  bodies,  would  have  appeared 
to  some  as  impossible  ;  neitlier  should  he 
perhaps  have  ever  tliought  of  such  an 
application  in  the  form  he  now  uses  it, 
had  he  not  found,  in  shaping  some  sub- 
stances, that  the  v.-ear  of  his  steel  files 
was  rather  expensive. 

It  then  first  occurred  to  him,  in  ranging 
in  thought  after  a  remedy,  that,  as  stone- 
ware is  so  hard  as  to  blunt  files,  files 
might  be  as  well  made  of  our  stone- 
ware. This  was  about  two  years  ago,  and 
the  first  use  he  made  of  the  suggestion 
was,  to  fold  up  in  muslin,  cambrick,  and 
Irish  linen,  separate  pieces  of  wet  clay, 
forcing  them  by  the  pressure  of  the  hand 
into  the  interstices  of  the  threads,  so  as 
on  divesting  them  of  the  covering  to  re- 
ceive a  correct  mould.  These  he  had 
well  baked,  and  immediately  found  he 
had  procured  an  intn-e  new  species  of 
file,  capable  even  of  destroying  steel ;  and 
very  useful  indeed  in  cutting  glass,  polish- 
ing, and  rasping  wood,  ivory,  and  all  sorts 
of  metals. 

The  ease  with  which  he  had  accom- 
plished his  purpose,  as  is  too  often  the 
case,  made  him  content  himself  with  the 
use  of  his  own  discover'.-,  or  at  most  civ- 


ing  away  a  few  specimens  as  files  for  la- 
dies nails  of  peculiar  delicacy  ;  but  hav- 
ing since  reflected,  that  in  glass  grinding 
(the  stones  for  which  come  from  the 
North,  and  are  very  expensive)  in  flatting 
metallic  mirrors,  laying  mezzotinto 
grounds,  and  a  number  of  operations  that 
require  an  expensive  friction,  these  stone- 
ware gratej'S,  if  we  may  so  call  them,  as 
not  being  of  the  exact  shape  of  files,  may  ■ 
ultimately  become  very  useful.  He  says 
that  he  takes  a  pleasure  in  furnishing  a 
description  of  his  method  in  applying  this 
substance,  accompanied  with  a  specimen 
or  two  of  a  portable  size,  that  we  may 
the  better  be  able  to  judge  of  their  value 
to  the  arts,  as  in  all  operations  of  grind- 
ing a  great  deal  of  manual  labour  must 
first  be  bestowed  on  the  too  whereas 
here  we  may  moidd  in  an  mstant.ifwe 
use  a  press,  as  in  pipe  making,  and  the 
expense  is  infinitely  infeHor  to  that  incur- 
red in  constructing  even  the  cheapest  file 
or  lograter. 

Mr.  Nicholson  observes, 'That  tliis  in- 
genious  invention  promises  to  be  of  con- 
siderable  use  in  the  arts.  Tlie  abrasion 
of  surfaces  is  performed  either  by  a 
toothed  tool,  as  in  filing,  rasping.  &.c.; 
or  by  a  grinder,  in  which  cutting  or  hard 
particles  are  bedded,  with  considerable 
firmness  in  a  softer  mass ;  or  by  scower- 
ing,  polishing,  &c ,  in  winch  hard  par- 
ticles are  more  or  less  slightly  i-etained  in 
a  soft  or  tenacious  substance.  Mr.  Cum- 
berland's instruments  appear  to  promise 
great  utility  in  the  first  and  last  of  tliese 
processes ;  that  is,  tl)ey  may  be  used 
either  with  or  without  a  fretting  powder. 
There  are  however  many  objections  to 
their  being  used  to  grind  speculums;  not 
only  with  regard  to  the  intended  figure, 
but  the  nature  of  the  material. 

FILTRATION.  This  is  a  process  of 
sti-aining  or  filtering  lienors  by  means  of 
woolen  cloth,  cotton,  1  linen,  paper,  or 
other  material.  All  substances  which  ai-e 
suspended,  or  mechanically  mixed  with 
a  fluid,  by  which  it  is  rendered  turbid  or 
thick,  are  separated  by  this  pi-occss ;  but 
the  substances,  which  are  actually  dis- 
solved or  held  in  solution,  or  otherwise 
chemically  combined  with  a  ■  fluid,  can 
not  be  separated  by  this  means. 

An  apjwratus  fitted  up  for  this  purpose 
is  called  a  filter.  The  form  of  this  is  vari- 
ous, according  to  the  intenlion  of  the' 
operator.  A  piece  of  tow,  or  wool,  or 
cotton,  stuffed  into  tlie  pipe  of  a  funnel, 
will  prevent  the  pass.ige  of  grosser  par- 
ticles, and  by  that  means  sender  the  fluid 
clearer  which  comes  through.  Spunge 
is  still  more  effcctu.'il.  A  strip  of  linen 
rag  wetted  and  hung  over  the  side  of  a 


FIL 


FJL 


vessel  containing  a  fluid,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  that  one  end  of  the  rug'  may  be  ini- 
mei'sed  in  the  fluid,  and  tlie  oilier  end 
may  remain  without,  below  the  surface, 
vill  act  lis  a  syphon,  and  carry  over  tlie 
clearer  portion.  Linen  or  woollen  stulFs 
may  either  be  fastened  over  the  mouths 
sf  proper  vessels,  or  fixed  to  a  frame, 
like  a  sie^ve,  tor  ilie  purpose  of  filtering^. 
All  these  are  more  commonly  used  by 
cooks  and  apotiiecailes  tlian  by  philoso- 
pliicid  chemists,  who,  for  the  most  part, 
use  the  paper  called  bloom  paper,  made 
up  without  size. 

As  the  fill  ration  of  considerable  quan- 
tities of  fluid  could  not  be  eflircied  at  once 
without  breaking  the  filter  of  paper,  it  is 
found  requisite  to  use  a  linen  clotl),  upon 
which  the  paper  is  applied  and  sup- 
ported. 

Precipitates  and  otiier  pulverulent  mat- 
ters are  collected  more  speedily  by  filtra- 
tion than  by  subsidence.  But  there  are 
many  chemists,  who  disclaim  the  use  of 
this  method*  and  avail  themselves  of  the 
latter  only,  which  is  certahily  more  accu- 
rate, and  liable  to  no  objection  where  tiie 
powders  are  such  as  will  admit  of  edul- 
coration  and  drying  in  the  open  air. 

Some  fluids,  as  turbid  water,  may  be 
purified  by  iiltering  through  sand.  A 
large  earthen  funnel,  or  stone  bottle  with 
the  bottom  beaten  out,  may  h.ave  its  neck 
loosely  stopi>ed  with  sniall  stones,  over 
which  smaller  may  be  jilaced,  support- 
ing layers  of  gi'avel  increasing  in  fine- 
ness, and  lastly  covered  to  the  depth  of  a 
few  inches  with  fii^e  sand,  all  thoroughly 
cleansed  by  washing.  This  apparatus  is 
buperior  to  a  filtering  stone,  as  it  will 
cleanse  water  in  large  quantities,  and 
may  readily  be  renewed  when  ihejiassage 
is  obstructed  by  taking  out  and  washing 
the  up))er  stratt'im  ^sand. 

A  tilli-r  for  coiyosivc  liquors  may  be 
constructed  on  the  same  principles  of 
broken  and  ])ounddd  glass. 

A  patent  has  been  lately  granted  to  Mr. 
James  Peacock,  ihv  a  filtering  machine, 
which  consists  in  causing  the  lurbid  fluid 
to  ascend  through  a  medium  of  fine  gra- 
vel, of  progressive  degrees  of  fineness. 

'i'he  machine,  it  is  said,  does  not  oc- 
cupy more  room  than  a  large  drip  stone, 
and  yiekls  a  c(jnst:uit  and  pure  stream  of 
more  than  oOO  gallons  in  "24  hours. 

I'hcre  does  not  require  any  arguments 
to  prove  the  beneficial  ellects  of  pure  soft 
water  to  the  preservation  of  health ;  a 
useful  and  convenient  apparatus  is  the 
chief  object  by  which  it  is  to  be  obtained. 
1  he  proper 'materials  of  whicii  vessels  de- 
signed to  Com  a  in  water  should  be  made, 
ai-e  glass,  porcelain,  or  stone-ware,  and 


aslien  wood,  such  as  is  used  in  dairies, 
8ic.  for  larg-e  reservoirs,  brick,  marble, 
stone,  in  tarras,  or  barren  lime  may  be 
the  best.  A  wooden  cistern  lined  with 
lead,  or  a.  strong  leaden  one  itself,  may 
be  suflicient,  when  the  expense  or  incon- 
venience may  render  the  others  objec- 
tionable- The  substance  and  dimensions 
of  the  cistern  being  determined,  it  should 
be  divided  hito  three  compartments:  the 
first  division  to  receive  the  turbid  water 
from  the  service-pipe  ;  the  second  to  con- 
tain Mr.  Peacock^ s  stratified  medium  for 
the  filtration  :  and  die  third  to  receive  the 
water  in  its  clarified  state,  after  its  as- 
cent through  the  fiitei". 

Gravel  of  different  sizes,  suitirtile  to 
the  several  strata,  arc  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  filtration.  Mr.  Feacock  also 
thinks  that  glass  reduced  to  ihe  sizes  is 
the  most  proper ;  but  should  any  other 
])re{t;rable  materials  be  suggested,  the 
inventor  would  be  ready  to  adopt  them. 

Dirtirrent  sizes  of  gravel  appear  to  us 
easily  to  be  obtained,  by  sifting  it  in  dif- 
ferent sized  wire  sieves.  Mr.  Peacock 
in  his  work  does  not  describe  this.  The 
various  sizes  of  the  panicles  of  gravel, 
as  placed  in  layers,  should  be  nearly  iu 
the  quadruple  ratio  of  their  surfaces; 
that  is,  upon  the  fiust  layer  or  stratum  a 
second  is  to  be  placed,  the  diameters  o 
whose  particles  arg  not  to  be  less  thau 
one  half  of  the  first,  and  so  on  in  this 
pro])ortion  ;  and  as  this  theory  supposes 
the  particles  to  be  spheres,  in  pracuee  it 
is  necessary  to  increase  ihe  heigiit  or 
thickness  in  each  stratum,  ;rs  may  be 
necessary,  to  correct  tlie  u-rtgularities  in 
their  form  :  experience  only  will  best  de- 
termine tliis.  This  arrangement  of  filter- 
ing particles  will  graduail}'  refine  the 
water  by  the  grosser  particles  being  quite 
iiUercepled  in  their  partly  ascending  with 
the  water.  The  ojieration  will  be  more 
clearly  understood  by  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  glass  vessels  iu  which 
.Mr.  Peacock  fiist  made  his  experiment. 

I'late  [[Peacocks  Filtering  Apparatus] 
fig.  1.  represents  the  plan  and  action  of 
these  cylindrical  glass  vessels.  A  is  the 
one  to  receive  the  turbid  water,  served 
from  any  cistern  or  other  means  b}  the 
pipe  and  ball-cock  at  1).  E  is  a  strain- 
ing-rlotli,  to  clear  the  water  from  lila- 
menls,  Sec.  it  is  in  the  t()rm  of  a  bag, 
\\  Inch  may,  by  being  fixed  to  a.  hoop,  be 
kept  on  the  top  of  the  vessel.  The  cock 
may  be  turned,  and  the  ball  taken  ofl'oc- 
casionally.  The  glasses  are  contained  in 
a  light  frame  fined  at  bottom  and  about 
three  inches  up  tlie  sides  with  sheet  lead, 
to  fiirni  a  recipient  for  the  waste  water 
from  the  cocks  in  the  glasses.     The  lur- 


Peacock's  filtering- Apjiaratus. 


Fi^.2. 


A 

B 

C 

A 

B 

C 

FIL 


FIL 


Ijid  walei"  tVom  the  vessel  A,  passes  by 
the  pipe   G,  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
vessel  B,    under  a  spherical  or  conical 
form  of  grating  H,  wliich  is  supported  by 
three  feet  I,  I,  I.     Upon  this  grating  are 
laid  the  several  strata  of  gravel,  or  tlie 
filtering  medium  to  the  height  proper  to 
receive  the  lower  end  of  Uie  alr-pipe  K, 
which  pipe  is  supported  at  the  top  of  the 
gl.'^ss.     Afterwards  the  remainder  of  the 
strata  is  placed  round  the  pipe,  in  proper 
order,  till  a  secure  foundadon  is  obtained 
for  the  finest  stratum,  which  is  the  main 
agent  in  tiie  percolation,  and  is  represent- 
ed at  L.     Upon  this  tiie  others  ai'e  laid, 
but  ia  an  inverse  order,  and  to  sucli  a 
height,  that  tiie  whole  medium  shall  re- 
sist an/  disturbance  from  tlie  pressure  of 
the  co'unui  of  the  water  in  A.     Tlie  air- 
pipe,  I^,  IS  charged  to  a  similar  lieight, 
beginning  with  a  degree  coarser  than  that 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pipe,  leaving  out  the 
finest   sli-alum ;    whence,    as  the    water 
passes   i-om   tiie   vessel  A,  through  G, 
into  the  baviiy  below  H,  in  the  vessel  B, 
the  air  fipm  the  cavity,  and  from  the  in- 
terstices «f  those  strata  whicii   lie  below 
the  end  cf  the  pipe  K,  is  driven  up  the 
said  pipe,  and  permits  the  water  to  rise 
to  the   pije  F,  in    a  filtered   state,  and 
through  wjich  it  passes  into  the  vessel 
C,  fi-om  wlipii  it  is  drawn  by  the  cock  M 
A  portable  apparatus  of  this  kind   will 
serve  for  a  fitnily  of  six  oy  eight  persons. 

When  the  operation  appears  uncom- 
monly languic  it  will  be  proper  to  let  all 
the  vessels  beis  fidl  as  possible,  which 
will  be  in  the  ctirse  of  a  night  ill  its  worst 
state,  and  the  s-xt  morning  a  stop-cock, 
in  the  pipe  G,  aiuy  be  tinned,  and  the 
cock,  N,  opend  to  discharge  all  the 
water  in  the  vest-l  B,  togeilier  witli  as 
much  of  that  in  ^  ;is  shall  be  above  the 
pipe  F.  By  thispeans,  thereilux  of  tlie 
water  carries  do^i  with  it  all  tlie  fecu- 
lences and  obstn^tions,  and  tiie  degree 
of  filtration  is  restred,  as  at  first  Mr. 
Peacock  says,  thatthis  cleansing  is  not 
required  ofcener  tin  five  or  six  times  in 
a  year,  unless  the\)riginal  water  comes 
in  uncommonly  tu>id.  This  cleansing 
may  also,  at  any  ti^,  in  a  few  minutes 
be  effected,  by  shiting  the  cock  at  it, 
and  opening  the  cod  at  O.  All  the  water 
of  the  third  vessel  £Ove  the  pipe  F,  to- 
gether with  the  who  of  the  second  ves- 
sel,  down  to  thepipeV,  would  flow  back, 
and  pass  through  theock  O. 

Fig.  2,  will  coJivejMr.  Peacock's  idea 
of  plans  of  three  ves^?,  made  of  earth, 
stone,  maible,  &c.  herein  the  space, 
A,  represents  the  Wtomless  tube, 
which  is  to  receive  ,he  turbid  water 
from  tlie  pipe,  and  di(><i^rg;e  the  air  from 
VOL.    I. 


tlie  grating,  &c.  under  it.  B,  the  part  iu 
*hich  the  filtenng  medium  is  to  be  f  Isic- 
ed,  and  C,  the  part  to  receive  the  clea.-ed 
water.  The  vessels  of  tiiese  square  forms 
will  require  to  be  well  jomed  or  clamped 
together,  as  circular  forms  aie  not  essen- 
tial. Ingenious  workmen  can  avail  them- 
selves of  this  hint. 

•For  other  ingenious  contrivances  of 
vessels  fo)  sea,  camp,  or  garrison  service, 
as  well  as  a  plan  for  building  a  fitter  to 
supply  a  village  or  dlsa-ict,  we  must  isfer 
the  reader  to  Mr.  Peacock's  ovWl  pub- 
lication. 

A  filtermg  apparatus  for  the  use  of 
large  ships,  was  lately  invented  by  Dr. 
Edward  Cutbush,  and  found  to  answer 
remarkably  well.  A  view  of  the  machme 
may  be  seen  in  Cutbush's  Observations 
on  the  Means  of  Preserving  the  Health 
of  Soldiei's  and  Sailors.  Seveval  contri- 
vances were  invented  for  the  ^ajne  pur- 
pose. Professor  Parrot  of  Paris  lias  made 
.1  machine,  and  given  some  observations 
on  its  use,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  Do- 
mestic Encyclopaedia.  A  machine  was 
invente<l  in  Paris  by  Mr.  Smelt,  v/hich 
purified  water  by  passing  it  through 
sponge,  and  then  through  alternate  fay- 
ers  of  chalk,  sand,  and, charcoal  It  is 
said  that  the  efficacy  of  this  machine  was 
such,  tiiat  water  taken  out  of  the  gutter, 
was  drank  perfectly  pure  in  20  minutes. 

In  addition  tx»  what  we  have  said  on 
this  subject,  the  following  method  of  ap- 
plying tlie  filtering  stone  for  purifying 
water,  by  Mr.  William  Moult,  may  be 
interesting.  Mr  M.  observes,  that  his  ob- 
jections to  the  old  method  of  filtering  by 
jnitting  water  into  the  filtering  stone  are, 
that  tlie  dirt  falls  to  the  bottom,  and  fills 
up,  or  chokes  the  pores  of  the  filtering- 
stone,  so  that  the  stone  requires  fre- 
quently to  be  cleaned  with  a  brush  and 
sponge  to  allow  the  water  to  pass,  after 
which  tlie  water  passes  through  tlie  stone 
in  a  muddy  state  for  two  or  three  days  ; 
it  likewise  requires  to  be  frequently  fiU 
led,  and  as  it  empties,  less  water  comes 
into  contact  witli  the  stone,  and  there- 
fore a  smaller  quantity,  in  such  a  state, 
can  only  pass  through.  Likewise  a  filter- 
ing stone  used  in  the  common  way  soon 
becomes  useless,  from  the  filth  insinuat- 
ing itself  into  the  internal  parts  of  the 
stone,  out  of  the  reach  of  the  brush. 

In  his  method,  tlie  filtering-stone  is  - 
placed  within  the  water  to  be  purified, 
which  presses  upon  the  outside  of  the 
filter,  and  the  stone  does  not  i-equire  to 
be  supported  in  a  frame,  as  it  needs  only 
to  stai'id  within  the  water  cistern  (  it  will 
thus  filter,  in  an  equal  time,  double  the 
quantity  of  water  procured  in  the  com-. 
3  A 


FIR 


FIR 


mon  mode  ;  il  fills  itselti  and  requires  no 
cleaning. 

The  accompanying  certificates  will 
shew  the  importance  of  this  improve- 
ment. 

We,  the  undersigned,  having  inspected 
and  examined  a  new  mode  of"  employing 
the  ordinaiy  filtering-stone,  discovered 
by  William  Moult,  are  of  opinion  that  its 
superiority  over  the  customary  method  is 
80  great  as  to  entitle  it  to  particular 
iwtice. 

That  it  not  only  supplies  an  infinitely 
greater  quantity  of  purified  and  limpid 
water,  bvit  is  capable  of  preserving  its  po- 
rosity free  and  pervious  for  years  toge- 
ther, by  an  occasional  self-operation. 

That  by  this  valuable  process  the  prin- 
cipal objections  to  drip-stones  is  remov- 
ed, viz.  the  constant  labour  they  require 
to  keep  them  clean  by  means  of  brushes, 
without  eventually  producing  the  intend- 


ed effect,  and  without  preventing  their 
being  finally  rendered  useless. 

D'Arcy  I'reston,  captain  in  the  royal 
navy;  Charles  Gower,  M  13.  ;  Thomas 
Pitt,  Esq.  V.  P.  Winipole street;  Richard 
Davenport,  Esq   Wimpole  street. 

Reference  to  the  drawing  of  Mr  Moults 
filtering  apparatus.  Fig.  1,  Plate  2. 

AA  is  the  cistern  containing  the  water 
to  be  filtered;  the  filtering  stone  V.  is 
suspended  in  the  cistern  by  a  ring  around 
the  inside  of  it,  which  catches  the  pro- 
jecting part  of  the  stone ;  the  water  in 
the  cistein  filters  through  into  the  rtone. 
D  is  a  siphon,  which  conveys  the  filtered 
water  from  tlie  inside  of  the  stone  into  a 
cistern  E,  which  is  the  reservoir  fir  clean 
water,  d  a  cock  to  draw  it  off  is  it  is 
wanted.  By  this  mode  of  filtra;ion  the 
impurities  of  the  water  ai'e  deposited  in 
the  bottom  of  the  cisteni  A,  instead  of 
being  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  sUne  as  in 
the  usual  mode. 


A^ 


FINE-STILl,ER,  in  the  distillery,  thp  covings  as  they  are   cried,  is  that  of  an 

{lerson  who  performs  that  branch  of  distil-  upright  plane,  making  _n  angle  with  the 
ing  which  relates  to  the  preparation  of  plane  of  the  back  of  theire-place  of  about 
spirit  from  treacle  or  the  refuse  of  sugar,  135  degi  ees.  Accordig  to  the  present 
in   contradistinction    to   the   «irt/t-*f://er.|  construction   of   chimies,  this  angle   is 


SeeDisTiLLiNC. 

FIRE  DAMP,  in  mining,  is  that  in- 
flammable gas  generated  in  many  mines, 
particularly  coal  pits,  wiiich  often  pro- 
duces most  dreadful  explosions.  It  is 
only  to  be  prevented  by  thorough  ven- 
tilation. 

F1RE-PL.\CES.     Count  Kumfords  im- 


ninety  degrees,  or  foris  a  right  angle ; 
but  as,  in  this  case,  te  two  sides  or  co- 
vings of  the  fire-plac,  A  C,  B  D,  fig  1, 
are  parallel  to  each  )ther,  it  is  evident 
that  they  are  very  ilbontrived  for  thi-ow- 
ing  into  the  room,  \:  reflection,  the  rays 
from  the  fire  whicli  U  on  them 

To   have  a  perfct  idea  of  the  altcra- 


provement  of.  Without  going  into  the  tions,  the  Count  .*oposes  in  the  firt 
merits  of  Count  Runifords  improvements  places,  the  readei  need  only  observe, 
in  the  construction  of  fire  places,  as  they  i  that  the  backs  <  fire-places  as  they^ 
are  suffitientlj  established,  we  shall  only  are  now  commoy  constructed,  are 
subjoin  a  tow  cuts,  with  some  remarks,  I  as  wide  as  the 'Pening  of  the  fire- 
which  we  have  extracted  from  his  useful] place  in  front,  tii  sides  being  perpendi. 
work.  cular  to  it,  and  pallel  to  each  other.   In 

The  following  are  sketches  of  the  Counts  [the  fire-places  hcecommends,  the  back, 
improved  chimney  fire  places.  U  i,  fig.  1,  is  onl  about  one-third  of  tlie 

It  will  be  found  that  the  best  form  for  width  of  the  opiins:  of  the  fire-place  in 
the  vertical  sides  of  a  fire-place,  or  th  e' front,  a  b,  andconsequently,   the  two 


FIR 


FIR 


sides  or  covings  of  die  fire-place,  a  i  and  'oblique  front  towards  the  opening  of  the 
i  ^,  instead  of  being- perpendicular  to  the  chimney,  by  means  of  which  the  ra\-s 
back,  ai-e  inclined  to  it  in  an  angle  of  which  they  reflect  ai-e  thrown  into  the 
about  135  de.^i  ees ;  and  in  consequence  room.  A  bare  inspection  of  the  sketches, 
of  this  position,  instead  of  being  parallel  fig.  1  and  2,  will  render  this  matter  very 
to  each  other,  each  of  them  presents  anjintelligible. 

Fig-  -1  

|^;^!li!^lf;lp«f^lytl!!l^l!il^^ll'■ii^;^H^;ll'l^vli^'l'Iii^^ 


It  will  be  proper  to  begin  by  explaining 
the  precise  meaning  of  all  those  technical 
words  and  expressions  which  we  find  it 
necessary  to  use. 

Bv  t'.ie  .hroat  of  a  chimney,  we  mean 
the  lo'Acr  extremity  of  its  canal,  where 
it  unites  with  the  upper  part  of  its  open 
fire-place.  This  is  commonly  formed  about 
a  foot  above  the  level  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  mantle  -,  and  it  is  Sometimes-  con- 
tracted to  a  smaller  size  than  the  rest  of 
the  canal  of  tlie  chimnt-y. 

Fig  3.  shews  the  section  of  a  chunney 


on  the  common  construction,  in  which 
d  e  is  the  throat 

Fig.  4.  shews  the  section  of  the  same 
chimney  altered  and  improved,  in  which 
d  lis  the  reduced  throat. 

The  breast  of  a  chimney  is  that  part  of 
it  which  is  behind  the  mantle.  It  is  the 
wall  which  forms  the  entrance  from  be- 
low into  the  throat  of  tlie  chimney  in  front, 
or  towards  the  room  ;  it  is  opposite  to  the 
upper  extremity  of  the  back  of  the  open 
fire-place,  and  parallel  to  it ;  in  short,  it 
may  be  said  te  be  th«  back  part  of  the 


FIR 


FIS 


jnanrte  Itself     In  fig.  3  it  is  marked  by 

the  Vet'cr  e  and  by  rfui  fig  4.  The  width 
ot'tlje  throal  of  the  chiiiuicy,  i/  e,  fig.  3, 
and  't  /,  fig.  4,  is  lake.ii  from  the  breast  of 
the  chi'T\ney  to  the  back,  and  its  Icngtli  is 
taken  at  lighi  angleu  to  its  wiilth,  o;-  in  a 
line  pa  allel  lo  the  muntle,  a,  fiu^.  -^  and  4 
Directions  fur  tayiu^  out  tkc  luori. — [f 
there  be  a  grate  in  tl.e  chimney,  wlhcl^  is 
to  be  altered,  it  will  always  oe  best  to 
take  it  away  ;  and,  when  tliis  is  done,  iht 
rubbisli  mr'y  be  removed,  and  the  hearth 
swept  peilecLly  c'.enn. 

Suppose  tile  annexed  figure,  fig.  1,  to 
repvesent  the  ground-jjlan  of  such  a  fire- 
place ;  A  B  being  the  opening  of  it  in  froiit 
A  C  and  B  D  the  two  sides  or  covings, 
and  C  li  the  back. 

Fig  3.  shews  the  elevation  of  this  fire- 
place. 

First  draw  a  straight  line  with  chalk, 
or  wiih  a  lead  pencil,  upon  the  hearth 
from  one  jamb  to  the  other,  even  with  the 
front  of  the  jambs.  The  dotted  line,  a,  b, 
fig.  1,  may  represent  this  line. 

From  tiie  middle,  c,  of  this  line,  o  b, 
another  line  c  d,  is  to  be  drawn  perjiendi- 
cular  to  it,  across  the  hcarih",  to  the  mid- 
dle, d,  of  the  back  <S"  the  cliimney. 

A  person  must  now  stand  upright  in 
the  chimney,  with  his  back  to  the  back  of 
the  chimne}, and  hold  a  piumb-line  to  the 
middle  of  the  iijiper  part  of  the  hi'east 
of  tiie  cliimney,  e,  fig.  3,  or  where  the  ca- 
nal of  the  cliimney  begins  to  rise  perjjcn- 
dicularly;  taking' care  to  place  the  line 
above  in  sucli  a  manne.*,  that  the  jiiunib 
may  fall  on  the  line,  c  (/,  fig.  1 ,  drawn  on 
the  hearth  fiom  the  middle  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  chimney  in  front  to  the  middle 
of  the  back,  arid  an  assista.)t  must  mark 
the  precise  place  e,  on  that  Une  where  the 
plumb  falls. 

This  being  done,  and  the  person  in  Ihc 
chinmey  having  quilted  his  station  ;  four 
inches  are  to  be  set  off  on  the  line  c  d  fig. 
1,  from  e,  towards  d ;  and  the  pohit  f 
where  these  four  inches  a^d  (wiiich  must 
be  marked  witli  chalk,  or  with  a  pencil) 
will  siiew  how  far  the  hew  back  is  to  be 
brought  forward. 

Through y,  draw  the  line  g  A,  parallel 
to  the  liuL'  a  b,  and  tliis  line,^  h,  will  shew 
tjje  direction  of  tlie  new  back,  or  the 
tnxjund-line  upon  which  it  is  to  be  built. 

The  line  cj',  will  shew  tiie  depth  of  the 
new  fire-place;  and  if  it  shouid  happen 
that  cy  is  equal  to  about  one-third  of  the 
line  a  b ;  and  if  the  grate  can  be  accom- 
modated to  the  firc-i)lace,  instead  of  its 
being  necessary  to  accommodate  the  fire- 
jilace  to  the  grate;  in  that  case  half  the 
length  of  die  line  cf,  is  to  be  set  oil'  fiom 
yon  the  line^y  f>,  on  the  one  side  to  ^, 


and  on  the  otlier  to  »,  and  then  the  Un*, 
i  k,  will  shew  the  ground-line  of  the  fore- 
\)art  of  the  back  of  the  chimney. 

In  all  cases  where  the  width  of  tlie 
o]>er.ing  of  the  fire-place  in  front,  A  B, 
happens  to  be  not  greater,  <  r  not  more 
than  two  or  three  inches  greater,  than 
three  times  the  width  of  the  new  b.vck  of 
the  chimney  i  k,  this  opemng  may  be  left, 
and  lines  ch-awn  from  i  to  A,  and  from  k 
"o  1),  v.-iil  shew  the  widtli  and  position  of 
tiie  front  of  the  new  c  '  ings  :  hut  when 
the  opening  of  ihe  fii-' -ijluce  i'"  ftonr  is 
Slid  wider,  it  must  he  '-educed;  which 
is  to  be  done  in  lUe  following  iT.anner: 

From  c,  the  middle  (■{  t!ie  line,  n  b,  c  d 
and  c  b  must  be  set  of^eqiet  U)  the  width 
of  the  back  i  /t,aaded  to  lu.lf  il^  v.id,h/i, 
and  then  lines  drawn  from  /  ton,;,nL:  fiom 
k  to  b,  will  shew  tlie  ground-plan  of  the 
fronts  of  the  new  covings. 

When  this  is  done,  nothing  more  will 
be  necessary  than  to  build  up  Jie  back 
and  covings  ;  and,  if  the  fire-place  be  de- 
signed for  burning  coals,  to  fix  the  grate 
in  its  proper  place,  according  to  the  di- 
rections already  given.  When  the  vidth 
of  the  fire-place  is  reduced,  the  edges  of 
the  codings  a  A  and  b  B  are  to  make  a 
finish  witli  the  front  of  the  jamhs.  And 
in  general  it  will  be  btst,  not  only  for  tlie 
sake  of  the  appearance  of  the  chimney, 
but  fur  other  reasons  also,  to  lower  the 
height  of  the  opening  of  the  fire,  wiien- 
ever  its  width  in  front  is  diminished. 

Fig.  2,  shews  a  front  viev/  of  the 
ch  mney  after  it  has  been  altered  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  here  p-iven. 
By  comparing  it  with  ABC  1),  tig.  1, 
which  shews  a  section  of  the  same  cliim- 
ney before  it  was  altered,  the  manner  in 
which  the  opening  of  die  fire-places  in 
iront  is  dimuiished  may  be  seen.  In  fig. 
2,  the  under  part  of  the  dooi'-way,  by 
which  the  chimney-sweeper  gels  up  the 
chimney,  is  represented  by  white  dotted 
lines.  The  door-way  is  represented  as 
closed . 

FllUNG-lRON  in  Farriery^  an  instru- 
ment used  for  cauterising  and  discussing 
preternatural  swelling's  See  Fakuiery. 
FiSH  SOAP,  is  a  kind  of  soap  lately 
attempted  to  be  introduced  in  m;inufac- 
lures,  made  by  ilissolving  refuse  fish  of  all 
kinds  in  caustic  alkali      See  Soap. 

FlSH-OlL,  {Purification  of,  according  lo 
Dorsie. 

Process  the  First — For  purifying  fish-oil, 
in  a  moderate  degree,  and  at  a  very  little 
expence. 

Take  an  ounce  of  chidk  in  powder,  and 
half  an  ounce  of  lime,  slacked  by  exposure 
to  the  air  ;  put  them  into  a  gallon  of  stink- 
ing oil,  and  having  nu.\ed  them  well  toge- 


FIS 


FIS 


Lher  by  stirring,  add  halt'  a  pint  of  water, 
and  mix  that  alse  with  them,  by  the  same 
means  When  they  have  stood  an  hour 
or  two,  repeat  tlie  stirring,  and  continue 
the  same  treatment  at  different  inter^'als, 
tor  two  or  three  days  ;  after  which  super- 
add a  pint  and  a  half  of  water,  in  wliich  an 
ounce  of  salt  had  been  dissolved,  and  mix 
them  as  the  other  ingredients,  repeating 
the  stirring  as  before  for  a  day  or  two. 
Let  the  whole  stand  at  rest,  and  the  wa- 
er  wil'i  sink  below  die  oil,  and  tiie  chalk 
subside  in  it  to  the  bottom  of  tUe  vessel. 
The  oil  will  become  clear,  be  of  a  lighter 
colour,  and  have  considerably  lt;?s  suitli, 
but  will  not  be  pui'ihed  in  a  maimer  equal 
to  wiiat  is  effected  by  the  othei-  processes 
below  ^ven ;  though  as  this  is  done  at 
the  expense  cf  onh-  one  ounce  of  salt,  it 
may  be  practised  advantageously  for 
mpoj'  jiuvposes,  especii-iiy  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  iiie  :\fS:  method,  the  operation 
will  be  tiiereb}-  facilitated. 

Process  the  second. — To  purify,  to  a  great 
tlegrce,  hsh-oii  without  heat. 

Take  a  gallon  of  crude  stinking  oil,  or 
rather  such  as  has  been  prepared  as 
aboveaientio'ied,  and  add  to  it  an  ounce 
of  powdered  caaik  ;  stir  them  well  toge- 
ther several  tirtici,  as  in  tiie  preceding 
process  ;  and  after  they  have  been  nnixed 
some  hours  or  a  whole  day,  add  an  ounce 
of  pearl  ashes,  dissolved  in  four  ounces  of 
water,  and  repeat  the  stu-ring  as  before. 
After  they  have  been  so  ti-eated  for  some 
hours,  put  in  a  pint  of  water  in  which  two 
ounces  of  salt  are  dissolved,  and  pro- 
ceed as  before  :  the  oil  and  brine  will  se- 
parate on  standing  some  days,  and  the  oil 
will  be  greatly  improved  both  in  smell 
and  colour.  AVher<;  a  greater  purity  is 
required,  the  quantity  of  pearl  ashes  must 
be  increased,  and  the  time  before  the  ad- 
dition of  the  salt  and  water  prolonged. 

If  the  same  proportion  is  repeated  seve- 
ral times,  diminishing  each  time  the  quan- 
tity i)f  ingredients  one  half,  the  oil  may 
be  brought  to  a  ver}'  ligiit  colour,  and 
rendered  equally  sweet  in  smell  with  the 
common  spermaceti  oil.  By  tliis  process 
the  cod-oil  may  be  made  to  burn  ;  and 
when  it  is  so  putrid  as  not  to  be  fit  for 
any  use,  either  alone  or  mixed,  it  may  be 
so  corrected  by  the  first  part  of  the  pro- 
cess, as  to  be  equal  to  that  commonly 
sold  :  but  where  this  process  is  practised 
in  tiie  case  of  such  putiid  oil,  use  half  an 
ounce  of  lime. 

Process  the  third. — To  purify  fish  oil 
with  the  assistance  of  heat,  where  the 
gi-eutest  purity  is  required,  and  particu- 
larly for  the  woollen  manufacture. 

Take  a  gallon  of  cmide  stinking  oil,  and 
mix  it  with  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  pow- 


dered chalk,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
lime,  slacked  in  the  an*,  and  half  a  pint  •= 
of  water ;  stir  them  together ;  and  when 
they  have  stood  some  h)ijrs,  add  a  pint 
of  water  and  two  our.ces  of  peavi-a.shes, 
and  place  them  over  a  fire  that  will  just 
keep  them  simmering,  till  the  oil  appears 
of  a  liglu  amber  colour,  and  has  lost  all 
smell  except  a  hot  greasy,  soap-like  scent. 
Ihen  superadd  half  a  pint  of  water,  in 
wiiich  an  ounce  <.f  salt  has  been  dissolved  ; 
and  having  boiled  them  half  an  hour,  pour 
tliem  into  a  proper  vessel,  and  let  them 
stand  till  the  separation  of  the  oil,  water 
and  lime  be  made,  as  in  the  preceding 
process.  When  this  operation  is  per- 
formed to  prepare  oil  for  the  woollen  ma- 
nufacture tlie  salt  may  be  omitted ;  but 
the  separation  of  the  lime  from  the  oil 
will  be  slower,  and  a  longer  boiling  will 
be  necessary. 

If  the  oil  be  required  to  be  yet  more 
pure,  treat  it,  after  it  is  separated  from 
the  water,  .&c.  according  to  the  second 
process  witli  an  ounce  of  chalk,  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce  of  pearl  ashes  and  half  an 
ounce  of  chalk. 

In  his  observations  on  these  difTerent 
processes  the  author  apprises  us,  that  pro- 
cess the  first  will  render  oils  more  fit  for 
burning,  which  are  in  that  point  faulty, 
and  is  of  use  merely  when  a  moderate 
improvement  is  required.  Tiiat  when 
the  oil  is  taken  from  the  dregs  and  brine, 
the  dregs  should  hkewise  be  taken  ofi' 
and  put  into  another  vessel  of  a  deep 
form,  fresh  water  added,  and  stuTcd  with 
them,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  oil  will  separate  from 
the  foulness ;  or  the  dregs  may  be  put  to 
any  future  quantity  of  oil  tliat  is  to  be 
edulcorated  by  this  method,  which  will 
answer  the  same  purpose. 

Process  the  tlmd  he  says  is  best  for 
train  oil,  called  vicid  whale  oil ;  and  the 
more  putrid  and  foul,  the  greater  the  pro- 
portional improvement,  especially  if  there 
be  no  mixture  of  the  other  kinds  of  fish- 
oils,  particularly  the  seal,  which  do  not 
admit  of  being  edulcorated  by  heat.  Oil 
thus  purified  will  burn  without  leaving 
any  remains  of  foulness,  and  being  more 
fluid  than  before,  will  go  further  when 
used  in  woollen  manufacture,  and  be  more 
easily  severed  from  tiie  wool. 

If  a  more  thick  oil  be  wanted,  a  certain 
proportion  of  tallow  or  fat  may  be  added, 
and  kitchen  stuff,  which  will  dissolve  in 
oil  moderately  heated.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary to  vary  the  proportions  of  the  ingre- 
dients, if  the  oil  be  very  vicid,  as  the 
quantity  above  stated  is  tlie  least  that  will 
be  suitable.  If  in  six  or  eight  hours  sim« 
meriiig  the  oil  does  not  appearto  behn- 


FLr 


FLI 


proving,  a  fourth  or  third  part  of  the  ori- 
"ginal  >juantity  may  bt;  added  Fi-esh  ad- 
ditions of  water  must  be  made  as  the 
quanuty  is  lessened  by  evaporation.  If  it 
be  iiiconvuiienl  lO  give  the  whole  time  of 
boihng  at  once,  the  Hre  may  go  out  and 
be  rekindled  at  any  distance  of  lime,  and 
a  small  proportion  of  ;jcarl  ashes  dissolv- 
ed in  water  being  added  and  stirred  in  be- 
tween the  time  of  boiling  wiii  facilitate  the 
operation. 

Process  the  fourth. — Wliich  may  be 
practised  instead  of  piocess  Uie  first,  as 
it  will  purity  fish-oil  to  a  considerable  de- 
gree, and  for  process  the  third  when  tlie 
whole  is  performed 

Take  a  gallon  of  cfude  fetid  oil,  and 
put  it  to  a  pint  of  water,  poured  from  two 
ounces  of  lime  slacked  in  the  air;  let 
them  stand  together,  and  stir  iheni  seve- 
ral times  for  the  first  twenty-four  hours; 
tiien  let  them  stand  a  day,  and  the  lime 
water  will  sink  below  the  oil,  which  must 
be  carefully  separated  from  tliem.  'i'his 
oil,  if  not  sufficiently  purified,  to  be  treated 
as  in  process  the  third,  diminish  the 
quantity  oi"  pearl  ashes  to  one  ounce  and 
omit  the  lime  and  chalk. 

The  dregs  remaining  af'.er  the  sundry 
proceases  above  mentic^ned,  will  fiirm  an 
excellent  niunuie,  as  lias  been  since  no- 
ticed in  IJr.  Hunter's  GeorgicaJ  Essays. 

FiSM  (jLl'E. —  See  CJelatine. 

FIXEU  AIR.— This  air,  called  fixed  by 
Dr.  Ijlack,  and  carbonic  acid  gas  by  mo- 
dern chemists,  is  a  compound  of  carbon, 
oxygen,  and  caloric.  Carbonic  acid  gas  ex- 
ists in  limestone,  marble,  chalk,  stalactite, 
Sic.  from  which  it  is  disengaged  by  the 
addition  of  acids,  as  the  sulpjiuric,  nitric, 
8iC.  As  it  is  found  in  cellars,  wells,  ike 
and  as  it  is  deleterious  to  aiiimal  life,  its 
presence  may  be  known  by  letting  down 
alighted  taper;  which,  if  extinguished, 
mdicates  this  gas  It  may  ue  removed  by 
throwing  (piicklime  into  the  well  or  cel- 
lar, as  this  has  the  property  of  absorbing  it, 
or  otiierwise  reudering  it  fixed  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  lime. 

FL.\KES  are  certain  pigments  used  in 
painting,   such    as  jiake   lukite,  Sac.     See 

Cor.OUK-MAKI  NG. 

FLANEL,  or  FLANNEL,  a  kind  of 
light,  loose,  woollen  stuff,  composed  of  a 
woof  aiul  warp,  and  wove  in  a  loom  with 
two  treddles,  after  the  maimer  of  lays. 
See  Weaving. 

FLAX.     See  Agriculture. 

FLINT.     Futnttin.     Wern. 

The  colour  of  this  mineral  is  smoak- 
grey,  of  different  shades,  passing  into 
greyish-black,  and  almost  perfect  black, 
or  yellowish-grey,  passing  into  yellowish- 
white,  wine  and  ochre  yellow  ;  it  also  oc- 


curs blueish-grey,  yellowish  and  reddish- 
brown.  Two  or  more  colours,  are  often 
found  in  the  same  specimen,  forming 
points,  spo.s,  clouds,  or  stripes  It  gene- 
rally also  exhibits  opake  white  spots.  It 
occurs  in  mass,  disseminated,  in  angular 
grains  and  fragments,  in  globular  and  tu- 
bercular masses,  or  carious,  and  amor- 
plioiis,  sometimes  also  in  pseudo-crystals, 
cit  hcrpyrair.idal  or  pnsmaiic  moulded  on 
calcareous  spar.  Italso constitutes  the  sub- 
stance of  various  petrifactions  as  echinites, 
earths  and  coralloids.  Its  external  lustre 
is  casual,  internally  it  is  glimmering.  Its 
fiacturc  is  perfectly  conchoidal :  it  breaks 
into  indetermin.itely  angular  and  very 
sharp-edged  fragnients.  It  sometimes, 
thougli  rarely,  occurs  in  lamellar  distinct 
concretions.  !i  is  translucent,  varying  iii 
degree,  accoiding  to  the  depth  of  clour, 
the  very  light-grey  varieties  being  semi- 
transpaient.  Its  hardness  is  a  little  great- 
er than  tliat  of  quartz,  it  is  easily  frangible 
in  any  direction.     Sp.gr.  2.58  to  2.59. 

When  exposed  to  the  blow-pipe  it  be- 
coiues  of  an  opake-white,  but  is  wholly 
infusible  without  addition.  By  being 
heated  red  hot  in  a  distillatory  apparatus, 
it  yields  from  one  to  two  per  cent,  of  a 
soiiiewhat  emjnreumalic  water,  and  a  lit- 
tle carbonic  acid.  If  projected  on  fused 
nitre,  it  gives  out  a  few  sparks,  accompa- 
nied by  a  sli.^lit  detonation.  It  has  been 
analysed  by  Klaproiii  and  Vauquelin,  with 
the  following  results. 

Klap.  Vauq. 

Silex       .    .     98.    —     97. 

Lime       .     .       0.5  —       0. 

Alumine       .       0.25 '}        ^ 

O.vydoflron      0.283 

Loss       .     .     .  1.     _       2, 


100 


liO 


The  cloudy  and  opake  greyish  specks 
which  frequently  occur  in  this  mineral, 
contain,  according  to  "\  auquelin,  from  two 
to  five  pel*  cent,  of  carbonated  lime,  and 
the  white  opake  cru.'it  with  which  those 
specimens  are  covered  that  are  taken  im- 
mediately outof  chalk,  consists,  according 
to  the  same  able  chemist  of 

Silex 86.42 

Oxydofiron  ...  123 
Carbonated  Lime  .  9.88 
Loss 2.47 

100  .  . 

Flint  occurs  sometimes,  though  rarels', 
in  primitive  rocks  forming  veins,  but  when 
belonging  to  this  foi  mation  its  fracture  has 
a  tendency  to  splinteiy,  and  is  less  easily 
frangible  llian  common  flint,  and  in  fact, 


FLI 


FLI 


appears  to  be  a  variety  of  hornstone  pas- 
sinj^  into  chalcedony-  Common  flint  oc- 
curs in  rounded  pebbles,  conslituiing^  the 
greater  part  of  the  extens've  beds  of  g-ra- 
vel,  which  accompany  the  ranges  of  cJialk 
Jiills,  but  here  it  is  evidently  worn  by  at- 
trition and  disposed  in  a  fortuitous  irre- 
gular manner.  It  is  only  in  the  chulk 
hills  themselves,  tliat  it  appears  in  its  na 
tive  repository  :  here  it  is  disposed  in  re- 
gular beds  alternating  witli  the  chalk ; 
and  detached  masses  are  often  enveloped 
in  the  chalk  itself  A  bed  of  flint  is  ne- 
ver a  continuous  stratum,  but  is  composed 
of  irregular  flattened  nodules,  with  tubei- 
cular  or  long  pi-ojecting  processes,  each 
separated  from  the  other  by  ochery  chalk 
i— yet  the  whole  bed  preserves  its  paral- 
lelism very  exactly-  Many  nodules  are 
hollow,  and  if  the  cavity  communicates 
with  the  outide,  are, for  the  most  part,  fil- 
led with  chalk  ;  but,  if  there  is  no  exter- 
nal aperture,  the  hollow  is  lined  with  mi- 
nute pyramids  of  quartz,  or  tubercles  of 
chalcedony. 

These  flints,  which  burn  to  a  pure 
white  colour,  are  emjjloyed  in  the  finfer 
kinds  of  pottery.  The  light  coloured 
flints  are  made  into  gun-flints,  for  which 
they  are  admirably  qualified  by  the 
vivacity  of  sparks,  which  they  yield 
on  collision  with  steel,  and  from  tlie  case 
with  which  they  are  manufactured  Flints 
occur  in  abundance  in  the  United  States. 
Dolomieu  has  given  an  excellent  treatise 
on  the  art  of  making  gun-flints,  which  we 
have  abridged. 

Instruments. 

The  instruments  used  for  fashioning 
the  gini-flints,  are  four  in  number  : 

1.  A  small  piece  of  iron  or  mace,  with 
a  square  head,  the  weight  of  which  does 
not  exceed  two  pounds,  or,  perhaps  a 
pound  and  a  half,  witii  a  handle,  seven  or 
eight  inches  long.  1  liis  instrument  is  not 
made  of  steel,  because  if  it  were  too  hard, 
its  stroke  might  shatter  the  flint,  instead 
of  breaking  it  by  a  clear  fractiu'e. 

2  A  hammer  with  two  p<^)int,s.  in  which 
the  position  of  the  points  is  of  conse- 
quence as  to  the  nature  of  the  stroke 
This  hammer  must  be  of  good  steel 
well  hardened,  and  does  nut  vveigli 
more  than  sixteen  oimces  ;  some  do  not 
exceed  ten.  It  is  fixed  on  a  handle  seven 
inches  long,  which  passes  thiough  it  in 
such  a  manner,  that  the  points  of  the 
hammer  are  nearer  the  hand  of  the  work- 
man, than  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 


mass.  The  form  and  size  of  the  hammers 
of  difierent  workman  vary  a  little,  but 
this  disposition  of  the  points  is  common  to 
them  all,  and  is  of  consequence  to  the 
force  and  certainty  of  the  blow. 

3.  A  little  instrument  named  Roulette 
(roller)  which  represents  a  solid  wheel, 
or  segment  of  a  cylinder,  two  inclies  and 
one  third  in  diameter.  Its  weight  does 
not  exceed  twelve  ounces  ;  it  is  made  of 
steeij  pot  hardened,  and  is  fixed  on  a 
small  handle  six  inches  long,  wliich  pas- 
ses through  a  square  hole  in  its  centre. 

4.  A  cliissel  beveUedon  both  sides,  se- 
ven or  eight  inches  long,  and  two  inches 
wide,  of  steel  not  hardened;  it  is  set  on 
tiie  block  of  wood  which  serves  as  a  work 
bench,  out  of  which  it  rises  to  the  i.eight 
o<  four  or  five  inches.  To  these  four  in- 
■-truments  we  may  add  a  file,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  I'estoring  the-  edge  of  the  chissel 
tiom  time  to  time. 

'f/ie  process  : 

After  selecting  a  good  mass  of  silex, 
the  whole  operation  may  be  divided  into 
four  manipulations. 

1.  To  break  tlie  block.  The  workman 
being  seated  on  the  grotmd,  places  the 
(lint  on  his  left  thigh,  and  strikes  it  gently 
with  the  larger  hammer,  to  divide  it  into 
portions  according  to  its  size,  that  is  to 
say,  of  about  a  pound  and  a  half  each, 
with  broad  surfaces  iiearly  flat.  He  is 
careful  not  to  crack  or  produce  shakes  in 
the  flint  by  striking  it  too  hard. 

2.  To  cleave  the  flint,  or  break  it  into 
scales.  The  principal  ojieration  of  this  art 
is  to  cleave  the  flint  well :  that  is  to  say, 
to  separate  from  it  pieces  of  the  length, 
thicknes-i,  and  figure,  adapted,  to  be  af- 
teiwards  fashioned  into  gun-flints  ;  andin 
this  part  the  greatest  degree  of  address, 
and  certainty  of  manipulation  are  requir- 
ed Tlic  sKme  has  no  particulai"  direction 
in  which  it  can  be  most  easily  broken. 
The  course  of  its  fracture  depends  entire- 
ly upon  the  choice  of  the  workman.  In 
this  process  he  holds  a  piece  of  flint  in 
his  left  hand,  not  supported,  and  strikes 
with  the  hammer,  on  the  broad  faces  pro- 
duced by  the  first  fracture,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  cliip  off  the  white  coating  of  the 
stone  in  small  scales,  and  to  l.iy  bare  the 
silex  in  the  manner  represented,  fig.  1.  : 
after  which  he  continues  to  strike  oft' 
other  similar  portions  of  tiie  pure  silex. 
These  pieces  are  nearly  an  inch  and  a  half 
wide,  two  inches  and  a  half  long,  and  one 
sixtli  of  an  inch  thick  in  the  middle. 


FU 


Fig.  2. 


Mm 

mm 


Fig.  3. 


They  are  slightly  convex  within,  and 
consequently  leave  "  a  space  somewhat 
concave,  terminating  longitudmaU)-  m  two 
lines,  somewhat  projecting,  and  nearly 
strait.  Tlie  prominent  edges  produced 
bv  the  fracture  of  t!ie  first  scales,  must  af- 
terwards constitute  nearly  the  middle  ot 
the  subsequent  pieces  ;  and  those  pieces 
only,  in  wliich  they  are  found,  can  be  used 
to  foi-m  gun-flints. 

In  this  manner  the  operator  continues 
lo  cleave,  or  scale  tlie  stone  in  different 
directions,  until  the  natural  defects  of  the 
mass  render  it  impossible,  to  make  the 
fractures  required,  or  until  the  piece  is 
reduced  too  much  to  receive  the  small 
blows  which  separate  the  pieces. 

3.  To  fashion  the  fiint.  . 

The  gun-flint,  fig.  3.  may  be  distm- 
iruislied  into  five  parts  ;  namely,  1.  The 
edsre,  or  bevel  part,  which  strikes  the, 
hummer  or  steel.  This  is  two  or  three: 
twelfths  of  an  inch  in  width  It  it  were 
broader  it  would  be  too  liahle  to  break  ;| 
and  if  more  obtuse,  it  would  not  afford  a 
brisk  fire.  2dly.  The  side  edges,  \^■\^^c\^ 
are  always  somewhat  irregular.  ocl  y. 
The  back  edge,  most  remote  from  the 
hammer  wliere  the  stone  possesses  its  in- 
tire  thickness.  4thly.  The  under  surface, 
which  is  smooth  and  slightly  convex. 
And  5thlv.  The  upper  face,  which  is 
sli!>-htly  concave,  and  receives  the  action 
.>f  tlie  upper  claw  of  the  cock,  in  which  it 
is" fixed  for  service. 

In  order  to  fashion  the  stone,  those 
scales  or  chips  are  selected,  winch  have 
at  least,  one  longitudinal  prominent  an- 
srle  One  uf  llu^  two  edges  is  fixed  on  to 
form  th(^strikh.g  edge- ;  after  wh'd.,  the 
uvo  sides  of  the  stone  which  are  to  form 
the  side  edges,  and  tliat  winch  is  to  form 
the  hinder  edge,  are  successively  placed 
M-ith  the  convex  surface  upon  the  edge  of 
,he  chisscl,  M'hich  is  supported  with  the 


fore-finger  of  the  left  hand,  at  the  same 
time  tliat  a  small  blow  or  two  is  given 
above  the  point  of  support  with  the  Rou- 
lette, by  which  the  stone  breaks  exactly 
along  the  edge  of  the  ciiissel,  as  if  it  had 
been  cut-  In  this  manner  the  sides  and 
posterior  edge  of  tlie  stones  are  made.  _ 

4  The  stone  being  thus  reduced  to  its 
proper  figure,  the  finishing  operation  con- 
sists  in  completing  its  edge  in  a  straiglit 
line  For  this  purpose,  the  stone  is  turn- 
ed, and  tlie  imder  flat  part  of  the  edge  is 
placed  on  the  chissel,  in  which  situation  it 
is  completed  by  five  or  six  small  strokes  • 
with  the  Roulette.  . 

The  whole  operation  of  fashionmg  a 
gun-flint,'  is  pertijrmed  in  less  tlian  one 

minute.  , 

A  good  workman  can  prepare  a  thou- 
sand good  chips  or  scales  in  a  day,  if  his 
flints  "be  uf  good  quality,  and  he  can  also 
fashion  five  hundred  gun-ffints  in  a  day  ; 
conseqwently,  in  three  days,  he  will  cleave 
and  finish  a  thousand  gun-flints  witnout 
fiirilier  assistance. 

This  manufacture  leaves  a  great  quan- 
tity of  refuse  ;  that  is  to  say,  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  wi;-.)le  sione.  •  For  there  are 
not  more  than  hall  the  scales  which  prove 
to  be  well  figured,  and  nearly  half  the 
mass  in  the  Ust  flinti  is  incapable  of  he- 
ir."' chipped  out:  so  that  it  seldom  hap- 
pt^is  that  the  largest  piece  will  ifford 
inure  than  nftv  gun.fhnts.  The  larger 
pieces  of  refuse  arc  sold  ibr  the  cuhnary 
puipose  of -^t 'iking  a  light. 

The  gun-flints  wlun  ccnnpleted  .ire 
soru-d  cut,  and  sold  al  different  pi  ices, 
according  to  their  degrees  of  perfection, 
from  4  to  6  decimes  (or  pencej  the  hun- 
dred  They  are  ci.-.ssed  into  fine  flints  and 
coinmon  Hints;  and,  according  to  J.eir 
applicaUon,  into  flints  for  pistols,  fowling 
pieces,  and  muskets. 


FLU 


FOl 


FLOORS  earthen.  Earthen  floors  are 
commonly  made  of  loam,  and  sometimes, 
especially  to  make  malt  on,  of  lime,  biouk- 
sand,  and  anvil  dust  from  the  foi-ge.  Ox 
blood,  and  fine  clay  mixed  together,  it  is 
said  will  produce  a  g-ood  floor  If  two 
thii'ds  of  lime,  and  one  of  coal  ashes  well 
sifted,  with  a  small  quantity  of  loam,  be 
mixed  and  tempered  with  w  ater,  and  laid 
on  the  ground  with  a  trowel  2^  or  3  incii- 
es  thick,  an  excellent  earthen  floor  will 
be  formed.  Foi-  elegance,  coloured  piais- 
ter  is  recommended. 

FLOUU,  the  powder  of  wheat,  rye, 
corn,  &c.  As  grain  contains,  be.sides  fe- 
cula,  or  starch,  a  quantity  of  gluten  and 
saccharine  matter,  which  may  be  several- 
ly separated  by  agitating  it  in  cold  water, 
it  is  obvious,  that  the  use  of  warm  water, 
yeast,  &.c,  in  the  making  of  bread,  con- 
sists in  decomposing  it,  and  changing  its 
substance  into  an  article,  known  by  the 
name  of  bread.  We  have  noticed  the 
different  processes  necessary  for  this  pur- 
pose. See  S  r ARCH,  Spirit,  Fermen- 
tation, &c 

FLUMMKRY,  an  article  of  food,  pre- 
pared by  boiling  oatmeal  in  water ;  to 
which,  after  boiling,  sugar  and  orange 
flower  water  are  added 

FLUOR  SPAR,  called  also  Derbyshire 
spar,  and  fluate  of  lime.  This  spar,  which 
is  composed  of  fluoric  acid  and  lime,  is 
employed  in  obtaining  fluoric  acid  for 
etching  on  glass  (which  see) ;  as  a  flux 
for  the  reduction  of  various  metallic  ores  ; 
and,  when  massive  and  of  a  sufficient 
size,  solidhy,  and  beauty,  for  ornamental 
objects,  suclias  vases,  basons, obelisks,  &c. 

This  manufacture  is  entirely  confined 
to  Derbyshire,  no  other  part  of  the 
world  aflbrding  fluor  sufficiently  com- 
pact for  this  purpose.  The  fluor  that  is 
manufactured,  commonly  called  Derby- 
shire spar,  is  found  only  in  one  mine  a  lit- 
tle to  the  west  ot  Castleton ;  it  there  oc- 
curs in  veins  and  detached  masses  from 
three  inches  to  a  foot  in  thickness.  The 
method  of  manufactui-ing  it  is  as  follows. 

When  the  fluor  is  intended  to  be  work- 
ed into  a  vase  or  the  like  article,  a  piece 
is  selected  fit  for  the  purpose,  and  if,  after 
minute  examination  it  be  found  free  from 
defects,  it  is  carved  with  a  mallet  and 
chissel  into  a  spherical  form,  and  then 
fixed  on  a  chock  with  an  exceedingly 
strong  cement.  The  chock  is  then  screw- 
ed on  the  lathe,  a  slow  motion  is  pro- 
duced and  water  continually  drops  on  the 
stone  to  keep  tlie  tool  cold,  which  is  at 
first  applied  with  great  care.  This  tool 
is  a  piece  of  the  best  steel,  about  two 
feet  long  and  half  an  inch  square ;  it  is 
reduced  to  a  point  at  each  end,  and  tem- 
VOL.  I, 


pered  to  suit  the  work.  As  the  surface 
becomes  smoother  the  tool  is  applied 
more  boldly  and  the  motion  much  quic- 
kened, lill  the  piece  of  fluor  be  reduced  to 
as  intended  form. 

Tiie  piece  being  thus  formed  and  ren- 
dered smootli  by  the  steel  Instruments, 
in  order  to  render  it  fit  to  receive  a  polish, 
a  coarse  stone  is  applied  v.ith  water  so 
long  as  the  smoothness  is  improved  by 
these  means  ;  then  finer  grit-stone,  pum- 
ice, &c.  till  tiie  piece  be  sufficiently 
smooth  to  receive  coarse  emery,  and  af- 
terwards fine  emery.  If  with  the  latter 
it  appear  of  a  good  shining  gloss,  then  the 
finest  putty  is  employed  for  a  considera* 
ble  length  of  time,  till  the  polish  be  as 
bright  as  possible,  which  is  known  by 
throwing-  water  on  it.  If  the  part  thus 
watered  appear  higher  polished  than  the 
rest,  the  polishing  is  continued  till  water 
will  not  heighten  the  appearance. 

The  advantages  of  a  lathe  worked  by 
water  is  particularly  conspicuous  in  form- 
ing delicate  hollow  vases,  &c  for  by  the 
use  of  the  foot-lathe  the  fluor  was  fre- 
quently broken,  and  its  laminated  texture 
at  all  times  disturbed,  but  the  use  of  the 
water-lathe  by  its  steadiness  prevents 
these  inconveniences. 

FLY-STONE,  an  arsenical  iron  ore, 
which,  digested  in  water,  furnishes  a 
means  to  destroy  flies.  The  liquor  is 
however,  poisonous,  and  much  care  should 
be  observed  in  using  it. 

FLI KS,  to  destroy.  Various  means  have 
been  used  to  kill  flies,  and  genei'ally  fly- 
stone  has  been  used  for  this  purpose. 
This  stone  or  ore,  is  pulverized,  and  put 
into  water ;  which  dissolves  the  arsenic 
contained  in  it,  and  communicates  a  dele- 
terious quality  to  the  water.  Various 
bitter  decoctions  have  also  been  employed. 
Tromsdorf  recommends  a  solution  of  the 
extract  of  quassia,  made  of  two  drachms 
of  the  extract  and  half  a  pint  of  boiling 
water,  sweetened  with  sugar,  which  is 
then  poured  on  plates.  If  the  atmosphere 
of  a  room  be  impregnated  with  the  smell, 
or  smoke  produced  by  burning  the  dried 
leaves  of  the  gourd  {cucurbita,  L.)  the 
flies  will  immediately  be  expelled. 

FOIL,  among  glass  grinders,  a  sheet 
of  tin,  with  quicksilver  or  the  like,  laid 
on  the  back  side  of  a  looking-glass,  to 
make  it  reflect.  See  Foliating  and 
Silvering. 

FOIL,  among  jewellers,  a  thin  leaf  of 
metal  placed  under  a  transparent  stone, 
in  order  to  reflect  certain  coloured  rays. 
These  foils  are  made  of  different  metals. 
The  copper  foils  are  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Nuremberg  or  German  foils  ; 
and  are  prepared  as  follows :  Procure  very 
3B 


FOU 

thin  copper  plates  and  polish  them. 
Place  Jieni  between  two  iron  plates  as 
thin  as  writing  paper,  and  heat  tliem  in  the 
fire  Boil  the  foil  in  a  pipkin  containing  a 
solmion  of  common  salt  and  cream  oi  tar- 
tar, till  it  becomes  white.  The  foil  being 
thus  prepared,  and  of  a  sufficient  liiin- 
ness,  is  next  to  be  polished,  whicli  is  done 
I*    ii'  by  rubbing  it  on  copper  hi  contact  with 


FOLIATING  of  looking-glasses-  This 
is  a  process  which  consists  in  covering  the 
back,  side  of  looking-glasses,  with  tin  toil, 
in  order  to  reflect  the  image,  and  is  per- 
formed in  the  foUowhig  manner ;  a  thin 
blotting  paper  is  laid  on  the  table,  and 
sprinkled  with  fine  chalk,  and  then  a  fine 
lamina  or  leaf  of  tin,  called  foil,  is  laid 
over  the  paper  :  upon  this  is  poured  mei-- 
cury,  which  is  to  be  distributed  equably 
by  a  hare's  foot  or  coiton  :  over  this  is 
laid  a  clean  paper,  and  over  that  the 
glass  plate,  which  is  pressed  down  with 
the  right  hand,  and  tlie  paper  drawn  gen- 
tly out  with  tlie  left :  this  being  done,  the 
plate  is  covered  with  a  thicker  paper, 
and  loaded  with  a  greater  weight,  that 
the  superfluous  mercury  may  be  driven 
out,  and  the  tin  adheres  more  clearly  to 
the  glass.  When  it  is  dried,  tlie  weight 
is  removed,  and  the  looking-glass  is  com- 
plete. This  subject,  liowever,  will  be 
noticed  hereafter. 

FOILING,  of  globe  looking-glasses  is 
performed  with  an  amalgam  of  5  ounces 
of  mercurv,  one  ounce  of  bismuth,  half 
an  ounce  "of  lead  and  the  same  quantity 
of  tin. 

FOUNDKRY  or  FOUNDRY,  the  art  of 
melthig  and  casting  all  sorts  of  metais  ; 
particularly  brass,  iron,  beli-metal,  &c. 
A  toundery,  in  tlie  iron  manufacture,  is 
almost  always  connected  with  tlie  blast 
furnace,  where  the  metal  is  smelted Jrom 
the  ore.  The  casting-liouse,  as  it  is  also 
called,  or  foundery,  is  situated  on  one 
of  the  sides  of  the  furnace,  tiie  surface  ot 
its  ground  about  two  feet  bi.low  the  level 
of  the  bottom  of  the  hearth  of  the  fur- 
nace. Tiie  floor  of  the  founder)  should 
be  about  ten  feet  deep,  with  tht  loamy 
sand,  of  which  the  moulds  are  formed  ; 
this  is  for  the  convenience  of  burymg 
large  moulds  beneath  the  surface,  so  lliat 
the  metal  niay  be  conveyed  into  them  by 
small  channels  or  soughs  hollowed  out  in 
the  sand.  A  most  Important  circumstance 
to  be  attended  to  is,  that  the  foundery  is 
well  drained  of  water,  as  any  dampness 
in  moulds  would  produce  the  most  tatal 
explosions  by  the  sudden  expansion  of  the 
Steam.  Wlien  the  iiot  metal  is  introdii- 
ced  into  a  wet  mould  many  serious  acci- 
dents have  arisen  from  a  want  of  atten- 


FOU 

tion  to  this  very  necessary  circumstance ; 
in  such  a  case,  the  moulds  are  burst  asun- 
der, the  ground  torn  up,  and  the  fluid 
metal  thrown  in  every  direction  amongst 
the  workmen,  occasioning  as  much  da- 
mage irf)m  its  projectile  force,  as  from  its 
great  heat,  to  those  on  whom  it  falls. 
Every  foundery  is  furnished  with  a  crane, 
or  sometimes  two,  placed  so  as  to  com- 
mand the  wliole  for  the  convenience  ot 
taking  up  and  removing  heavy  pieces  ot 
casting  from  any  part  of  the  place. 

The  most  comjjlete  founderies  are  pro- 
vided with  two  or  more,  air  or  reverbe- 
rating furnaces,  in  wliich  the  metal  is 
melted  occasionallv,  either  when  the  nieUl 
contained  in  the  bhist  furnace  is  not  suffi- 
cient, or  when  the  qualhy  of  the  metal 
made  there  is  not  proper  for  casting,  ow- 
ing to  its  containing  too  much  or  too  lit- 
tle carbon,  and  it  requires  mixing  with 
better  or  worse  metal  to  render  it  fit  tor 
the  purpose. 

They  have  also  two  or  three  cupolas, 
or  small  blast  furnaces,  to  melt  small 
quantities  of  metal,  particularly  when  it 
is  wanted  in  haste,  as  the  reverberato- 
ries  are  much  longer  in  filling  their  cliarge 
of  metal,  though  it  is  in  greater  quantity, 
but  the  latter  does  not  so  well  answer  the 
purposes  of  the  iron  founder,  because  it 
would  require  so  great  a  stock  of  flasks 
and  implements  to  make  moulds  to  re- 
ceive a  l.a-ge  quantity  of  metal ;  for  this 
reason  thev  seldom  employ  the  reverbe- 
ratory  but  for  large  articles  which  re- 
quire the  whole  charge;  smaller  goods 
are  cast  from  the  cupolas. 

In  the  foundery  of  a  blast  furnace,  a  pit 
is  sunk  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the 
furnace,  and  the  moulds  for  i)ipes,  and 
other  similar  articles,  are  placed  verti- 
cally in  it,  within  reach  of  the  crane :  the 
metal  is  convcved  by  gutters  or  soughs 
front  the  furnace,  and  a  small  iron  trough 
filled  with  sand,  leads  the  fluid  metal 
into  each  of  the  moulds  ;  these  are  a  con- 
siderable improvement  on  the  old  method 
of  burying  them  in  the  sand,  in  tlie  saving 
of  labour' and  time;  the  flasks  are  made 
of  cast  iron  for  the  purpose. 

It  has  of  late  become  a  practice  at  ex- 
tensive founderies,  to  substitute  sand  for 
loam  castings  in  many  cases  where  a  great 
number  of  articles  of  one  kind  are  to  be 
cast,  so  that  the  expense  of  the  flasks  is 
not  an  object  of  importance ;  where  the 
articles  are  intiicate,  the  sand  is  wetted 
so  much  to  render  it  sufliciently  adhesive, 
that  it  is  necessary  to  dry  the  moulds  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  an  explosion  :  for  this 
purpose  large  stoves  are  used,  and  car- 
riages adapted,  on  which  to  convey  a 
great  number  of  moulds  into  the  stove  at 


FOU 


FOU 


once,  and  when  sufficiently  dry,  which  ge- 
nerally happens  in  about  halt"  an  hour, 
they  are  withdrawn,  and  a  new  set  placed 
on  the  carriage. 

A  foundery  is  generally  provided  with 
a  boring-mill  for  forming  tiie  internal  sur- 
face of  the  cylinders  cast  for  steam-en- 
gines, &.C.  and  the  same  macliinery  turns 
large  lathes,  for  turning  heavy  mill-axes, 
])istons,  rollers  for  sugar-mills,  and  la- 
minating rollers ;  the  same  mill  gives 
motion  to  all  these,  and  also  blows  the 
cupolas,  though,  at  a  blast-furnace,  these 
are  supplied  by  a  smad  pipe  from  the 
great  blowing-engine  for  the  furnace- 

With  respect  to  casting  of  every  de- 
scription, whether  of  iron,  brass  or  other 
materials,  for  tlie  purpose  of  cannon, 
bells,  steam  cylinders,  machinery,  &c. 
We  may  add,  that  the  United  States  in 
this  as  in  other  arts,  have  long  since  vied 
with  tile  European  nations  Tliis  reflects 
much  honor  on  the  zeal  and  industry  of  our 
countrymen. 

We  shall  first  consider  the  foundery  of 
small  works,  then  of  statues,  guns,  8ic. 
and  lastly  of  the  type  or  letter  foundery, 
reserving  for  other  parts  of  oui'  work 
more  particular  information. 

Foundery  of  sniail  ivorks  or  the  manner 
of  Casting  in  s  ind. — The  sand  used  by 
the  founders,  in  casting  brass,  &c.  is  yel- 
lowisli,  and  pretty  soft ;  but,  after  it  has 
been  used,  it  becomes  quite  black,  be- 
cause of  the  charcoal-duat  used  in  the 
moulds.  Every  time  they  would  use  tliis 
sand,  they  work  and  tew  it,  several  times 
over,  on  a  board  about  a  foot  square, 
placed  over  a  kind  of  trunk,  or  box,  into 
which  it  may  fall  from  ott"  the  board. 
This  tewing  is  performed  with  a  roller, 
or  cyUnder,  about  two  feet  long,  and  two 
inches  in  diameter ;  and  a  kind  of  knife, 
made  of  the  blade  of  a  sword :  with  these 
two  instruments  they  alternately  roll  and 
cut  the  sand  ;  and,  at  length,  turn  it  down 
into  the  box  or  trough  underneath. 

Then,  taking  a  wooden  board,  or  table, 
ofalengtli  and  breadtii  proportional  to 
the  quantity  of  things  to  be  cast ;  round 
this  they  put  a  frame  or  leJge  ;  and  thus 
make  a  sort  of  moidd  This  mould  they 
till  with  the  sand  before  prepared,  and 
moderately  moistened  :  which  done,  they 
take  wooden,  or  metalline  models,  or  pat- 
terns of  the  things  intended  to  be  cast : 
apply  tliem  on  the  mould,  and  press  them 
down  in  the  sand,  so  as  to  leave  their 
form  indented  ;  along  the  middle  of  the 
mould  is  laid  half  a  little  cylinder  of  brass, 
which  is  to  be  tlie  master  jet,  or  canal  for 
running  the  metal ;  being  so  disposed,  as 
to  touch  the  ledge  on  one  side,  and  only 


to  reach  to  the  last  pattern  on  the  other : 
from  tliis  are  placed  several  lesser  jets  or 
branches,  reaching  to  each  pattern, 
whereby  the  metal  is  conveyed  through 
the  whole  frame. 

This  first  frame  being  thus  finished, 
they  turn  it  upside  down,  to  take  out  the 
pattern  from  the  sand  ;  in  order  to  which, 
they  first  loosen  them  a  little  all  round, 
with  a  small  cutting  instrument. 

After  the  same  nianner  they  proceed  to 
work  the  coimterpart,  or  other  half  of  the 
mould,  with  the  same  patterns,  in  a  frame 
exactly  like  the  former;  excepting  that 
it  has  pins  wliich  entering  holes  corres- 
ponding thereto  in  the  other,  make,  when 
the  two  are  johied  together,  the  two  ca- 
vities of  the  pattern  fall  exactly  on  each 
other. 

The  frame,  being  thus  moulded,  is  car- 
ried to  tlie  founder  or  nielter ;  who,  after 
enlarging  the  piincipal  jet,  or  canal,  of 
the  counter-part  with  a  kind  of  knife,  add- 
ing  the  cross  jets,  or  canals,  to  the  seve- 
ral patlerns  in  both,  and  sprinkling  them 
over  with  mill-dust,  sets  them  to  dry  in  an 
oven. 

When  both  parts  of  the  mould  are  suf- 
ficiently dried,  they  join  then>  together, 
by  means  of  the  pins  ;  and  to  prevent 
their  starting,  or  slipping  aside,  by  the 
f-<rce  of  the  metal,  which  is  to  come  iii« 
flaming  hot,  thi'ough  a  hole  contrived  at 
tlie  master-jet,  they  lock  them  in  a  kind 
of  press,  cither  with  screws;  or  if  the 
mould  be  too  big  for  this,  with  wedges. 
The  moulds,  thus  put  in  the  press,  are 
ranged  near  the  furnace,  to  be  in  readi- 
ness to  receive  the  metal  as  it  comes  out 
of  the  crucible. 

While  the  moulds  are  thus  preparing, 
the  metal  is  put  in  fusion  in  an  earthen 
crucible,  about  ten  inches  high,  and  four 
in  diameter. 

I'lie  furnace  wherein  the  fusion  Is 
made,  is  much  like  the  smith's  forge ;  hav- 
ing, like  that,  a  chimney,  to  carry  off  the 
smoke  ;  a  pair  of  bellows  to  blow  up  the 
fire;  and  a  hearth  wliere  the  fire  is  made, 
and  the  crucible  placed.  It  is  the  use  of 
this  hearth,  that  chiefly  distinguishes  the 
furnace  from  the  forge 

In  the  middle  tliereof  is  a  square  cavi- 
ty, ten  or  twelve  niches  wide,  which  goes 
to  tlie  very  bottom  :  it  is  divided  into  two, 
by  an  iron  grate:  the  upper  parLition 
serves  to  hold  the  crucible,  and  the  fuel, 
and  the  lower  to  receive  the  ashes. 

When  tlie  fuel,  which  is  to  be  of  dry 
wood,  is  pretty  well  lighted,  they  put  the 
crucible  full  of  metal  in  the  middle,  and 
cover  it  with  an  eartiien  lid;  and,  to  in- 
crease tlie  force  of  the  fire,  besides  blow- 


»^ 


FOU 

jng  It  up  with  the  bellows,  they  lay  a  il  e 
over  part  of  the  aperture  or  cavity  of  the 
furnace. 

The  metal  first  put  in  being  brought  to 
a  fusion,  vliey  fill  tiie  crucible  witli  pieces 
of  brass,  beaten  in  a  mortar  ;  to  put  them 
in,  tiiey  make  use  of  a  kind  of  iroji  ladle, 
with  a  long  shank  at  the  end  thereof, 
formed  into  a  kind  of  hollow  cylinder,  out 
of  which  the  piece  is  dropped. 

Nothing  now  remains,  but  for  the  foun- 
der to  take  the  crucible  out  of  the  fire,  and 
carry  it  in  a  pair  of  iron  tongs  (whose  feel 
are  bent,  the  better  to  enibiace  the  top  of 
the  crucible)  to  the  mould  ;  into  which  he 
pours  the  melted  metal,  through  the  hole 
answering  to  the  master-jet  of  each 
jnould 

Thus  he  goes  successively,  from  one 
to  another,  till  his  crucible  is  emptied,  or 
there  is  not  matter  enough  left  for  another 
mould. 

Then  casting  cold  water  on  the  moulds, 
they  take  the  frames  out  of  the  presses, 
and  the  cast  works  out  of  the  sand : 
which,  afterwards  they  work  again,  for 
anotiier  casting.  Lastly,  tluy  cut  oH'the 
jets,  or  casts,  and  sell  or  deliver  the  work 
to  those  wjio  bespoke  it,  without  any  far- 
ther pairing 

FouNDERY  of  statues,  great  guns,  and 
.bells. — The  art  of  casting  statues  in  brass 
IS  very  ancient ;  insonmch,  that  its  origin 
was  too  remote  and  obscure,  even  for  the 
reseurcli  of  Pliny ;  an  author  admirably 
skilled  at  discovering  the  inventors  of 
other  arts. 

All  we  can  learn  for  certain  is,  that  it 
was  practised,  in  all  its  perfection,  fiist 
among  tiie  (.recks ;  and,  afterwards, 
among  the  Unmans  :  and,  that  the  num- 
ber of  heir  statues  consecrated  to  their 
gods  and  heroes,  surpassed  all  belief.  See 

StA  1  UE. 

The  single  cities  of  Athens,  Delpjios, 
Khodts,  &c  had  each  three  thousand  sta- 
tues ;  and  Marcus  Scaurus  alone,  though 
only  aedile,  adorned  the  circus  with  no 
less  than  three  tliousand  statues  gf  brass, 
for  the  time  of  the  Circensian  games. 
This  tasle  for  statues  was  finally  carried 
to  such  a  pitch,  that  it  became  a  proverb, 
that  in  Rome,  the  jieople  of  brass  were 
not  less  numerous  than  the  Roman  pfoplc. 

The  casting  (^f  statues  was  but  iiUle 
known  orpracii.sedin  Europe,  before  the 
seventi-eiith  cvutui'_\-. 

As  to  the  casting  of  guns,  it  is  quite  mo- 
dern ;  and  it  were  perhaps  to  be  wished, 
we  were  as  ignorant  of  it  as  ihe  ancients. 
All  authors  agiee,  that  liie  first  cannon 
were  cast  in  the  ii)urteenlh  century ; 
though  'some  affix  the  event  to  the  year 
1338,  and  others  to  looO. 


FOU 

The  casting  of  bells  is  of  a  middle  stand- 
ing, between  the  other  two.  The  use  of 
bells  is  certainly  very  ancient  in  the  wes- 
tern church  ;  and  the  sanie  were  likewise 
once  used  in  the  chvu-ch  of  the  east  But, 
at  present,  F.  Vansleb  assures  us,  in  his 
secondaccount  of  Kgypi,that  hehadfound 
but  one  bell  in  all  ti  e  eastern  church, 
and  that,  in  a  monastery  in  the  Upper 
Egypt. 

The  matter  of  these  large  works  is 
rarely  any  simple  metal,  but  commonly  a 
mixture  of  several.  We  sliall  here  give 
the  process  in  the  foundery  of  each. 

Method  of  casting  statues  of  figures. 

There  are  three  things  chiefly  required 
in  casting  of  statues,  busts,  basso-relie- 
vos, vases,  and  other  works  of  sculpture  : 
viz*  the  mould,  the  wax,  and  shell,  or 
coat.  'I'iie  inner  mould,  or  core  (thus 
called  from  caur,  as  being  in  the  heart  or 
middle  of  the  statue),  is  a  rude  lumpish 
figure,  to  which  is  given  tlie  attitudes  and 
contours  of  the  statue  intended;  it  is  rais- 
ed on  an  iron  grate,  strong  enough  to  sus- 
tain it ;  and  is  strengthened  withinside  by 
several  bars,  or  ribs  of  iron. 

It  may  be  made,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
workmen,  of  potters'  clay,  mixed  up  with 
horse-dung  and  hair ;  or,  of  plaister  of 
Paris,  mixed  with  fine  brick-dust. 

The  use  of  the  core  in  statues,  is  to 
support  the  wax  and  shell,  to  lessen  the 
weight,  and  to  save  metal.  In  bells,  it 
lakes  up  all  the  inside,  and  preserves  the 
space  vacant  where  the  clapper  is  hung. 
In  great  guns  it  forms  the  whole  chace, 
from  the  mouth  to  the  breech :  and,  in 
mortals,  the  chace  and  chamber.  The 
iron  bars  and  the  core  are  taken  out  of 
the  brass  figure,  through  an  apertiu-e  left 
in  it,  which  is  afterwards  soldered  up : 
but  it  is  necessary  to  leave  some  of  the 
ji'on  bars  of  the  core  that  contribute  to 
tlie  steadiness  of  tlie  projecting  parts, 
within  the  brass  figure. 

The  wax  is  a  representation  of  the  in- 
tended statue.  If  it  be  a  piece  of  sculp- 
tui-e,  the  wax  must  be  all  of  the  sculptor's 
own  hand,  who  usually  fashions  it  on  the 
core  itself;  though  it  may  be  wrought  se- 
parately in  cavities,  moulded,  or  tbrmed, 
on  a  model,  and  afterwards  disposed  and 
arranged  on  the  ribs  of  ii-on  over  the 
Krate,  as  before,  filling  the  vacant  space 
in  tin-  middle  with  liquid  plaister  and 
brick-dust ;  by  which  means  the  inner 
mould,  or  core,  is  formed  in  proportion  as 
the  sculptor  cai-ries  on  the  wax. 

VVlien  the  wax  which  is  to  be  of  the  in- 
tended thickness  of  the  metal  is  finished, 
they  fix  little  waxen  tubes  perpendicular- 
ly to  it,  from  top  to  bottom ;  to  serve, 
both  as  jets,  for  the  conveyance  of  metal 


FOU 


FOU 


to  all  parts  of  the  work,  and  as  vent  holes, 
to  give  passage  to  the  air,  which  would, 
otherwise,  occasion  great  disorder,  wlien 
the  hot  metal  came  to  er.compass  it.  By 
the  weight  ofthe  wax  used  he .ein,  is  that 
of  the  metal  adjusted  ;  ten  pounds  of  this 
last  being  the  proportion  to  one  pound  of 
tlie  former.     The  work  brouifht  thus  far, 


wallsare  to  be  run  up  round  it :  and,  by 
the  side  thereof,  a  massive  made,  for  a 
melting-furnace.  For  ihe  rest,  the  me- 
thod is  the  same  iuboth  The  mould  be- 
ing finished,  and  inclosed  between  four 
walls,  whether  under  ground,  or  above 
it,  a  moderate  fire  is  hghted  in  the  fur- 
nace under  it,  and  the  hole  covered  with 


wants  nothing  but  to  be  covered  with  its    planks^  that  the  wax    may  melt  gently 
shell ;  which  is  a  kind  of  coat,  or  crust, '  down,  and  run  out  at  pipes  contrived  for 


laid  over  the  wax  :  and  wliich,  being  of  a 
soft  matter,  and  even,  at  first,  liquid,  ea- 
sily takes  and  preseiwes  the  impression 
of  every  part  thereof,  which  it  after  wards 
communicates  to  the  metal,  upon  its  tak- 
ing the  place  of  the  wax,  between  the 
shell  and  the  core.  The  matter  of  this 
outer  mould,  or  shell,  is  varied  according 
as  different  layers,  or  strata  are  applied 
The  first  is  a  composition  of  clay,  and  old 


the  purpose,  at  the  foot  of  tiie  mould ; 
which  are  afterwards  very  exactly  clos- 
ed with  earth,  as  soon  as  all  tlie  wax  is 
carried  off. 

This  done,  the  hole  is  filled  up  with 
bricks  thi-own  in  at  random,  and  the  fire 
in  the  furnace  is  augmented  till  such  tune 
as  both  tlie  bricks  and  the  mould  become 
red-hot;  which  ordinarily  happens  in 
tweniv-four  hours      Then,  the  fire  being 


white  crucibles,  well  ground  and  sifted,  I  extinguished,  and  every  thing  cold  again, 
and  mixed  up  with  water,  to  the  consist-  they  take  out  tlie  bi-icks,  and  fill  up  their 
ence  of  a  colour  fit  for  painting :  accord-  ^  place  with  earth,  moistened,  and  a  little 
ingly,  they  apply  it  with  a  pencil,  laying  it    beaten,  to  the  top  of  the  mould,  in  order 


seven  or  eight  times  over,  letting  it  dry 
between  the  intervals.  For  the  second 
impression,  they  add  horse's  dimg  and 
natural  earth  to  the  former  composition. 
The  third  impression  is  only  horse's  dung 
and  earth.  Lastly,  the  shell  is  finished 
bv  la_\  ing  on  several  more  impressions  of 
this  last  matter,  made  very  thick  with 
the  hand. 

The  shell,  thus  finished,  is  secured  and 
strengthened  by  several  bands,  or  girts  of 
iron,  wound  ai-ound  it  at  half  a  foot's  dis- 
tance from  one  another,  and  fastened  at 
bottom  to  the  grate  under  the  statue ;  and 
at  the  top  to  a  circle  of  ii"on,  where  they 
all  terminate. 

Here  it  must  be  observed,  that  if  the 
statue  be  so  big,  that  it  would  not  be  easy 
to  move  the  moulds,  when  thus  provided, 
it  must  be  wrought  on  the  spot  where  it 
is  to  be  cast. 

This  is  performed  two  ways;  in  the 
first,  a  square  hole  is  dug  under  ground, 
much  bigger  than  the  mould  to  be  made 
therein,  and  its  insides  lined  with  walls  of 
freestone,  or  brick.  At  the  bottom  is 
made  a  hole  ofthe  same  materials,  with  a 
kind  of  furnace,  having  its  aperture  out- 
wards :  in  this  is  a  fii-e  to  be  lighted,  to 
dry  the  mould ;  and  afterwards,  to  melt 
the  wax.  Over  this  furnace  is  placed  the 
grate ;  and  on  this  the  mould,  &c.  framed 
as  before  expl^ned.  Lastly,  at  one  of  tiie 
edges  of  the  square  pit  is  made  another 
large  furnace,  to  melt  the  metal,  as  here- 
after mentioned. 

In  the  other  way,  it  is  sufficient  to 
work  the  mould  above  ground  :  but  with 
the  same  precaution  of  a  furnace,  and 
grate,  tinderneath:   when  finished,  four 


to  make  it  the  more  firm  and  steady. 

Things  being  in  this  condition,  there 
remains  notliing  but  to  melt  the  metal, 
and  run  it  into  tlie  mould ;  this  is  the 
ofi&ce  ofthe  furnace  above,  wjiich  is  made 
in  manner  of  an  oven,  with  three  aper- 
tures ;  one  to  put  in  the  wood ;  anotlier 
for  a  vent ;  and  a  thud  to  run  the  metal 
out  at  From  this  last  aperture,  which 
is  kept  very  close  whilst  the  metal  is  in 
fusion,  a  little  tube  or  canal  is  laid, 
whereby  the  melted  metal  is  conveyed 
into  a  large  eai-tlien  bason  over  the  mould  ; 
into  the  bottom  of  which  all  the  big 
branches  ofthe  jets,  or  casts,  which  are 
to  cany  the  metal  into  all  the  parts  ofthe 
mould,  are  inserted. 

It  must  be  i^ded,  that  these  jets  are 
all  terminated,  or  stopped  with  a  kind  of 
plugs,  which  are  kept  close,  that  upon 
opening  the  furnace  the  brass,  which 
gushes  out  like  a  toirent  of  fire,  may  not 
enter  any  of  them  till  the  bason  be  full 
enough  of  matter  to  run  into  them  all  at 
once  ;  upon  which  occasion  they  pull  out 
the  plugs,  which  are  long  iron  rods,  with 
a  head  at  one  end,  capable  of  filling  the 
whole  diameter  of  each  tube.  The  hole 
ofthe  furnace  is  opened  with  a  long  piece 
of  iron,  fitted  at  the  end  of  a  pole ;  and 
the  mould  is  then  filled  in  an  instant-  The 
work  is  now  finished,  at  least  so  much  as 
belongs  to  the  casting,  the  rest  being  the 
sculptor's  or  carver's  business;  who,  tak- 
ing the  figure  out  ofthe  mould  and  earth 
with  which  it  is  encompassed,  saws  off 
the  jets,  wherewith  it  appears  covered 
over ;  and  repairs  it,  with  instruments 
proper  to  his  art;  as  chisels,  gravers, 
puncheons,  &c. 


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Tht  manner  oj'  casting  delis  — Wliat  has 
been  hitherto  sliewn  of  the  casting-  ofsa- 
Uies,  holcb,  in  proportion,  of  tlie  casting 
of  bells ;  that  Avhich  is  particului*  in  thtse 
latter  is  as  follows :  iiist,  then,  the  me- 
tal is  difl'erent;  tlicie  being  no  tin  in  the 
metal  of  statues,  but  no  less  than  a  fifth 
part  of  tin  in  that  of  bells.  Secondly,  the 
dimensions  of  the  core,  and  the  wax  of 
bells,  especially  if  it  be  a  ring  of  seve- 
ral bells  that  is  to  be  cast,  are  not  left 
to  cliance,  or  the  caprice  of  the  work- 
men; but  must  be  measured,  on  a  kind 
of  scale,  or  diapason  ;  which  gives  the 
Iieiglit,  aperiuie,  and  thickness,  neces- 
sar}   for  the  several  tones  required. 

It  need  not  be  added,  that  it  is  on  the 
w-ax  th;it  the  several  mouldings  and 
otlier  ornaments,  and  inscnptioi!;^,  to  be 
represented  in  relievo,  on  the  outside  of 
th.e  bell,  are  formed.  The  clapper  or 
tongue,  is  not  pro])erly  a  part  of  the 
bell,  but  is  furnished  from  oilicr  hands. 
In  Europe,  it  is  usually  of  iron,  with  a 
large  knob  at  the  exticme;  and  is  sus- 
pended in  the  middle  of  the  bell.  In 
China,  it  is  only  a  huge  wooden  mallet, 
struck  by  force  of  arm  against  ihe  bell ; 
vrhence  they  can  have  but  little  of  that 
consonancy,  so  much  admired  in  some 
of  our  rings  of  bells.  The  Chinese  have 
an  extraordinary  way  of  increasing  the 
sound  of  their  bells  ;  viz.  by  leaving  a 
hole  imder  tlie  cannon ;  wliich  our  bell- 
ibunders  would  reckon  a  defect. 

The  proportions  of  our  bells  dificr 
veiy  much  from  those  of  the  ChinL'S<-. 
In  our's,  the  modein  proportions  :ire,  to 
make  the  diameter  fifteen  times  the  thick- 
ness of  the  brim,  and  the  height  twelve 
times.  Tlic  purls  of  a  bell  are,  1.  'I'he 
SKViinding  bow,  terminated  by  an  infi  rior 
circle,  which  grows^thinTOr  and  thinner. 
2.  The  brim  or  that  part  of  the  bell 
whereon  the  clapper  strikes,  and  which 
U  thicker  than  tlie  rest.  3-  The  outward 
sinking  of  the  middle  of  the  bell,  or  the 
point  under  whicl\  it  grows  wider  to  the 
brim.  4.  The  waist  of  furniture,  and  the 
part  that  grows  wider  and  thicker  quite 
to  the  brvn\.  5.  The  upper  vase,  or  that 
part  which  is  aiiovc  the  waist.  6.  The 
]>aUct  which  supports  the  staple  of  the 
<:l;'i)pcr  within.  /..The  bent  and  hollow- 
ed branciies  of  metal  uniting  wilii  tlie 
cannons,  to  receive  the  iron  keys,  where- 
by tlie  bell  is  hung  up  to  the  beam  which 
Ls  its  support  and  counterpoise,  when 
rung  out.  The  business  of  bell-foundcry 
is  reducible  to  three  particulars.  1.  Tiie 
proportion  of  a  bell.  2.  The  forming  of 
t!ie  mould.  And,  3.  The  melting  of  the 
metal.  There  are  two  kinds  of  propor- 
' ion's,  viz.  the  simple  and  the  relative; 


the  former  are  those  proportions  only 
that  are  between  the  several  parts  of  a 
bell  to  render  it  sonorous ;  the  relative 
proportions  establish  a  requisite  harmony 
between  several  bells.  1  he  method  of 
forming  the  profile  of  a  bell,  previously  to 
its  being  cast,  with  the  proportion  of 
the  several  parts  may  be  seen  in  Rees's 
Cyclopaedia. 

The  particulars  necessary  for  making 
the  motdd  of  a  bell  are,  1.  The  earth  :  the 
most  cohesive  is  the  best;  it  must  be 
well  ground  and  sifted,  to  prevent  any 
chinks.  2  Brick-stone ;  which  must  be 
used  for  the  mine,  mould,  or  core,  and 
for  the  furnace.  3  Horse  dung,  hidr, 
and  hemp,  mixed  with  the  earth,  to  ren- 
der the  cement  more  binding.  4.  The 
wax  for  inscriptions,  coats  of  arms,  &c. 
5.  The  tallow  equally  mixed  with  the 
wax,  in  order  to  put  a  slight  layer  of  it 
upon  the  outer  mould,  before  any  letters 
are  applied  to  it  6.  The  coals  to  dry  the 
mould.  See  Encyclopaedia,  Art.  Cloche, 
also  Diet.  Commerc.  Art.  Foundery- 

Found ERV.  Manner  of  casting  great 
guns,  or  pieces  of  artillery — The  casting 
of  cannons,  mortars,  and  otlier  pieces  of 
artillery,  is  performed  much  like  that 
of  statues  and  bells;  especially  as  to 
what  regards  the  wax,  shell,  and  fur- 
naces. 

Ail  pieces  of  artillery  are  now  cast 
solid,  and  bored  afterwards,  by  means 
of  a  macliine  invented  at  Strasburgh,  and 
muc!i  improved  by  Mr.  Verbruggen,  head 
founder  at  Woolwich.  The  gun  to  be 
bored  was  at  first  placed  in  a  perpendicu- 
lar position ;  but  tlie  machines  used  for 
this  purpose  have  lately  been  made  to 
bore  horizontally,  and  much  more  exact- 
ly than  those  that  bore  in  a  veriical  situ- 
ation. Whilst  the  inside  is  bored,  the 
outside  is  turned  and  pohshed  at  the 
same  time. 

As  to  the  metal,  it  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent from  both;  as  having  a  mixture  of 
tin,  which  is  not  in  that  of  statues;  and 
only  having  half  the  quantity  of  tin  that 
is  in  beils,  i  c.  at  the  rate  of  ten  jiounds 
of  tin  to  an  hundred  of  copper.  'I'he  re- 
spective quant'rties  of  diflercnt  metals  that 
siiould  enter  into  the  composition  for 
brass  cannon  is  not  absolutely  decided ; 
the  most  common  proportions  of  the  in- 
gredients are  the  following:  viz.  to  2401b. 
of  metal  fit  for  casting,  tliey  put  6alb.  of 
copper,  25lb.  of  brass,  and  121!).  of  tin. 
To  42001b.  of  metal  fit  for  casting,  the 
Germans  put  3687^|lb.  of  copper,  204A  J- 
Ib.  of  brass,  and  30730ib.of  tin.  Other.s, 
again,  use  1001b.  of  copper,  61b.  of  brass, 
and  91b.  of  tin  ;  and  l^tly,  others  make 


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use  of  1001b.  of  copper,  101b.  of  brass, 
and  l5lb  of  tin. 

A  cannon  is  always  shaped  a  little  co- 
nical, being  thickest  of  metal  at  the 
breech,  where  the  greatest  effort  of  tlie 
gunpowder  is  made,  and  diminishing 
thence  to  the  muzzle ;  so  that  if  the 
mouth  be  two  inches  tliick  of  metal,  the 
breech  is  six 

Its  length  is  measured  in  calibers,  /.  e. 
in  diameters  of  the  mu2.zle.  Six  inches 
at  the  muzzle  require  twenty  calibers  or 
ten  feet  in  length ;  there  is  always  about 
the  sixth  of  an  inch  allowed  for  play  for  the 
ball.  The  method  of  casting  iron  can- 
non differs  very  little  from  that  of  brass. 

Fo UNDER Y,  Letter,  or  the  method  of 
casting  printing  Letters. — In  the  business 
of  cutting,  casting,  &c.  letters  for  print- 
ing, the  letter  cutter  must  be  provided 
■with  a  vice,  hand-vice,  hammers  and  files 
of  all  sorts  for  watch  makers'  use  ;  as 
also  gravers  and  sculpters  of  all  sorts, 
and  an  oil-stone,  &c.  suitable  and  sizeable 
to  the  several  letters  to  be  cut :  a  flat 
guage  made  of  box  to  hold  a  rod  of  steel, 
or  the  body  of  a  mould,  &c.  exactly  per- 
pendicular to  the  flat  of  the  using-file : 
a  sliding  guage,  whose  use  is  to  measure 
and  set  ofi' distances  between  the  shoulder 
and  the  tooth,  and  to  mark  it  off  from  the 
end,  or  from  the  edge  of  the  work;  a 
face-guage,  which  is  a  square  notch  cut 
with  a  file  into  the  edge  of  a  thin  plate 
of  steel,  iron,  or  brass,  of  the  thickness  of 
a  piece  of  common  tin,  whose  use  is  to 
proportion  the  face  of  each  sort  of  letter, 
viz.  long  letters,  ascending  letters,  and 
short  letters.  So  there  must  be  three 
guages,  and  the  guage  for  the  long  let- 
ters is  the  length  of  the  whole  body,  sup- 
posed to  be  divided  into  forty -two  equal 
parts.  The  guage  for  the  ascending  let- 
ters, Roman  and  Italic,  are  5-7,  or  30 
pai-ts  of  4"2,  and  33  parts  for  the  English 
face.  The  guage  for  the  short  letters  is 
3-7  or  18  parts^  of  43  of  the  whole  body 
for  the  Roman  'and  Italic,  and  22  parts  for 
the  English  face. 

The  furnace  is  built  of  brick  upright, 
with  four  square  sides,  and  a  stone  on  the 
top,  in  whicb  stone  is  a  wide  I'ouiid  hole 
jbr  the  pan  to  stand  in.  A  foundery  of 
any  consequence  has  several  of  these  fur- 
naces in  it. 

As  to  the  metal  of  which  the  types  are 
to  be  cast,  this,  in  extensive  founderies, 
is  always  prepared  in  large  quantities ; 
but  cast  into  small  bars  of  about  twentv 
pounds  weight  to  be  delivered  out  to  the 
workmen  as  occasion  requii-es.  For  the 
purpose  of  forming  the  metal,  a  large  fur- 
nace is  built  under  a  shade,  containing  a 


pot  of  cast  iron,  which  holds,  \rben  full, 
fifteen  hundred  weight  of  the  metal.  The 
fire  being  kindled  below,  the  bars  of  lead 
are  let  softly  down  into  the  pot,  and  tlieir 
fusion  promoted  by  ihrowmg  in  some 
pitch  and  tallow,  which  soon  inflame.  An 
outer  chimney,  which  is  built  so  as  to 
project  about  a  foot  over  the  farthest  lip 
of  Uie  pot,  catches  hold  of  the  flame  by  a 
strong  draught,  and  makes  it  act  very 
powerfully  in  meiling  die  lead  ;  whilst  it 
serves  at  the  same  time  to  convey  away 
all  the  fames,  &c.  from  the  workmen,  to 
whom  this  laborious  part  of  the  busiiess 
is  committed.  When  the  lead  is  thorough- 
ly melted,  a  due  proportion  of  the  regu- 
lus  of  antimony  and  other  ingredients  are 
put  in,  and  some  more  tallow  is  inflam- 
ed, to  make  tlie  whole  incorporate  soon- 
er. The  workmen  now  having  mixed  the 
contents  of  the  pot  very  thoroughly,  by 
stiiTing  long  with  a  large  iron  ladle,  next 
proceed  to  draw  the  metal  oft'  into  the 
small  tioughs  of  cast  iron  which  are 
ranged,  to  the  number  of  fourscore,  upoa 
a  level  plaiform,  faced  with  stone,  built 
towards  the  right  hand.  In  tHe  course  of 
a  day  fifteen  hundred  weight  of  metal  can 
be  easily  prepared  in  this  manner;  and 
the  operation  is  continued  for  as  many 
days  as  are  necessary  to  prepai-e  a  stocfc 
of  metal,  of  all  the  various  degrees  of 
hardness.  After  this  the  whole  is  dis- 
posed into  presses,  accordnig  to  its  qua- 
lity, to  be  delivered  out  occasionally  to 
the  workmen. 

With  respect  to  the  operations  of  cast- 
ing,  polishing,  and  finishing  of  tj'pe,  we 
need  only  mention,  that  these  dhfferent 
processes  are  performed  by  workmen  and 
boys,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ope- 
ration. As  a  mere  description  of  the  me- 
chanical part  of  tiie  type  founflery  cannot 
be  considered  of  any  importance,  it  is 
presumed  that  the  act  in  all  its  branches 
will  only  be  conducted  by  experienced 
workmen,  so  that  any  description  wliicii 
we  might  offer  would  be  imnecessan'. 
To  the  real  talents  and  industry  of 
Messrs.  Binney  and  Ronaldson,  of  this 
city,  the  countiy  at  large,  is  mucii  in. 
debied  for  the  production  of  every  species 
of  type  of  tlie  best  metal,  and,  of  the  most 
improved  kind. 

Besides  the  founderies  already  enume- 
rated, there  is  another  called  the  ^tliittary 
Foundery,  wtiich  comprehends  the  cast- 
ing of  inilitai'y  arms,  great  guns,  s.helis, 
ball,  &c. 

Tiie  United  States,  either  by  their  own ' 
foundery,  have  these  articlae  cast,  or  p;-o- 
cure  them  by  contrac; :  it  may  bi-  observ, 
ed,  hawever,  that  a  v,  ork  of  this  acscrip- 


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tion  should  be  established,  for  tlie  sake 
of  economy,  as  well  pirhaps  as  for  con- 
venience,  in  the  vicinity  of  c  L;al  and  iron 
mines. 

FRANKFORT  IlLACK.— This  black  is 
made  of  tlie  lees  of  w  ine,  burnt,  washed 
in  water,  and  ground  in  mills,  together 
with  ivory  or  peach  sones  burnt. 

It  is   usually  brougiit  from   Frankfort 
ontheMa\n;  Mentz,  and  Sti-asburg;  ei- 
ther in  lumps  or  poudci'.  Thut  of  Fiance 
on  account  of  tiic  dillerence  in  the  lees  of 
wine,  is  less  valued  than  that  of  Germany. 

This  olack  makes  the  jjrincipal  ingre- 
dient in  the  i-oliing-prcbs  printers  ink.  See 
Colour-Making. 

FKEKZING. — Tliis  process,  called  also 
congelation,  is  the  conversion  of  water  to 
a  sohd  state  or  ice,  and  takes  place  by 
the  reduction  of  temperature  to,  or  be- 
below  32°  of  Fahreniieil ;  the  theory  of 
which  is  th'e  disengagement  of  free  heat, 
or  caloric  of  fluidity. 

Without  detailing  the  hypotheses  of 
chemical  philosophy,  or  tlie  reasoning  of 
science  to  develope  the  laws  or  principles 
whicli  govfern  these  changes,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  observe,  that  solids  are  ren- 
dered fluid  by  the  interposition  or  absorp- 
tion  of  caloric,  and  vice  versa.  Whether 
these  changes  take  place  in  the  laborato- 
ry of  the  chemist,  or  in  the  laboratoiy  of 
nature,  as  the  same  causes  exist,  it  is  but 
rational  to  conclude  that  the  laws  are  uni- 
formly tlie  same. 

We  shall  first  make  a  few  remarks  on 
ice  or  snow,  and  conclude  with  the  n'odes 
which  have  been  used  for  preparing  ice 
in  warm  climates. 

The  preservation  of  snow  or  ice  during 
the  summer  months  is  almost  a  necessa- 
ry of  life  in  hot  countries,  and  an  object 
of  useful  Ihxury  iu  temperate  climates. 
*I'he  consti'uction  of  ice-houses  is  in  gene- 
ral very  simple  often  indeed  they  consist 
of  nothing  more  than  deej)  caves  hollow- 
ed out  in  the  coldest  side  of  mountains, 
and  filled  with  ice  or  snow  rammed  down 
with  much  manual  hibour.  Ice  may  ge- 
nerally be  presei'ved  during  the  summer, 
if  the  place  selected  be  cool  and  tho- 
roughly sheltered  from  the  direct  influ- 
ence of  the  sun,  if  the  ice  be  kept  in  con- 
siderable mass,  with  as  few  interstices 
as  possible,  lined  with  straw,  reeds,  or  any 
loose  substance  of  the  kind,  which  is  a 
bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  esj)ecially  if  it 
be  kept  dry  both  by  avoiding  external 
moisture  and  by  giving  an  exit  to  the  wa- 
tt r  formed  by  the  slow  liquefaction  of  the 
outer  ])art  of  the  mass.  The  common  ice- 
houses are  usually  placed  in  the  shadiest 
and  coolest  part  of  a  wood,  and  consist  of 
caves  about  eight  or  ten  feet  in  depth, 


lined  with  masonry,  unless  cut  out  of  a  di'v 

rock,  finished  at  ihe  bottom  in  the  fonn  of 

a  sugar  loaf,  and  the  whole  lined  with  a 

,  considerable  thickness  of  thatch,  straw, 

or  ixeds.     The  ice   when   ihiown    in    is 

broken  down  as  much  as  possible,  that  it 

nui\  lie  close,  and  when  filling,  water  may 

be  thrown  on  ;it,  which   by  freezing  will 

:  cement  the  whole  into  a  hard  solid  mass 

I  penetrable  only  by  the  pickaxe.     When 

•  filled  it  is    covered  very  carefidly   with 

1  earth  and  thatch,  leaving  only  a  small  en- 

j  trance  with  a  door  at  each  end  also  very 

closely  lined 

Tie  snow  caves  in  Italy  are  no  more 
than  deep  pits  dug  in  the  north  side  of  a 
hill,  lined  with  straw,  and  furnished  with 
a  small  tap-hole  at  bottom  to  carry  oft' 
the  water  fornied  by  melting.  The  snow 
is  rammed  very  hard,  and  if  well  laid  up 
will  keep  during  the  w  hole  summer 

But  inti'opical  climates  far  distant  from 
high  mountains,  as  neither  natural  snow 
nor  ice  car.  be  obtained,  recourse  is  had 
to  the  cold  generated  by  evaporation  and 
the  comparative  coolness  of  the  air  a  lit- 
tle before  daj  -break,  to  manuf^tcture  ice 
in  large  quantities,  and  thus  to  supply  a 
most  grateful  luxiu-y  at  a  moderate  price. 
Ice  is  thus  simply  manufactured  in  the 
large  way  at  Benares,  Allahabad,  and 
Calcutta,  where  natural  ice  has  never 
been  seen.  On  a  large  open  plain  an  ex- 
cavation is  made  about  thirty  feet  square 
and  two  deep,  on  the  bottom  of  which  su- 
gar-cane or  maize  stems  are  evenly  strew- 
ed to  the  height  of  about  eight  inches. 
On  this  bed  are  set  rows  of  small  shallow 
unglazed  earthen  ])ans,  so  poious  that 
when  filled  with  water  the  outsides  are 
immediately  c(  vered  with  a  thick  dew 
oozing  through  them.  Towards  the  dusk 
of  the  evening,  the  pans  previously  smear- 
ed with  butter,  are  filled  with  soft  water 
generally  boiled,  and  let  to  remain  there 
during  the  night,  hi  the  morning  before 
sun-rise  the  ice-makers  at^nd  and  collect 
from  each  pan  a  crust  of  ice  more  or  less 
thick  that  adheres  to  the  inner  side,  and 
is  put  into  baskets  and  carried  without 
loss  of  time  to  the  common  receptacle, 
which  is  a  deej)  pit  in  a  high  dry  situation, 
lined  first  with  straw  and  then  with  old 
blanketing,  where  it  is  beaten  down  and 
congeals  into  a  solid  mass.  The  crop  of 
ice  varies  extremely,  sometimes  amount- 
ing to  more  than  half  the  contents  of  the 
pan,  at  other  times  scarcely  a  pellicle. 
Clear  and  serene  weather  is  the  most  fa- 
vouiable  for  its  production  whatever  be 
the  sensible  heat  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
cold  generated  by  the  ra])id  evaporation 
roimd  every  jiart  of  the  pan  is  the  cause  of 
this  congelation.    When  used  for  the  ta- 


FRt 


FRI 


ble,  the  ice  Is  either  added  to  the  liquor  to 
be  cooled,  or  is  put  into  a  laig-e  vessel 
mixed  with  salt  or  nitre,  and  tlie  sherbet, 
creams,  and  the  Uke,  intended  to  be 
frozen,  are  inclosed  in  thin  silver  vessels 
and  immersed  in  tiie  mixture  In  this 
way  ices  are  procured  for  the  table,  when 
the  heat  even  in  the  shade  is  very  com- 
monly above  IOC. 

At  tlie  ice  manufactory  at  Benares 
about  100,000  pans  are  reckoned  to  be 
exposed  at  a  time,  and  the  business  of 
filling  them  at  night  and  gatiiering  the 
ice  in  the  morning  employs  about  2jU 
men,  women,  andchildi-en. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  cane-stalks  be 
kept  perfectly  dry,  il'  by  accident  any  jiart 
becomes  wetted,  no  ice  will  form  in  the 
pans  above. 

Mr.  Williams  found  the  temperature  of 
the  air  on  the  cane-stalks  never  to  be 
lower  than  35'',  and  even  plenty  of  ice 
would  form  m  the  pans  when  it  was  as 
high  as  40°.  What  is  remarkable,  he 
found  tliat  ice  was  best  formed  with  the 
g'entlest  winds,  at  which  time  a  thL-rnio- 
meter  placed  on  the  straw  would  alwa\s 
stand  about  4  degrees  lower  than  one  fix- 
ed toapolefive  feet  higher,  hut  in  strong 
winds  no  such  diiTerence  was  observable, 
and  then  no  ice  was  formed. 

To  compare  the  eflect  of  the  porosity  of 
tliese  vessels  in  lowering  the  temperature 
of  water  contained  in  them,  Mr.  Williams 
took  a  new  pot  and  one  in  which  by  long 
u.^e  the  pores  had  been  nearly  stopped, 
and  placed  them  in  a  hot  westerly  wind 
in  the  shade,  where  the  heat  of  the  air  was 
100°.  On  exposure  for  four  hours  the  wa- 
ter in  the  old  pot  was  97,  and  that  in  tlie 
new  pot  was  only  68-". 

Many  other  instances  of  artificial  cold 
produced  by  evajjoration  might  be 
brought. 

Another  mode  of  producing  cold  is  by 
freezing  mixtures,  or  sahne  substances  of 
various  kinds,  v.hich,  during  their  lique- 
fiiction  either  by  solution  in  water  or  in 
acids,  absorb  a  vast  quantity  of  caloric 
from  all  substances  in  contact  with  them. 
Tliis  subject,  however,  in  its  extent, 
would  lead  us  bevond  our  limits. 

FUKNCM  CHAlK.  See  Steatite. 
FRENCH  BERRIES.  The  fruit  of  the 
Jihiimr.us  irjectorius,  cuti^d  by  the  French 
graines  d'^ivignon.  'I'hey  give  a  pretty 
good  yellow  colour,  but  void  of  perma- 
nency-    See  DvEixG. 

FRICTIO.V.  If  a  horizontal  plane  was 
perfectly  smooth,  a  body  would  be  free  to 
move  upon  it  in  any  direction,  by  the 
least  force  applied  to  it.  But  however 
smooth  bodies  may  appear  to  the  eye,  yet, 
if  you  examine  their  surfaces  with  a  mi- 
YOL,    I. 


croscope,  you  will  discover  nufnberleSS 
inequalities ;  in  consequence  of  which,- 
the  prominent  parts  of  one  body  fall  into 
the  hollows  of  another,  so  as  to  be  locked 
together  j  and  therL-t'ore,  ul  moving  tliem 
over  eacli  other;  one  of  the  bodies  must 
be  raised  up,  or  its  prominences  broken 
of}':  this  is  what  is  calledy>/cf:on 

Fi  iction  is  greater  in  bodies,  in  propor- 
tion to  tfieir  weight  or  pressure  against 
each  other.  It  docs  not  increase  much 
in  proportion  to  the  surface,  although  it 
does  in  some  degree.  It  also  increases 
in  proportion  to  the  velocity  of  tiie  moving 
bodies. 

Wood  slides  more  easily  upon  thei 
ground,  or  earth,  in  wet  weather  than  in 
dry,  and  more  easily  than  iron  in  dry 
weathei-j  but  iron  more  easily  than 
wood  in  wet  weather.  A  cubic  piece  of 
smootii  soil  wood,  eight  pounds  in  weighty 
moving  upon  a  smooth  plane  of  soft  wood, 
at  tiie  rate  of  ihi-ee  feet  every  second,  has 
a  friction  equal  to  above  two-thirds  of  its 
weight.  Soft  wood  upon  hard  wood,  has 
a  friction  equal  to  one-sixth  part  of  its 
weight ;  and  hard  wood  upon  hard  woodj 
has  a  friction  equal  to  about  one-eighth 
purt  of  its  weight. 

In  wood  i-ubbingupon  wood,  oil,  greaSe,' 
or  black-lead,  |jioperlj-  applied,  makes 
the  friction  two-thirds  less.  Wheel-naves,- 
when  greased,  have  only  one-fourth  of 
the  friction  tliey  would  have  if  wet. 

^\'i;en  polished  steel  moves  on  steely 
or  pewter  (jroperly  oiled,  the  friction  is 
about  one-iinirth  of  tlie  weiglit ;  on  cop- 
per or  le;id,  one-fifth  of  the  freight ;  on 
brass,  one-sixth :  and  metals  have  more 
friction  when  they  move  on  metals  of  the 
same  kird,  than  when  they  move  on  dif^ 
fcrent  metals. 

I'he  tiiction  of  a  single  lever  is  Very 
little.  The  friction  of"  the  wheel  and  axle 
is  in  proporuon  to  the  weight,  velocity, 
and  diameter  of  the  axle ;  the  smaller 
the  diameter  of  the  axle,  the  less  will  be 
die  fi'iction. 

The  fnctian  of  puUIesis  very  great,  oii 
account  of  the  smallness  of  their  diam- 
eters, in  proportion  to  that  of  tlieir  axes ; 
because  they  very  often  bear  against  the 
blocks,  and  from  the  weaiing  of  their 
lioles  and  axles. 

In  the  wedge  and  screw  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  friction. 

Screws  with  sharp  threads,  have  more 
friction  than  those  with  square  thread.s, 
and  endless  screws  have  more  than  either. 
The  friction  of  carriage  wheels  is  much 
furtlier  increased,  if  they  be  tacked  or 
fastened  so  tliat  tliey  drag  upon  the  sur- 
flice  of  the  road ;  it  is,  therefore,  to  in- 
crease the  resistance  by  augmenting-  the 


FRI 


FRU 


friction,  that  a  wheel  is  locked  in  de- 
scending steep  hills,  where  tlie  relative 
gravitation  gives  too  mucli  velocity  to  the 
carriage- 
Friction  is  considered  as  an  unifoiTnly 
retarding  force  in  hard  bodies,  and  not 
subject  to  alter  by  diflerent  degrees  of 
velocity ;  it  uicreases  in  a  less  ratio  than 
the  quantity  of  matter,  or  weight  of  the 
body;  and  the  smallest  surface,  or  the 
fewest  parts  in  contact,  have  the  least  fric- 
tion, the  weight  being  the  same. 

The  force  or  power  of  friction  varies, 
in  proportion  to  the  diflerent  surfaces  in 
contact ;  that  is,  accordingly  as  the  sur- 
faces are  hard  or  soft,  rougli  or  smooth ; 
even  the  hardest  bodies  which  have  the 
highest  polish  are  not  free  from  inequali- 
ties on  their  surface,  which  retard  their 
motion  when  they  act  upon  each  other. 
When  polished  iron  and  bcU-metal  are 
opposed  to  each  other  in  motion,  they 
produce  less  resistance  than  bodies  in  ge- 
neral ;  but  even  these  polished  planes  do 
not  lose  less  than  an  eighth  of  their  mov- 
ing power,  and  others  not  less  than  one- 
third  of  their  force  by  friction. 

As  the  friction  between  rolling  bodies 
is  much  inferior  to  tliat  which  is  produced 
by  bodies  that  drag,  the  attrition  of  the 
axle  in  the  nave  has  been  lessened  by  a 
contrivance  made  by  Mr.  John  Garnet, 
now  of  New  Brunswick,  New-Jersey,  with 
a  number  of  small  wheels,  which  are  cal- 
led friction  rollers ;  these  are  placed  to 
gether  in  a  box,  and  fastened  in  tlie  nave 
so  tliat  the  axle  of  the  carriage  may  rest 
upon  them,  and  they  turn  round  their 
own  centres  as  the  wheel  contbuies  its 
motion.  A  represents  a  section  of  tlie 
axle,  C  C  the  nave,  and  1«  B  tlie  friction 
rollers  which  turn  round  their  o\\  n  axis 
as  tlie  wheel  revolves  round  llie  axle  of 
the  carriage. 


Cylindrical  and  spherical  rollers  are 
used  with  great  advantage  in  turning 
heavy  bodies,  such  as  the  top  of  a  wind- 
mill or  the  dome  of  an  observatory;  or  in 
moving  lai'ge  logs  of  wood  or  blocks  of 
stone  from  one  place  to  anotlier.  The 
ijrond  equestrian  statute  of  Tcter  Uie 


Great,  at  Pctersburgh,  was  formed  out 
of  an  immense  block  of  stone,  which  was 
brought  from  a  place  some  miles  distant, 
by  rolling  it  along  the  road  on  iron  balls 
laid  on  thick  planks. 

Mr.  Vince  and  Mr.  Coulombe  made  a 
number  of  experiments  on  this  subject. 
The  experiments  of  the  former  were 
made  to  determine.  1  Whether  friction 
be  a  uniformly  retaiding  force.  2.  The 
quantity  of  friction,  3.  AVhether  the  fric- 
tion varies  in  proportion  to  tlie  pressure 
of  the  weight.  4-  Whether  the  friction 
be  the  same,  on  whichsoever  surfa- 
ces the  body  moves.  His  conclusions, 
however,  were  far  from  being  precisely 
acurate,  owing  to  the  resistance  which 
arises  from  cohesion. 

To  have  the  friction  of  machines  as  lit- 
tle as  possible,  they  ought  to  be  made  of 
the  fewest  and  simplest  parts.  The  diam- 
eters of  the  wheels  and  puUies  ought  to 
be  large,  and  the  gudgeons  of  the  axles 
as  small  as  can  be  consistent  with  the 
required  strength.  The  sides  of  the  pid- 
lies  ought  not  to  be  all  over  flat,  but  to 
have  a  small  rising  in  the  middle,  to  keep 
from  rubbing  against  each  other's  sides, 
and  against  the  sides  of  their  mor- 
tises at  a  distance  from  their  axle.  All 
the  cords  and  ropes  ought  to  be  as  pliant 
as  possible ;  and,  for  that  end,  rubbed 
with  grease.  The  teeth  of  the  wheels 
should  just  fit  and  fill  the  openings,  so  as 
not  to  be  squeezed  nor  shaken  therein. 
All  the  parts  which  work  into  or  upon 
one  another,  ought  to  be  smooth ;  the 
gudgeons  ought  just  to  fit  tlieir  holes^ 
and  the  working  parts  must  be  greased. 
The  rounds  or  staves  of  the  trundles  may 
be  made  to  turn  about  upon  iron  spindles, 
fixed  in  the  round  end-boards ;  which  will 
take  oR'  a  great  deal  of  friction. 

Frieslaiid  Ureen.  An  ammonia  comuriat 
of  copper,  the  same  with  Brunswick 
green.  See  Copper,  and  Colour  Mak- 
ing. 

FRITT.  The  materials  of  glass  are 
first  mixed  together,  and  then  exposed  to 
calcination  by  a  degree  of  heat  not  suf- 
ficient to  melt  tliein.  The  mass  is  then 
called  fritt.  The  calcination  deprives  it 
of  any  accidental  combustible  matter  it 
might  have  contained,  and  disposes  it  to 
fusion  in  the  melting-])ot  with  less  effer- 
vescence than  would  else  have  taken 
place.     See  Glass. 

FKUITS,  Colours  from.  It  is  well 
known,  that  a  variety;  of  fruits,  as  the 
poke  berry,  currant,  mulberry,  black 
cheny,  &.c.  yield  a  juice  which  has  tlie 
property  of  giving  a  fugitive  colour  to  li- 
iien  and  the'  like.  Upon  these  juices  va- 
rious chemical  reagents  have  diflijrent  ef- 


FUE 


FUE 


T'lcts :  Thus,  upon  some,  acids  heighten 
the  colour,  and  alkalies  strike  a  purple. 
Whiting  soaked  in  the  juice  of  some  of 
these  fruits,  is  changed  into  a  pigment  of 
a  beautiful  colour,  but  which  is  liable  to 
fade.  See  Colour  Making.  Mr.  Lin - 
do,  of  South  Carolina,  made  some  experi- 
ments with  the  juice  of  the  poke  berry, 
in  order  to  fix  it  with  the  substance  of 
cotton,  which  succeeded  only  in  part. 
Dr.  Seybert,  some  time  since,  made  a 
number  of  experiments  on  the  poke  ber- 
ry; and,  after  trying  as  many  as  twenty 
fluids,  either  acid,  alkaline,  earthy,  or  me- 
tallic, no  permanency  could  be  given  to 
the  colour.  We  have  also  tried  a  num- 
ber, but  not  with  much  success.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  a  Mr.  Allison,  I  think 
in  New  Jersey,  has  discovered  a  process, 
or  mordant,  by  which  the  colour  may  be 
indelibly  fixed  on  stuffs.  If  this  be  true, 
the  poke  berry,  which  abounds  so  plenti- 
fully in  the  United  States,  will  prove  an 
acquisition  to  our  counti^. 

The  fruit,  as  it  may  be  termed,  of  the 
Lombardy  poplar,  which  communicates  a 
purple  to  the  skin,  may  be  fixed  pretty 
permanently  by  means  of  a  solution  of  tin, 
or  of  alum,  to  which  potash  is  afterwards 
added. 

In  Dr.  Lewis's  examination  of  the  co- 
louring matters  of  vegetable  fruits,  he 
found,  that  the  red  juices  of  fruits  did  not 
afford  a  permanent  dye  by  any  treatment 
he  used.  The  dark  dull  stain  of  the  black 
cheny  proved  considerably  durable.  Sap 
CiREEM  is  prepared  from  the  berries  of 
buckthorn,  and  Annotto  is  obtained 
from  the  pellicles  of  the  seeds  of  an  Ame- 
rican tree.    See  Sap  Green  and  Annot- 

TO. 

FUEL,  whatever  is  proper  to  btun,  or 
make  a  fire;  as  wood,  turf,  peat, coal,  &c. 

FUEL,  Economy  in.  Notliing  is  of 
more  importance,  where  fuel  is  scarce  and 
consequently  high,  than  economy  in  tlie 
use  of  fuel.  In  order  to  economize  in  the 
article  of  coal,  count  Kumtbrd  long  sinc^ 
turned  his  attention  to  this  subject,  and 
has  proposed  a  composition,  which  is  to 
be  made  into  balls,  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  coal,  charcoal,  and  clay.  If  balls 
be  made  of  this  mixture,  and  afterwards 
soaked  in  a  solution  of  saltpetre,  they  will 
instantly  take  fire  from  the  smallest 
spark.  The  patent  coal  balls,  invented 
by  Mr.  Frederic,  are  of  a  similar  kind.  A 
mixture  of  coke  and  charcoal,  or  of  sea 
coal,  charcoal,  saw  dust,  tan,  &c.  after 
being  heated  in  a  furnace,  form  the  im- 
proved fuel  invented  by  Mr.  Peter  Davey. 
Various  patents  have  been  obtained  for 
the  means  of  saving  fuel,  for  the  purposes 
of  salt   making,  sugar  refining,   boiling, 


distilling,  evaporating,  and  for  every  pro- 
cess in  which  fuel  is  necessaiy. 

In  the  kitchen,  also,  contrivances  have 
been  used  for  the  same  puriwse :  To  this 
subject,  in  particular,  too  much  attention 
cannot  be  given.  Among  the  means  of 
economizing  fuel  already  carried  into  ef- 
fect in  Europe,  principally  at  the  instance 
of  sir  Benjamin  Thompson,  we  may  men- 
tion  also  the  improvements  of  our  coun- 
trymen. Injustice  to  one,  in  particular, 
(>Ir.  Daniel  Pettibone,)  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  for  sundry  improvements  in  this 
way,  our  country  has  already  received 
considerable  advantages. 

Dr.  Franklin,  however,  may  be  said  to 
be  the  first,  in  the  then  colonies  of  Ameri- 
ca, who  applied  him  self  to  these  improve- 
ments, and  the  construction  of  stoves.  In 
relation  to  this  subject,  Mr.  Pettibone  ob- 
tained the  following  patents : 

1.  A  wheel  oven,  or  stove,  called  a  per- 
petual oven,  which  is  useful  in  an  anmy. 
It  moves  by  weights. 

2.  A  ship's  camboase,  with  many  ad- 
vantages. 

3.  A  furnace,  or  stove,  made  of  u'on  or 
copper,  with  a  grate,  consisting  of  hollow 
bars. 

4.  An  improvement  on  all  kinds  of  pots, 
kettles,  or  boilers  whatever,  by  adding  or 
attaching  a  lioop  to  the  sides,  near  the 
bottom,  thereby  confining  the  heat  to  it : 
the  contents  will  boil  in  half  the  usual 
time  required  without  the  hoop  This 
improvement  is  useful  for  camp  kettles,  or 
washing  rooms. 

5.  An  improvement  in  the  common  tin 
kitchen,  or  roaster  — Cover  the  back  and 
top  witli  a  thick  soft  woollen  blanket ;  or, 
to  make  the  kitchen  durable,  leave  a 
dead  column  of  air  between . 

6.  A  rarifying  air  stove,  for  sundry  pur- 
poses. 

These,  with  other  patents,  are  described 
in  Pettibone's  Econnmy  of  Fuel. 

On  the  subject  oftiie  kitchen  stove,  &c. 
Mr.  Pettibone  observes : 

"  I  contemplate  the  application  of  a  bel- 
lows to  blow  into  a  stove,  camboase,  fur- 
nace, or  a  number  of  small  furnaces,  some- 
what similar  to  those  of  count  Riimford''s; 
which  improvement  I  call  the 

"Improved  Kitchen  Range,  Furnace, 
fitove,  and  Camboase. — This  improvement 
consists  in  placing  a  bellows,  similar  to 
that  of  a  smith's,  in  any  convenient  part  of 
a  house,  or  building,  and  conveying  air 
from  it,  by  a  pipe  or  tube,  to  the  stove 
furnace,  furnaces,  or  range. — And  from 
tlie  main  air-tube,  other  branches  or  tubes 
are  fitted  with  cocks,  so  as  to  admit  air 
into  any  single  stove  or  furnace,  or  into  all 
the  furnaces  atone  and  the  same  time. 


FUL 


FUS 


"  By  this  means,  stone  or  oilier  coal, 
pr  wood,  may  be  used  to  grtat  adv:m- 
tap^e. — The  fire  can  be  inimeduitcly  kin- 
dled or  cxtinguislied. — 'I'hcse  furnaces 
are  fitted  without  gi-atcs,  and  with  grates, 
that  the  fire  may  be  kindled  by  the  air  of 
the  room,  or  from  the  cellai-,  or  from 
without  the  house,  wlien  only  a  slow 
and  moderate  heat  is  rccjuircd,  as  in  com- 
mon. 

"  The  application  of  the  bellows,  as 
above  mentioned,  is  ol'g-reat  use,  particu- 
larly in  the  summer,  lor  ilomestic  i)ur- 
poses,  as  tlic  common  I'urnaces  are  not  apt 
to  kindle  or  tlraw  well,  for  want  of  u  full 
supply  of  air.  Uy  this  plan  of  the  impro\"ed 
kitchen,  cast  or  wrous^lit  iron  heaters,  of 
a  ])rQper  size,  may  be  heated,,  so  as  to 
jirepare  tea,  or  coffee,  &c.  on  a  table.  By 
putting-  them  in  a  proper  apparatus,  pre- 
pared to  prevent  the  escape  of  heat,  some 
kinds  of  baking  can  be  performed. — This 
improvement  is  particularly  suitable  and 
w-ell  calculated  for  the  camboases  of  ships 
(>r  vesselsj-r^as  the  vessiel  will  work  the 
bellows  by  its  motion,  when  at  sea. 

•'  These  stoves,  furnaces,  or  camboases, 
are  made  of  stone  or  brick,  or,  if  of  cast 
or  wrought  iron,  they  must  be  lined  with 
brick  or  stone,  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
heat — and  a  damper  is  fitted  in  the  smoke 
pipe  or  flue,  so  as  to  regulate  it. 

"This  plan  will  he  of  great  advantage, 
as  no  more  cold  air  can  enter  the  stove, 
furnace,  or  camboos,  than  is  required  to 
kindle  or  blow  tlic  fire. — It  will  save  at 
least  one  half  the  fuel  commonly  usetl  on 
board  of  vessels,  or  in  kitcliens." 

The  most  convenient  and,  wc  may  add, 
the  most  economical  stove,  for  the  ))ur- 
poses  of  the  kitchen,  where  fuel  is  to  be 
saved,  is  the  patent  stove  of  Mr.  Abbot, 
which  we  shall  describe  hereafter. 

FULIGINOUS.  Vapours  which  pos- 
sess the  property  of  sniokc;  numely,  ojia- 
city,  and  the  disposition  to  apply  them- 
selves to  surrovmding  bodies  in  the  form 
of  a  dark-coloured  powder. 

FULLEUS'  E.VUlIi.  See  Eauih, 
Fullers'. 

FULLING,  sometimes  called  also  mill- 
ing, is  used  for  cleansing,  scouring,  and 
pressing  cloths,  stuff's,  and  stockings,  to 
^•ender  tlie;n  stronger  and  much  tinner. 

The  fulling  of  cloth  is  performed  in  a 
mill,  called  a  fulling  or  scouring  mill. 
Tiie  stvilfs  are  prepared  in  a  bath  of" urine, 
then  in  fullers' carl  1),  difVustd  in  water; 
and,  lastly,  in  soup,  dissolved  in  hot  wa- 
ter. The  sccmringof  tile  cloth  is  not  the 
only  object  in  fulling;  but,  by  the  alter- 
^late  presstire  oommunicaied  by  the 
ytamps  to  thestiifis,  an  eflert  is  produced 
Similar  \oJ'eiti>is,  which  elmnges  the  tex- 


lui  c  of  the  clolli  into  a  substance  analo- 
gous  to  felt. 

Thejul/ing  of  stockings,  caps,  life,  is  per- 
formed witli  the  feet  or  hands,  or  by  a 
kinil  of  rack  or  wooden  machine,  armed 
with  teeth.  Urine,  soap,  fullers'  eartli, 
&c.  are  also  used  in  this  process.  Stock- 
ings, however,  manufactured  in  a  loom, 
should  be  fulled  with  soap  alone;  but,  if 
the  stockings  be  knit,  earth  may  likewise 
be  added. 

If  the  earth,  known  by  the  name  of  ful- 
lers' earth,  cannot  be  had,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, that  every  fine  clay  that  does 
not  communicate  a  colour,  is  in  general 
fit  for  the  business  of  fulling;  even  the 
excrements  of  hogs,  mixed  with  human 
urine,  are  used  for  this  piu'pose,  in  various 
woollen  manufactories. 

The  properties  required  in  good  fullers' 
earth  are,  that  it  shall  carry  ofl"  the  oily 
impurities  of  the  woollen  cloth,  and  at  the 
same  time  thicken  it,  by  causing  the 
hairs  or  fibres  to  curl  up.  The  best  is 
composed  of  fine  siliceous  earth  with 
clay,  and  a  little  calcareous  earth.  See 
Manufacture  ofCloih. 

FUliNACK,  an  article  of  chemical  ap- 
paratus, &c.  Without  entering  into  a 
dry  detail  of  the  various  kinds  of  furnaces, 
either  used  in  chemical  experiments  or  in 
the  arts,  which  we  shall  notice  hereafter, 
when  treating  of  some  particular  pro- 
cesses, we  may  observe,  that  we  have 
tlie  air  furnace,  the  blast  furnace,  the  rc- 
vcrberilory  fiuiiace,  &c.  Dr.  Black's 
portuhle  furnace  api)ears  to  be  the  basis 
of  all  the  portable  clieniical  furnaces  of 
oiu"  day,  ti'om  which  the  universal  funiace 
of  .'Vcrum,  Aikin's  furnace,  &c.have  been 
modelled.  The  muffle,  portable  cham- 
ber, portable  blast,  the  reverberato- 
ry,  and  tlie  draught  melting  furnace, 
have  each  their  several  uses.  See  Ap- 
pendix. 

FUSTKT.  The  \yood  of  the  rhus  coti- 
mis,  or  Venns's  sumiich,  yields  a  fine 
orange  colour,  but  not  at  all  durable.  It 
is  used  by  the  French  dyers,  but  we  be- 
lieve not  much  in  this  country,  with  other 
colouring  substances,  particularly  cochi- 
neal, to  modify  nv  heighten  their  efiect, 
and  in  this  way  is  more  permanent.  Jjike 
the  French  berries,  its  colour  is  soluble 
both  in  water  and  alcohol.  Its  decoction 
contains  a  small  portion  of  gallic  acid, 
but  no  gum;  reduces  gold;  and  preci- 
pitates   the    metallic  salts.      See    Dve- 

ING. 

FUSTIC,  or  Yf.m.ow  Wood.  This 
Mood,  the  -morus  tinctnria,  is  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies  It  afi'ortls  much  yellow 
colouring  matter,  which  is  very  perma- 
nyut.     See  DvEiNC. 


G. 


GAL 


GAL 


GALENA,  sulphuret  of  lead,  or  blue  I  casionally  used  in  medicine.  As  galls 
kad  ore.     See  Lead.  are  scarce  in  this  country  at  this  time, 

GALLS,  or  GALLNLTT,  is  the  produce  their  place  may  be  supplied,  in  the  opi- 
of  the  prickly-cupped  oak  (Quercus  Cer-inion  of  Dr.  Penington,  altogether,  by  the 
ris  Linn.)  a  small  timber  tree  that  grows! pig  nut.      Many    vegetable    astringents. 


wild  in  almost  all  the  coimtries  bordei'ing 
upon  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  some  of 
tiie  soutliern  provinces  of  Germany. 
Tliis  substance  is  said  to  oria:inate  from 


which  contain   an    abundance   of  gallic 
acid,   may    be  obtained    in   this    coim- 
try. 
GALLIC  ACID.     If  an  infusion  of  galls 


a  puncture  made  by  an  insect  of  the  ge-  be  exposed  to  the  air,  in  the  course  of 
iHis  cynips,  to  the  young  of  which,  while; time  a  dark-coloured  sediment,  with 
in  their  laiva  state,  it  serves  for  habitation! small  crjstals,  will  be  depo.sited.  The 
and  food.  It  is  found  adhering  to  tlie  |  latter  is  gallic  acid.  If  alumine,  or  a  so- 
soft  annual  shoots  of  the  tree,  and  in  !lution  of  glue,  be  added  to  a  filtered  de- 
short,  in  its  original  .situation  and  gene-  cocliou  of  galls,  the  liquor  then  filtered 


ral  appearance  is  considered  bv  natiu-alists 
as  precisely  similar  to  those  cxcresrencies 
on  English  oaks,  vulgarly  called  o«<t-i'j/>/)/f*. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  gall-nut  distin- 
guished in  commerce  ;  the  inferior  is  of  a 
pale  brown  colour,  and  about  the  size  of 
a  nutmeg,  and  is  procured  from  Spain, 
France,  and  the  northern  Mediterranean 
countries  ;  the  superior  sort  is  of  a  deep 
olive  colour,  apin-oaching  to  black,  is 
smaller  than  the  otlier,  and  its  specific 
gravity  is  considerably  greater:  it  is  pro- 
duced in  Asia  Minor,  but  more  especially 
in  Syria,  and  is  hence  called  the  Aleppo 
gall,  tiiis  town  being  the  principal  seat  of 
the  foreign  Sp'ian  commerce. 

"Without  stating  tlie  exact  analysis  of 
gails,  and  without  noticing  all  their  clie- 
mical  properties  or  cliaracters,  we  may 
observe,  that  they  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  gallic  acid  and  the  tanning- 
principle. 

For  particulars  concerning  gall-nut  see 
Gallic  Acid,  Ink,  and  Tanning. 

The  uses  of  this  substance  are  very  im- 
portant. It  is  employed  largely  in  dye- 
ing not  only  blacks  and  various  kindred 
colours,  but  is  also  an  essential  ingredient 
in  the  composition  of  the  finest  madder 
reds. — See  Dyeing.  It  is  a  necessat-y 
part  of  all  the  black  writing  inks :  it  is 
employed  in  the  laboratory   as    a   use- 


and  evaporated,  crystals  of  tlie  same  acid 
will  be  obtained. 

In  consequence  of  the  ready  decompo- 
sition of  this  acid  and  the  large  proportion 
of  carbon  that  it  contains,  it  precipitates 
gold,  silver,  mercury,  copper,  bismuth 
and  iron  from  all  their  acid  combinations, 
reducing  the  two  first  in  part  to  the  me- 
tallic state.  It  appears  incapable  of  de- 
composing the  salts  of  platina,  zinc,  tin, 
cobaJt,  and  manganese.  The  oxygenated 
salts  of  iron  are  thrown  down  by  it,  of  a 
deep  blue  colour  spproaching  to  black, 
and  this  is  its  most  characteristic  proper- 
ty. It  is  not  used  in  its  pure  state,  but  as 
a  component  part  of  galls  and  other  as- 
tringent vegetables.  It  is  applied  to  a  va- 
riety of  important  purposes,  for  which  see 
especially  the  articles  Dyeing  and  Ink. 

GALLING,  an  operation  in  Dyeing, 
which  see. 

GALLIUM  TINCTORIUM.— This  is 
an  indigenous  plant,  which  affords  a 
brilliant  red  dye.  It  grows  plentifully 
in  some  of  the  middle  states,  in  woods, 
swamps  and  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  So 
far  as  we  are  acquainted  with  it,  and  from 
the  fact  tliat  the  Indians  dye  all  the  por- 
cupine quills,  and  the  white  hair  of  deer 
t:iils  with  it,  and  fi-om  the  observations  of 
professor  Woodhouse,  that  the  dye  on 
cloth  and  silk  is  durable,  and  not  changed 


ful  lest  for  the  salts  of  iron,  and  is  oc-!by  any  agent  except  the  alkalies,  we  may 


GAM 


GAS 


justly  infer  that  it  is  a.  valuable  plant  to 
the  American  dyer. 

GALVANISM,  or  GALVANIC  ELEC- 
TRICITY, called  also  Voltaism.  As  no 
immediate  use  is  made  of  tlie  science  oi 
galvanism  in  its  application  to  any  art, 
which  we  at  present  remember,  we  shall 
only  offer  a  few  general  remarks  without 
detailing  the  experiments  of  Galvani, 
Volta,  Davy,  and  otliers. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  porter,  when 
drank  from  a  pewter  pot,  has  a  superior  fla- 
vour than  when  drank  out  of  one  of  glass 
or  of  china.  This  effect  is  explained  by 
galvanism.  Galvani,  however,  discovered 
this  principle,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  in  dis- 
secting a  frog,  by  touching  the  nerve 
with  his  instrument,  which,  in  a  particular 
manner,  produced  convulsions  intlie  mus- 


has  obtained  its  name  of  cambadium, 
cambogium,  gambogium. 

It  is  a  very  rough  and  strong  purge  :  it 
operates  both  by  vomit  and  stool,  and 
both  ways  with  much  violence,  almost  in 
the  instant  in  which  it  is  swallowed,  but 
yet,  as  it  is  said,  without  griping.  The 
dose  is  from  two  to  four  grains  as  a  ca- 
thartic  ;  from  four  to  eight  grains  prove 
emetic  and  purgative.  The  roughness  of 
its  operation  is  diminished  by  giving  it  in 
a  liquid  form  sufficiently  diluted. 

Tl'is  gum  resin  is  sohible  both  in  water 
and  In  alcohol.  Alkaline  sohilions  possess 
a  deep  red  colour,  and  pass  the  filter.  Dr. 
Lewis  informs  us,  that  it  gives  a  beauti- 
ful and  durable  citron  yellow  stain  to  mar- 
ble, whether  rubbed  in  substance  on  tlie 
hot  stone,  or  applied,  as  dragon's  blood 


cles.  When  zinc  and  silver  are  placed  I  sometimes  is,  in  form  of  a  spirituous 
on  the  tongue,  so  that  they  may  commu-  i  tincture.  AVhen  it  is  applied  on  cold  mar. 
nicate  with  each  other,  a  peculiar  sensa-  ble,  the  stone  is  afterward  to  be  heated  to 
tion  will  follow,  which  is  galvanism.  make  the  colour  penetrate. 

It  was  afterwards  discovered,  that  It  is  chiefly  used  as  a  pigment  in  water 
plates  of  zinc,  silver,  or  copper,  arranged  colours,  but  does  not  stand. 
in  a  pile  with  a  piece  of  cloth  moistened  j  Gamboge  enters  into  the  composition 
with  salt  water  between  each  pair  of!  of  the  gold  coloured  lacquer ;  it  is  also 
plates,  when  arranged  properly,  would  j  employed  by  the  inlay er  and  cabinet  ma- 
communicate  a  shock.  The  apparatus  i  ker  to  stain  white  woods  in  imitation  of 
thus  found,  received  the  name  of  the  gal-  j  box,  &c.  See  Varnish. 
vanic  pile.  If  the  same  plates  be  arranged  GANGUE.  The  stones  which  fdl  the 
in  an  oblong  box,  the  galvanic  trough  !  cavities  that  form  tlie  veins  of  metals  are 
will  be  formed.     The  peculiar  sensation  ;  called  the  gangue,  or  matrix  of  the  ore  ; 


produced  by  drinking  out  of  a  pewter 
mug,  the  discoloration  of  a  silver  spoon 
in  the  act  of  eating  eggs,  and  the  loosen- 
ing of  the  bolts  in  ships,  which  liave  been 
coppered,  by  the  contact  of  salt  water, 
with  many  other  phenomena,  are  resolved 


the  rocks  that  lie  over  tlie  veins  are 
called  the  roof;  those  that  lie  under  them 
the  floor,  and  by  some  the  hading :  the 
matrix  is  almost  always  a  liner  species  of 
stone  than  the  surrounding  rocks,  though 
of  the  same  genus ;  even  the  rocks  thcm- 


into  galvanism.  For  an  account  of  this  i  selves  are  finer  graij^ed  as  they  approach 
science,  its  history,  progress,  apjilication 
to  experiment,  together  with  the  mode 
of  forming  piles,  batteries,  and  conduct- 
ing experiments  therewith,  we  refer  the 
reader  to  Volta's  treatise, '  4to.  Wilkin- 
son, 2  vol.  8vo.  and  Davy's  Elements  of 
Chemical  Piiilosophy. 

GALLEY,  an  oblong reveiberatory fur- 
nace, in  which  a  row  of  retorts  is  placed 
beside  each  other,  with  their  necks  pro- 
truding through  lateral  openings. 

GAMBOGE,  is  a  concrete  vegetable 
juice,  the  produce  of  two  trees,  both 
called  by  the  Indians  caracapulli  (gam- 
bogia  gutta,  Linn.)  and  is  partly  of  a 
gummy  and  partly  of  a  resinous  natiu-e. 
it  is  brought  to  us  either  in  form  of  orbi- 
cular masses,  or  of  cylindrical  rolls  of 
various  sizes  :  and  is  of  a  dense,  compact 
and  firm  texture,  and  of  a  beautiful  yel- 
low. It  is  chiefly  brought  to  us  from 
Cambaja,  in  the  East  Indies,  called  also 
Cambodja,  and  Cambogia  ;  and  thence  it 


the  vein. 

There  is  no  matrix  peculiarly  appro- 
priatcd  to  any  metal :  it  has  only  been  re- 
marked, that  tin  is  generally  found  among 
stones  of  the  siliceous  genus,  and  lead 
very  ii-equently  among  those  of  the  cal- 
careous. 

GARNET-COLOUR.  See  Colouring 
of  Glass. 

(iAUNETS,  to  imitate. — Take  prepar- 
ed crystals  two  ounces,  common  red  lead 
six  ounces,  manganese,  16  grains,  /aftre, 
3  grains;  mix  and  put  them  in  a  crucible; 
cover  it  and  lute,  and  set  it  in  a  potter's 
kiln,  for  twenty-four  hours.  Or  take 
crystal  2ounces,miniu7n,  5?,  ounces,  man- 
ganese, 15  grains,  zafi're,  4  grains;  mix 
them  well  together,  and  let  all  lie  baked 
in  a  pot  well  luted,  in  a  potter's  kiln  for 
24  hours.     See  Glass. 

GAS  LIGHT.— The  introduction  of 
carbonated  hydrogen  gas  iiUo  stores,  ma- 
nufactories, 8ic.  to  produce  liglit,   under 


GAS 


GEE 


tlie  name  of  the^'rjs  light,  has  led  to  the 
construction  of  an  apparatus  for  obtain- 
ing it  from  pit  coal.  It  may  be  proper  to 
mention,  that  of  the  combination  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  there  are  several  varie- 
ties ;  hence,  we  iiave  tlie  heavy  and  ligiit 
carburetted  hydrogen  gas,  all  tlie  varie- 
ties of  which  are  inflammable.  The  gas 
which  rises  spontaneously  in  hot  weather 
from  stagnant  water,  mud,  &.c.  when  ve- 
getable and  animal  matter  are  in  a  state 
of  decomposition  ;  that  produced  by  the 
distillation  of  acetate  of  potash,  the  acid 
of  which  by  decomposition  affords  the 
materials  of  the  gas,  and  by  the  distilla- 
tion of  otiier  substances  at  high  or  low 
temperatures,  as  pit  coal,  moistened 
charcoal,  wood,  &c.  to  which  may  be  add- 
ed the  decomposition  of  alcohol  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  in  the  production  of  olefiant 
gas,  are  all  varieties  of  the  same  gas. 
Without  stating,  however,  the  particulars 
on  this  subject,  we  shall  observe,  that 
pit  coal  or  fossil  coal  is  generally  made 
use  of,  which  is  exposed  to  heat  in  iron 
pots  or  cylinders,  and  the.  gas,  togetlier 
■with  bituminous  matter,  is  conveyed  by 
a  pipe  into  a  reservoir,  where  the  tar 
condenses ;  the  gas  is  afterwards  passed 
Ihrougli  water,  or  lime  water,  in  a  suita- 
ble apparatus,  where  it  is  purified  ;  and 
by  a  simple  contrivance,  togetlier  with 
an  adjusted  pressure,  is  forced  througJi 
pipes  or  tubes  into  different  parts  of  the 
building  where  it  is  inflamed.  The  resi- 
duei  in  tlie  distillery  vessel,  is  the  same 
as  cake,  which  may  be  used  as  fuel,  and 
the  bitumen  collected  in  the  receiver, 
may  be  employed  for  sundry  purposes. 
Although  the  apparatus  used  in  England 
we  think  in  Soho,  as  well  as  in  other  parts, 
is  rather  complicated,  and  probably  an- 
swers the  purpose  very  complelcly,  yet 
trials  of  tlie  same  kind  have  been  made 
in  this  country,  particularly  in  fhiladel- 
phia,  and  found  to  be  imperfecti  Whe- 
ther this  was  owing  to  a1iy  defect  in  the 
apparatus,  or  whether  some  other  cause 
may  be  alleged  lor  its  failure,  we  have  not 
ascertained. 

It  is  obvious,  vthat  as  distillation  is  the 
only  means  of  obtaining  the  gas  from  pit 
coal,  the  more  simple  tiie  cojitrivance  is, 
the  better ;  but  as  a  constant  supply  of 
gas  is  necessary,  a  reservoir  is  indis- 
pensibly  requisite,  together  with  stop- 
cocks, pipes  with  small  apertures,  &:c. 

A  single  experiment  will  shew  the  man- 
ner in  which  this  gas  is  produced.  Fill 
the  bowl  of  a  common  tobacco  pipe  with 
powdered  pit-coal,  cover  the  mouth  over 
with  moistened  clay,  and  expose  the 
bowl  to  the  action  of  heat ;  in  a  short 
time  a  yellow-coloured  smoke  will  pass 


through  the  stem,  which,  on  applying  a 
lighted  taper,  will  take  fire,  and  thus  ex- 
hibit the  gas  light  in  miniature. 

Those  who  desire  information  on  this 
subject,  in  order  to  introduce  the  light 
into  manuf;\ctories  or  the  like,  may  find  a 
description  of  the  apparatus,  accompa- 
nied with  a  plate,  in  the  third  edition  of 
Parke's  Chemical  Catechism. 

GAUZE,  a  transparent  stuff  made  of 
silk,  and  sometimes  of  thread.  See 
Weaving. 

GELATIN,  or  animal  jelly.— This  is 
a  most  abundant  principle  in  a  vast  vari- 
ety of  the  parts  of  animals,  and  appears 
to  be  one  of  the  great  elementary  con- 
stituents of  animal  organization.  Scarce- 
ly any  organ  is  without  it,  but  it  is  most 
abundantly  contained  in  skin,  in  most  of 
the  soft  and  white  parts,  hi  bone,  and  the 
hard  bony  horns,  in  membrane  of  all 
kinds,  in  tiie  blood  in  small  quantity,  and 
also  in  small  proportion  as  the  natural  ce- 
ment of  many  of  the  shells. 

From  all  these  substances  gelatin  is  ex- 
tracted simply  by  boding  in  water  for  a 
greiiter  or  less  time,  according  to  the 
hardness  or  toughness  of  the  substance 
employed.  This  watery  solution  is  trans- 
parent and  colourless,  or  neai-ly  so,  and 
when  gently  evaporated  to  a  small  bulk 
and  suffered  to  cool  it  gelatinizes,  or  as- 
sumes the  consistence  of  cohering,  ex- 
tremely flexible  and  mobile,  soft,  tremu- 
lous jelly,  such  as  is  known  to  every  one 
as  prepared  for  the  table. 

I5y  further  evaporation,  the  watery  so- 
lution of  gelatin  may  be  rendered  hard 
and  brittle,  in  a  degi-ee  partly  determined 
by  the  degree  of  evaporation,  and  partly 
by  the  original  gelatinizing  force  of  the 
substance  tiiat  yields  it.  In  this  state  it 
forms  the  solid  carpenter's  glue,  or  of  less- 
stifiiiess  the  different  kinds  of  size  used 
as  cements  in  so  many  of  the  arts.  The 
preparation  of  these  will  be  described  af- 
ter mentioning  some  of  the  chemical  pro- 
perties common  to  pure  gelatine  of  <jvery 
description- 

The  jelly  of  various  animal  substances, 
is  prepared  for  the  use  of  sea-faring  per- 
sons, imder  the  name  of  portable  soup. 
The  whole  art  of  performing  this  opera- 
tion consists  in  boiling  the  meat,  and  tak- 
ing the  scum  off,  as  usual,  until  the  soup 
possesses  the  requisite  flavour.  It  is  then 
suffered  to  cool,  in  order  that  the  fivt  may 
be  separated.  In  the  next  place,  it  is 
mixed  with  five  or  six  whites  of  eggs,  and 
slightly  boiled.  This  operation  serves  to 
clarify  the  liquid,  by  the  removal  of  opake 
particles,  which  imite  with  the  white  of 
e^^  at  the  time  it  becomes  solid  by  the 
heat,    and,    are    consequently   remove? 


GEI. 


GEL 


aluiif;  with  it.  The  liquor  is  then  to  be 
slraiaecl  through  flannel,  and  evaporated 
on  the  water  hath  to  the  consistence  of  a 
very  thick  paste ;  after  wliicii  it  is  spread 
rather  thin  upon  a  smooth  stone,  then  cut 
into  cakes,  and,  lastly,  dried  in  a  stove  un- 
til it  becomes  brittle.  These  cakes  may 
be  kept  four  or  iive  yeais,  if  defended 
from  moisture.  "When  intended  to  be 
used,  nothing  more  is  required  to  be  done 
tlian  to  dissolve  a  sufficient  quantity  in 
boiling'  water,  which,  by  tiiat  means,  be- 
comes converted  into  soup. 

Jellies  are  very  common  in  our  kitch- 
ens ;  they  may  be  extracted  from  all  tlie 
parts  of  animals,  by  boiling  them  in  water. 
Hot  water  dissolves  a  large  quantity  of 
tliis  substance.  _  j 

Tlie  most  singidar  combination  of  ge- 
latin, and  that  wliicli  is  n)ost  useful  as  a 
chemical  test  is  with  tan.  If  a  solution  of 
gelatin,  of  glue  or  isinglass  for  exam|)le, 
is  added  to  an  infusion  of  oak  bark,  galls, 
catechu,  or  any  other  vegetable  that  con- 
tains the  tanning  principle,  a  ftjpious 
white  precipitate  separates,  whicli,  when 


Glue,  such  as  is  made  by  the  rarpeil 
ters,a])pears  to  be  made  in  as  great  perfec- 
tion in  this  as  in  any  other  country,  'llie 
minute  circumstances  of  the  ojicratioii 
wiiich  give  a  superiority  of  the  article  ot 
one  maimfucturer  over  anotiitr,  cannot  be 
readily  ascertained;  but,  the  i'ollowing  is 
given  by  Mr.  Clennel.  as  the  general  mode 
of  manufacture  :  Glue  is  an  inspissated 
gelly,  made  of  the  parings  of  hides  or 
lionis  of  any  kind,  the  pelts  obtained  fr(J<TJ 
furriers,  the  hoofs  and  ears  of  horses,  ox- 
en, calves,  sheep,  &.c.  'ihese  are  hrst  di- 
gested in  lime-water,  to  cleanse  them 
from  grease  or  dirt,  they  are  then  steep- 
ed in  clean  water,  with  fiequent  stirring, 
afterwards  hiid  in  a  heaji,  and  the  water 
pressed  out.  They  are  then  boiled  in  a 
large  brass  cauldron,  with  clean  water, 
skimming  off  the  dirt  as  it  rises;  and  it  is 
fiu'lher  cleansed  by'  jHilting  in,  after  the 
whole  is  dissolved,  a  little  melted  alum, 
or  lime  finely  powdered  Tlie  skimming- 
is  continued  for  some  time,  after  which 
the  mass  is  strained  through  baskets, 
and  suflerod  to  settle  that  the  remaining 


the  respective  liquors  are  concentrated,  impurities  may  subside,  it  is  then  pour- 
may  be  collected  by  the  fingers  with  gi-eat  |  ed  gently  into  the  kettle  ^gain,  and  fur- 
ease,  and  forms  a  singular  grey,  ductile  j  tlier  evaporated  by  boiling  and  skimming, 
mass,  smelling  like  tainicd  leather,  and  till  it  becomes  of  a  clear,  darkish  brown 
which  dries  into  a  dark  brown  brittle  j  colour.  ^Vhen  it  is  thought  to  be  strong 
mass,  of  the  appearance  of  resin,  insoluble  I  enougl),    it   is    poured    into    frames    or 


in  water,  and  incapable  of  ijulrel'action. 
I'his  combination,  which  a])pears  to  be 
chemically  the  same  as  hi^^hly  tanned 
leather,  will  be;  furtlier  noticed  under  the 
article  Tan. 

I'hc  difliirence  In  the  degree  of  viscidi- 
tj'  and  tenacity  of  the  varieties  of  gelatin 


moulds,  about  six  feet  long,  one  broad, 
and  two  deep,  where  it  gradually  hardens 
as  it  cools,'  and  is  cut  out  whesi  cold,  by  a 
s|)ade,  into  square  cakes.  Each  of  these 
is  placed  in  a  sort  of  wooden  box,  open  in 
three  divisions  to  the  back ;  in  tiiis  the 
g-lue,  while  yet  soft,  is  cut  into  thi'ee  sii- 


is,  as  Mr.  Hatchett  observes,  an  inherent  i  ces,  by  an  instrument  like  a  bow,  with  a 
quality,  and  not  caused  bv  the  degree  of  |  brass  wire  for  its  string.  The  slices  aie 
mere  inspissalion  ;  otherwise,  when  eacli  then  taken  out  into  the  open  air,  and 
variety  was  perfectly  dry,  they  would  •  dried  on  a  kind  of  coarse  net  work,  fust- 
each  make  a  glue,  or  cement,  oi"  exactly  jened  in  moveable  sheds  four  feet  square, 
the  same  degree  of  tenacity,  which  is  |  wliich  are  placed  in  row  s,  in  tiie  ghie- 
knovvn  not  to  be  the  case.  On  the  eon-  '■  maker's  field.  Wiien  perfectly  dry  and 
irary,  the  tenacity  depends  partly  on  the  •  liard,  it  is  lit  for  sale.  'I'iiatis  thought  to 
age  of  the  animal,  the  old  giving  a  much  ;  be  the  best  glue  which  swells  considera- 
stronger  glue,  awis  paribus,  than  the  bly  without  melting  by  three  or  f()ur  days 
young:  and  jKirlly  on  the  substar.ces  tliat  immersion  in  cohl  water,  and  recovers  its 
furnish  it,  the  glue  from  the  skin  being  former  dimcn.^ions  and  properties  by  dry- 
much  stronger  llian  the  soruLgelaiin  from  ing.  Glue  that  has  got  frost,  or  that  looks 
the  bones,  sinews,  or  any  other  pail.  In  thick  and  bhick,  should  be  melted  over 
proportion  as  the  ghie  is  more  adhesive,  again.  To  know  good  li'om  bad  glue, 
it  becomes  less  easily  soluble  in  water,  the  ])urchasei' should  hold  it  between  his 
and  absorbs  a  larger  portion  before  it  eye  and  the  light,  and  if  it  appears  of  a 
comes  to  the  state  of  tienudous  gelly.  sirong  dark  colour,  and  free  from  cloudy 
air.  Hatchett  also  found  that  the  force  of  or  black  spots,  the  article  is  good, 
adhesion  of  the  glue  from  skin  was  gene- •  To  thia  distinct  and  apparently  accu- 
rally  proportionate  to  the  toughness  of  the  rate  account  of  glue-making,  may  be  add- 
skin ;  the  soft  flexible  skins  yielding  a  ed,  some  exjieriments  by  Pelletier,  on  a 
thinner  gelatin  than  the  hard  bony  skiiis,  glue  from  bones,  made  in  France,  by  a 
and  with  much  more  ease.  Mr.  Grcniel,  from  the  raspings  and  trim  • 


GEL 


Brings  of  ivory,  the  refuse  pieces  and  sha- 
vings of  the  button-mould  makers,  and 
other  kinds  of  hard  bone,  that  cannot  be 
tiirned  to  account  in  entire  manufacture- 
Six  pounds  of  button-mould  shavings, 
were  put  into  a  copper  boiler,  with  24 
quarts  of  water,  and  first  let  to  soak  for 
t«o  hours  in  the  cold.  The  fire  was  then 
kindled,  and  the  liquor  slowly  brought  to 
boiling,  and  kept  at  this  heat  for  9  hours. 
After  standing  a  night,  14  quarts  of  cleai* 
gelatinous  liquor  were  drawn  oft  by  a  sy- 
phon, and  two  quarts  more  Were  obtained 
by  pressing  the  residue.  This  was  duly 
evaporated  without  addition,  and  when  of 
tlie  proper  consistence,  was  allowed  to 
subside  for  half  an  hour,  when  it  became 
firm  enough  to  be  cut  into  cakes,  which 
being  then  hung  up  for  a  fortnight,  in  a 
barn,  yielded  about  15  ounces  of  solid 
glue,  or  rather  less  than  a  sixth  of  the 
weight  ot  the  bone  sha\-ings  originally 
used.  A  similar  experiment  made  with 
ivory  turnings  yielded  nearly  the  same 
proportion  of  glue.  The  gelly  from  these 
clean  white  bones,  is  at  first  very  trans- 
parent, and  with  little  colour;  but  when 
concentrated  bj-  evaporation,  it  always 
deepens  in  colour,  but  if  well  made  still 
remains  transparent.  A  piece  of  tliis  glue 
put  into  cold  water  swelled,  as  happens 
with  common  good  glue,  and  in  24  hours 
had  absorbed  15  times  its  weight  of  wa- 
ter; but  without  dissolving,  and  by  again 
drying  in  the  aii-,  it  returned  to  its  original 
bulk  and  weight.  It  appeal's  that  at  Pa- 
ris, there  are  three  sorts  of  glue  common- 
Iv  sold,  the  best  is  that  which  is  imported 
from  England,  and  is  of  a  deep  red; 
the  next  in  value  is  the  Flemish,  which  is 
whitish  and  transparent ;  and  the  most  or- 
dinary glue  of  the  country  is  black  and 
opake. 

The  Laplanders  prepare  a  glue  from 
the  skins  of  the  largest  perches. 

In  using  glue,  the  carpenters  first  break 
it  and  cover  it  with  cold  water,  and  let  it 
stand  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  by 
which,  as  already  mentioned,  it  swells  to 
many  times  its  original  bulk,  and  absorbs 
a  large  quantity  of  this  fluid  ;  after  which 
the  soaked  pieces  are  melted,  without 
more  water,  over  a  slow  fire,  and  kept 
simmering  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  horn* 
with  frequent  stirring,  and  are  tlien  cool- 
ed. It  is  now  a  firm  gelly,  of  such  a  con- 
sistence, as  very  readily  to  be  cut  by  any 
instrument,  but  too  still  to  be  tremulous. 
When  wanted  to  be  used,  it  is  merely 
warmed,  which  renders  it  sufficiently 
fluid  to  be  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
wood  with  a  stiff  brush.  Wood  joined  by 
glue,  requires  fix)m  one  to  three  days  to 
be  perfectly  cemented,  which  is  known  by 
VOL.    I. 


GEL 

the  hardness  of  the  portion  that  remains 
on  the  outside  of  the  joining;  and  the  force 
of  cohesion  of  the  best  glue  is  such,  tliat 
boards  as  thick  as  any  commonly  used  in 
furniture  carpentiy,  wUl  full  as  readily 
give  way  by  violence  in  any  other  part  of 
the  substance  as  at  the  joining.  Glued 
boards  will  not  set  in  a  freezing  tempera- 
ture, the  stiffness  being  owing  to  the  eva- 
poration of  the  superfluous  water  of  the 
g-lue  which  is  prevented  by  great  cold. 

A  variety  of  gelatinous  cements  of  less 
firmness  than  common  glue,  and  known 
by  the  general  term  of  Size,  are  made  for 
the  use  of  the  paper-hangers,  gilders, 
bookbinders,  house-painters  in  distemper, 
and  many  other  trades,  by  boiling  down 
in  water  the  clippings  of  parchment, 
glove-leatlier,  fish-skin,  and  muny  other 
kinds  of  skin  and  animal  membrane. 
These  are  used  eitlier  alone,  or  mixed 
with  vegetable  tenacious  substances,  such 
as  flour-paste,  gum-arabic  and  traga- 
canth,  and  the  like.  The  prepai-ation  of 
these  jellies  is  perfectly  simple;  the  sub- 
stance used  (piaxhment  shieds  for  exam-' 
pie)  being  simply  dissolved  in  water  by 
boiling,  strained  and  evaporated  to  a  due 
oonsistence.  Eel-skins  and  the  skins  of 
other  fishes,  make  a  cement  which  is 
much  valued  for  its  transparency  and  te- 
nacity. The  only  species  of  gelatin  of  this 
kind,  used  in  the  arts,  which  requires  fur- 
ther notice,  is 

-\  glue,  or  cement,  that  will  hold  against 
fire  and  water,  it  is  said,  may  be  made 
thus  :  Mix  a  handful  of  ^uick  lime,  with 
four  ounces  of  linseed  oil,  and  let  the 
mixture  dry.  When  it  is  to  be  used,  dis- 
solve it  in  water  over  the  fire. 

Isinglass. 

This  is  a  thin,  flexible,  tough,  whitish 
membrane,  in  the  form  of  irregular  shreds 
or  chppings,  loosely  coiled  up,  and  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  fineness  and  flexibility, 
which  is  procured  from  several  parts  of 
th§  entrails  of  several  fishes,  with  scarce- 
ly any  otlier  artificial  preparation  than 
that  of  extracting,  cleansing,  and  diying. 

The  finest  kind  ol  isinglass  is  that 
which  has  the  longest  staple  as  it  is  call- 
ed, and  which  is  the  thinnest  and  most 
flexible.  The  preparation  of  isinglass  is 
almost  pecuhar  to  Russia,  and  is  made  in 
all  places  on  the  vast  rivers  of  tliis  mighty 
empire,  where  the  large  sturgeon  and 
other  fishes  of  this  genus  are  caught,  as 
on  the  Dnieper,  the  Don  towards  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  the  Volga,  Oby,  Irtish,  and  other 
Asiatico-Russian  rivers'.  The  best  isin- 
glass is  that  which  is  pie]5ai-ed  from  the 
sturgeon.  The  membranes  which,  when 
dried,  form  isinglass,  are  vai-ious  exten- 
sions and  processes  of  the  peritoneum, 
3  D 


GEL 


GEL 


but  more  pavuculai'ly  the  air-bladder,  or 
sounds,  w  hicli  are  very  larjijc  in  these  fish- 
es. Tiie  sounds  when  taken  out  of  the 
fish  are  first  washed  with  cold  water,  and 
exposed  a  Uttle  to  stiflen  in  the  aii-.  The 
outei-  skin  is  then  peeled  off  and  thrown' 
away.  The  remainder  is  simply  cut  out 
and  loosely  twisted  into  rolls,  according' 
to  the  intended  siie  of  the  staple,  wliicli 
are  pegged  down  on  boards,  and  hung  up 
on  lines  to  dry.  No  other  prt-paralion  is 
used.  An  inferior  kind  of  cake -isinglass 
itt  made,  by  taknigall  the  clean  shreds  of 
the  twisted  sort,  putting  them  in  a  tiat 
metal-pan,  with  a  very  little  water,  and 
hcKiing  just  enough  to  make  a  cohering 
mass  This  is  afterwards  dried.  It  would 
be  tedious  to  enumerate  the  minute  varie- 
ties of  isinglass  or  fish  gelatin. 

In  the  following  account  of  the  manu- 
facture of  isinglass  published  by  Ilum- 
■  phrcy  Jackson,  ?jsq.  in  the  63d  volume 
of  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  he 
says  :  If  what  is  commercially  called  long 
or  short  staple  isinglass  be  steeped  a  few 
hours  in  fair  cold  water,  the  mtwisted 
membranes  will  expand,  and  reassume 
their  original  beautiful  line,  and  by  a  dex- 
terous address  may  be  perfectly  unfolds 
ed.  By  this  operation,  we  find  that  isin- 
glass is  nothing  more  than  certain  mem- 
braneous parts  of  fishes,  divested  of  their 
native  mucosity,  I'olled  and  twisted  into 
the  form  above  mentioned,  and  dried  in 
opcTi  air" 

The  sounds,  or  air  bladders  of  fresh- 
water fish  in  g#neral,  are  preferi'ed  for 
this  piupose,  as  being  the  most  trans- 
parent, Hexible,  delicate  substances. 
These  constitute  the  finest  sorts  of  Isin- 
glass; those  called  book  and  ordniary 
staple,  are  'inade  of  the  intestines,  and 
probably  of  the  peritonxum  of  the  fish 
The  belluga  yields  the  greatest  quantity, 
as  being  tlie  lai  gest  and  most  plentiful 
fish  in  the  Muscovy  rivers ;  but  the  sounds 
of  all  fresh-water  fish  yield,  more  or  less 
fine  isjinglass,  particularly  the  smaller 
sorts,  found  in  prodigious  (juantities  in 
the  Caspian  sea,  and  seveial  hundred 
miles  beyond  Astracan,  in  the  Wolga, 
Yaik,  Don,  and  even  as  far  as  Siberia 

lainghtfes  i  eceives  its  different  shapes  in 
the  following  manner. 

The  parts  of  which  it  is  composed,  par- 
ticularly the  sounds,  are  taken  from  the 
fish  while  sweet  and  fresh,  slit  open, 
washed  from  their  slimy  sordes,  divested 
of  every  thin  membrane  which  envelopes 
the  sound,  and  then  cxjioscd  to  stiffen  a 
little  in  the  air.  In  this  state  they  are 
formed  into  rolls  about  the  thickness  of  a 
finger,  and  in  lengtJt  according  to  the  size 
of  the  intended  staple-   A  thin  membrane 


is  generally  selected  for  the  centre  ot  the 
roll,  round  which  the  rest  are  folded  al- 
ternately, and  about  half  an-inch  of  each 
extremity  of  the  roll  are  turned  inwards. 
The  due  dimensions  being  thus  obtained, 
the  two  ends  of  what  is  called  short  staple 
are  piimed  together,  with  a  small  wooden 
peg ;  the  middle  of  the  roll  is  then  press- 
ed downwards,  which  gives  it  the  resem- 
blance of  a  heart-shape ;  and  thus  it  is  laid 
(ju  boards,  or  hung  up  in  the  air  to  dry. 

The  sounds  which  compose  the  long 
staple  are  longer  than  the  former;  but 
the  o])eiaU)r  lengthens  this  sort  at  plea» 
sure,  by  inlerfolding  the  ends  of  one  or 
more  pieces  of  the  sounds  with  each 
other.  The  extremities  are  fastened  with 
a  peg,  as  the  former ;  but  the  middle  part 
is  bent  more  considerably  downwards ; 
and  in  order  to  preserve  the  shape  of  the 
three  obtuse  angles  thus  formed,  a  piece 
of  round  stick  is  fastened  in  each  angle. 
In  this  state  it  is  permitted  to  dry,  long 
enough  to  retain  its  form,  when  the  pegs 
and  sticks  are  taken  out,  and  the  drying 
compleated. 

Tlie  membranes  of  the  book  sort  being 
thick  and  refractory,  will  not  admit  a  si- 
milar formation ;  the  pieces  therefore, 
after  their  sides  are  folded  inwai'dly,  are 
bent  in  the  centre,  in  such  manner,  that 
the  opposite  sides  resemble  the  cover  of 
a  book,  from  whence  its  name. 

That  called  cake  isinglass  is  formed  of 
the  bits  and  fragments  of  the  staple  sorts, 
put  into  a  flat  metalline  pan  with  a  very 
little  water,  and  heated  just  enough  to 
make  the  parts  cohere  like  a  pancake 
when  it  is  dried. 

The  manufacture  of  isinglass  has  been 
attempted  in  the  United  States  from  sun- 
dry fish  and  particularly  the  sturgeon ; 
but  little  success  has  attended  it.  The 
specimens  produced  are  equal  to  the 
foreign. 

Isinglass  is  chiefly  used  for  clarifying 
wine,  malt  liquors,  cyder,  coffee,  &c. 

(iood  isingjass  is  esteemed  the  finest 
and  purest  specimen  of  animal  gelatin.  It 
is  entirely  without  taste  or  smell ;  when 
soaked  in  water  it  swells,  softens,  and  if 
held  up  to  the  light  is  agreeably  opales- 
cent to  the  eye.  It  readily  and  totally  dis- 
solves in  waim  water,  forming  the  clear- 
est and  most  colourless  of  all  the  known 
jc;lies.  The  finer  sorts  are  much  too  va- 
hiable  to  be  used  for  the  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  a  size  or  cement,  but  are  prin- 
cipally employed  in  confectionary,  in  cla- 
rifying wines,  and  other  purposes  of  the 
table. 

When  the  jelly  of  isinglass  is  much 
concentrated  by  evaporation,  it  forms  a 
deUcatc  cement  lor  joining  glass,  &c,  for 


GIL 


GIL 


which  its  g^at  transparency  and  freedom 
fi"Oiii  colour  render  it  hig^hly  valuable. 
The  coarser  sortof  fish-g-lue  cake,  ortliat 
which  consists  of  refuse  bits  of  isinglass, 
brought  to  a  cohenng  mass  by  water,  is 
often  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  com- 
mon giue.  This,  wiien  foul  and  blacken- 
ed, is  bleached  b\  exposure  to  the  vapour 
of  sulplmr,  which,  on  account  ot  the  loose 
fibrous  texture,  is  able  ioj>enetrate  it  suf- 
ficiently, an  eHect  which  could  not  take 
place  with  the  solid  cakes  of  common 
g-lue. 

GEMS,  artificial.  See  Glass,  co- 
loured ' 

GENEVA      See  Gin. 

GILDING,  art  of  The  art  of  gilding 
or  of  la\ing  a  thin  superficial  coaxing  of 
gold  on  wood,  metal  a  id  other  substances 
has  been  lone  practised,  and  highly  es- 
teemed, both  for  its  utility  and  the  splend- 
id effect  which  it  produces.  Gold,  from 
the  extreme  beauty  of  its  colour,  and 
from  the  length  of  time  during  which  it 
may  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air 
without  tarnishing,  is  perhaps  the  most 
valuable  of  all  substances  for  the  purpose 
of  decoration  ;  but  on  account  of  its  dear- 
ness  and  weight  it  can  very  seldom  be 
emplojed  in  substance,  and  its  ornamen- 
tal use  would  be  lin  itcd  indeed,  if  it  was 
not  at  the  same  time  the  most  exiensible 
of  all  substances  :  so  that  a  given  weight 
of  gold,  notwitlistanding  its  high  specific 
gravity,  mav,  by  beating,  be  made  to  cover 
a  larger  surface  than  an  equal  quantity  of 
anv  other  body.  Among  the  ancients,  the 
Romans,  and  among  tlie  moderns,  the 
Frencii,  have  been  remarkable  for  their 
large  and  profuse  consumption  of  gold : 
not  only  the  temples,  theatre.'!,  and  other 
public  buildings  being  adorned  with  gild- 
ing, but  even  the  private  houses  of  tlie 
wealthier  classes. 

The  materials  of  gilding,  or  rather  the 
different  states  in  which  gold  is  used  for 
this  purpose,  are  the  following :  leuf- 
gold,  of  different  thicknesses  and  formed 
either  of  the  pure  metul,  or  of  an  alloy  of 
this  with  silver,  amalgam  of  gold,  and 
gold  powder  The  leaf-gold  is  procured 
by  the  wilder  from  the  gold-beater,  for  an 
account  of  wliich  we  shall  refer  the  reader 
to  the  anicie  Gold;  but  the  other  two 
substances  being  prepared  by  the  gilder 
himself  may  be  witii  propriety  described 
here  The  an^algam  of  gold  is  made  by 
heatmg,  in  a  clean  crucible,  some  pure 
quicksilver,  and  when  it  is  nearly  boiling 
adding  to  it  about  a  sixtii  of  its  weight  of 
fiiie  gold  in  thin  piates  heated  red  hot ; 
the  niixlnic,  »fter  beiuj;  kept  hot  for  a  few 
minuic!),  t  ec'jnies  of  a  perfectly  homoge- 
neous consisteiice,  and  may  then  be  al- 


lowed to  cool :  when  cold  it  is  to  be  put 
in  a  piece  of  soft  leather,  and  by  gradual 
pressure,  the  fluid  part  of  tlie  amalgam, 
consisting  almost  wholly  of  mercurv,may 
be  forced  thro'-gh  tlie  pores  of  tlie  lea- 
ther, while  the  gold  combined  with  about 
twire  its  weight  of  mercury  will  remain 
behind,  fornmig  a  yellowish' silvery  mass 
of  the  consistence  of  soft  butter.  This, 
after  being  bruised  in  a  moriav,  or  shaken 
in  a  stiong  vial  with  repeated  portions  of 
salt  and  water,  till  tlie  water  ceases  to  be 
fouled  by  it,  is  fit  for  use,  and  maj-  be 
kept  for  any  length  of  time  without  in- 
jury in  a  corked  vial.  It  is  of  essential 
importance  that  ihe  materials  of  this  amal- 
gam, and  especially  iJie  mercury,  should 
be  perfectly  pure,  as  tlie  least  portion  of 
lead  or  bismuth  would  very  materially  in- 
jure the  beauty  of  the  gilding  by  deteri- 
orating the  colour  of  the  gold  and  filling 
it  with  black  specks  ;  on  diis  account  no 
mercury  ought  to  be  employed  that  has 
not  been  procured  from  distillation  of  tlie 
red  precipitate  (nitrous  red  oxyd  of  mer- 
cui-y)  eillier  alone  or  mixed  with  a  little 
charcoal  powder. 

Gold  powder  is  prepared  in  three  dif- 
ferent  ways.  The  first  and  simplest  is  to 
put  into  a  glass  or  earthen  mortar  some 
gold-leaf  with  a  little  honey  or  thick  gum- 
water,  and  grind  the  mixture  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  till  the  gold  is  reduced  to 
extremely  minute  fragments ;  when  this 
is  done,  a  lutle  warm  water  will  wash  out 
the  honey  or  gum,  leaving  the  gold  be- 
hind in  a  flaky  pulverulent  state.  A  less 
tedious  arid  more  effectual  way  of  com- 
minuting the  gold  is  to  dissohe  it  in  ni- 
trojnuriauc  acid  and  then  precipitate  it 
by  a  piece  of  copper :  the  precipitate  after 
being  digested  in  distilled  vinegar  and 
tlien  wed  washed  in  water  and  dried,  is 
in  the  form  of  a  very  fine  powder,  and 
both  works  beUer  and  is  easier  to  burnish 
than  the  ground  leaf-gold  The  finest 
ground  goid  however  is  produced  by 
heating  very  gradually  the  gold-amalgam 
in  an  o|x;n  earthen  vessel,  and  continuing 
the  fire  till  the  whole  of  the  mercury  is 
evaporated,  taking  care  that  the  amalgam 
shall  be  constantly  stirred  with  a  glass, 
rod  or  tobacco-pipe,  in  order  to  prevent 
tlie  particles  of  gold  from  adhering  as  the 
mercury  tiies  off.  When  tlie  mercury  is 
compleatly  evaporated,  the  residual  gold 
beuig  then  ground  in  a  Wedgewood  ware 
mortar  wiih  a  little  water,  and  after- 
wards dried,  is  fit  for  use. 

Gilding  is  ])ei-formed  either  with  or 
without  the  apphcation  of  heat.  By  the 
first  of  these  methods  those  substances 
are  gilt  which  are  not  liable  to  alteration 
by  exposure  to  a  moderate  heat,  such  as 


GtL 


GIL 


metals  and  sometimes  glass  and  porce- 
lain :  the  second  method  is  practised  with 
those  substances,  such  as  wood,  paper, 
leather,  silk,  lacquered  and  japanned 
ware,  &c  which  would  be  injured,  and 
even  destroyed  at  the  temperature  requi- 
site for  gilding  the  former.  The  last  of 
these  methods,  being  the  simplest,  shall  be 
firs\  described';  and  we  shall  begin  with 
the  art  of  gilding  on  wood. 

There  are  two  methods  of  gilding  on 
wood,  namely,  oil-gilding  and  burnisiied 
gilding.  Oil-gilding'  is  thus  performed. 
The  wood  must  first  be  covered  or  prim- 
ed with  two  or  three  coatings  of  boiled 
linseed-oil  and  wliite-iead,  in  order  to  fill 
up  the  pores  and  conceal  the  irregulari- 
ties of  the  surface  occasioned  by  the 
veins  in  the  wood.  When  tlie  priming  is 
quite  dry,  a  thin  coat  of  gold-size  must  be 
laid  on.  This  is  prepared  by  grinding  to- 
gether some  strongly  calcined  red  ochre 
with  the  thickest  drying  oil  that  can  be 
procured,  and  the  older  the  better  :  that 
it  may  work  freely,  it  is  to  be  mixed,  pre- 
viously to  being  used,  with  a  little  oil  of 
turpentine,  till  it  is  brought  to  a  proper 
consistence.  If  the  gold-size  is  good  it 
will  be  sufficiently  dry  in  twelve  hours, 
more  or  less,  to  allow  the  artist  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  last  part  of  the  process,  which 
is  the  application  of  the  gold  For  tliis 
purpose  a  leaf  of  gold  is  spread  on  tlie 
cushion  (formed  by  a  few  folds  of  flannel 
secured  on  a  piece  of  wo(xl  about  eight 
inches  square  by  a  tight  covering  of  lea- 
ther) and  is  cut  into  strips  of  a  proper 
size,  by  a  blunt  pallet-knife ;  eacli  strip 
being  then  taken  up  on  the  point  of  a 
fine  brush  is  applied  to  the  part  intended 
to  be  gilded,  and  is  then  gently  pressed 
down  by  a  ball  of  soft  cotton ;  the  gold 
immediately  adheres  to  the  sticky  sur- 
face of  the  size,  and  after  a  few  minutes 
the  dexterous  application  of  a  large  ca- 
mel's-hair  brush  sweeps  away  the  loose 
pai'ticles  of  the  gold-leaf  without  disturb- 
ing the  rest.  In  a  day  or  two  the  size 
wul  be  compleatly  dried,  and  the  opera- 
tion is  finished.  The  advantages  of  tliis 
method  of  gilding  are  that  it  is  very  sim- 
ple, very  durable,  not  readily  injured  by 
changes  of  weather  even  when  exposed 
to  the  open  air,  and  when  soiled  it  may 
be  cleaned  by  a  little  warm  water  and  a 
soft  brush  :  its  disadvantage  is  that  it 
cannot  be  burnisiied,  antl  therefore  wants 
the  high  lustre  produced  by  the  next  me- 
thod. Its  chief  employment  is  in  out-door 
work. 

If  wood  be  covered  with  two  coats 
of  parchment  size,  (see  Gelatin,) 
and,  when  dry,  one  coat  of  a  black 
compound  of  asphaltum,   boiled  in  tur- 


pentine, in  three  hours  after,  you  may 

Burnished  gilding,  or  gilding  in  distem- 
per, is  thus  performed  The  surface  to 
be  gilt  must  first  be  carefully  covered 
with  strong  size  made  by  boiling  down 
pieces  of  white  leather,  or  cli|)])ings  of 
parchment,  till  they  are  reduced  to  a  stiff 
jelly ;  this  coating  being  dried,  eight  or 
ten  more  must  be  applied,  consisting  of 
the  same  size  mixed  with  fine  Paris  plas- 
ter, or  washed  chalk;  when  a  sufficient 
number  of  layers  have  been  put  on,  vary- 
ing according  to  the  nature  of  the  work, 
and  the  whole  is  become  quite  dry,  a  mo- 
derately thick  layer  must  be  appUed,  com- 
posed of  size  and  bole,  or  yellow  ochre  : 
while  this  last  is  yet  moist  the  gold  leaf 
is  to  be  put  on  in  the  usual  manner;  it 
will  immediately  adhere  on  being  pressed 
with  the  cotton  ball,  and  before  the  size 
is  become  perfectly  dry  those  parts  which 
are  intended  to  be  the  most  brilliant  are 
to  be  cai  ef'uUy  burnished  with  an  agate 
or  dog's  tooth.  In  order  to  save  the  la- 
bour of  burnishing,  it  is  a  common  but  bad 
practice,  slightly  to  burnish  the  brilliant 
parts,  and  to  deaden  the  rest  by  drawing 
over  them  a  brush  dipped  in  size  :  the  re- 
quired contrast  between  the  pofished  and 
unpolished  gold  is  indeed  thus  obtained, 
but  tlie  general  effect  is  greatly  inferior  to 
that  produced  in  the  regular  way,  and 
the  smallest  drop  of  water  falling  on  the 
sized  part  occasions  a  stain.  Tiiis  kind 
of  gildnig  can  only  be  applied  on  in-door 
work,  as  rain,  and  even  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  dampness  will  cause  the  gold  to 
peel  off.  When  dirty,  it  may  be  cleaned 
with  a  soft  brush  and  hot  spirit  of  wine, 
or  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  chiefly  used  on 
picture  frames,  mouldings,  and  stucco. 

Letters  written  on  vellum  or  paper  are 
gilded  in  three  ways  :  in  the  first,  a  httle 
size  is  mixed  with  the  ink,  and  the  letters 
are  written  as  usual ;  when  they  are  dry, 
a  slight  degree  of  stickiness  is  produced 
by  breathing  on  them,  upon  which  the 
gold  leaf  is  immediately  applied,  and  by 
a  little  pressure  may  be  made  to  adhere 
with  sufficient  firmness  :  in  the  second 
method,  some  white  lead  or  chalk  is 
ground  up  with  strong  si/.e,  and  the  let- 
ters are  made  with  this  by  means  of  a 
brush :  when  the  mixture  is  almost  dry 
the  gold  leaf  may  be  laid  on  and  after- 
wards buihishcd  :  the  last  method  is  to 
mix  up  some  gold  powder  with  size,  and 
make  tlie  letters  of  this  by  means  of  a 
brush.  The  edges  of  the  leaves  of  books 
are  gilded,  while  in  the  binder's  press,  by 
first  applying  a  composition  formed  of 
i'ouv  parts  of  Armenian  bole  and  one  of 
sugar-candy  ground  together  to  a  proper 


GIL 


GIL 


eonsistence,  and  laying  it  on  by  a  brush 
with  white  of  egg:  this  coating  when 
nearly  dry  is  smoothed  by  the  burnisher, 
it  is  then  slightly  moistened  with  clean 
water,  and  the  gold  leaf  applied  and  af- 
terwards burnished.  In  o;derto  impress 
the  gilt  figures  on  the  leather  covers  of 
books,  the  leather  is  first  dusted  over 
with  very  fine  powdered  rosin  or  mastich, 
then  the  iron  tool  by  which  the  figure  is 
made  is  moderately  heated,  and  pressed 
down  upon  a  piece  of  leaf-gold,  which 
shghtly  adlieres  to  it,  being  then  imme- 
diately applied  to  the  surface  of  the  lea- 
ther with  a  certain  force,  the  tool  at  the 
same  time  makes  an  impression,  and 
melts  the  mastich  which  lies  between  the 
heated  iron  and  the  leather ;  in  conse- 
quence of  this  the  gold  with  which  the 
face  of  the  tool  is  covered  is  made  to  ad- 
here to  the  leather,  so  that  on  removing 
the  tool  a  gilded  impression  of  it  remains 
behind. 

Drinking  glasses  and  other  utensils  of 
this  material  aie  sometimes,  especially  in 
Germany,  gilt  on  their  edges  :  this  is  done 
in  two  ways,  either  by  a  simple  adhesive 
varnish,  or  by  means  of  fire.  The  varnish 
is  prepared  by  dissolving  in  drying  lin- 
seed oil  a  quantity  of  gum  anime,  or  still 
better,  of  clear  amber  equal  in  weight  to 
the  oil :  a  very  drying  and  adhesive  var- 
nish is  thus  prepared,  which,  being  diluted 
with  a  proper  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
is  to  be  applied  as  thin  as  possible  to  those 
parts  of  the  glass  which  are  to  be  gilded  ; 
when  tliis  is  dry,  which  will  be  in  about  a 
day,  the  glass  is  to  be  placed  by  the  fire- 
side, or  in  a  stove  till  it  is  so  warm  as  al- 
most to  burn  the  fingers  when  handled ; 
at  this  temperature  the  varnish  will  be- 
come glutinous,  and  a  piece  of  leaf  gold 
applied  in  the  usual  way  will  immediately 
adhere;  when  the  gilding  is  thus  put  on 
and  before  it  is  grown  quite  cold  it  may 
be  burnished,  taking  care  only  to  inter- 
pose a  piece  of  very  thin  paper  between 
the  gold  and  the  burnisher,  ff  the  var- 
nish is  very  good,  this  is  the  best  method 
of  gilding  glass,  as  the  gold  is  thus  fixed 
on  more  evenly  than  m  any  other  way: 
it  often  happens  however,  when  the  var- 
nish is  but  indifferent,  that  by  repeated 
washmg  the  gold  soon  wears  off":  on  this 
account  the  practice  of  burning  in  is  some- 
times had  recourse  to.  For  this  purpose 
some  powder-gold  is  tempered  with  gum- 
water  and  borax,  and  in  this  state  applied 
to  the  clean  surface  of  the  glass  with  a 
fine  camel's  hair  pencil :  when  quite  dry 
the  glass  is  put  into  a  stove  heated  to 
about  the  temperature  of  an  annealing 
oven,  the  gum  burns  off,  and  the  borax,  by 
vitrifying,  cements  the  gold  with   great 


firmness  to  the  glass;  after  which  it  may 
be  burnished.  The  gildings  upon  porce- 
lain is  in  like  manner  fixed  by  fire  and  bo- 
rax; and  this  kind  of  ware  being  neither 
transparent  nov  liable  to  sofien,  and  thus 
injure  its  form  in  a  low  red  heat,  is  free 
from  the  risk  and  injury  that  the  finer 
and  more  fusible  kuids  of  glass  are  apt  to 
sustain  from  such  treatment. 

All  the  methods  of  gildmg  hitherto  de- 
scribed resemble  each  other  by  being  ac- 
complished by  means  of  some  adhesive 
medium;  thS,  however,  is  not  the  case 
with  gilding  upon  metals ;  the  gold  is 
brought  into  immediate  contact  with  the 
other  metal,  and  they  both  remain  firmly 
united  merely  by  the  attraction  (jf  adhe- 
sion subsisting  between  them.  The  sim- 
plest of  all  the  kinds  of  gilding  on  metal, 
and  which  strikingly  demonstrates  the 
power  of  the  affinity  of  adhesion,  is  one 
that  is  sometimes  practised  on  plane  sur- 
faces of  copper  and  iron  with  considera- 
ble success.  The  metal  being  previously 
polished  and  quite  clean,  is  heated  to  about 
the  temperature  of  melted  lead,  and  co- 
vered with  a  double  layer  of  gold  leaf: 
by  the  cautious  application  of  a  blood 
stone  burnisher  applied  gently  at  first, 
and  increasing  the  force  of  the  pressure 
by  degrees,  the  surfaces  of  gold  and  cop- 
per are  brought  to  touch  each  other  in 
almost  every  point,  and  then  adhere  with 
a  force  proportioned  to  the  completeness 
of  the  contact.  The  first  layer  being  tlius 
burnished  down,  a  second  is  made  to  ad- 
here in  the  same  manner,  and  sometimes 
a  third,  if  the  gilding  is  intended  to  be 
verv  sohd.  The  objection  to  this  me- 
thod of  gilding  is  its  tediousness,  and  the 
almost  impossibility  of  using  a  sufficient 
pressure  without  injuring  the  evenness  of 
the  gilded  surface:  where  these  objec- 
tions do  not  apply,  there  cannot  be  a  more 
effectual  mode  of  gilding,  as  is  evident 
from  the  manufacture  of  gilt  silver  or 
copper  wire.  The  bar,  before  it  is  com- 
mitted to  the  wire-drawer,  is  plated  with 
gold,  by  having  several  leaves  of  gold 
successively  burnished  down  upon  it,  and 
being  then  subjected  to  the  strong  com- 
pression that  takes  place  in  wii-e -drawing, 
the  gold  and  the  other  metal  become  so 
perfectly  united,"  as  to  form  in  a  manner 
but  one  substance. , 

The  most  usual  method  of  covering  the 
surface  of  a  metal  with  gold  is  by  means 
of  an  amalgam,  or  as  it  is  technically  call- 
ed, water-gilding.  If  the  metal  to  be  gift 
is  silver,  the  best  wav  of  pi-oceeding  is 
first  to  soak  it  in  warm  dilute  muriatic 
acid,  that  the  surface  may  be  rendered 
perfectly  clean ;  it  must  then  be  washed 
in  clean   water,  changed  two   or  three 


GIL 


GJL 


limes  to  get  rid  of  tlie  whole  of  the  acid : 
being  afterwards  dried  and  made  mode- 
rately warm,  a  Httle  g-old-ainalgam  also 
warm,  is  to  be  carefully  and  evenly  spread 
upon  the  silver,  to  which  it  will  imme- 
diately adhere:  when  this  is  com]>ieted, 
the  piece  i:>  placed  upon  a  convenient  sup- 
port over  a  clear  charcoal  fire,  and  while 
the  mercury  is  evaporating,  if  any  specks 
or  places  appear  that  have  escaped  thq 
amalgam,  a  small  piece  is  to  be  laid  on 
and  spread  with  a  bi-ush  to  supply  the 
deficiency,  without  removing  the  article 
from  the  fire.  After  a  time  the  whole  of 
the  mercury  will  be  driven  off,  and  the 
piece  after  cooling  being  accurately  exa- 
mined will  be  found  to  be  entirely  cover- 
ed with  a  thin  coating  of  pale  dull  gold. 
The  small  roughnesses  and  loosely  ad- 
hering particles  are  now  to  be  removed 
with  a  scratch  brush,  which  is  made  of 
some  exceedingly  fine  brass-wire  bound 
together  into  a  tuft ;  by  this  the  surface 
is  rendered  perfectly  smooth  and  bright, 
but  it  still  remains  of  a  pale  yellow  co- 
lour: this  defect  is  next  removed  by 
warming  the  piece  and  smearing  it  over 
with  gilder's  wax,  a  composition  of  bees- 
wax, red  ochre,  verdigris,  -and  green  vi- 
triol  or  alum.  The  wax  being  burnt  off 
over  a  charcoal  fire,  and  the  piece  quench- 
ed in  urine,  the  colour  of  the  gilding  will 
be  found  to  be  much  licightened ;  if  it  is 
not  sufficiently  so  by  the  first  application 
a  succeeding  one  will  complete  the  de- 
sired effect;  after  which  the  work  may 
be  burnished  or  not,  according  to  tlie 
taste  of  the  artist.  Instead  of  the  com- 
mon gilder's  w:ix  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  nitre,  sal  ammoniac,  green  vitriol,  and 
verdigris  moistt;ncd  with  water,  will  an- 
swer tJie  purpose. 

Copper  and  the  alloys  formed  by  its 
combination  \^ith  zinc  are  gilded  nearly 
in  the  same  way  as  silver:  but  as  their  af- 
finity for  mercury  is'  considerably  less 
than  that  of  slher,  it  would  bedifticidtto 
make  (he  amalgam  of  gold  adhere  to  the 
burnished  surface  of  tiiese  metals  by  the 
same  means,  and  with  the  s&me  evenness 
as  takes  place  in  the  case  just  described. 
To  obviatcthis  inconvenience,  advantage 
is  very  ingeniously  takei;  of  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  to  facilitate  the  adhesion  of 
tJie  coi^ptr  and  mcrctiry  in  the  following 
manner. .  Tin-  piece  of  copjier,  a  button 
for  ex:imple,  is  first  cleaned  by  steeping 
y^  acid'  and  siibscqiient  washing,  ar.d  is 
then  burnished  either  in  a  lathe,  or  by  any 
other  means:  after  this  it  is  dipped  in  a 
neutralized  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury, 
and  in  the  space  of  a  few  seconds,  owing 
to  the  strong  affinity  of  nitric  acid  for 
copper,  the  mercurial  salt  is  decomposed. 


the  copper  takes  the  place  of  the  mercu- 
r\ ,  and  at  tlie  same  time  the  mercury  is 
deposited  in  the  metallic  state  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  copper,  covering  it  entirely, 
and  stronglj  adhering  to  it.  The  gold 
amalgam  is  now  applied,  and  the  rest  of 
the  process  £foes  on  as  already  described. 
By  this  method  of  proceeding,  a  given 
quantity  of  gold  may  be  m:<de  to  cover  a 
larger  surface  than  in  any  other  way  of 
gilding  on  metals :  five  grains  of  gold  will 
completely  gild  both  ilie  upper  and  un- 
der surfaces  of  144  copper  buttons,  each 
of  them  an  inch  in  diameter. 

There  is  no  metal,  the  gilding  of  which 
presents  so  many  difficulties  as  iron,  or 
rather  steel.  If' the  method  of  simply 
burnishing  down  is  had  recourse  to,  the 
heat  requisite  for  this  purpose  will, ,  in 
many  cases,  bring  the  temper  of  the  steel 
too  low :  on  such  occasions,  the  way  alrea- 
dy described  of  gilding  copper  is  some- 
times practised ;  that  is,  the  parts  of  the 
steel  to  be  gilded  ^re  pencilled  over  with 
nitrat  of  mercury,  by  which  they  are  co- 
vered with  a  slightly  adhering  coating  of 
mercury,  then  the  amalgam  is  applied, 
and  the  gilding  fjnished  in  the  usual  way. 
The  objections  to  this  mode  of  proceeding 
are  first  that  a  considerable  heat  is  re- 
quired, though  inferior  to  that  requisite 
for  burnishing  down,  and  secondly,  that 
even  with  all  ])ossible  care  the  gilding  is 
apt  to  be  rough  and  scale  off.  A  very 
consider.'ible  improvement  on  this  method 
is  to  trace  the  figure  of  the  gilding  on  the 
steel,  first  of  all  with  a  brush  charged  with 
a  strong  solution  of  sidphaled  copper,  in 
consequence  of  which  a  jMctty  thick 
plate  of  this  metal  is  deposited  on  the 
steei,*to  which  it  may  be  made  to  adhere 
with  considerable  firmness  by  mc:ins  of 
the  burnislioi- :  thus  the  gilding  is,  in  fact, 
performed  upon  tl»e  copper. 

A  new  method  of  gold  gilding  uj5on 
steel  has  lately  been  published,  possessed 
of  many  advantages  over  the  others,  and 
which  probably  in  time  may  attain  a  very 
high  degree  of  perfection.  It  de])c:nds 
upon  the  well  known  fact, that  if  sul])huric 
ether  and  nitro-nnnlat  of  gold  are  mi.xfd 
together,  the  ether  will  by  degrees  sepa- 
rate from  the  acid  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
gold,  and  retain  it  for  some  lime  in  solu- 
tion in  nearly  a  metallic  state  If  ether 
thus  cli:u'ged  with  gold  is  spread,  by 
means  of  a  pen  or  fine  brush  on  the  sur- 
face of  highly  polished  steel,  the  ether 
evaporates,  leavnig  the  gold  behind  in 
close  contact  with  the  steel,  and  the  ad- 
licsion  is  consivlerably  improved  by  the 
subsequent  apjilicalion  of  the  burnisher. 
The  dearness,  and  especially  the  rapid 
volatility  of  ether  are  objections  of  some 


GIL 


GIL 


moment,  but  may  be  got  over  by  using 
the  best  oil  of  turpentine  instead  of  the 
etlier,  which  has  nearly  the  same  efficacy 
in  decomposing  the  nitro-muriat  of  gold. 


heat  is  performed  by  cleaning  and  polish- 
ing its  surface,  and  then  neaiing  ii  till  it 
has  acquired  a  blue  colour. 

8th.  The  gilding  of  buttons  is  done  in 


and    is    both  ciieaper   and   not   so  very  j  the   following  way:  When   the    buttons, 
quickly  evaporabie.  which  are  of  copper,  are  made,  they  are 

Cold  gilding  upon  silver  is,  we  believe,  dipped  Inio  dilute  nitric  acid  to  clean 
at  present  entirelv  disused.  It  was  per- '  them,  and  then  burnished  with  a  hard 
formed  in  the  foUywing  manner.  A  sa-  b'ack  stone.  They  are  then  put  in  a  ni- 
tiuated  solution  of  gold  in  nitro-muriatic  |  trie  solut.on  of  mercury,  and  stirred  about 
acid  was  poui-ed  upon  some  linen  rags,  j  with  a  biush,  till  th.ey  are  quite  white, 
and  when  they  were  become  dry,  they  j  An  amaigam  of  gold  and  mercui-y  is  then 
weie  heaped  in  a  plaie  and  touched  with  put  iiito  an  eaithen  vessel  with  a  small 
a  hot  coal.  The  fire  gradually  spread  quantity  of  dilute  niti  ic  acid,  and  in  this 
through  the  mass  and  reduced  it  to  a  hea- 1  mixture  the  buttons  are  stirred,  till  the 
vy  black  ash.  A  soft  cork  being  moist-  gold  attaches  to  theii"  surface.  They  are 
ened  in  water  was  dipped  in  tliis  ash,  to  then  heated  oVerthe  fire,  till  the  mercury 
which  a  part  of  it  adhered,  and  was  then    begins  to  n4|  when  thev  are  Unown  mto 


rubbed  on  the  suiface  f>f  polished  silver, 
upon  which  the  minute  panicles  of  gold 
became  fixed,  and  cove,  ed  it  with  an  ex- 
tremely thin  coating,  which,. when  bur- 
nished, exhibited  the  genuine  colour  and 
lustre  of  this  precious  meiai.         ' 

We  have  seen,  therefore,  that  the  real 
application  of  gold  as  a  cove:  ing  may  be 
performed,,  either  by  a  metallic  mixiure 
after  the  manner  of  a  pigment;  or  by  fric- 
tion, upon  the  same  principle  as  black 
lead  and  coloured  chalks  are  used ;  or  by 
the  chemical  precipitation  of  gold  from 
mercury,  or  some  other  fit  solvent;  or, 
lastly,  by  glueing  or  fiisteoing  extremely 
thin  leaves  of  gold  to  the  surface  intended 
to  be  gilded 

2nd  That  the  gfold  prepared  for  paint- 
ing is  called  shell-gold  or  gold-powder. 

3rd.  That  fjr  cold  gilding  by  friction, 
a  fine  Unen  rag  is  steeped  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  gold,  till  it  has  entirely  imbibed 
the  liquor ;  this  rag  is  then  dried  over  a 
fire,  and  afterward  burned  to  tinder. 

4th.  That  the  chemical  application  of 
gold  to  the  surface  of  metals  is  usually 
called  water-gilding, 

5th.  That  for  the  method  called  Gre 
clan  gilding,  equal  parts  of  sal  ammoniac 
and  corrosive  sublimate  ai*e  dissolvt-d  in 
nitric  acid,  and  a  solution  of  gold  is  made 
in  this  menstruum ;  upon  this  the  solution 
is  somewhat  concenti'ated,  and  applied  to 
the  surface  of  silver,  which  becomes  quite 
black;  but,  on  being  exposed  to  a  red 
heat,  it  assumes  the  appearance  of  gild- 
ing. 

6th  That  the  method  of  gilding  silver, 
brass,  or  copper,  by  an  amalgam,  is  with 
eight  parts  of  mercury,  and  one  of  gold, 
arc  incorporated  together  by  heatmg 
them  m  a  crucible.  As  soon  as  the  .gold 
is  perfectly  dis.solved,  the  mixture  is  pour- 
ed into  cold  water,  and  is  then  ready  for 
use. 

7th.  That  the  gilding  of  iron  by  mere 


a  large  cap  made  of  coarse  wool  and 
goat's  hail",  and  in  this  they  are  stirred 
about  with  a  brush.  The  mercury  is 
then  volatilized  by  healing  over  the  fire 
in  a  pan,  to  the  loss  of  the  article,  and  in- 
jury of  the  workinen*s  health ;  though  the 
greater  pait  might  be  recovered,  with  less 
injury  to  the  operators.  By  an  act  of  the 
British  parliament,  a  gross  of  buttons,  of 
an  inch  diameter,  are  required  to  have 
five  grains  of  gold  on  them;  but  many  are 
deficient  even  of  this  small  quantity- 

9'v.li  The  gilt  trinkets  that  are  now 
common  in  the  shops,  are  said  to  be  made 
of  copper  coated  with  brass  by  an  amal- 
gam of  one  part  zinc  and  twelve  mercury, 
put  into  muriatic  acid  with  some  argal. 
In  this  the  copper,  previously  cleaned 
witli  nitric  acid  is  boiled  If  a  little  gold 
be  added  to  tire  amalgam,  the  efrect  is  im- 
proved ;  but  this  is  not  always  done.  Cop- 
per thus  coated  may  be  drawn  out  to  tlie 
fineness  of  a  hair. 

1  'th.  'Ihat  painting  with  gold  upon 
porcelain  or  glass  is  done  with  the  pow- 
der of  gold,  which  remains  behind  after 
distilling  the  aqua  regia  from  a  solution 
of  that  metal.  Ii  is  laid  on  with  borax 
and  g.im-water,  burned  in,  and  polished. 
The  gilding  of  glass  is  commonly  effected 
by  covering  the  part  with  a  solution  of  bo- 
rax, and  applying  gold  loaf  upon  it,  which 
is  afterward  fixed  by  burning. 

11th.  That  tlie  gilders  of  wood,  and 
other  compositions  designed  to  supply 
the  "place  of  carved  work,  make*  use  of 
two  methods  :  the  one  culled  oil-gilding, 
or  gilding  in  oil,  because  the  gold  is  made 
to  adhere  by  nieans  of  an  oily  composi- 
tioii ;  the  other  is  sometimes  called  water- 
srikling,  though  seldom,  but  more  fre- 
quently burnished  gold,  on  accoiint  of 
the  biirnish  it  b  cap..ble  of,  which  is  one 
of  the  principal  advantages  it  possesses 
over  the  other  method. 

12th.  That  the  method  of  gilding  Ir 


Gil. 


GIL 


>^ 


burnished  gold  consists  in  coA'eilng'  the 
v;ork  witli  parchment  size  and  wJiiting:, 
thinly  laid  on  at  (ive  or  six  dirti;rent  times. 
Tills  is  covered  with  a  yellow  size  made 
of  Ai-menian  bole,  a  little  wax,  and  some 
parchment  size  ;  but  in  this,  as  in  most 
oilier  compositions  used  in  the  arts,  there 
arc  variations  which  depend  on  tiie  skill 
or  the  capi  ice  oftlie  artists. 

13th.  That  the  edges  of  the  leaves  of 
books,  are  gilded  by  applying  a  composi- 
tion of  one  part  Armenian  bole,  and  one 
quarter  of  a  part  of  sugarcandy,  ground 
together  witii  wiiite  of  eggs. 

Lastlj-,    that  leather   is    gilded  either 
with  leaf- brass  or  silver,  but  most  com- 
monly by  tlie  latter,  in  which  case  a  gold 
colourei^  v»rnish  is  laid  ove*^  tiie  metal. 
Tin-f;iil  muy  be  used  instead  of  silver-leaf 
for  this   less  perfect  gilding,  upon  such 
works  as  do  not  possess  flexibility. 
Gir.iKg  poivJer,  preparation  of^        ^ 
GH  :ing  on  wood. 
Gilding  in  oil. 
Gilding  in  distemper. 
Gilding  of  letters,  on  vellum  or  pa- 
per. 
Gilding  on  leather, 
Gilding  on  glass. 
Gilding  on  metal,  in  general. 
Gilding,  water, 
Gilding  of  steel. 
Gilding  on  silver. 
Gilding,  cold, 
Gilding  Grecian, 
Gilding  of  brass. 
Gilding  of  copper. 
Gilding  of  buttons. 
Gilding  of  trinkets,  _^ 

Gilding  lacquer,  fir  Gold  lacquer. — See 
Lacquer  and  Varnish. 

GIN,  Geneva,  Holland — This  spirit, 
which  takes  the  name  of  gin,  is  prepared 
by  distilling  malt  liquor  a  second  time, 
with  the  addition  of  juniper  berries. 
Spirit  thus  obtained,  is  merely  a  solution 
or  impregnation  of  the  essential  oil  of  the 
feeriy  in  the  liquor.  •  Instead  of  using  the 
berry,  the  essential  oil,  called  the  oil  of 
juniper,  is  merely  added,  which  may  be 
afterwards  distilled.  The  practice  of 
sophisticating  liquor  with  spirit  of  tur- 
pentine, in  imitation  of  gin,  has  been 
carried  to  a  great  length.  Whatever 
may  be  said  respecting  the  preparation 
of  this  liquor,  we  may  add,  that  few 
possess  the  art  or  secret  of  manufactu- 
ring the  genuine  Hollands,  as  the  sel- 
lers term  it. 

We  arc  told,  however,  upon  good  au- 
thorit}',  that  the  common  gin  is  prepared 
by  distiUing  two  ounces  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, and  three  handsful  of  salt,  mixed 
with  ten  gallons  of  ordinary  malt  spirits. 


To  make  tiie  best  kind,  the  distillers 
take  three  pounds  of  juniper  berries, 
ten  gallons  of  pr.iot  .spirit,  and  four  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  draw  it  off  by  a  gen- 
tle fire. 

The  best  Geneva,  called  Hollands 
Geneva,  is  impoited  from  Holland,  and 
is  ciuefly  maimfactured  at  Schiedam,  a 
village  near  Rotterdam.  U  is  supposed 
tliey  use  the  same  ingredients  as  pre- 
scribed in  the  last  mentioned  lecipe ; 
only  instead  of  malt  spirits,  they  use 
French  brandies. 

They  have  also  n^nufactories  of  Gene- 
va, at  Ostend,  Antwerp,  and  other  pai-ts 
of  Flandeis  and  Brabant ;  but  the  Gene- 
va of  these  countries  is  greatly  inferior 
to  tiiat  coming  from  Ilotterdam,  and 
!  worth  nearly  one  third  less  in  this  mar- 
ket. 

Notwithstanding  tlie  many  attempts, 
which  have  been  made  in  this  country,  to 
maiiufactui'e  gin  equal  to  the  Rotterdam, 
yet  no  precise  imit;ition  has  yet  been  ef- 
ibcied;  ihougli  at  the  same  time  ue  are 
of  ojiinion,  that  a  set  of  experiments 
wich  different  substances,  and.  the  mate- 
rials of  the  best  kind,  conducted  with 
care  and  precision,  would  be  attended 
with  success.  We  are  inclined  to  believe, 
that  the  age,  biid  proof  of  the  liquor  has 
a  considerable  tendency  to  improve  the 
flavour  and  taste  of  gin.  1  he  use  of 
sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  in  addition  to  the 
oil  or  berry  of  juniper  has  been  recom- 
mended. This  no  doubt  will  improve 
the  flavour,  and  make  the  liquor  more 
diuretic. 

GIN,  commonly  called  a  Jinny,  is  a 
machine  to  free  cotton  from  seeds.  Some 
machines  go  by  water  or  horses,  and 
some  by  hand.  The  gin  used  in  South 
Carolina  differs  from  the  common  feet 
gins,  in  having  iron  instead  of  wooden 
rollers,  and  is  said  to  gin  65  lbs.  of  cot- 
ton per  day.  An  improved  gin  was  late- 
ly invented  by  Messrs.  Carr  and  Hancock 
of  Philadelphia,  which  is  said  to  be  su- 
perior to  the  common  kind.  A  figure  of 
the  Carolina  gin  is  given  by  Dr.  JVIease,in 
his  edition  of  the  Domestic  Encyclopedia. 
GLASS. — The  vitriform  state  is  tliat 
of  an  incombustible  body,  which  has 
been  fused  by  a  red  heat.  A  numerous 
set  of  experiments  have  been  made  on 
the  vitrification  of  earths  alone,  or  by 
metallic  oxyds,  either  performed  or  con- 
firmed by  Kirwan,  Achard,  Klaproth, 
-Vlovcau  and  Wedgewood ;  and  also  on 
the  vitrification  of  earths  with  saline  bo- 
dies, which  have  led  to  results  of  much 
importance  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 
See  Glass-Making. 
GIASS-MAKING.— In  order  to  com- 


GLA 


GLA 


prehend  the  different  subjects  embraced 
under  the  head  of  glass -making,  we  shall 
first  enumerate  the  materials  used  in  the 
formation  of  glass  ;  secondly,  treat  of  the 
glass  furnace  and  pots ;  thirdly,  of  the 
furnace  and  working  of  glass  ;  and,  fourth- 
ly, of  the  different  kinds  of  glass.  After 
which  we  will  notice  the  coloured  and 
opake  glasses.  We  trust,  that  however 
long  the  articles  may  appear  to  the 
general  reader,  the  importance  of  the  art, 
as  an  item  of  industry  and  improvement 
in  the  catalogue  of  American  manufac- 
tures, will  be  a  sufficient  apology. 

When,  or  by  whom,  the  art  of  making 
glass  was  first  found  out,  is  uncertain  : 
some  will  have  it  invented .  before  the 
flood ;  but  without  any  proof  Neri 
traces  the  antiquity  of  this  art  as  far  back 
as  the  time  of  Job :  but  Dr  Merret  will 
have  it  as  ancient  as  either  pottery,  or 
the  making  of  bricks ;  because  that  a 
kiln  of  bricks  can  scarce  be  burnt,  or  a 
batch  of  pottery  be  made,  but  some  of 
the  bricks  and  the  ware  will  be  at  least 
superficially  turned  to  glass  ;  so  that  it 
must  have  been  known  at  the  building  of 
Babel,  and  as  long  before  as  the  making 
of  bricks  was  used.  It  must  have  been 
known  consequently  among  the  Egyptians, 
when  the  Israelites  were  employed  by 
them  in  making  bricks.  Of  this  kind, 
no  doubt,  was  that  fossil  glass  mentioned 
by  Ferrant.  Imperat.  to  be  found  under 
ground  where  great  fires  had  been.  The 
^Egyptians  indeed  boast,  that  this  art 
was  taught  them  by  the  great  Hermes. 
Aristophanes,  Aristotle,  Alexander 
Aphrodisseus,  Lucretius,  and  John  the 
divine,  pui  us  out  of  all  doubts  that  glass 
was  used  in  their  days. 

Glass  invariably  contains  two  essential 
ingi'edients,  silex,  and  an  a'kali,  either 
potasli  or  soda,  and  these  are  all  that  are 
absolutely  necessary  for  its  composition, 
but  other  accessory  substances  are  also 
used  for  particular  purposes,  among 
which  may  be  particularly  mentioned, 
lime  in  the  form  of  chalk,  borax,  oxyd  of 
lead,  oxyd  of  manganese,  white  oxyd  of 
arsenic  and  nitre.  Each  of  these  requires 
some  separate  notice. 

The  Silex  may  be  obtained  ftom  various 
sources,  and  of  different  degrees  of  puri- 
ty, according  to  the  fineness  of  the  glass 
requii-ed.  The  siliceous  material  almost 
imiversally  used,  is  sea  sand,  which  is 
well  known  to  consist  of  minute  rounded 
grains  of  quartz,  and  is  already  sufficient- 
ly small  to  be  used  without  any  other  pre- 
paration than  that  of  wasliing.  Another 
equally  pure  kind  of  silex,  is  the  common 
black  gun -flints,  which  before  using,  must 
be  healed  red-hot,  and  inamediately 
VOL.  T. 


quenched  in  cold  water.  The  heat  whi- 
tens  them,  and  the  water  splits  them  in 
every  direction,  by  which  means  they  may 
afterwards  be  ground  in  mills  without 
much  difficulty.  But  this  ground  flint 
though  largely  used  in  the  poUeries  iu 
Great  Britain,  is  scarcely  ever  employed 
in  glass-making.  Tlie  rounded  lumps  of 
white  quartz  found  so  abundantly  in  the 
beds  of  rivers  in  many  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, are  sometimes  used  in  foreign 
countries  for  this  purpose,  being  first 
heated  and  ground  to  powder. 

In    the  different  kinds  of  siliceous  or 
jlinty  stones,  the  United  States  abound. 

The  alkali  used  in  this  manufactiu-e,  is 
either  soda  or  potash,  each  being  appa- 
rently equally  well  fitted  for  tlie  purpose. 
It  is  always  used  at  first  in  the  state  of 
carbonat,  though  the  carbonic  acid  flies 
off'  in  the  process ;  for,  glass  is  a  com- 
pound of  silex  and  alkali,  and  not  alka- 
line carbonat.  These  alkalies  are  used  in 
every  degi-ee  of  purity,  according  to  the 
required  quality  of  the  glass.  For  the 
finest  flint-glass,  the  best  pearl  ashes,  pu- 
rified by  solution  and  evaporation  to  dry- 
ness are  employed  ;  but  the  inferior  glas- 
ses are  made  with  the  coarser  alkalies, 
with  bai-illa  where  this  alkali  is  cheap, 
with  common  wood  ashes,  and  very  large- 
ly with  kelp.  Though  these  alkalies  are 
very  impure,  this  does  not  prevent  their 
dissolving  the  silex  into  a  very  good  and 
perfect  glass ;  for  the  impurities  partly 
consist  of  neuti'al  salts,  and  partly  of  lime 
and  other  earths,  all  of  which  assist  in  the 
vitrification.  Glass  made  from  these  al- 
kalies, has  always  more  or  less  of  agi-een 
tinge,  as  m  the  common  bottle-glass,  ow- 
ing to  the  presence  of  iron  contained  in 
these  ashes.  The  methods  of  purifying 
and  preparing  these  alkalies,  are  describ- 
ed under  the  Carbonats  of  the  respective 
alkalies. 

Lime  when  employed  in  glass-making, 
is  generally  used  in"  the  form  of  chalk. 
The  property  of  lime,  and  the  other  alka- 
line eartlis,  in  promoting  the  vitrification 
of  silex,  has  been  already  mentioned,  and 
shewn  to  be  veiy  powerful,  though  less  so 
than  that  of  the  alkalies.  Lime  is  used 
only  in  small  proportions  in  the  glass-pots, 
fi)r  the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  from 
the  chalk  during  the  fusion,  causes  the 
materials  to  swell  to  an  inconvenient  de- 
gree ;  and  also,  if  the  lime  is  in  excess  it 
acts  very  powerfully  on  the  sides  of  the 
pots.  Besides,  an  over  proportion  renders 
the  glass  opake  and  milky  on  cooling, 
though  quite  clear  when  hot.  Experience 
has  shewn,  that  to  lOO  parts  of  silex,  with 
the  requisite  quantity  of  alkali,  no  more 
than  about  6  or  7  of  quick  lime  can  be 
3e 


GLA 


GLA 


added  (or  chalk  in  proportion)  without 
endangering  the  clearness  of  the  glass- 
The  particular  use  of  this  ingredient,  be- 
sides that  of  affording  a  veiy  cheap  flux, 
is  to  lender  the  glass  easier  to  work,  and 
less  habie  to  crack  by  sudden  changes  of 
temperature. 

Borax,  is  perhaps,  the  most  powerful 
and  valuable  flux  that  is  known.  On  ac- 
count of  its  high  price,  it  is  not  used  in 
any  of  the  common  glasses,  but  is  em- 
ployed in  the  finest  kinds  of  plate  glass, 
ancl  those  articles  that  are  required  to  be 
particularly  clear  and  free  from  specks 
and  bubbles.  It  is  peculiarly  well  fitted 
for  this  purpose,  as  it  renders  ail  vitres- 
cent  compounds  into  which  it  enters  re- 
markably thin-flowing,  and  therefore  best 
adapted  for  being  cast  in  a  mould,  which  is 
the  way  in  which  these  articles  are  manu- 
factured. A  very  small  quantity  of  borax 
will  con-ect  any  deficient  strength  in  the 
alkali. 

The  oxyds  of  lead,  of  which  litharge  and 
minium,  (red  lead)  are  the  only  ones  em- 
ployed in  the  large  way,  are  of  singular  use 
in  glass-making.  Litharge  melts  by  itself 
into  a  very  dense  clear  yellow  transparent 
glass,  remarkably  soft  and  unctuous  to 
the  touch,  fusible  at  a  very  low  red  heat, 
and  when  melted  acting  so  powerfully  on 
all  earthen  vessels  as  to  run  through  the 
common  porous  crucibles  in  a  very  short 
time,  almost  like  liquor  through  a  sieve, 
but  vitrifying  and  corroding  the  bottom  of 
tlie  crucible  in  its  passage.  Litharge  is 
therefore  a  most  powerful  flux  to  all 
earthy  mixtures,  and  it  impai-ts  to  glass 
the  valuable  qualities  of  gi-eater  density 
and  greater  power  of  refracting  the  rays  of 
light,  and  of  bearing  sudden  changes  from 
heat  to  cold,  without  being  so  liable  to 
crack,  and  also  greater  tenacity  when  red- 
hot,  and  therefore  easier  to  be  worked. 

Most  of  the  finer  glasses  contain  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  this  oxyd,  particu- 
laily  the  London  flint  glass,  or  that  sort 
which  is  used  for  most  of  the  purposes  of 
the  tables,  for  lustres,  and  other  ornamen- 
tal works,  which  when  cut  into  various 
forms,  display  so  beautiful  a  play  of  light, 
for  artificial  gems,  and  for  most  optical 
purposes.  Glass  containing  much  lead, 
has,  however,  the  great  defect  of  being 
extremely  soft  so  as  to  be  readily  scratch- 
ed and  injured  by  almost  every  hard  body 
it  rubs  against.  It  is  also  extremely  fusi- 
ble, so  that  thin  tubes  of  it  will  bend  with 
ease  in  the  flame  of  a  candle,  and  will 
sink  down  into  a  shapeless  mass,  at  a  ve- 
ry moderate  red-heat.  This  quality  for 
chemical  purposes,  is  sometimes  an  ad- 
vantage, sometimes  the  contrary.  Wiien, 
the  lead  is  in  excess  there  is  also  some 


danger  of  the  glass  being  corroded  by  ve- 
ry acrid  liquors.  Another  defect  also  at- 
tending the  use  of  lead,  is  the  exii  eme  dif- 
ficulty of  uniting  it  so  intimutely  with  the 
sllex  and  alkali,  that  a  whole  piece  of 
glass  wrought  with  it,  shall  be  of  equal 
density  throughout,  as  the  litharge  on  ac- 
count of  its  much  superior  density  is  al- 
ways liable  to  sink  towards  the  bottom  of 
the  glass-pots  before  it  can  be  detained 
by  the  other  higredients.  This  inequality 
subsists  throughout,  so  that  every  stratum 
of  the  melted  mass  is  of  intermediate 
density  between  the  stratum  above  and 
that  below,  which  is  apt  to  occasion 
waves  in  the  glass  when  wrought,  such  as 
appear  when  water  is  gently  poured  on 
sulphuric  acid,  without  mixing-,  and  the 
vessel  slightly  agitated.  This  defect  is 
particularly  felt  in  some  optica^  purposes 
where  a  certain  thickness  of  glass  is  used. 

The  black  oxyd  of  manganese  was 
used  in  glass  making  long  before  its  pre- 
cise nature  was  understood.  Its  ancient 
name  of  glass  so  ip  denotes  its  particular 
use,  namely,  that  of  cleai-ing  the  glass 
from  any  accidental  foulness  of  colour 
which  it  would  otherwise  contract  from 
the  impurity  of  the  alkali,  or  other  mate- 
rials employed,  and  especially  the  green 
tinge,  owing  as  already  mentioned  to  the 
presence  of  iion. 

Oxyd  of  manganese,  however,  is  capa- 
ble of  destroying  such  colours  as  are  pro- 
duced principally  by  coaly  matter,     it  is 
said  to  produce  a  mixed  colour  with  the  ^ 
oxyds  in  the  glass. 

The  substances  which  take  away  the 
colour  from  glass  tinged  red  with  manga- 
nese, which  often  hapjiens,  are  all  the 
salts  with  the  basis  of  sulphuric  acid, 
such  as  gypsum,  sul[)hat  of  soda,  &c.  and 
also  sulphur  itself,  likewise  the  oxyds  of 
tin  and  iron,  and  of  some  other  metals- 

The  oxyd  of  manganese  is  a  very  pow- 
erful flux  for  all  earthy  matters.  This  is 
seen  in  the  result  of  all  the  attempts  to 
reduce  it  to  a  reguline  s*:ate  in  the  usual 
way  of  combining  with  a  saline  carbona- 
ceous flux,  and  heating  in  a  naked  cru- 
cible. Not  a  paiticle  of  the  oxj  d  is  re- 
duced in  this  way,  but  the  crucible  con- 
stantly runs  down,  in  a  heat  sufficiently 
intense  for  the  reduction  of  manganese, 
together  with  all  its  contents,  into  a  green 
slag.  The  only  way  hitherto  known  of 
reducing  this  oxyd,  is  to  enclose  it  with- 
out any  saline  or  earthy  addition  in  a  cru- 
cible lined  with  charcoal,  and  ajjply  a 
very  intense  heat.  Manganese  as  well  as 
lead  gives  a  great  density  to  glass,  and 
also  like  lead  it  always  settles  somewhat 
to  the  bottom  of  the  pots  where  it  accu- 
mulates, and  being  here  out  of  the  way 


GIA 


OLA 


of  most  of  the  decolouring  additions  it 
gives  a  purple  to  the  glass  immediately 
adhering  to  the  bottom,  and  partly  cor- 
rodes the  pots  ;  so  that  when  these  are 
worn  out  and  broken  up,  they  are  deeply 
encrusted  with  a  thick  purple  vitrescent 
slag  easily  separable  by  the  hammer. 

The  oxyd  of  manganese  forms  a  glass 
spyecifically  heavier  than  common  glass ; 
whence  it  anses,  that  tlie  glass  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pots  in  many  glass-works  is 
^^olet.  It  is  undoubted,  that  when  this 
happens,  the  dose  of  manganese  is  too 
great.  The  usual  method  of  remedying 
this  inconvenience  is  to  stir  up  the  glass 
with  an  iron  bar,  after  previously  raising 
the  fire  to  render  it  more  fluid-  It  is 
thought,  that  the  manganese  is  in  part 
dissipated  by  that  means ;  but  it  is  merely 
distributed  through  the  mass.  A  more 
effectual  remedy  is  to  add  some  combus- 
tible substance  to  the  glass  to  destsoy  its 
colour ;  such  as  arsenic,  charcoal,  sul- 
phur, &c. 

The  vhite  Oxyd  of  Arsenic  is  another 
flux  used  pretty  largely  in  glass-making. 
This  substance  (as  fully  mentioned  under 
the  article  arsenic^  is  volatile  in  the  fire  in 
proportion  as  it  approaches  the  metallic 
state, 'and  hence  it  is  of  advantage  to  em- 
ploy niti-e  to  oxygenate  it  more  highly, 
and  make  it  more  fixed.  Its  use  in  cor- 
recting the  purple  red  colour  of  manga- 
nese has  been  just  mentioned.  Arsenic  is 
a  very  powerful  flux,  and  ver}'  cheap,  but 
must  be  used  only  m  great  moderation, 
for  it  takes  a  longer  time  to  mix  intimate- 
ly with  glass,  and  to  allow  it  to  be  per- 
fectly clear,  than  any  other  of  the  addi- 
tions commonly  employed.  Glasses  in 
which  the  arsenic  is  not  thoi-oughly  or 
long  enough  fused,  have  a  milky  hue, 
which  encreases  by  age :  when  the  arsenic 
is  in  excess  they  tend  to  deliquescence, 
gradually  become  soft,  and  are  decom- 
posed.  They  are  besides  unsafe  as  drink- 
ing vessels.  The  arsenic  is  constantly 
volatilizing  from  the  arsenical  glass  when 
preparing,  that  is,  till  it  is  intimately 
united  wilii  the  rest  of  the  glass  ;  after 
which  however  it  cannot  again  be  sepa- 
rated by  heat  or  any  common  means. 

As  arsenic  is  entirely  volatilized  when 
in  contact  with  any  carbonaceous  matter, 
another  use  has  been  made  of  it,  which 
is  to  disperse  any  such  matter  which  may 
remain  in  the  glass,  owing  to  a  defect  in 
the  calcination  of  the  alkali,  or  any  other 
cause.  \Vhen  this  happens,  small  lumps 
of  white  arsenic  are  sometimes  thrust 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass-pots  and 
stirred  in  with  the  contents,  and  the 
arsenic  meeting  with  the  unbumt  carbon 
diffused  through  the  glass  unites  with  it, 


is  speedily  volatilized  with  it,  and  the 
glass  is  left  freed  both  from  the  adhering 
carbon,  -and  also  from  most  of  the  arsenic 
that  was  added.  The  motion  excited 
through  the  melting  glass  by  the  volatili- 
zation of  the  arsenic  is  also  thought  useful 
in  hastening  the  compleat  vitrification  of 
the  ingredients. 

Mtre  is  used  in  glass-making  only  in 
small  quantities,  and  is  an  accessory  in- 
gredient to  fulfil  particular  purposes.  This 
salt,  at  a  heat  even  much  below  that  of 
the  glass-pots  is  readily  decomposed,  giv- 
ing out  much  oxygen,  nitrous  gas  and 
a^ot,  and  leaving  behind  its  pure  pot-ash. 
It  is  of  service  in  destroying  any  carbo- 
naceous matter  in  the  ingredients  of  the 
glass  (with  which  it  should  be  mixed  be- 
fore fusion)  and  its  use  in  fixing  arsenic, 
and  in  keeping  up  the  tinging  power  of 
manganese  has  been  already  mentioned. 
The  same  circumstance  of  keeping  me- 
tallic oxyds  up  to  their  liighest  state  of 
oxygenation,  also  renders  this  salt  often 
useful,  and  even  necessary  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  some  others  of  the  coloured 
glasses. 

Of  the  Proportion  of  Silex  to  the  Saline 
JIuxes. — The  exact  proportion  and  num- 
ber of  ingredients  that  enter  into  every 
species  of  glass  cannot  easily  be  obtained 
with  any  certainty,  though  many  appa- 
rently good  mixtures  are  given  by  differ- 
ent authors,  which  will  be  afterwaixis  men- 
tioned. But  some  observations  may  be 
made  on  the  solvent  power  of  mere  alkali 
over  siliceous  earth,  which  is  the  basis  of 
the  rules  for  the  composition  of  glass,  as, 
strictly  speaking,  nothing  else  is  neces- 
sary for  the  formation  of  glass  than  a  so- 
lution of  silex  in  alkali  by  a  melting  heat ; 
all  the  other  additions  are  more  properly 
useful  than  necessar}-  ingi-edients. 

When  silex  is  melted  v,'iih  twice  its 
weight,  or  more,  of  dry  carbonated  al- 
kali, either  potash  or  soda,  the  result  is  a 
verj'  soft  deliquescent  vitreous  mass,  al- 
ways more  or  less  opake,  strongly  al- 
kaline to  the  taste,  and  which  on  expo- 
sure to  moist  air,  or  more  speedily  if  put 
into  water,  totally  dissolves  into  a  clear 
liquor  which  is  a  solution  of  silex  in  al- 
kali. This  silicited  alkaline  solution  is 
decomposed  by  ai\  the  acids,  which  se- 
parate the  silex  in  the  form  of  a  white 
powder. 

When  the  alkali  employed  (meaning 
all  along  in  this  place  the  dry  carbonated 
alkali)  only  equals  the  silex  in  weight,  or 
at  least  does  not  much  exceed  it,  the 
glass  is  now  transpaient,  but  is  still  so- 
luble in  water  as  before. 

It  is  not  till  the  alkali  is  diminished  to 
about  one  half  of  the  weight  of  the  silex 


liLA 


GLA 


that  the  glass  becomes  perfectly  hard  and 
insoluble  in  any  corrosive  liquors,  (ihe 
fluoric  acid  excepted)  and  in  sfiort,  ac- 
quires the  character  of  a  perfect  glass. 

This  proportion  therefore,  that  is  two 
parts  of  sand  to  one  of  alkali  is  usually 
the  datum  on  which  the  doses  of  tlie  spe- 
cies of  alkalies  actually  used  are  regulat- 
ed. Thus  if  common  wood  ashes  (of 
which  the  alkaline  part  is  leckoned  at  no 
more  than  10  per  cent.)  are  employed, 
100  lbs.  of  these  would  lequire  no  more 
than  about  20  lb  of  sand.  If  the  best 
Spanish  barilla,  containing  from  45  to  50 
per  cent,  of  carbonat  of  soda,  be  used, 
an  equal  wt-ighl  of  sand  may  be  added; 
but  if  purified  pearlash  be  taken,  it  will 
melt  down  perfectly  twice  its  own  weight 
of  .sand. 

But  glasses  composed  merely  of  pure 
alkali  and  sand  require  a  very  strong  fire 
for  ti;eir  fusion,  and  are  hard,  harsh,  and 
difficult  to  work.  They  are  therefore 
never  used  alone,  for  even  when  common 
ashes  and  sand  are  the  only  ingredients, 
the  ashes  contain  an  abundance  of  earth 
and  other  substances.  As  o.)e  half  the 
weight  of  the  sand  is  reckoijed  an  abun- 
dant allowance  of  alkali,  it  follows  of 
course  that  when  litharge,  arsenic,  borax, 
or  any  other  fluxes  are  employed,  the 
quantity  of  alkaU  will  be  proportionally 
diminished. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  glas- 
ses themselves  contain  nearly  the  original 
proportion  of  s\ks.  and  alkali  that  was 
put  into  the  glass-pots.  Of  these  two 
materials  the  alkali  is  abundantly  volatile 
in  the  intense  fire  nccessaij  for'  glass- 
making,  but  the  silex  is  absolutely  fixed  ; 
and  hence  in  projjortion  to  the  strength 
and  continuance  of  the  fire,  the  i-elative 
quantities  of  the  two  are  constantly  alter- 
ing, that  of  the  alkali  diminishing,  and 
that  of  the  silex  and  other  ingredients  in- 
creasing That  the  alkali  dots  really  vo- 
latilize, and  very  rapidly  at  first  when  in 
large  proportion  in  the  mixture,  is  put 
beyond  a  doubt  by  the  dense  vapoiir 
which  always  proceeds  from  the  glass- 
potts  when  ilie  glass  is  first  heating,  and 
which  corrodes  tlie  covers  of  the  cruci- 
bles, and  by  various  other  tests  is  proved 
to  be  part  of  the  alkali  escaping.  This 
may  partly  be  owing  to  a  want  of  tho- 
rough mixture  of  the  silex,  which,  though 
in  grains  when  sand  is  used,  is  very  far 
short  of  intimate  mechanical  mixture  No 
continuance  of  heat  indeed  can  drive  off' 
all  the  alkali,  for  when  once  melted  into 
glass,  it  must  remain  as  such,  but  the 
solvent  power  of  alkah  upon  silex  in- 
creases in  propordon  as  the  temperature 


is  raised,  as  occurs  in  most   otlier  cases 
of  solution. 

Mr.  Loysel  has  the  following  remarks 
on  the  subject  of  the  volatiUiation  of  the 
alkali,  but  it  is  to  be  wished  thai  he  had 
given  more  of  the  particulars  of  the  ex- 
periments on  which  they  are  lounded.  11 
a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  sand  and  one 
of  alkali  be  exposed  for  the  accustomed 
number  of  hours  in  the  ordinaiy  glass- 
house fires  (about  8000°  degrees  Keau- 
mur)  the  glass  when  finished  will  contain 
no  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  alkali,  all 
the  rest  having  been  dissipated.  If  the 
glass  be  iieated  so  as  to  retain  no  more 
than  about  15  or  20  of  alkali  to  100  of 
silex,  it  will  be  very  hard,  transparent, 
and  almost  equal  in  beauty  to  rock  crys- 
tal. Of  a  glass  originally  made  of  two 
parts  of  sand  and  three  of  alkali,  Mr. 
Loysel  observes,  that  if  kept  in  the  heat 
of  3000°  for'  one  or  two  days,  the  result 
will  be  a  soft  glass  retaining  neaily  equal 
parts  of  alkah  and  sil^'x ;  if  further  heat- 
ed to  9000**  a  solid  glass  will  remain  com- 
posed of  about  four  parts  of  silex  to  one 
of  alkali ;  and  lastly,  if  urged  to  a  heat  of 
10  to  12000<'  the  glass  will  be  extremely 
hard,  brilliant,  and  will  consist  of  no  more  • 
than  three  parts  of  alkali  to  sefen  of 
silex. 

All  the  common  alkalies  are  largely 
mixed  with  various  neutral  salts,  parti- 
cularly common  salt,  and  some  of  the 
sulphats.  It  does  not  seem  entirely  as- 
certained what  share  these  have  in  the 
vitrification.  It  is  generally  asserted  tliat 
they  are  merely  inefficient,  and  act  as  ex- 
traneous bodies,  and  it  is  certain,  that 
during  the  fusion  of  the  glass  materials  a 
quantity  of  scum  rises  to  the  top  of  the 
pots,  which  is  a  very  heterogeneous  mix- 
ture of  common  salt  and  other  neutral  . 
salts  and  other  impurities  of  the  alkali,  '^ 
as  will  be  presently  noticed.  Common  '« 
salt  being  readily  volatile  in  a  full  red  '^ 
heat,  can  scarcely  be  supjwsed  to  conti'act 
mucli  permanent  union  with  the  silex,  and 
yet  if  a  quantity  of  this  salt  be  inclosed  in 
a  well  luted  crvicible  and  heated  without 
addition,  it  will  readily  penetrate  the 
sides  of  the  vessel,  and  deeply  corrode 
lliem  in  its  passage- 
But  the  sulphats  being  fixed  in  the 
fire  can  withstand  without  volatilization 
all  the  heat  of  the  glass-pots,  and  at  this 
temi)erature  they  arc  decomposed  largely 
by  the  silex,  this  earth  uniting  with  the 
alkali  of  the  sulphat  and  the  acid  flying 
off'  alone  Thus  if  three  parts  of  sulphat , 
of  soda  ond  one  of  silex  are  put  into  an 
earthen  retort  with  a  receiver,  and  ihe 
fire  strongly  urged  to  whiteness,  a  trans- 


GLA 


GL.\. 


parent  glass  of  silex  and  soda  will  re- 
main, and  the  receiver  will  contain  much 
sulphureous  acid. 

This  is  one  of  the  verj*  frequent  exam- 
ples of  chemical  affinity  being  clianged 
by  temperature,  for  at  any  common  heat 
the  sulphuric  acid  has  a  much  stronger 
affinity  for  alkali  than  this  has  for  silex, 
and  therefore  will  decompose  the  solution 
of  silicited  alkaU,  and  separate  the  si- 
lex. Of  the  common  neuti*al  salts 
therefore,  the  mm-iats  probably  add  but 
little  to  the  quantity  of  real  flux,  but  on 
the  contrary,  the  siilphats  are  important 
additions,  and  leave  in  the  glass  pot  the 
alkaU  or  earth  with  which  they  were 
united.  Hence  in  some  places  sulphat 
of  soda,  where  impure,  and  not  reserved 
for  other  purposes,  is  sold  to  the  glass- 
makers,  and  found  to  answer  completely 
This  is  the  case  at  Fi-eyberg,  where  the 
pjTitical  ores  of  silver  and  copper  after 
roasting  are  converted  into  sulphats, 
from  whicli  a  large  quantity  of  impure 
sulphat  of  soda  mixed  with  some  aiseni- 
ats  is  obtained,  which  is  used  without 
preparation  as  the  sole  flux  in  glass- 
making. 

Of  the  Glass  Furnaces  and  Pots -^GIslSS 
is  made  in  large  deep  pots  or  crucibles 
closed  every  where  except  at  one  side- 
opening,  and  arranged  round  a  kiln  or 
dome-shaped  oven,  into  the  middle  of 
which  they  project,  and  by  which  they 
are  entii-ely  enclosed  except  at  the  side 
orifice  above-mentioned,  which  opens  iuto 
a  small  recess  formed  by  the  alternate 
projections  of  the  masonrj'  and  flues  of 
the  kiln  in  which  recess  the  workmen 
stand. 

The  kiln  is  supported  on  arches,  be- 
neatli  which  is  a  Krge  space  for  a  brisk  and 
copious  draught  of  cold  aii-  from  without. 
The  floor  of  the  kiln  nearly  level  with 
the  ground  is  covered  with  a  grate  of 
very  strong  iron  bars  on  which  the  fuel 
is  thrown,  and  the  flame  draws  verv 
strong  and  fierce  i-ound  the  pots,  and 
passes  out  together  with  the  smoke,  in 
one  body,  through  the  top  of  the  dome, 
which  is  lengthened  into  a  chimney  for 
the  space  of  a  few  feet.  Tiie  precise 
construction  of  the  glass  house  can  only 
be  understood  by  figures  which  cannot 
be  given  in  this  place.  At  the  top  of  the 
dome  between  the  pots  and  the  chimney, 
is  a  kind  of  broad  covered  shelf  which  is 
heated  by  the  flame  in  its  passage  round 
it,  but  to  a  much  less  degree  of  intensitv 
than  the  pots,  and  serves  as  a  receptacle 
for  the  glass  as  soon  as  wrought,  in 
which  it  muy  cool,  slowly  and  g^adualJv. 
This  is  the  annealing  oven. 

Very  great  care  is  required  in  building 


a  glass-house,  to  form  the  bricks  of  a« 
earth  which  combines  in  tlie  highest  de- 
gree the  qualities  of  density  and  infus'bi- 
lity,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  withstand  the 
unceasing  action  of  very  strong  heat  for 
a  great  length  of  time,  for  the  fires  are 
seldom  suflfered  to  go  out  from  the  time 
the  furnace  begins  to  be  in  action,  till  the 
inevitable  weai-  and  fusion  of  the  walls 
renders  a  repair  necessary,  which  ma}-  be 
in  about  two  or  three  yciirs.  But  still 
greater  attention  is  required  in  selecting 
proger  materials  for  the  glass-pots,  as 
these  have  to  withstand  for  a  given  time 
not  only  the  constant  action  of  a  very 
fierce  fire,  but  also  the  solvent  power  of 
the  glass  itself  with  the  variety  of  power- 
ful fluxes  in  full  vitrification.  The  pots 
therefore,  being  made  of  earth,  must  ne- 
cessarily  be  themselves  always  gradualh' 
dissolving  in  their  contents,  and  hence, 
besides  the  pi"operty  of  difficult  fusibili- 
ty, an  earth  of  considerable  purity  is  re- 
qiured  for  these,  so  that  a  small  admix- 
ture with  tlie  glass  may  not  injure  its 
quality. 

The  chief  material  both  of  the  walls  of 
tlie  fiu-nace  and  of  the  pots  is  clay,  as  it 
is  of  almost  everj-  vessel  and  substance 
destined  to  bear  a  long  and  violent  heat. 
This  is  mixed  with  sand,  in  different  pro- 
portions according  to  its  quality,  for  the 
fire-bricks  and  other  parts  of  the  fur- 
nace. On  an  average,  a  fine  stiff  clav 
will  require  about  two-thirds  as  much  of 
sand  to  bring  it  to  such  a  consistence 
that  it  will  work  easily,  dry  in  a  very  com- 
pact mass,  and  resist  the  impression  of 
fire  tor  a  length  of  time-  Still  howe\^r, 
this  addition  of  sand  renders  it  in  some 
degree  fusible,  so  that  when  the  fire  is  in 
activity,  drops  of  vitrified  earth  u^re  con- 
stantly and  slowly  falling-  from  the  walls, 
some  of  which  cannot  be  prevented 
from  dropping  into  the  glass  and  mixing 
with  it  The  crucibles  are  made  of  a 
still  more  refi-actory  mixture,  which 
consists  simply  of  raw  and  of  burnt  clav, 
the  latter  is  called  technically  cemeKt,  And 
is  procured  fi-ona  the  remains  of  the  for- 
mer furnaces  when  pulled  down  for  re- 
paration. As  clay  loses  its  plasticitv  bv 
bakmg,  it  then  answers  all  the  purposes 
of  sand  in  diminishing  the  tenacity  of  the 
mass,  and  especially  in  lessening  the 
shrijikage  whilst  drying  and  being  the 
same  kind  of  earth  as  the  unbaked,  it 
adds  nothing  to  the  vitrescibility  of  the 
material,  for  .is  has  been  already  shewn, 
earthy  compoimds  are,  ceteris  paribus,  fu- 
sible in  proportion  to  the  number  of  in- 
gi'edients  of  which  they  are  composed. 

I'he  particulai-  manipulations  employed 
in  constructing  a  glass-furnace  and  pots 


GLA 


GLA 


:iie  foreign  to  the  present  purpose  :  very 
great  precaution  is  used  in  drying'  tlieni 
thoroughly  and  very  gradually.  This  is 
peculiarly  necessary  in  making  the  pots, 
lor  as  they  are  intended  to  hold  a  consi- 
derable weight  of  glass,  and  to  last  msxny 
months,  they  must  be  made  very  thick 
and  strong,  and  Ihercfore  would  readily 
crack  without  much  care  When  finish- 
ed, they  are  first  kept  in  a  warm  sheltered 
room  for  many  weeks  to  dissipate  much 
of  their  moisture,  and  the  small  fissures 
formed  by  the  unequal  shrinking  of  the 
clay  are  closed  up  by  beating  gently 
with  a  mahet.  I'liey  are  afterwards 
heated  very  gradually  in  a  small 
oven  made  for  this  purpose,  and  ;u-e 
slowly  brought  to  a  red  heat  and  kept 
there  the  requisite  time,  after  which  tliey 
are  removed,  whilst  still  hot,  to  the  fur- 
nace and  soldered  down  to  their  place 
by  fire  clay.  A  still  further  shrinkage 
takes  place  when  in  the  furnace,  fov  which 
reason  they  are  let  to  stand  empty  for  a 
day  or  two  before  they  are  fitted  to  re- 
ceive the  materials  for  glass.  These  pots 
last  on  an  averas^e  about  a  year,  and 
hence' they  must  be  changed  once  or  twice 
during  the  continuance  of  the  furnace  it- 
self. 

The  fuel  used  in  England,  is  con- 
stantly coal,  and  the  best  is  of  the  kind 
that  gives  a  strong  steady  blaze.  As  the 
glass-pots  open  only  outward,  none  of  the 
fuel  or  flame  conies  in  contact  with ,  their 
contents,  except  through  any  accidental 
crack  in  the  clay  soldering. 

Considerable  variety  prevails  respect- 
ing the  exact  form  and  construction  of  the 
furnace  and  crucibles,  in  dillerent  coun- 
tries, and  also  according  to  the  kind  of 
manufacture,  and  in  particular  the  plate- 
glass  furnace  requires  a  diflerent  ar- 
rangement 

OJ  the  fusion  and  working  of  Glass — The 
sand,  alkali,  and  other  materials  for  the 
glass,  after  mixture^  are  usually  first  cal- 
cined for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  by  a 
separate  operation,  before  they  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  glass-pots. ,  This  operation 
is  cMQAfritt'tng,  and  is  performed  either 
in  small  furnaces  close  adjoining  to  the 
proper  glass  furnace  and  heated  by  the 
same  fuel  after  the  chief  force  has  been 
spent  upon  the  glass-pots,  or  else  in  small 
furnaces  or  ovens  constructed  for  the  ex- 
press purpose.  The  uses  of  hitting  are, 
10  drive  oft'  all  moisture  from  the  materi- 
als which  might  endanger  the  glass-pots, 
to  expel  part  of  the  carbonic  acid  from 
the  alkalies  and  chalk,  and  thus  to  mode- 
rate tlie  swelhng  up  in  the  glass-pots,  and 
especially  to  cause  an  adhesion  or  com- 
mencement of  chemical  union  between  the 


alkali  and  silex,  and  the  metallic  oxyds. 
For  if  the  raw  materials  were  immediate- 
ly exposed  to  the  intense  heat  of  the  glass- 
pots,  the  alkali  would  How  thin  like  wa- 
ler,  and  the  grosser  particles  of  the  sand 
and  the  heavier  oxyds  would  fal  to  the 
bottom,  leaving  the  alkali  above,  nearly 
disengaged,  and  tlierefore  liable  stj'ongly 
to  act  on  the  crucibles,  and  also  a  large 
portion  would  be  rapidly  volatilized  to 
mere  waste.  The  glass  materials  there- 
fore, would  thus  have  an  excess  of  sand 
from  the  loss  of  the  alkali,  and  a  portion 
would  remain  at  the  bottom  unvitrified. 

Fritting  should  be  gradual,  and  carried 
to  the  point  of  semi-vitrification,  in  which 
the  materials  strongly  adhere  and  begin 
to  become  pasty,  but  are  still  opake,  and 
not  yet  homogeneous.  It  has  the  further 
use  of  destroying  any  carbohaceoue  mat- 
ter.- 

When  the  materials  are  sufficiently 
fritted  they  are  thrown  into  the  glass-pots 
with  clean  iron  shovels  through  the  side 
opening.  I'he  fire  is  previously  raised  to 
its  greatest  intensity  to  prevent  the  whole 
furnace  from  being  chilled  and  to  save 
time.  As  the  fritted  materials  are  much 
more  bulky  than  when  they  fall  into  a  thin- 
flowing  glass,  the  pots  receive  their  full 
charge  by  two  or  three  successive  por- 
tions, tiie  last-added  being  always  tho- 
rouglily  melted  down  before  a  fresh 
charge  is  thrown  in  When  full,  the  side 
openinpf  is  closed  up  with  wet  clay,  except 
a  small  hole  for  examining  the  work, 
which  closure  is  pulled  down  when  the 
glass  is  well  refined,  and  about  to  be 
worked  oft". 

As  soon  as  the  frit  begins  to  feel  the 
action  of  the  fire  in  the  glass-pots,  which  is 
immediately  raised  to  its  greatest  pitch, 
it  sinks  down  into  a  soft  pasty  state, 
which  gradually  encreases  in  tenacity  till 
a  perfect  fusion  is  effected  It  is  still  how- 
ever opake  at  first,  owing  to  the  rising  of 
a  quantity  of  a  white  porous  scum,  the  na- 
ture of  which  has  engaged  much  atten- 
tion, and  is  known  by  the  name  oi'sandiver, 
or  glass-gall.  This  substance  appears  to 
be  a  confused  mass,  consisting  of  all  those 
salts,  contained  in  common  alkalies, 
which  readily  melt  at  somewhat  less  than 
a  glass-making  heat,  and  arQ  either  natu- 
rally,  considerably  volatile,  or  have  little  if 
any  affinity  for  silex,  and  do  not  unite  in 
the  composition  of  glass,  but  being  super- 
ficially  lighter,  rise  to  the  top.  There  is 
another  heterogenous  substance,  also  call- 
ed  sandiver,  which  sometimes  is  found  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pots,  and  is  taken  out 
when  the  whole  is  worked  off.  The  na- 
ture of  this  is  very  different  from  the 
other,  and  consists  apparently  of  a  vitri- 


GLA 


GLA 


fied  mass  of  arsenic  and  earthy  impuri- 
ties. But  the  scum  or  proper  glass-gall  is 
almost  entirely  saline.  When  laded  out 
and  cooled,  it  forms  a  white  crumbly 
mass,  sometimes  quite  white,  and  at  oth- 
er times  brown  and  fouled,  and  strongly 
saline,  but  not  very  uniform  in  its  compo- 
sition, being  sometimes  merely  salt,  often 
very  bitter,  probably  as  common  salt  or 
sulphat  of  potash  predominate.  Glass- 
gall  is  very  volatile  in  a  strong  fire,  so 
that  it  is  constantly  dispersing  from  off 
the  surface  of  the  glass  in  a  dense  va- 
pour, at  first  thick  and  black,  afterwards 
whiter,  which  verj-  powerfully  corrodes 
the  top  of  the  crucible  in  its  passage.  If 
the  fusion  were  continued  long  enough, 
the  whole  would  be  dispersed  merely  in 
tfiis  way ;  but  it  is  generally  scummed  off 
with  iron  ladles,  and  sold  to  metal-refiners 
as  a  powerful  flux.  As  part  of  the  alkali 
itself  certainly  is  dissipated  by  the  conti- 
nuance of  fire,  partly  before  it  can  unite 
with  the  silex,  partly  from  the  glass  it- 
self, much  of  the  corrosion  of  the  pots 
must  be  owing  to  this  circumstance,  and 
probably  it  must  also  unite  in  part  with 
the  glass-gall,  which  renders  it  slightly 
deliquescent.  An  abundance  of  this  glass- 
gall  is  one  of  the  greatest  incon%eniences 
that  the  glass-maker  can  meet  with,  for  it 
requires  a  considerable  time  of  very 
strong  heat  before  the  whole  can  be  tlissi- 
pated  ;  or  if  the  glass  be  wrought  before  it 
is  thoroughly  purged  of  this  material  it 
is  full  of  bubbles,  unsound,  and  has  a 
cloudy  gelatinous  appearance.  Glass 
made  \mh  potash,  is  more  likely  to  suflTer 
from  glass-gall,  than  the  soda  glasses  ;  for 
the  potash-glasses  are  harder  and  do  not 
run  so  thin  as  the  others,  and  the  glass- 
gall  arisuig  from  them  does  not  so  easily 
dissipate  in  the  fire. 

During  this  part  of  the  process,  small 
samples  are  occasionally  drawn  out  of  the 
pots  with  an  iron  rod,  to  examine  the 
state  of  the  materials ;  and,  gradually,  the 
glass  becomes  more  and  more  flexible, 
dense,  and  less  brittle,  and  at  last  the 
glass-gall  is  entirely  dissipated,  and  the 
vapours  which  it  occasioned,  are  no  lon- 
ger to  be  perceived.  This  is  the  first  and 
very  well  defined  step  in  the  process  of 
glass-melting. 

The  glass  is  now  full  of  minute  specks 
or  bubbles,  which  the  continuance  of  the 
heat  causes  to  expand  and  b\n-st  at  tlie 
top,  till  at  last  it  refines  beautifully  clear, 
transparent,  and  colourless,  as  is  seen  by 
the  samples,  which  are,  from  time  to  time, 
taken  out  and  cooled.  This  second  pro- 
cess, namely,  from  tiie  cessation  of  tiie 
vapour  of  the  glass-gall  and  its  thorough 
removal,  to  the  time  when  the  glass  is 


perfectly  clear  and  free  from  bubbles,  is 
called  the  refining.  The  glass  is  now  com- 
pleat,  but  is  of  too  thin  a  consistence  to  be 
wrought,  it  is  therefore  cooled  by  stop- 
ping the  draught  of  the  fire  round  the  in- 
dividual pot,  and  in  cooling,  it  thickens  to 
the  working  point.  The  clay  witii  which 
the  opening  was  luted  is  then  picked  off", 
and  the  working  begun.  But  if  the  glass 
is  to  be  cast  into  plates  (as  all  the  large 
minors  are)  a  much  shorter  cooling  is 
requii'ed,  as  for  this  purpose  it  is  required 
to  flow  very  thin  and  hot. 

The  particular  manner  of  managing 
the  pots,  and  the  alternations  of  filling 
and  working  tliem  off  varies  considerably, 
and  depends  chiefly  on  the  convenience  of 
the  manufacturer.  Sometimes  half  the 
number  of  pots  (which  are  generally  six 
in  common  glass-houses)  are  kept  in  the 
working  sUite,  wliilst  the  materials  are 
melting  or  refining  in  the  three  others, 
and  sometimes  they  are  all  filled  together. 
On  an  average,  it  takes  about  forty-eight 
hours  for  the  fine  flint  glasses,  froni  the 
time  that  the  pots  are  first  filled  till  the 
glass  is  read)-  for  working ;  but  there  is  no 
occasion  to  use  it  immediately,  as  it  may 
be  allowed  to  remain  a  considerable  time 
at  a  low  working  heat  without  any  injury. 

When  the  glass  is  copied  down  to  tiie 
working  heat,  which  is  a  very  full  red,  it 
has  a  kind  of  consistence  and  tenacity  not 
exactly  to  be  found  in  any  other  substance 
in  nature.  It  is  just  soft  enough  to  yield 
with  the  greatest  ease  to  any  outer  im- 
pression, even  to  the  force  of  the  breath 
when  urged  pretty  strongly  in  the  center 
of  the  glowing  mass,  and  may  be  bent, 
pulled  out  and  shaped  in  ever)-  possible 
way ;  and  its  tenacity  is  such  that  it  ex- 
tends uniformly  without  producing  any 
cracks  or  fissures;  but,  when  stretched 
to  the  utmost,  it  pulls  out  to  a  solid 
string,  the  diameter  of  which  is  constant- 
ly decreasii^  till  it  separates  from  tlie 
mass  in  a  thin  capillyy  thread.  As  it- 
cools  it  stiffens,  and  becomes  perfecti}- 
brittle,  which  takes  place  when  no  longer 
red  hot,  and  at  this  time  also  it  becomes 
transparent.  Melted  glass  adheres  very 
feebly  to  polished  metal,  so  that  it  is 
wrought  with  briglit  iron  tools  with  the 
utmost  ease. 

Almost  every  kind  of  glass  vessel,  and 
utensil,  common  window  glass,  and  in 
short,  almost  every  manufactured  glass 
article  except  plate -glass,  is  shaped  out 
of  a  hollow  globe  formed  by  blowing. 
The  instrument  used  fur  this  purpose,  is 
simply  a  hollow  iron  rod,  about  four  or 
five  feet  long,  which  the  workman  first 
dips  in  the  glass-pot  and  turns  about  till  a 
sufficient  mass  of  the  melted  glass  ad- 


GLA 


GLA 


heres  to  it ;  he  then  holds  it  near  the 
ground,  by  which  the  mass  pulls  out  and 
lengthens  by  its  own  weiglit,  and  then 
blows  strongly  through  the  tube.  The 
breath  thus  penetrates  the  center  of  the 
red-hot  mass,  and  immediately  extends  it 
into  an  imiform  hollow  globe  of  the  re- 
quired thickness.  Tiiis  must  be  imme- 
diately blown  out  as  large  as  intended, 
and  the  fierce  ot  tiie  breath  kej)!  upon  it 
for  a  few  seconds  till  it  Siiflcjiis  by  cool- 
ing, otherwise  it  would  again  sink  in  by 
the  compression  of  the  denser  external 
air.  This  operation  produces  a  hollow 
globe,  adhering  by  a  neck  to  the  iron  rod. 


and  is  the  original  form  out  of  which  the^  uniform  without  joining  or   burr  of  any 


others  ai-e  fitshioned 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give,  in  a 
short  space,  an  adequate  idea  of  the  ease 
and  simple  dexterity  by  which,  with  a  few 
instruments,  this  most  beautiful  substance 
is  stretched  out,  enlarged,  closed,  perfo- 
rated, and  formed  by  a  few  ingenious  ma- 
noeuvres into  all  the  common  utensils.  As 
a  single  and  short  example,  the  making 
of  a  common  tumbler  may  be  given.  A 
hollow  globe,  with  a  short  neck,  being- 
first  blown  on  the  iron  rod  as  above-men- 
tioned, it  is  taken  off  in  the  following 
way  ;  an  assistant  dips  the  end  of  a  siiort 
solid  iron  rod  into  the"  glass-pot,  and 
brings  it  out  with  a  little  of  the  mel;ed 
glass  adhering,  this  is  immediately  thrust 
against  the  bottom  of  tlie  globe,  at  tiie 
part  directly  opposite  the  neck,  to  which 
it  firmly  unites,  so  that  the  globe  becomes 
cemented  upon  this  second  rod  by  means 
of  the  melted  glass.  The  workman  then 
wets  a  small  ])iece  of  iron  with  his  mouth 
and  lays  it  on  the  neck  of  the  globe 
which  is  still  extremely  hot,  and  this 
cracks  it  quite  round  in  a  second  or  two, 
so  that  with  a  sligiit  pull,  it  comes  off, 
and  detaches  the  hollow  rod,  leaving  the 
globe  now  open  at  the  neck,  and  trans- 
feritd  to  the  second  lod  at  the  opjjosite 
side.  The  globe,  being  now  open,  is 
again  softened  by  holding  it  a  few  seconds 
over  the  mouth  of  the  glass-pot,  and  is 
cut  aw..y  from  the  open  end  to  the  form 
of  a  cup,  by  iron  shears.  The  workman 
when  fiishioiiiiig  the  globe,  usually  sits 
upon  a  kind  of  aim  cliaii',  the  arms  of 
wliich  .slope  f(jrwards,  and  are  covered 
with  a  flat,  snio'jin  iron  plate,  and  by  lay- 
ing the  iron  rod  straight  btfore  hiin,  rest- 
ing on  both  tiie  arms  of  his  seat,  and 
twirling  it  backwards  and  f  )rwards,  the 
hot  glass  at  the  end  is  Tnicde  to  revolve 
like  clay  on  a  potter's  lailie,  and  thus  is 
opened,  widenedy  0)-  c  inipnjsstd  ai  jjlca- 
sure,  by  any  simple  ii  (in  in.strunient  that  is 


made  barrel-shaped,  if  this  be  the  requir-  * 
ed  form,  and  is  smoothed  up  at  the  edges. 
It  only  now  requires  to  be  separated  fiom 
the  iron  rod,  which  is  done  as  before, 
simply  by  wetting  it  at  the  point  of  at- 
tachment, and  the  tumbler  drops  oft  com- 
pleat.  Tills  last  operation  leaves  thai  burr 
or  roughness,  with  sharp  fragments, 
which  is  seen  at  the  bottom  of  all  glass 
vessels,  unless  taken  off  by  grinding 

Another  important  process  is  required 
before  the  glass  vessel  is  fit  for  use,  which 
is  that  of  annealing  or  cooling  very  gra- 
dually. All  glass  articles  require  anneal, 
ing  except  those  that  are  very  thin  and 


kind.  Without  this  precaution  the  glass 
remains  always  liable  to  fly  by  the  least 
change  of  heat  and  cold,  by  the  smallest 
scratch,  or  even  apparei^tly  without  any 
external  cause.'  The  precise  mechanical 
cause  of  this  disposition  to  crack  in  unan- 
nealed  glass  is  very  difficult  to  explain, 
but  generally  speaking  it  is  supposed  to 
be  the  forcible  contraction  of  the  outer 
part  by  sudden  cooling,  whilst  the  inner 
portion  is  still  soft  and  half-fluid,  so  that 
the  whole  fixes  with  a  permanent  strain  or 
inequality  of  pressure  of  one  pai'l  upon 
the  other ;  and  as  glass  is  extremely  elas- 
tic, though  brittle,  any  force  which  tears 
asunder  a  portion,  however  small,  of  the 
tense  part,  communicates  a  strong  and 
sudden  impulse  over  the  whole  mass. 
The  annealing  is  generally  performed  in 
a  hot  chamber  built  for  the  purpose  at  the 
top  of  the  glass-house  above  the  crucibles 
and  a  little  below  the  chimney  as  already 
mentioned.  The  heat  is  here  so  mode- 
rate as  not  to  soften  the  glass,  and  the  ar- 
ticles are  gradually  withdrawn  to  a  cool- 
er part  till  they  are  cold  enough  to  be  ta- 
ken out  for  use.  Common  articles  are 
generally  annealed  in  the  course  of  a  day. 
The  place  of  all  others  in  whicli  ill-anneal- 
ed glass  is  most  liable  to  break  is  at  any 
point  of  junction  where  two  pieces  are 
cemented  together  when  hot,  and  as  dif- 
ferent kintls  of  glass  contract  to  a  differ- 
ent extent,  two  dissimilar  pieces  of  glass 
should  not  be  joined  together. 

The  hard  glasses,  and  those  in  parti- 
cular made  only  with  alkali  and  earths  re- 
quire much  more  anneahng  than  the  soft- 
er and  more  fusible  glasses  into  which  li- 
tharge enters  largely. 

Tiie  extraoi  diiiary  fragility  of  unanneal- 
ed  glass  is  shown  in  a  very  striking  man- 
ner by  two  kinds  of  ex[)erimcnlal  toys 
made  for  the  purpose,  the  one  is  the  Bo- 
lof(na  phial,  as  it  is  usually  called,  and  the 
oilier    ilie    Jtuprrfs  drop      The    Bologna 


p  essed  against  it.      Tiie  globular  cup  is  :  phial  is  siniply  a  phial  of  any  form  what- 
tlius  extended  easily  into  a  cylindei',  or  j  ever,  made  of  any  kind  of  glass,  but  much 


GLA 


GLA 


'thicker  at  bottom  than  at  top,  and  cooled 
immediately  without  annealing.  These 
being  pretty  stout  fi-om  their  thickness 
will  bear  a  smart  blow  with  a  wooden 
mallet  or  any  blunt  instrument,  or  the 
concussion  of  a  leaden  bullet  dropped 
into  it  from  a  considerable  heic^Iit,  with- 
out injury;  but  if  anj'  sharp  body  however 
small,  such  as  a  large  grain  of  sand,  or 
better  a  shiver  of  a  gun-flint  be  dropped 
in  from  only  a  few  inches  height,  the  bot- 
tom cracks  all  round  just  above  the  thick- 
est part  and  drops  off.  TJie  same  efl^ect 
happens  if  the  bottom  be  slightly  scratch- 
ed with  any  hard  bpdy^  When  very  brit- 
tle, if  a  hard  angular  substance  such  as  a 
cut  diamond  be  di'opped  in,  it  sometimes 
will  pass  through  the  bottom,  though 
verj'  thick,  with  apparently  as  little  resist- 
ance as  tlirough  a  spider's  web.  These 
glasses,  when  they  have  received  the  first 
injury,  do  not  always  crack  immediatel}', 
but  remain  wiiole  sometimes  a  few  mi- 
nutes, sometimes  tor  hours,  and  tlien  sud- 
denly give  way- 

The  Rupert's  drop  is  simply  a  small 
solid  lump  of  green  bottle  glass  pom-ed 
when  red-hot  into  water,  and  therefore  is 
a  rounded  lump  gradually  extended  into 
a  kind  of  tail  nearly  capillary  at  the  ex- 
tremity. This  solid  lump  will  bear  very 
coividerable  violence  on  the  rounded  end 
without  injur)',  and  is  altogether  extreme- 
ly tough,  but  when  the  least  portion  of 
the  thin  end  is  broken  oflfj  the  whole 
btirsts  with  a  smart  snap,  instantly  crum- 
bles into  a  coimtless  number  cd" fragments 
as  small  as  fine  sand,  wliich  from  their 
very  minuteness  do  no  other  injury  to  the 
hand  holding  it,  than  a  slight  stinging 
from  the  sudden  concussion. 

This  most  singular  phenomenon  is  ob- 
viously owing  to  some  permanent  and 
very  strong  inequaUty  of  pressure,  for 
when  they  are  heated  so  red  as  to  be 
soft  and  merely  let  to  cool  of  thems'elves, 
this  property  of  bursting  is  entirely  lost, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  specifie  gravity 
of  the  dro^  is  encreased. 

The  pecidiar  brittleness  of  the  Bolog- 
na  phial  is  also  removed  by  again  heating 
and  cooling  slowly. 

A  defect  in  the  annealing  of  common 
window  glass  is  also  shown  when  cut  by 
the  diamond.  When  the  glass  is  well 
annealed  the  diamond  cuts  it  with  mode- 
rate ease,  making'  an  uniform  smooth  fur- 
row, at  first  cfark,  but  which  gradually 
opens  and  then  appears  as  a  bright  sil- 
ver thread;  but  when  the  glass  is  badly 
annealed,  the  diamond  works  with  much 
more  difficidty,  the  cut  opens  very  slow- 
ly, and  often  flies  into  a  different  direc- 
iion,  or  the  glass  entire!}'  breaks. 
VOL.    I. 


The  other  more  common  defects  of 
glass  are  a  liability  to  be  acted  on  by  cor- 
rosive liquors  (which  takes  place  when 
too  much  saline  flux  has  been  used)  and 
also  a  number  of  visible  imperfections, 
some  of  which  materially  injure  the 
soimdness  as  well  as  beaut}'  of  the  manu- 
factured articles.  The  chief  of  these  visi- 
We  defects  ai-e  strie,  threads,  tears,  and 
inots.  The  sirie  are  undulating  waves  in 
the  glass,  perfectly  transparent  and  vitri- 
fied, but  which  produce  much  strange 
distortion  when  used  for  windows  or  for 
optical  purposes.  This  defect  arises 
from  die  imperfect  mixture  of  the  mate- 
rials, and  the  great  difference  in  their 
specinc  gravities.  For  the  gravity  of 
glass  made  simply  witli  alkali  and  sand 
is  about  2'o  or  2'4,  that  of  alkali  and  cru- 
cible clay,  about  2'5;  that  of  alkali  and 
chalk  2'7  or  2'8;  whilst  tiie  vitiified  oxyd 
of  manganese  alone  weighs  3  2  and  the 
glass  of  lead  7-2  nearly.  Therefore  when 
these  are  altogether  melted  in  the  glass- 
pot,  if  they  are  not  thcn-oughly  mixed, 
they  are  in  the  case  of  liquors  of  unequal 
density,  in  contact  with  each  other,  and 
slightly  agitated,  so  as  to  shake  the  differ- 
ent materials  into  su'eaks  or  waves. 

The  defect  from  this  cause  is  seen  very 
strikingly  in  ordinary  prisms,  or  pieces  of 
solid  glass  of  a  certain  thickness,  whicl\ 
are  seldom  quite  uniform  in  density 
throughout.  For  very  nice  purposes  it  is 
often  of  use  when  small  moveable  cruci- 
bles are  used,  to  invert  them  when  the 
glass  is  melted  and  empty  the  contents, 
whereby  the  heavier  parts  become  mix- 
ed with  the  lighter  as  they  fall  through 
them. 

Threads  in  glass-making  are  those 
streaky  filaments  which  arise  fi'om  the  vi- 
trification of  the  clay.  They  are  general- 
ly green  and  often  render  ihe  glass  more 
liable  to  crack  at  these  parts. 

Another  and  one  of  the  worst  defects  is 
tears,  or  drops  of  vitrified  clay  falling 
doAvn  from  the  furnace  into  the  pots  and 
entangled  with  the  glass.  Articles  made 
of  glass  with  this  defect  are  always  very 
brittle,  and  genera  ly  break  of  themselves  . 
by  slight  changes  of  heat  and  cold.  This 
is  the  more  likely  to  happen  in  propor- 
tion as  the  tear  is  nearer  tl>e  surface. 

Glass  when  not  sufficiently  refined  by 
continuance  of  the  melting  heat  is  always 
Ml  of  small  bubbles.  This  fault  may 
also  happen  from  a  deficiency  of  flux 
vvhich  renders  the  glass  less  fusible,  and  . 
therefore  stiffer,  during  the  ordinaiy  time 
and  degreeof  heating,' so  that  the  bubbles 
cannot  easily  disengage  themselves. 
Hence  the  soft  fusible  glasses  with  much 
I  lead  are  mudi  less  liable  to  this  fault  thati 
3   F 


GLA 


GLA 


the  liard  green  bottle  glass  which  is  made  I  differs  essentially  from  the  last  in  con- 
only  of  alkali  and  earth.  j  taining  no  lead  nor  any  metallic  oxyd  ex 

Another  defect  is  inots,  which  arise  ei- 
ther from  a  portion  of  sand  that  has  es- 
caped vitiihcation  and  remains  entanj^lcd 
in  tlsi-  glass,  or  from  a  remaining cinantity 
of  glass-gall;  or  from  bits  of  ihe  crucible 
whr.h  may  be  accidvf  ilally  knocked  off  by 
the  iron  insti'umcnts  used  in  the  work- 
ing. 

Of  the  difftrent  kinds  of  Glass. — Though 
an  iiifiniie  vaiieiy  is  found  in  the  quahty 
and  cuniposiiion  of  dlfiercnt  giSisses, 
there  are  some  principal  kinds  made  for 
totally  distinct  purposes  which  may  be 
shortly  noticed.  ^ 

Tile  flint  I'lass  of  l^ondon  and  other 
parts  of  Kngland  (called  by  foi-cigners 
crystal)  is  that  beautiful,  soft,  brilliant, 
fine  glass  of  which  both  llie  common  and 
finest  articles  of  white  glass  in  domestic 
or  ornamental  use  are  maiuifacUiied. 
Many  optical  instruments  are  also  made 
of  the  same  material.  It  is  particularly 
distinguished  for  the  quantity  of  litharge 
which  enters  into  its  composition,  on 
which  accoimt'it  is  by  far  the  heaviest, 
the  most  brilliant,  the  softest,  and  the 
easiest  to  work,  and  also  the  most  expen- 
sive. 

The  precise  proportions  of  ingredients 
are  not  usually  known,  but  the  following 
is  said  to  make  an  article  of  the  best  cjua- 
lity,  namely;  120  ])arts  of  fine  clean  white 
sand,  40  of  pearlash  well  purified,  3.5  of  li- 
tharge or  else  minium,  13  of  nitre,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  black  oxyd  of  manga- 
nese. The  distinct  use  of  these  ingre- 
dients has  been  already  explained.  Very 
different  proportions  will  also  produce  a 
fine  glass  of  similar  qualivy.  and  in  parti- 
cular, the  quantity  of  lead  may  be  much 
encreased  whicii  naturally  gives  a  yellow 
tinge  but  which  the  manganese  counter- 
acts. Tlie  foUowing  comijosilion  fiir  a 
fine  crystal  glass  is  given  by  Loysel:  100 
pounds  of  white  sand,  80  to,  85  of  red 
oxyd  of  lead,  35  to  40  of  pearlash,  2  to  3  f>|f 
nitre  ;  and  one  ounce  of  manganese.  'I'lie 
specific  gravity  of  this  glass  and  of  the 
common  London  Hint  glass  is  about  3  2 

'I'he  oxyd  of  lead  is  so  abundant  in 
this  glass  that  it  may  be  partially  re- 
duced in  a  very  curious  manner.  If  a 
tube  of  it  be  made  led-liot  and  hydrogen 
gas  passed  tiu-ough,  the  whole  inner  sur- 
face becomes  covered  with  a  half-brilli- 
ant black  coating  owing  to  the  reduced 
■  lead,  and  moisture  appears  at  the  further 
end.  This  was  discovered  by  Dr 
Priestley. 

Crown-glass  is  the  name  given  to  the 
best  sort  of  window  glass,  the  composi- 
;  'II  of  wliicli.  varies  considerably,   but  it 


cept  manganese  and  sometimes  oxyd  of 
cobalt  in  minute  doses,  for  the  sole  pur. 
pose  of  correcting  the  natural  colour  and 
not  as  a  flux.  This  kind  of  glass  there- 
fore is  much  harder  and  harsher  to  tlie 
touch  than  the  flint  glass,  but  when  well 
made  is  a  very  beautiful  and  perfect  arti- 
cle. The  comi)osition  is  sand,  alkali,  ei- 
ther potash  or  soda,  tlie  vegetable  ashes 
that  contain  the  alkali,  and  generally  a 
small  portion  of  lime-  A  small  dose  of 
arsenic  is  often  added  to  facilitate  the  fu- 
sion. Zaftic  or  tjie  oxyd  of  cobalt  with 
ground  Hint  is  often  used  to  correct  the 
dingy  yellow  which  the  inferior  kind  of 
crown-glass  naturally  acquires,  and  by 
adding  the  blue,  natural  to  glass  colour- 
ed with  the  oxyd,  to  convert  the  whole 
into  a  soft  light  green.  The  green  huQ 
thus  given  is  very  slight  and  not  disagree- 
able to  the  eye,  and  is  hardly  perceived 
unless  the  light  pass  through  a  great 
thickness  of  glass,  as  happens  when  a 
piece  is  held  tip  edgeways.  'I'he  quanti- 
ty of  zaf^re  necessary  for  this  effect  is  ex- 
tremely small,  one  ounce  being  sufficient 
for  lUOO  pounds,  so  that  it  is  only  jg^fo^ 
of  the  whole.  It  need  hardly  be  added 
that  when  the  sand,  alkali,  and  lime,  are 
very  fine,  and  only  these  ingredients  are 
used,  no  zaflre  or  corrective  of  bad  co- 
lour is  retpiireel.  A  great  quantity  of 
ii'agments  uud  refuse  pieces  of  glass  is 
always  collected  during  the  working,  and 
these  are  added  again  to  the  next  tus.on, 
bin  as  glass  always  loses  alkali  by  the 
long  continuance  of  fire  and  becomes 
thereby  harsher  and  less  fusible,  too 
great  a  portion  of  these  refuse  bit;,  (which 
of  course  uiidergo  twice  as  long  a  fusion 
as  the  raw  materials)  will  very  sensibly 
alter  the  quality  of  the  glass.  As  how- 
ever they  consist  of  glass  already  reiined, 
the  pot  which  contains  much  of  them  is 
much  sooner  brought  to  a  working  state, 
as  it  contains  less  glass-gall  ^id  impuri- 
ties. These  fragments  of  glass  are  re- 
duced to  gross  ])owder  by  being  heated 
red-hot,  and  immediately  j)hmged  into 
cold  water,  which  sjilits  them  in  every 
direction  and  enables  them  to  be  readily 
broken  down.  They  .should  not  consti- 
tute much  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole 
composition.  A  very  fine  glass  of  tliis 
kind  may  be  made  !))■  20U  parts  of  pretty 
good  soda,  300  of  fine  sand,  33  of  lime, 
and  from  230  to  300  of  the  ground  frag- 
ments of  glass. 

The  manufacture  of  the  common  win- 
dow glass  though  made  by  blowing,  is 
carried  on  in  a  considerably  diflerent  man- 
ner from  that  of  tlie  common  flint-glass  ar- 


GLA 


GLA 


tjcles,  as  the  object  is  to  produce  a  large 
flat  very  thin  plate  of  glass,  which  is  af- 
terwards cut  by  the  glaziers'  diamond 
into  the  i-equisite  sliape-  The  steps  of 
the  process  could  not  be  understood  by 
mere  description,  but  it  may  just  be  men- 
tioned, that  the  workman  first  takes  a  very 
large  mass  of  glass  on  the  hollow  iron 
rod,  and  bj  rolhng  it  on  an  iron  plate  and 
swinging  it  back\\'ards  and  forwards 
causes  it  to  lengtlien  by  its  own  weight 
into  a  cylinder,  which  is  then  made  hol- 
low by  blowing  with  a  force  of  breath 
which  only  those  that  are  used  to  the  busi- 
ness can  com.mand,  and  is  brought  out 
to  the  requisite  thinness.  The  hollow 
cylinder  is  then  opened  by  holding  it  to 
the  fire,  which  by  expanding  the  air  con- 
fined within  it  (the  hole  of  the  iron  I'od 
being  stopped)  bursts  it  at  the  weakest 
part,  and  when  still  soft  it  is  ripped  up 
through  its  whole  length  by  iron  shears, 
opened  out  into  a  flat  plate,  and  finished 
by  annealing  as  usual. 

Common  green  bottle  glass  is  another 
kind,  which  indeed  is  by  no  means  uni- 
form in  its  composition,  but  is  made  al- 
most entipely  of  sand,  lime,  and  sometimes 
clay,  and  alkaline  ashes  of  any  Isind  ac- 
cording as  cheapness  or  convenience  di- 
rect, and  more  especially  of  kelp  in  this 
country,  of  barilla,  varec  and  the  other 
varieties  of  soda  in  France,  and  of  wood- 
ashes  in  many  parts  of  Germany  and  the' 
like.  To  this  too  is  sometimes  added  even 
the  earth  remaining  from  saline  ashes,  af- 
ter the  alkali  and  salts  have  been  ex- 
tracted by  lixiviation,  and  in  England  flags 
from  the  iron  furnaces.  This  refuse  mat- 
ter is  still  a  flux  of  some  power  when  in 
mixture  with  other  earths,  and  it  still  re- 
tains a  small  quantity  of  salts  which  are 
not  totally  extracted.  Bottle  glass  is  a 
very  hard  well- vitrified  glass,  not  very 
heavy  relatively  to  its  bulk  and  being  fused 
at  a  very  high  heat,  and  from  the  impuri- 
ty of  the  alkali  and  the  abundance  of 
earthy  flux,  containing  but  a  small  pro- 
portion of  real  saline  matter,  it  resists  the 
corrosive  action  of  all  liquids  much  better 
than  flint-glass.  Besides  being  used  for 
wine  bottles  it  is  much  employed  for  very 
large  retorts,  subliming  vessels,  and  other 
processes  of  chemical  manufacture,  and 
here  too  is  has  the  additional  advantage 
of  bearing  as  mtich  as  a  pretty  full  red 
heat  without  melting  or  sinking  down  into 
a  shapeless  lump  as  the  lead  glasses  would 
do.  The  following  composition  is  given 
by  Loysel  as  a  good  and  cheap  material 
for  bottle  glass,  100  p..rts  common  sand, 
30  of  varec  (a  kind  of  coarse  kelp  made 
on  the  western  coasts  of  France,)  160  of 
the  lixiviated  eai'^h  of  ashes,  30  of  fresh 


wood-ashes  or  any  other  kiiid  of  ashes,  SO 
'of  brick-clay,  and  any  quantity,  generally 
about  3  00,  of  broken  glass.  This  com- 
position gives  no  glass-gall. 

A  good  bottle  glass,  but  nearly  black 
and  opake,  has  been  made  in  France  of 
another  material  which  probably  may  be 
applied  in  many  countries  advantageou.sly: 
it  is  the  decomposed  pulverulent  basal- 
lie  earth  found  in  the  vallies  of  all  basal- 
tic countries-  In  France  it  r.boundi  in 
the  Vivarais.in  Languedocand  Auvergne. 
The  first  glass  of  this  kind  appeals  to 
Rave  been  made  in  l780,by  a  M-  Ducros, 
at  tiie  suggi-stion  of  Chaptal,  who  simply 
melted  some  of  this  basalt  without  addi- 
tion in  a  glass-pot,  and  formed  of  it  two 
vei-y  light,  black,  or  rather  deep  yehow, 
shinjjig,  perfect  bottles.  In  subsequent 
trials  by  another  artist  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  basalt  and  sand  was  employed, 
as  being*  preferable  to  the  basalt  alone, 
and  for  awhile  there  was  a  very  consider- 
able demand  for  bottles  of  this  material, 
but  the  manufactiu'c  was  abandoned  ow- 
ing to  the  want  of  uniformity  in  the  ingre- 
dients, which  made  them  often  fail.  The 
glass  produced  hereby  was  of  a  green 
olive. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  also  -to 
give  the  results  of  some  experiments  of 
M.  Alliot  on  different  mixtures  of  this 
basaltic  earth.  Seven  crucibles  filled  with 
different  mixtures  were  heated  for  eight- 
een hours  in  a  common  potter's  furnace 
(a  glass-house  not  being  at  command,) 
which  however  gives  a  less  intense  heat 
than  the  glass  furnaces,  and  therefore  if 
used  in  manufacture  a  greater  effect 
might  be  allowed  than  was  here  noticed. 
The  results  were  the  following  : 

No.  1.  contained  the  pure  basaltic 
earth,  and  melted  into  a  black,  opake 
glass,  moderately  well  melted. 

JS'o.  2.  was  a  mixture  of  one-third  ba- 
salt, one-third  of  ashes,  and  one-third  of 
white  quartz  in  powder.  It  ■was  a  mil- 
ky, brilliant,  cofl'ee-coloured  glass  re- 
sembling fine  porcelain. 

No.  3.  was  a  mixture,  in  equal  .parts, 
of  basalt  and  common  sand.  It  was  mo- 
derately well  melted,  of  a  blackish-blue 
in  mass,  but  in  thin  laminae  was  of  a  yel- 
low-g^een. 

No.  4.  was  a  mixture,  in  equal  parts, 
of  ashes  and  a  volcanic  granite.  It  melt- 
ed well,  gave  a  very  fine  dark  yellow 
glass,  of  great  lustre,  and  would  have 
been  verj  proper  for  bottles. 

No.  5.  contained  one-nineteenth  of  or- 
dinary soda,  six-nineteenths  of  common 
sand,  and  twelve-nineteenths  of  ashes, 
and  gave  a  yellow-black  glass  interspersed 
with  opake  blueish  white  veins. 


GLA 


GIA 


No.  6.  consisted  of  one-third  basalt, 
ont-tliird  of  refuse  soda,  and  one-third  of* 
sand.  It  gave  a  fine  transparent  green- 
yellow  glass,  very  well  melted,  of  a  tine 
polish,  and  which  would  have  been  ex- 
cellent f()i"  bottles. 

No.  7.  was  simply  the  sand  of  tlie  river 
Orb  in  the  neigh bourliood,  which  ap- 
peared by  inspection  to  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  basaltic  earth.  It  melted 
Weil  and  gavie  a  very  good  bottle  glass. 

The  analysis  of  basalt  shews  that  it  is 
very  well  filled  both  for  fusion /ler  *f ,  and 
to  act  as  a  flux  of  considerable  power, 
for  (as  mentioned  under  that  article)  it 
consists  of  about  45  ])er  cent.. of  silex,  l6 
of  ahimine,  from  16  to  20  of  oxyd  of 
iron,  9  of  lime,  and  from  2.6  to  4.  of  pure 
soda,  of  which  the  three  lust  are  all -very 
powerful  fluxes.  Many  other  minerals 
contain  even  more  soda,  such,  as  the 
Klingstein,  wliich  contains  about  8  per 
cent,  of  this  alkali,  but  having  much  less 
lime  and  oxyd  of  iron  it  is  much  less  fu- 
sible. The  colour  of  all  the  glasses  into 
which  basalt  enters  largely  as  a  consti- 
tuent is  generally  of  a  deep  olive  green 
passing  to  dee|)  yellow,  and  in  mass  al- 
most yellow,  nor  is  it  probable  that  this 
colour  could  be  materially  corrected. 
The  glass  is  wel^  ascertained  to  be  sjje- 
eifically  lighter  than  common  green  bottle 
glass  but  at  the  same  time  tougher,  so 
as  to  bear  harder  blows  without  breaking, 
two  very  important  advantages,  and  the 
quantity  of  alkali  contained  and  that  re- 
quired to  bring  the  whole  to  a  workable 
state  is  so  small  as  probably  to  enable  this 
glass  to  resist  all  corrosive  liquors^  at 
least  as  well  as  any  other  known  kind  of 
glass. 

Plate  glass  is  that  most  beautiful  and 
perfect  glass  of  whicli  all  ,the  kinds  of 
mirrors  and  looking-glasses  are  compos- 
ed, and  of  which  the  larger  articles  are 
wrougiit,  not  by  blowing  as  every  other 
glass  article  is,  but  by  casting  the  melted 
glass  on  a  flat  table. 

The  Venetians  were  long  in  the  sole 
possession  of  tlie  art  of  making  mirror- 
glass,  hut  by  them  it  was  only  manufac- 
tured by  blowing,  nearly  in  the  way  de- 
scribed under  crown  or  window  glass, 
and  much  of  the  common  mii-ror  g^ass  is 
still  prepared  in  this  way. 

In  1665  under  the  ministry  of  the  great 
Colbert  a  com'pany  for  blovm-mirror  glass 
v/as  first  establislicd  near  Cherbourg  in 
Normandy,  on  the  ])lan  of  the  Venetian 
manufacture,  but  the  beautiful  art  of 
casting  glass  was  invented  in  France 
aboin  1688,  by  one  Abraham  Thevart, 
and  a  company  was  soon  established  tor 
*his  branch  of  manulhcture  wliich  was 


first  carried  on  at  Paris,  and  soon  after 
removed  to  St.  Gobin,  where  it  still  exists 
in  full  activity,  and  undiminished  re- 
putation. 

The  plate-glass  cannot  be  made  by 
blowing  of  the  larger  siie  than  about 
fifty  inches  to  be  perfect,  but  by  the  in- 
genious substitution  of  casting  it  may  be 
made  so  large  and  at  the  same  time  so 
perfect,  tliat  scarcely  any  other  limits  can 
be  set  to  the  possible  size  of  these  plates 
than  ilic  heavy  expence  of  the  manufac- 
ture, in  all  its  parts.  As  large  plates  as  ^jj 
nine  feet  long,  and  wide  in  proportion,  ^As,, 
ha^e  been  manutiictured.  * 

As  this  art  of  casting  glass  requires 
more  care  in  the  choice  of  materials  and 
nicety  in  the  processes  of  manufacture 
than  most  other  branches  of  glass-mak- 
ing, some  niore  detailed  account  may  be 
given  of  it  as  can'ied  on  in  France,  as  far 
as  it  can  be  understood  without  reference 
to  plates. 

The  materials  of  tlie  finest  plate  glass 
are  white  sand,  soda,  and  lime,  to  which 
are  added  manganese  and  zaffi-e,  or  any 
other  oxyd  of  cobalt  lin- particular  colour- 
ing purposes,  which  will  be  presently  de- 
described.  The  sand  is  of  the  finest  and 
whitest  kind,  and  is  previously  passed 
through  a  wire  sieve  of  moderate  close- 
ness into  water  where  it  is  well  stirred 
about  and  washed  till  all  dirt  and  impuri- 
ty is  got  rid  of  The  sharpest  grained 
sand  is  preferred,  and  indeed  it  is  found 
that  the  grains  of  moderate  size  melt 
with  the  alkali  sooner  than  either  the 
very  fine  dust  or  the  larger  fragments,  in 
the  former  case  the  sand  clotting  together 
without  mixing  freely  with  the  alkali,  and 
in  the  Litter  the  grains  taking  a  longer 
time  to  dissolve  on  account  of  their  hulk. 
The  alkali  used  Jiere  is  always  soda,  and 
there  seems  good  reason  to  prefer  this  to 
potash,  as  glasses  made  with  soda  are 
found  to  be  softer  and  to  flow  tliimier 
when  hot,  and  yet  to  be  equally  durable 
when  cold,  and  in  casting  a  large  plate,  of 
which  the  perfection  is  to  be  without 
streak  or  bubble,  it  is  ob\ious  of  how  much 
importance  it  must  be  to  have  it  flow  ex- 
tremely li(|uid  trom  the  pot.  Besides, 
the  neutral  salts  with  the  basis  of  soda 
wliicli  constitute  th^  glass-gall  in  this  in- 
stance, such  as  the  muriat  and  sulphat  of 
soda,  appear  to  be  dissipated  more  readi- 
ly by  the  fire  than  the  corresponding  salts 
of  potash.  The  soda  used  here  is  consi- 
derably pure,  or  such  as  is  separated 
from  the  rough  ashes  of  barilla,  and  other 
soda  plants  b\  lixiviation. 

Lime  is  of  considerable  use  here  and 
adds  much  to  the  fusibility  of  the  other 
materials,  supplying  in  this  respect  the 


GLA 


GLA 


use  of  litharge  in  the  flint-glass.  Too 
much  lime  liowever  impairs  the  colour 
and  solidity  of  the  glass.  About  one  lif- 
teentli  of  Uie  whole  is  as  much  lime  as 
can  be  used  with  propriety,  and  some 
use  as  little  as  one  twenty -fourth. 

The  colouring  or  rather  decolouring 
substances  used  are  azure,  or  cobalt  blue, 
and  manganese.  The  latter  is  liere  in 
the  state  in  which  its  effect  is  that  of  giv- 
ing a  slight  red  tinge,  which  mixes  with 
the  blue  of  the  cobalt  and  the  natural 
slight  jellow  of  the  other  materials,  and 
altogether  are  found,  when  properly  pro- 
portioned, to  neutralize  each  other  so  that 
scarcely  any  definable  tint  remains. 

Besides  these  ingredients  there  is  al- 
ways a  great  quantity  of  fi-agments  of 
glass  arising  from  what  is  split  in  the  cast- 
ing and  the  ends  cut  off  in  shaping  t.he 
plates,  which  are  made  friable  by  quench- 
ing in  water  when  hot  and  used  in  this 
state  along  with  the  fresh  materials. 

With  regard  to  the  proportions  of  the 
ingredients  very  considerable  latitude 
may  be  allowed.  The  quantity  of  soda  is 
a  good  deal  more  than  necessary  merely 
to  produce  a  good  glass,  as  one  of  great 
fusibility  ia#  required.  The  following 
proportions  are  found  to  produce  a  very 
fine  glass :  300  lbs.  of  sand;  200  lbs.  of 
soda;  oOlbs.oflime;  52  ounces  of  manga- 
nese; 3  ounces  of  azure;  and^oOO  lbs.  of 
fi-agments  of  glass. 

It  does  not  appear  whether  or  not  any 
other  fluxes  are  used,  though  there 
seems  to  be  some  secrecy  observed  in 
this  respect  at  the  masiufactory  of  St.  Go- 
bin  It  is  constantly  asserted  and  with 
much  probability,  tliat  borax  is  also  used 
in  small  quantity.  This  is  in  itself  highly 
probable,  as  the  very  thin  watery  fusion 
which  this  flux  gives  to  vitrifting  matters 
seems  peculiarly  wanted  in  glass  intend- 
ed to  be  cast,  and  probably  this  addition 
would  enable  the  manufacturer  to  use  pot- 
ash with  as  much  advantage  as  soda 
where  it  happened  to  be  cheaper. 

Of  the  above  materials  the  sand,  soda, 
lime  and  manganese  are  first  mixed  ioge- 
*  iher  with  more  care  than  for  ordinarv 
glass,  and  are  fritted  in  small  furnaces 
built  for  this  express  purpose,  the  heat 
being  gradually  raised  to  a  full  red-white, 
and  kept  at  this  point  with  frequent  stir- 
ring till  the  materials  undergo  no  further 
change,  nor  give  any  kind  of  vapour. 
The  aziu'e  and  the  glass  fragments  being 
already  perfectly  vitrified  are  not  added 
till  just  at  the  end  of  the  process,  which 
lasts  about  six  hours 

The  glass-house  for  this  manufacture 
differs  in  several  particulars  from  the 
common  houses  for  blowing  glass.    The 


furnace  at  St.  Gobin  is  about  18  feet  long 
and  li  wide,  made  of  good  bricks.  They 
are  particularly  distinguished  from  the 
common  furnaces  b\- containing  two  kinds 
of  crucibles,  the'  larger  ones  called /»of* 
are  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  and  trun- 
cated cone,  and  in  lliese  tJie  glass  is  melt- 
ed. The  other  set  of  crucibles  are  small- 
er ones  called  cwetttes,  the  capacity  of 
which  is  not  more  than  a  sixth,  or  where 
very  large  pUites  are  cast,  a  thi:d,  of  the 
pots,  and  are  kept  in  the  furnace  empty, 
but  quite  hot,  till  the  glass  is  ready  for 
casting,  when  {hey  are  filled  out  of  the 
furnace  on  an  iron  cradle  to  the  heated 
table  or  bed  on  which  the  glass  is  cast. 
Both  tlie  pots  and  the  cuvettes  are  of  the 
same  material,  of  good  refi-actory  claj'. 
Another  essential  part  of  this  fmnace  is 
the  flat  table  (of  which  there  is  one  cor- 
responding with  each  pot)  on  which  the 
glass  is  cast.  These  tables  are  of  smooth 
tliick  copper  plate,  about  ten  feet  by  six, 
strongly  supported  by  masonry;  and  con- 
tiguous to  each  t:ible  on  tl;e  same  level 
are  flat  ovens,  heated  from  underneath, 
upon  which  the  glass  when  cast  and  suffi- 
ciently cooled,  may  be  slid  without  difii. 
culty  from  oft"  the  copper  table  and  there 
annealed.  The  tops  of  the  flat  ovens  and 
the  tables  are  on  a  level  with  the  corres- 
ponding opening  of  the  fln-nace  whence 
the  cuvettes  are  withdrawn.  The  fuel 
used  is  wood,  and  the  kind  which  makes 
the  largest  and  brightest  flame,  but  with- 
out giving  much  resinous  smoke  is  pre- 
ferred. It  requu'es  about  thirty-six  hours 
of  sti-ong  heat  from  the  time  of  filling  the 
pots  till  tlie  glass  is  fit  for  casting. 

The  process  of  filling  die  pots  and  the 
appearances  that  take  place  in  tlie  melting 
materials,  the  rising  of  the  glass-gall,  re- 
fining, &c,  need  not  be  described,  being 
the  same  as  in  other  glass-making. 

When  the  glass  is  thoroughly  melted 
and  fine,  the  proceedings  are  in  a  general 
waj-  as  follows :  the  cuvette  (which  has. 
been  pvevi'iusly  emptied  of  all  the  loose 
glass  and  foulness  which  may  have  ad- 
hered to  it  and  again  made  quite  hot  in 
its  place  .in  the  furnace)  is  filled  in  the 
following  way;  the  workman  takes  a  cop- 
per ladle  about  ten  inches  in  diameter 
and  fixed  to  an  iron  handle  seven  feet 
long,  plunges  it  into  the  glass  pot  (the 
contents  of  wiiich  have  been  previously 
scummed  carefully)  brings  it  up  full  of 
the  melted  glass,  and  empties  it  into  tlie 
cuvette,  the  ladle  being  supported  at  the 
bottom  by  a  strong  iron  rest,  held  by  two 
other  workmen,  lest  the  red-hot  copper 
should  bend  and  give  way  with  the  weight 
of  the  glass  witliin.  The  cuvette  being 
filled  by  repealed  lading  is  then  suflered 


GLA 


GLA 


vo  remain  in  the  furnace  for  some  hours, 
ihat  the  bubbles  formed  by  this  c\istvirb- 
ance  of  the  glass  may  liave  entirely  disui)- 
peaied,  and  the  samples  taki  n  out  fioni 
time  to  time  become  quite  clear  and  lim- 
])id  The  door  of  the  furnace  is  now 
opened,  the  cuvette  is  shd  out  and" pulled 
upon  a  low  iron  cradle  and  immediately 
drawn  on  to  the  side  of  the  copper  table, 
previously  heated  \1\-  hot  ;ishes  and  wijicd 
quite  clean.  The  cuvette  full  of  the  melt- 
ed glass  is  then  carefully  scummed  by  a 
broad  sabre,  or  cf)])per  blade  set  in  iron, 
Avhich  carries  off  witii  it  every  impurity 
at  the  surface.  The  reason  of  using-  cop- 
per for  this  as  for  the  ladle  and  casting- 
table  is  tliat  it  does  not  discolour  the  hot 
glass  as  iron  does.  The  cuvette  is  then 
hoisted  up  by  a  tackle  and  iron  chains, 
and  overset  'upon  the  copper  table,  on 
which  a  thick  flood  of  melted  glass  Hows 
and  spreads  in  every  direction  to  an  equal 
thickness.  It  is  then  made  quite  smooth 
and  uniform  at  the  surface,  by  passing 
over  it  while  still  quite  hot  a  heavy  hol- 
low roller  or  cyhnder  of  copper  made 
true  and  smooth"by  turning  after  it  is  cast, 
and  weighing  about  500  lbs.  Atthe  same 
time  the  empty  cuvette  is  returned  by  the 
ii-on  cradle  to' its  proper  place  within  the 
furnace.  The  edges  of  the  copi)er  table 
overhang  a  reservoir  of  water  into  which 
the  waste  glass  falls  in  drops,  and  is  used 
for  the  next  melting.  The  number  of 
workmen  required  for  the  whole  process 
of  casting  is  at  least  twenty,  each  of  winch 
has  his  scixu-ate  employment. 

The  plate  being  cast,  the  inspector  ex- 
amines whether  there  are  any  bubbles  on 
any  part  of  the  surface,  and  if  found,  the 
plate  is  immediately  cut  up  througii  tliem. 
The  plate  being  now  so  far  cool  as  to  be 
stiffened  is  slid  by  an  ir(m  instrument 
from  the  casting  table  to  the  contiguous 
annealing  oven,  previously  well  heated, 
and  is  carefully  taken  up  and  ratiged  pro- 
perly with'n  it.  Ivich  oven  will  contain 
six  entire  plates,  and  when  full,  all  the 
openings  are  stopped  with  clay  and  the 
])lates  allowed  to  remain  there  f(jr  a  fort- 
night, to  be  thoroughly  anncided. 

'when  fit  to  be  taken  out  of  the  anneal- 
ing oven,  they  are  sent  away  to  receive  all 
the  subsecpient  operations  of  polishing, 
silvering.  Sec.  but  iirst  their  edges  iu-e  cut 
smooth  and  squared.  This  is  done  by  a 
j-ough  diamond  which  is  passed  along  the 
surface  of  the  glass  upon  a  square  ruler 
in  the  manner  of  glazieis,  and  made  to  cut 
into  the  substance  of  the  glass  to  a  cer- 
tain depth.  The  cut  is  then  opened  by 
gently  knocking  with  a  small  hammer  on 
the  under  side  of  the  glass  just  beneath, 
and  tlie  piece  comes  ofl",;ind  the  rough- 


4 


nesses  of  the  edges  are  removed  by  pin- 
cers. The  plate  is  ihen  finished  as  far 
as  the  glass-house  business  is  concerned, 
and  is  caiefully  removed  to  the  ware- 
bouse. 

The  subsequent  operations  of  polishing 
and  silvering,  may  here  be  added  in  a  few 
words.  'J'he  plate  is  first  exactly  squared 
in'  the  diamond  in  the  way  mentioned 
above,  and  minutely  examined  as  to  any 
flaws  or  faults,  which  may  be  ft>und.  The 
next  step  is  to  grind  ofl'allthe  inequalities 
and  roughnesses  of  surface  previous  to  the 
polishing.  Tl>is  is  done  on  both  sides  by 
sand  and  water.  For  this  the  plate  is  laid 
on  a  thin  plate  of  fiee-stone,  or  on  a  long- 
wooden  frame,  of  about  the  same  si2.e  Mith 
it,  and  cemented  strongly  thereto  by  Pa- 
ris plaster.  Another  plate  is  also  cement- 
ed in  the  same  manner,  and  laid  upon  tht; 
lower  |}late,  and  wet  sand  is  interspersed 
between  the  two.  The  plates  are  then 
made  to  rub  against  each  other  steadily 
and  evenly , by  a  kind  of  hand  mill,  the  wheel 
of  which  is  worked  by  a  man,  or  some- 
times in  large  plates  by  two  men,  who  can 
regulate  the  pressure  of  ore  on  the  other 
as  it  may  be  judged  proper.  In  jn-opor. 
tion  as  the  sui-faces  of  th^plates  wear 
down,  the  sand  is  used  successively  finer, 
being  previously  sifted  and  sorted  for  the 
purjiose.  In  general,,  the  workmen  avoid 
rubbing  two  absolutely  rough  surfaces  on 
the  other,  For  fear  that  the  great  jarring 
of  the  friction  should  produce  shakes  anil 
(laws  in  the  glass,  but  a  half  ground  plate 
is  rubbed  on  a  liesh  surface  and  so  on 
successively. 

When  one  side  of  the  plate  is  done,  the 
plaster  which  cemented  it  is  picked  oft*, 
the  jdate  turned,  and  the  opposite  side 
ground  in  the  same  manner.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  grinding,  the  press»n-e  is 
encreased  by  loading  the  upper  plates 
with  flat  stones  of  different  thicknesses. 
This  process  lasts  ab.-uit  thi  ee  days,  and 
great  attention  is  ]:taid  to  finish  them  with 
surfaces,  perfectly  flat  and  parallel,  which 
is  determined  by  the  ruler  and  plumb- 
line.  The  groun<l  surfaces  are  now  uni- 
formly worn  by  millions  of  scratches,  and  •  . 
therefore  nearly  opake,  imless  held  up  to  1 
the  light,  but  still  very  far  from  having  the 
requisite  fineness  to  receive  the  polish. 
This  further  grinding  is  done  by  emery  of ' 
difier(-nt  degrees  of  fineness,  the  prepara- 
tion and  sorting  of  which  is  done  in  the 
following  very  simple  manner.  A  large 
quantity  of  rough  emery  is  put  into  a  ves- 
sel with  water,  and  strongly  stirred  about 
till  the  whole  is  mixed,  liut,  as  emery  is 
absolutely  insoluble  in  water,  the  whole 
will  again  be  deposited  in  successive  lay- 
ers, the  coai-scst  particles  sinking  iirst. 


CLA 


GLA 


»Tid  the  others  afterwards  in  the  inverse 
degree  of  their  fineness.  By  standinir 
about  twenty  minutes,  and  then  pourinjj 
off  the  supernatant  liquor,  the  latter  holds 
suspended  only  the  very  finest  particles 
which  ag-ain  separate  by  rest  for  a  longer 
time.  More  water  is  then  added  to  the 
vessel,  the  emery  stirred  again,  and  now 
allowed  to  rem.iin  at  rest  only  for  fifteen 
minutes,  and  the  supernatant  turbid  li- 
quor ag.iin  poured  off.  This  furnishes,  by 
rest,  an  emery  of  the  second  degree  oi 
fineness  Tlie  same  is  repeated  twice 
more  at  the  different  times  of  about  live 
minates  and  half  a  minute,  by  which  two 
other  sorts  are  obtained.  The  wet  emery 
from  all  these  liquors  is  separately  heat 
ed  over  a  stove,  to  evaporate  the  water, 
and  when  nearly  drj-  is  made  up  into  balls, 
in  wiiich  state  it* is  distributed  to  the 
workmen. 

The  plates  are  then  further  ground  on 
both  sides,  with  two  or  three  emerys,  be- 
ginning with  the  coarsest,  and  are  finish- 
ed with  great  care.  They  are  now  per- 
fectly even,  with  a  deadening  or  opacity 
on  their  surface,  but  so  fine,  that  no 
scratches  can  be  perceived.  In  this  state 
they  are  again  examined,  and  if  anv  mate- 
rial defects  still  remain  below  the  ground 
sui-face,  they  are  cut  up  with  the  diamond 
into  smaller  plates,  with  the  greatest  eco- 
nomy possible,  the  diamond  now  dividing 
them  with  much  greater  ease  than  before, 
both  on  account  of  tiic  quantity  of  sub- 
stance of  glass  removed,  snd  tiie  unitbr- 
mity  of  the  surface. 

The  next  process  is  that  of  polishing 
both  surfaces  to  that  perfect  brigj>t«ess 
which  is  seen  in  finished  mirrors,  so  that 
the  rays  of  liglit  may  pass  through  unim- 
paired to  the  silvering  on  the  posterior 
siu-face,  and  be  reflected  again  from 
thence,  according  to  the  laws  of  catop- 
trics. The  substance  used  to  give  this 
last  polish,  is  colcothar,  imported  from 
England,  and  called  rouge  cT.lngleterre 
or  P<,tee.  It  is  the  residue  left  in  the  re- 
torts of  the  aqua-fortis  makers,  and  when 
well  washed  and  levigated,  consists  of  lit- 
tle else  than  a  red  and  perfect  oxyd  of  iron. 

The  polishing  instrument  is  a  block  of 
v.-ood,  covered  with  several  folds  of  black 
cloth,  with  carded  wool  between  each 
fold,  so  as  to  make  a  firm  elastic  cushion 
This  block  has  a  handle  for  the  workman 
to  Jiold;  for  the  whole  of  this  part  is  done 
by  hand,  and  not  by  machinery,  as  the 
latter  would  work  too  uniformly,  and  not 
allow  of  that  variation  of  pressure,  and 
those  fini^iing  touches,  which  are  requir- 
ed to  bring  every  part  of  the  glass  to  ex- 
actly the  same  height  of  polish.  But  to 
encrease  tlie  pressure   of  the   polisher 


without  Gitiguing  the  workman,  the  han- 
dle is  lengthened  by  a   wooden  spring, 
bent  to  a  bow,  and  tliree  or  four  feet  long, 
which  at  the  other  extremit),  rests  against 
a  fixed  point,  in   a  beam  placed  above. 
The  plate  being  fixed   on  tht  table  by 
plaster,  he   then   moistens   the  polisher 
with  a  wet  brush,  covers  it  with  colcothar, 
and  begins  his  operation  bv  v.orking  it 
backwards  and  for«  ardi|ovcr  the  sui-face 
of  tl^e  plate.     Much    practical   skill  and 
dexterity  is  required,  to  give  an  uniform 
and  high  deg»ee  of  polish,  over  the  sur- 
face of  a  large  plate,  as  it  must  be  done 
by  separate  portions,  and  tlie  finishing 
touches  giten  with  great  care.    The  glas- 
ses of  iT^^rate  size,  are  compkated  in 
four  portions,  from  corner  tO  corner,  the 
centers  of  which  intermingle  so  as  to  leave 
no  part  untouched,  bilt  the  laiger  glasses 
require  additional  polisiiing  in  the  center. 
AVhen  one  side  is  com'pleted  and  the  re- 
verse is  about  to  be  done,  the  polished 
side,  now  the  undermost,  is  entu-ely  cov- 
ered w  iih  the  red  colcothar,  to  prevent 
the  dazzle  reflected  from  the  white  plas- 
ter, which  would  prevent  the^  workman 
from  judging  so  accurately  of  the  state  of 
the  surfaces  on  which  he  is  employed. 
When  both  sides  of  the  glass  are  thus 
brought  to  the  same  perfection  of  ]X)hsh, 
the  operation  is  finished  by  inspecting  the 
glass,  fi.st  cleaning  both  surfaces,  and  lav- 
ing it,   each    side    alternately    upwards, 
upon  a  dark  blue  or  black  cloth,  admitting 
only  a  moderate  light,  and  if  any  part  ap- 
pear less  highly  finished  tlian  the  rest,  it 
is  retouchefl   by   a  small  hand-polisher, 
and  colcothar,  as  before. 

When  a  numbei;  of  smaller  pieces  of 
glass,  such  as  are  used  only  for  chamber 
or  similar  mirrors,  are  to  be  polished, 
they  are  laid  together  on  the  table,  and 
several  of  them  pohshed  at  a  time.  But, 
as  these  consist  of  pieces  often  of  unequal 
thickness,  though  their  surfaces  have 
been  rendered  perfectly  flat  by  the  previ- 
ous grindmg,  if  they  were  simply  placed 
side  by  side,  and  fixed  on  the  table  by 
plaster,  as  usual,  the  polisher  would  not 
work  well  over  such  a  variety  of  heights, 
and  would  act  cliiefly  on  tiie  edges  of 
each  piece  of  plate-  Therefore,  they  are  all 
first  arranged  on  a  large  smooth  plate,  fin- 
ished ;dl  but  the  pohsiiing,  and  previously 
wetted,  and  plaster,  is  poured  upon  tliem, 
by  which  they  are  fixed  together,  and  then 
when  taken  off,  tlie  surfaces  which  were 
in  contact  wi'.h  tlie  plate,  are  perfectly  le- 
vel with  each  other,  and  the  polishing 
goes  on  with  the  same  ease,  as  on  an  en- 
tire plate. 

What  is  termed  silvering  of  mirrors,  is 
applying  to  the  posterior  surface  a  coat^ 


GLA 


GLA 


jng  of  quicksilver,  which  metal,  when  per- 
fectly bright  and  brilliant,  reflects  the 
rays  of  light  with  great  accuracy  and 
beauty.  But,  as  this  fluid  metal  could 
not  be  alone  applied  without  great  incon- 
venience, it  is  first  made  to  adhere  by  a 
partial  amalgamation  to  the  surface  of  a 
a  sheet  of  tin-leaf,  and  then  by  tlie  help  of 
pressure,  is  applied  closely  to  tlie  glass  in 
a  very  thin  lanikia.  It  is  tlicieforc,  pro- 
perly, a  thin  sheet  of  tin,  fully  impregnat- 
ed with  mercury,  which  is  the  reflecting 
surface.  > 

The  management  of  the  silvering  is 
extremely  simple.  A  perfectly  flat  slab 
of  smoothed  free  stone  (or  sometimes  of 
thick  wood)  a  little  larger  tll|^  the  lar- 
gest plate,  is  inclosed  in  a  square  wooden 
frame,  or  box,  open  at  top,  and  with  a 
ledge  rising  a  few  inches  on  three  sides, 
and  cut  down  even  wiili  the  stone  on  the 
fourth.  A  small  channel,  or  gutter,  is  cut 
at  bottom  of  the  wooden  frame,  serving 
to  convey  the  waste  mercury  down  into  a 
vessel  below,  set  to  catch  it.  The  slab  is 
also  fixed  on  a  centre  pivot,  so  that  one 
end  may  be  raised  by  wedges  (and  of 
course  the  other  depressed)  ai  pleasure, 
when  working  fi-eely  in  the  box- 

The  slab  being  first  laid  c[uite  hori- 
zontal, and  covered  with  grey  ji^Der 
stretchetl  tight  over  it,  a  sheet  of  tin- 
toil,  a  little  bigger  thati  the  plate  to  be 
silvered  is  spread  over  it,  and  every  crease 
smoothed  down  carefully  ;  a  little  mei'- 
cury  is  then  laid  upon  it,  and  spread 
over  with  a  tigiit  roll  of  cloth,  immedi- 
ately after  which  as  much'  mercury  is 
poured  over  it  as  will  lie  on  the  flat  sur- 
face without  spilling.  That  part  of  the 
slab  wliich  is  opposite  the  cut-down  side 
of  the  wooden  frame,  is  then  covered 
with  parchment,  and  the  glass  plates 
lifted  up  with  care  and  slid  in  (holding  it 
quite  horizontally)  over  the  parchment, 
and  lodged  on  the  surface  of  the  slab. 
The  particular  care  required  here  is, 
that  the  under  surface  of  the  glass  should 
from  the  first  just  dip  into  the  surface  of 
the  mercury  (skimming  it  ott'  as  it  were) 
but  without  touching  the  tin  leaf  in  its 
passage  which  it  niight  tear.  Hy  this 
means  no  bubbles  of  air  can  get  between 
the  glass  and  the  metal,  and  also  any  lit- 
tle dust  or  oxyd  floating  on  the  mercury 
is  swept  olf  bv'fore  the  plate  wltiiout  in- 
terfering. The  plate  being  then  let  go 
sinks  on  the  tin-foil,  squeezing  out  the 
superfluous  mercury,  wiiicji  passes  uito 
the  channel  of  the  wooden  frame  above- 
mentioned.  The  plate  is  then  covered 
with  a  thick  flannel  and  is  loaded  over 
the  whole  surface  v.ith  lead  or  iron 
weights,  and  at  the  same  time  is  tilted 


up  a  .little,  by  which  still  more  of  the 
mercury  is  squeezed  out  It  remains  in 
this  situation  for  a  day,  the  slope  of  the 
stone  slab  being  gradually  increased  to  fa- 
vour the  dripping  of  the  mercury.  The 
plate  is  then  very  cautiously  remo\ed, 
touching  it  only  by  the  edges  and  upper 
side,  and  the  under  side  is  found  uni- 
formly covered  with  a  soft  pasty  amalgam 
consisting  of  tlie  tin-leaf  thoroughly  soak- 
ed  with  the  quicksilver,  and  about  the 
thickness  of  parchment.  It  is  then  set 
up  in  a  wooden  fi'ame,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main there  for  several  days,  the  slope  of 
its  position  being  gradually  encreased, 
till  the  amalgam  is  sufficiently  hardened 
to  adhere  so  firmly  as  not  to  be  removed 
by  slight  scratches,  afier  which  the  plate 
is  finished  and  fit  for  framing. 

It  is  a  considevabk  time  before  the 
amalgam  has  acquired  its  utmost  degree 
of  hardness,  so  that  globules  of  mercury 
will  often  drip  from  new  mirrors  some 
time  after  they  have  been  set  up  in  rooips, 
and  violent  concussions  of  the.air,  such  as 
from  the  firing  of  cannon,  will  often  de- 
tach portions  of  the  amalgam.  These 
can  never  be  perfectly  replaced  by  any 
jjatching,  as  the  lines  of  junction  with  the 
old  amalgam  will  always  be  marked  by 
wliite  seams  saen  when  looking  into  the 
glass.     See  Foliating  of  Glass. 

Of  ivorking  glass  with  the  lamp  and 
b/mu-pipe.-^A  great  variety  of  small  arti- 
cles of  glass  for  philosophical  purposes, 
such  as  thermometers  and  barometers, 
and  many  ingenious  toys,  are  made  out 
of  glass  tubes  by  the  blow-jnpe,  and 
some  short  account  of  the  general  me- 
thod of  proceeding  may  here  be  added. 

Tl»e  usual  apparatus  of  the  glass  lamp- 
blowers  is  very  simple.  It  consists  of  a 
solid  table,  at  the  bottom  of  wiiich  is  fixed 
a  double  bellows  with  a  foot-boaixl,  that 
the  artist  may  work  it  with  his  f()ot  and 
keep  both  his  bunds  at  liberty,  whence 
proceeds  a  jjipe  which  conducts  the  bhist 
to  the  lamp,  which  is  a  large  bundle  of 
cotton  thread  lying  in  a  tin  vessel  of  a 
horse-shoe  shape  and  fed  with  lumps  of 
tailow  heaped  up  beside  it.  These  ai'e 
from  time  to  time  drawn  forwards  into 
the  flame,  to  keep  up  the  combustion. 
A  small  chimney  hangs  a  little  way  over 
the  lamjJ  to  carry  oil  the  smoke.  The 
blast-pi]je  comes  up  in  front  of  the  table 
where  the  artist  sits,  and  drives  the  jet  of 
flame  in  a  contrary  direction  to  his  body, 
so  that  he  is  not  in  the  least  incommo- 
ded by  it.  All  the  rest  of  his  apparatus 
consists  of  an  assortment  of  glass  tubes 
of  diflerent  bores  and  thicknesses  of  glass 
(made  at  the  glass-house,  bypuUingout  ra- 
ther suddenly  u  bottle  of  blown  glass  when. 


GLil 


GLA 


► 


still  quite  soft)  and  two  or  three  very  sim- 
ple ii'on  tools,  such  as  small  forceps,  files, 
&c.  Any  other  method  of  working  the 
blow-pipe  may  be  adoptt  d  that  will  g-ive 
a  very  large  and  powerful  flame-  The 
flame,  when  in  full  vigour,  is  a  jet  of  fire 
about  four  inches  long,  nut  sharp-pointed, 
but  lilce  a  blinit  rounded  spear-head, 
^yhich  near  its  extremity  is  of  a  clear 
light  blue,  ind  beyond,  of  a  pale  yellow. 
The  blue  part  is  the  hottest  As  general 
rules,  for  managing  the  working,  the 
tubes  should  never  have  any  moisture  in- 
troduced into  them,  and  should  be  well- 
dried  on  the  outside  before  working. 
They  are  to  be  heated  gradually  (with 
more  care  in  proportion  to  the  thickness) 
first  by  being  held  in  Uie  llame  of  the  lamp 
without  blowing,  and  then  at  the  edge  of 
the  outer  yellow  part  of  the  jet  of  flame, 
and  slowly  brought  to  fusion.  The  flame 
is  strong  enough  to  bring  to  a  very  white- 
red  heat,  a  solid  mass  of  glass  about  as 
big  as  a  child's  playing  marble,  or  even 
larger,  which  when  blown  out  very  thin, 
will  make  a  bulb  of  the  capacity  of  full 
three  ounces,  and  this  is  nearly  the  ex- 
tent of  the  power  of  the  common  lamp- 
blowing.  But  the  bulbs  for  thermome- 
ters, or~-other  philosophical  purposes  are 
much  less.  Two  or  three  of  the  com- 
monest  operations  may  be  described. 

To  seal  a  tube  hermetically,  if  small,  it 
is  sufficient  to  hold  it  in  the  flame  for  a 
little  time,  slowly  turning  it  round,  when 
the  end  will  melt,  and  falling  in,  will 
close  the  cavity  with  a  neat  button. 
This  may  be  assisted  by  pushing  the 
softened  ends  in  towards  the  common 
centre  with  an  iron  needle.  But  if  the 
tube  be  very  large,  this  button  would  be 
too  clumsy,  and  being  thick  would  be  in 
danger  of  breaking  on  cooling.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  lessen  the  quanti- 
ty of  glass,  which  is  done  in  the  follow- 1 
ing  way  :  soften  the  end  of  the  tube  in  tlie 
flame,  and  apply  to  it  a  piece  of  another 
tube  of  nearly  the  same  size  (fragments 
of  tubes  being  always  abundant  in  this 
business)  which  will  stick  firmly  to  it. 
Then  soften  the  tube  to  be  sealed  a  lit- 
'tle  higher  up  than  the  point  of  juncture, 
and  pull  the  two  slowly  in  contrary  direc- 
tions till  they  separate.  The  tube  M'ill 
then  draw  out  at  the  heated  part  into 
two  short  thin  funnels,  and  a  little  turn- 
ing and  management  of  the  flame  will 
readily  seal  that  which  is  wanted,  leav- 
ing the  joined  ends  and  about  half  an 
inch  of  the  lower  part  of  the  tube  on  the 
waslte  piece. 

To  bend  a  tube,  if  of  a  narrow  bore  and 
the  glass  is  pretty  thick,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  hold  it  in  tlie  weaker  part  of  the 

VOL.    I. 


flame,  and  soften  it  for  about  an  inch  or 
two  of  its  length,  and  bend  it  slowly 
into  the  required  shape.  Ir.  this  way  ba- 
rometer tubes  are  bent.  But  if  the  tube 
be  wide,  arid  the  glass  thin,  this  way  of 
bending  entirely,  destroys  the  cylindrical 
form  of  the  bore  at  the  bent  part,  making 
a  double  .flattening.  To  avoid  this,  first 
seal  up  one  end  of  the  tube,  and  then, 
whilst  bending  it  at  the  requu'ed  part, 
blow  steadily  and  gently  into  the  open 
end,  and  the  pressure  of  the  breatli  will 
counteract  the  falling  in  of  the  sides  of  the 
bending  portion,  and  keep  the  bore  cylin- 
drical. The  closed  end  is  then  cut  off 
by  the  file,  to  do  which  make  a  deep 
scratch  with  one  edge  of  a  fine  three- 
cornered  file  on  the  part  intended  to  be 
cut,  then  break  the  tube  with  a  smart 
pull  in  that  direction  in  which  the 
scratched  part  will  be  outermost,  and  it 
will  separate  in  general  with  great  accu- 
racy at  this  point. 

Tojohi  two  tubes,  heat  them  both  in 
the  flame,  and  apply  them  together  when 
white  hot,  turning  them  round  to  finish 
the  consolidation,  or  else  to  avoid  the 
thick  ring  of  glass  which  this  produces, 
previously  close  one  end  of  one  tube,  and 
when  the  two  are  fuUy  joined  blow  into 
the  open  end  of  the  other  tube,  and  pull 
them  out  a  little  at  the  point  of  juncture, 
till  an  equal  cylinder  is  formed. 

To  form  a  bulb  (of  a  thermometer  for 
example)  choose  a  tube  of  a  very  equal 
bore,  seal  the  end  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  to  collect  a  greater  mass  of  glass  at 
the  end,  press  upwards  on  it  while  quite 
hot  with  any  iron  instrument  so  as  to  con- 
solidate and  shorten  it  a  little  ;  let  it  re- 
main in  the  hottest  part  of  the  flame  till 
the  lump  of  glass  is  quite  hot,  then  re- 
move it,  put  yoiu"  lips  to  the  open  end 
without  loss  of  time,  holding  it  with  the 
hot  part  lowest,  and  blow  moderately  and 
steadily.  The  lump  of  hot  glass  will  im- 
mediately open  into  a  bulb,  the  size  of 
which  can  be  regulated  at  pleasure. 

Glass  may  be  spun  out  into  threads  of 
almost  indefinite  minuteness  by  means  of 
the  blow-pipe.  When  no  thicker  than 
fine  hair,  it  is  extremely  flexible  and  elas- 
tic, and  if  still  finer  it  may  be  wound  al- 
most Uke  common  thread  without  break- 
ing. The  way  of  doing  it  is  very  simple. 
A  piece  of  glass  tube  is  heated  in  the 
lamp,  and  the  end  dra^vn  out  into  a  thread 
by  means  of  another  piece  of  glass  ce- 
mented to  it.  When  a  fine  thread  is  once 
drawn,  the  end  is  carried  round  a  reel  or 
wheel  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter,  and 
by  turning  the  wheel  and  continuing  to 
heat  the  tube,  an  endless  thread  is  drawn 
out,  winding  round  it  as  long  as  the  ar 
3  G 


GLA 


GLA 


list  pleases  or  the  glass  lasts.  The  quick- 
er the  wheel  revolves,  and  tlie  liotter  the 
glass  is  kept,  the  firmer  is  tlie  thread, 
wliich  may  thus  be  made  as  delicate  as  a 
single  silk-worm's  thread,  with  extrejne 
flexibility.  Different  cplourcd  threads 
are  made  in  tliis  way  by  using  very  deep- 
ly coloured  glasses  instead  of  common 
glass. 

A  singular  cliange  occurs  in  the  tex- 
ture of"  glass,  more  particulaily  of  green 
bottle  glass,  made  only  of  sand,  lime,  and 
sahne  ashes,  when  exposed  for  some 
time  to  a  moderate  red  lieat,  or  any  high- 
er temperature,  but  below  its  melting 
point.  This  is  peculiarly  ot>servable 
when  it  has  been  in  contact  with  sand, 
and  hence  it  frequently  takes  place  in 
green  glass  retorts  long  exposed  to  a 
higii  heat  in  sand-bath  distillations. 
Neuman  appears  the  first  who  jv.  ticcd 
this  change,  which  was  afterwaids  ex- 
amined more  at  Lu-ge  by  Reaumui-,  and 
from  the  ])orcellaneoiis  texUwe  which  the 
glass  assumes  when  thus  changed,  it  has 
been  commonly  called  Reaumur^ s  porct- 
lain.  This  ingenious  philosopher  had 
the  idea  that  much  advantage  might  be 
made  of  this  fact  in  i-endering  gUiss  much 
tougher  and  less  liable  to  crack  from 
changes  of  heat  and  cold.  Ko  use  how- 
ever has  bten  made  of  it  in  manufacture, 
but  as  a  curious  cliemical  or  i>hysical 
phenomenon  it  deserves  fiu'ther  nc^Uce. 

Dr  Lewis  made  tlie  following  very  va- 
luable expeiiments  on  this  substance.  A 
number  of  pieces  of  common  quart  bot- 
tles were  put  into  crucibles,  with  white 
sand  poured  over  them,  and  put  into  a 
proper  furnace,  where  they  were  heated 
for  many  hours,  and  pieces  withdrawn 
from  time  to  time,  to  examine  the  pro- 
gress of  the  change.  The  pieces  tiiat 
were  taken  out,  after  many  hours  heating, 
but  below  redness,  did  not  appear  to  have 
suflered  any  change  whatever.  In  a  low 
red  heat,  the  change  went  on,  though  ve- 
ry slowly  ;  but,  in  a  strong  red  heat,  ap- 
proaching  to  whiteness,  just  not  suflicient 
to  melt  the  j;lass,  the  cli:iuge  went  on 
pretty  fast,  and  in  two  houis  ihe  glass  had 
assumed  the  ap|)earance  of  porcelain,  tlie 
change  beginning  at  each  surf.ice,  and 
spreading  gradually  to  the  middle. 

The  glass  iirst  became  blucish  on  the 
surface,  and,  when  held  to  the  light,  yel- 
lowish, and  v\  idi  a  very  sensible  diminu- 
tion of  its  transparency.  Afier  this,  it 
gratlually  became  white  and  opakc,  and 
the  texture  was  no  longer  viircous,  but 
fibrou.s,  and  the  fibres  disposed  neaily  pa- 
rallel to  each  other.  By  degrees,'  the 
glass  became  throughout  opake  and 
fifcrous,  and  the  coloui-  of  a  dun  wliite  ; 


the  fibres  were  arranged  regularly  from 
the  sides  to  the  middle,  where  the  fibres 
from  the  two  sides  meeting,  formed  a  % 
kind  of  partition,  in  which,  occasionally, 
were  pretty  large  cavities.  A  longer  con- 
tinuance of  fire,  induced  a  further  change 
of  texture,  the  fibres  became  divided  or 
cut  into  grains  at  the  outer  ends,  and 
gradually  through  their  whole  length,  and 
the  whole  substance  changed  in  texture, 
from  fibrous  to  granular,  like  common 
porcelain.  By  a  still  further  continuance 
of  hre,  the  grains,  at  first  fine  and  glossy, 
grew  larger  and  duller,  from  being  very 
compact,  became  porous,  and  at  last,  a 
fiiable  substance  like  a  slightly  colie/ing 
mass  of  white  sand,  not  easy  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  sand  in  which  it  was  im- 
bedded. 

Glass  thus  changed  whilst  it  remains  in 
the  fibious  state,  is  considerably  tougher 
and  harder,  so  as  to  give  abundant  sparks 
N\ilh  steel,  which  common  green  bottle 
glass  will  hardly  do,  to  cut  all  common 
glass  with  ease,  and  scarcely  to  be 
scratched  by  the  file  It  will  bear  also  to 
be  i)lunged  suddenly  from  freezing  to 
boiling  water,  without  cracking ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  its  texture  is  so  dense, 
that  no  acrid  liquors  whatever,  either  cor- 
rode it,  or  transude  through  it.  The  cir- 
cumstance which  the  iijost  prevents  its  use 
in  manufacture  is,  that  though  the  inner 
texture  is  fine  and  white,  the  outer  is 
coarse  and  dirty-looking.  When  the  heat 
is  so  long  continued  that  the  texture 
changes  from  fibrous  to  granular,  it  again 
becomes  soft,  no  longei-  gives  fire  with 
steel,  and  loses  its  cohesion. 

Another  important  circumstance  to  be 
observed  is,  that  when  this  fibrous  por- 
cellaneous glass  is   exposed   to  a  very  jj, 
strong  heat,  it  melts  into  a  semi-transpa- 
rent mass,  drawing  out  in  strings,  which 
on  breaking,   are  now  no  longer  fibrous, 
but  have  returned  to  the  •vitreous  stiite,  and 
at  the  same  time  again  becomes  no  harder 
than  the  glass  i'vom  m  hich  it  %\  as  original- 
ly made.     However,   it  does  not  melt  so 
easily  as  the  glass  itself;  and  the  longer 
it  is  cemented,  tiie  more  difficult  of  fu-^j 
sion  it  becomes,  so  that  the  granulai*  por-IB 
celain  recjuires  a  much  higher  heal  for 
melting  than  the  fibrous.  :• 

Dr.  Lewis  repeated  the  experiments, 
imbedding  the  glass  in  a  variety  of  sub- 
stances, instead  of  sand,  such  as  bone-ash, 
charcoal,  chalk,  Sic  but  in  all  the  change 
of  texture  was  the  same,  the  outer  colour 
alone  being  afl'ected.  lie  then  heated  the 
glass  by  itself,  being  stuck  up  with  a  lit- 
tl  •  luting  in  the  middle  of  the  crucible, 
and  therelbre  touching  nothing  with  the 
part  above  tlie  luting.    The  same  changt 


GLA 


GLA 


however,  took  place,  though  more  slowlj', 
and  with  some  inconvenience  from  the  fall- 
ing in  of  some  of  the  pieces  when  softened 
by  tlie  heat.  The  sand  therefore,  has  lit- 
tle other  effect  than  to  support  tlie  glass 
during  the  process,  and  prevent  it  from 
losing  its  shape.  Another  important  fact, 
to  the  explanation  of  the  cause  is,  that 
the  glass  does  not  sensibly  lose  or  gain 
weight  in  the  whole  conversion,  from  tlie 
vitreous  to  the  fibrous  state. 

Mr.  (iregory  Watt,  in  his  most  valua- 
ble paper  on  JBasalt,  very  happily  brings 
this  porcellaneous  change  of  glass,  as  an 
illustration  of'  his  important  position, 
namely,  that  bodies,  whose  fibres  have  a 
Jiatural  tendency  to  a  crystalline  aiTange- 
ment,  or  a  polarity,  when  vitrified  by  a 
sufficient  heat,  and  cooled  hastilj'  in  the 
vitreous  state,  are  able  subsequentlv  to 
retuim  to  their  natural  crystalline  arrange- 
ment of  fibre,  when  exposed  to  a  heal 
merely  sufficient  to  soften  the  texture, 
tliough  not  enough  for  fusion.  This,  in 
the  instance  of  basalt,  he  shews,  by  the 
singular  crystalhzations  formed  in  the 
cells  of  fused  basalt,  long  after  it  had  lost 
the  liquidity  of  fusion.  The  circumstance 
of  no  material  change  occurring  in  the 
weight  of  glass  by  this  conversion  into  the 
fibrous  state,  shews  incontestibly,  tliat  it 
cannot  be  owing  either  to  any  thing  gain- 
ed during  the  process,  nor  to  any  material 
loss  of  the  alkali,  and  this  is  also  render- 
ed manifest  by  its  return  to  the  vitreous 
state,  and  vitreous  qualities,  when  again 
melted.  This  too,  may  again  be  porcella- 
nized  in  the  same  way,  and  again  be 
melted  into  glass,  and  so  on  alternately. 

Glass  has  been  often  found  crystallized 
quite  at  the  bottom  of  the  pots,  and  in 
places  where  ic  has  cooled,  undisturbed, 
W-  for  a  length  of  time.  This  is  i)articulHrly 
the  case  in  that  mass  of  refuse  and  spilled 
glass,  with  ashes,  melted  drops  from  the 
clay  of  the  furnaces  and  pots,  &c.  which 
fulls  down  behind  tiie  pots  in  the  furnace. 
This  is  generally  raked  out,  but  part  of  it 
remains ;  and,  when  tlie  fire  is  let  to  go 
out,  and  the  furnace  is  become  useless, 
these  ciystallizations  are  usually  found 
here.  Thej'  are  found  in  all  kinds  of 
glass,  but  less  often  in  the  fine  Hint  and 
the  \ery  saline  glasses,  than  in  the  coarser 
green  and  crown  glasses. 

The  following  interesting  observations 
of  Mr.  Nicholson,  concerning  the  princi- 
pal defects  observable  in  works  made  of 
glass,  may  be  interesting  to  a  portion  of 
our  readers  : 

The  most  considerable  defects,  as  enu- 
merated by  Mr.  Loysel,  are  striae  or  veins, 
threads,  tears,  cords,  bubbles,  and  knots. 

The  stris  or  ^eins,  arise  from  the  hete^ 


rogeneous  composition  of  the  glass.  It 
seldohi  happens,  that  glasses  of  any  consi- 
siderable  magnitude,  are  exempt  from 
them,  and  the  reason  is  not  difficult  to  ex- 
plain. 

Glass  produced  by  the  solution  of  sili- 
ceous earth  by  fixed  alkali,  at  the  ordina-, 
ry  heat  of  the  glass-house,  possesses  a 
specific  gravity  of  2  8  or  24,  water  being 
assumed  as  usual  at  one.  Glass  made 
with  alkali,  and  the  clay  commonly  used, 
weighs  about  25.  That  of  alkali  and 
chalk,  2*7  or  2  8.  The  oxid  of  manga- 
nese vitrified  alone,  weighs  3  2  or  3-3. 
Glasses  produced  by  other  metallic  ox- 
ides, are  still  more  ponderous  :  that  of 
lead,  for  example,  weighs  about  7  2  or 
7-3.  When  the  partial  combinations  of 
the  ingi-edients  of  the  glass  are  not  well 
mixed  together,  but  form  strata  of  differ- 
ent density  in  the  pots,  they  produce  un- 
dulated veins  in  the  work,  similar  to  those 
observed  when  two  liquids  of  very  differ- 
ent densities  are  first  mixed,  such  as  wa- 
ter and  alcohol.  ,«. 

As  the  glass  in  the  operations  of  blow-''^' 
ing  is  taken  up  nearly  from  the  same  part 
of  the  pot,  and,  as  in  the  casting  of  glass, 
the  pot  is  suddenly  reversed,  and  its 
whole  contents  mixed  together,  it  is 
found,  that  blown  glass  is  much  more  uni- 
form than  that  which  has  been  cast. 

The  name  of  threads  is  particularly  gi- 
ven to  those  vehis  which  are  produced  by 
the  vitrification  of  clay.  They  are  gi-eater 
than  those  produced  b}-  calcareous  earth. 
These  threads  render  the  glass  very  brit- 
tle, when  they  are  abundant,  or  when  an}- 
of  them  are  of  considerable  size,  because 
the  contraction  and  dilatation  of  this  kind 
of  glass,  from  change  of  temperature,  are 
very  different  from  those  of  the  glass  of 
sand  and  flint. 

Tears  are  the  greatest  defect  which  can 
be  found  in  glass.  They  are  the  drops 
of  glass  afforded  by  the  vitrification  of  the 
furnace  of  fusion.  Articles  in  which  these 
are  found  are  brittle.  Most  of  them 
break  by  the  alternations  of  temperature, 
and  that  the  more  surely,  the  nearer  the 
tear  is  to  the  surface.  Such  articles  are 
generally  thrown  aside  in  the  glass- 
house. 

Cords  are  asperities  on  the  surfiice  of 
certain  articles  of  blown  glass.  They  are 
produced  whenever  the  heat  of  the  fur- 
nace becomes  so  low,  that  the  threads  of 
glass  which  fall  from  the  pipe  into  the 
crucible,  cannot  resume  the  proper  de- 
gree of  fluidity.  When  this  appearance 
presents  itself,  the  work  is  given  up,  till 
the  heat  of  the  furnace  is  again  brought 
to  the  requisite  degree. 
1      The  small  bubbles  abundantly  diffused 


GLA 


GLA 


through  certain  glasses^shew,  that  the  re- 
fining is  imperfect.  They  arise  from  the 
disengagement  of  elastic  fluid  during  tiic 
vitrilication.  This  imperfection  shows, 
either  that  the  quantity  of  flux  has  been 
too  small,  or  the  fire  too  weak,  In  tlie 
first  case,  the  glass  may  be  used  to  hold 
liquids  without  fear  of  being  attacked ;  in 
tlie  second,  the  glass  is  tender  and  easily 
acted  on  by  acids,  if  the  flux  were  of  an 
alkaline  nature,  because  its  proportion  is 
too  great. 

Bubbles  may  also  be  produced  in  glass, 
during  the  working,  by  certain  foreign 
matters,  which  are  fixed,  and  emit  aerial 
fluids  by  the  heat. 

Knots  are  of  three  kinds.  They  are 
either  formed  by  giains  of  sand  enveloped 
in  the  glass,  or  by  tlie  salt  of  glass  which 
is  found  in  pieces,  or  wiiite  flocks;  or  last- 
ly, by  pieces  detached  from  the  crucible, 
or  the  sides  of  the  furnace. 

The  fused  glass  has  the  property  of 
sticking  to  an  iron  rod  or  tube,  by  which 
means  it  is  taken  out,  either  to  ascertain 
its  state  of  perfection,  or  to  blow  it  into 
sucii  utensils  as  may  be  wanted. 

The  quantity  to  be  used  at  once,  is  re- 
gulated by  a  process  somewhat  resemb- 
ling that  of  the  tallow-chandlers ;  that  is 
to  say,  the  part  first  dipped  out  is  sufler- 
ed  to  cool  a  litttle,  and  serves  as  a  recep- 
tacle for  more  glass  to  be  taken  up  at  a 
second  dip,  and  so  fortii,  until  the  quanti- 
ty is  sufficient.  The  lump  of  glass  may  be 
softened  at  pleasure,  by  holding  it  before 
the  mouth  of  tlie  furnace.  The  workman 
renders  it  hollow,  and  of  a  spherical  form, 
by  blowing  through  the  tube.  This  sphere 
may  be  converted  into  a  cone,  a  cylinder, 
or  any  other  solid,  tlie  transverse  section 
of  wliich  is  a  circle,  by  rolling  it  on  a  flat 
plate  of  iron.  It  may  be  stretched  in 
length  by  swinging  the  tube  in  the  ay,  or 
giving  it  a  vibratory  motion  like  that  of  a 
pendulum.  The  workmen  shew  great 
dexterity  in  heating  the  glass  in  the  vari- 
ous stages  of  the  manipulation.  They  do 
this  in  such  parts  as  they  are  desirous  of 
extending;  and  on  other  occasions  they 
cool  certain  parts  of  their  work,  by  fan- 
ning the  air  against  it.  The  glass,  in  the 
ignited  state  it  possesses,  after  it  conies 
out  of  the  jiots,  is  very  rough  and  flexible, 
may  be  cut  with  siiears,  bended  with  j/in- 
cers,  pressed  into  nioiilds,and  wrouglitiii 
a  variety  of  methods  dependent  on  tiiese 
properties,  of  wliich  the  artists  very  dex- 
terously avail  themselves. 

As  far  as  observation  has  hitherto  di- 
rected us,  it  appears  to  be  a  general  rule, 
that  the  liardness,  brittleness,  elasticity, 
and  other  mechanical  properties  of  con- 
gealed bodies,  are  greatly  aftected  by  the 


degree  of  rapidity  with  which  they  as- 
sume the  solid  state.  This,  which  no 
doubt  is  referable  to  the  jiroperty  of  crys- 
tallization, and  its  various  modes,  is  re- 
markably seen  in  steel  and  other  metals, 
and  seems  to  obtain  in  glass.  AVhen  a 
drop  of  glassissuflered  to  fall  into  water, 
it  is  found  to  possess  the  remarkable  pro- 
perty of  flying  into  minute  pieces,  the  in- 
stant asmallpart  of  the  tail  is  broken  ofl'. 
This,  which  is  commonly  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  Prince  Rupert's  drop,  is  si- 
milar to  the  ijjiilosophical  phial,  which  is 
a  small  vessel  of  thick  glass,  suddenly 
cooled  by  exposure  to  the  air.  Such  a 
vessel  possesses  the  property  of  flying  in 
l)ieces,  when  the  smallest  piece  of  flint  or 
angular  pebble  is  let  fall  into  it,  though  a 
leaden  bullet  may  be  dropped  into  it  tioni 
some  height  without  injury.  Many  ex- 
planations have  been  oli'ered,  to  account 
for  these  and  other  similar  appearances, 
by  referring  to  a  supposed  mechanism  or 
arrangement  of  the  particles,  or  sudden 
confinement  of  the  nialter  of  heat.  The 
immediate  cause,  however,  appears  to  be 
derived  from  tlie  fact,  that  the  dimensions 
of  bodies  suddenly  cooled  remain  larger, 
than  if  the  refrigeration  liad  been  more 
gradual.  I'hus  the  s])ecific  gravity  of 
steel  hardened  by  sudden  cooling  in  wa- 
ter is  less,  and  its  dimensions  consequently 
greater  than  that  of  the  same  steel  gi'adu- 
ally  cooled.  It  is  more  than  probable, 
that  an  eftectofthe  s:inie  nature  obtains 
in  glass  ;  so  that  the  dimensions  of  the  ex- 
ternal and  suddenly  cooled  surface  re- 
main larger  than  are  suited  to  the  accu- 
rate envelopement  of  the  interior  part, 
which  is  less  slowly  cooled.  In  most  of 
the  metals,  the  degree  of  flexibility  Ihey 
possess,  must  be  sufficient  to  remedy  this 
inaccuracy  as  it  takes  place  ;  but  in  glass, 
which,  thougli  very  elastic  and  flexible, 
is  likewise  excessively  brittle,  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  parts,  urged  different  ways  by, 
their  disposition  to  retain  their  respective 
dimensions,  and  likewise  to  remain  in  con- 
tact by  virtue  of  the  cohesive  attraction, 
can  be  maintained  only  by  an  elastic 
yielding  of  the  whole,  as  far  as  may  be, 
which  will  therefore  remain  in  a  state  of 
tension.  It  is  not  therefore  to  be  wonder- 
ed at,  that  a  solution  of  continuity  of  wyr 
part  of  the  surface  should  destroy 'tEs 
equilibrium  of  elasticity;  and  that  the 
sudden  action  of  all  tiie  parts  at  once,  of 
so  brittle  a  material,  should  destroy  the 
continuity  of  the  wiiole,  instead  of  pro- 
ducing an  equilibrium  of  any  other  kind. 
Though  the  facts  relating  to  this  dispo- 
sition of  glass  too  suddenly  cooled,  are  nu- 
merous and  interesting  to  the  philosopher, 
yet  they  constitute  a  serious  evil  with  re- 


GLA 


GLA 


spect  to  the  uses  of  this  excellent  material. 
The  remedy  of  the  glass-maker  consists 
in  annealing  the  several  articles,  which  is 
clone  by  placing  them  in  a  furnace  above 
the  furnace  of  fusion.  I'he  glasses  are 
first  put  into  the  hottest  part  of  tliis  fur- 
nace, and  gradually  removed  to  the  cool- 
er parts  at  regular  intervals  of  time.  By 
this  means  the  glass  cools  very  slowiy 
throughout,  and  is  in  a  great  measure, 
fiL-e  from  the  defects  of  glass,  \\hicli  has 
been  too  hastily  cooled. 

It  is  difficult  to  speak  with  any  preci- 
sion concerning  the  materials,  proportion, 
and  management  necessary  to,  make  the 
different  kinds  of  glass,  such  as  the  green 
glass  for  bottles,  the  greenish  or  blueish 
glass  for  windows,  the  white  glass  for 
mirrors,  the  white  flint  glass  for  bottles, 
and  the  crystal  glass  used  for  the  finer 
wares,  called  cut"  glass,  not  to  tnention 
the  dense  white  glass  rtiade  expressly  for 
optical  uses.  Ail  these  are  made  of  better 
cpiality  at  some  manufactories  than  at 
others  ;  and  it  is  probable,  that  this  supe- 
riority of  produce  is  thus  confined  by  the 
natural  disposition  for  secrecy,  which  pre- 
vails among  men,  whose  pecuniary  suc- 
cess in  a  great  measure  depends  on  their 
monopolizing  the  effects  of  their  own  skill. 
Far  be  it  from  us  to  pretend  to  consider 
tliis  proceeding  as  immoral.  On  the  con- 
trary, we  very  much  doubt,  whether  anv 
species  of  property  can  be  defended  un- 
der a  title  in  any  respect  so  strong  as  that 
which  a  man  must  hold  in  his  own  supe- 
riority of  intellect  and  exertion.  We  mean 
simply  to  observe  in  this  place,  that,  from 
the  causes  here  mentioned,  it  is  impossible 
to  give  a  minute  account  of  the  art.  The 
green  glass  is  made  from  impure  materi- 
.  als ;  the  basis  consisting  of  a  ferruginous 
W  stone  or  sand,  and  the  alkali  being  such 
as  can  be  the  most  cheaply  purchased. 
The  colour  chiefly  depends  on  the  iron  ; 
and  the  glass  is  harder,  more  durable, 
and  less  destructible  by  acids  remaining 
in  it  for  a  longtime,  the  less  the  quantity 
of  alkali,  and  consequently  the  greater 
the  heat.  Pit  coal  is  used  as  fuel  in  tlie 
Eng'ish  glass-houses  It  produces  a  more 
intense  heat  than  wood.  Chaptal,  in  his 
Elements  of  Chemistry,  mentions  the  suc- 
eessful  establishment  of  a  manufactory  of 
opake  bottles  of  excessive  strength  and 
lightness,  composed  chiefly  of  basaltes  ; 
but  he  relates  that  the  establishment  fail- 
ed, chiefly  on  account  of  the  quaUty  of 
the  basaltes,  which  did  not  constantly 
prove  the  same,  but,  becoming  in  the  lat- 
ter stages  of  the  undertaking  more  calca- 
reous,  produced  an  article  of  a  perishable 
nature. 
All  the  white  glasses  owe  their  cle:u*- 


ness  to  the  purity  of  the  materials.  The 
finest  siliceuus  sand  is  fused  with  puri- 
fied aikuli.  The  oxides  ofleadactas  a 
powerful  flux,  and  are  much  used  in  com- 
positions of  this  nature.  They  give  den- 
sity, softness,  and  a  disposition  to  take  a 
brilliant  polisli. 

Optical  writers  teach   us,  that  the  re- 
fracting' telescope  consists   of  a    convex 
lens,  called  the  object  lens,  in  the  focus  oi 
which    tiie  image  of  a  remote  object  is 
formed;  ar.d  that  this  im.age  is  seen  mas;- 
nified  and  distinct  by  ti  microscope  appli- 
ed to  it,  wliicli  forms  tlie  apparatus  at  thu 
other  end  of  the  telescope.     It  may  easi- 
ly be  iniaiiincd,  that,  if  the  focal  "image 
be  indistii.ct,  or  ifthere  be  a  number  of 
focal  images  occupying  diflerent  parts  of 
the  field  of  view  of  the  telescope,  the  ei- 
fectwiil  be  less  peiiect,  and  the  magnify- 
ing power  must    be  less,  in  order  tliat  the 
confusion  may  beat  all  tolerable.    When- 
ever a  i-ay  of  white  or  compounded  light 
is  refracted  out  of  its  course,  by  passing 
into  another  simple  medium  of  different 
density  fi-om  that  tiu-ough  which  it  oricri- 
nally  passed,  it  is  found  to  be  separated 
into  its  component  parts,  which  produce 
the  sensations  of  various  colours.     This 
separation  is  made  by  virtue  of  the   dif- 
ti^rent  properties  possessed  by  the  several 
rays  of  light,  by  which   some  are  more 
i-cfi-acted     in    like    circumstances    than 
others.     Thus  the  blue  is  more  refracted 
tiian    the  green  and    }eilow,    and  these 
are  more   refracted    than  the  red   rays. 
Whence  it  follows,  that  a  pencil  of  white 
light,  which  passed  in  parallel  rays  to   a 
wedge  or  prism  of  glass,  will  come  out 
of  the  prism  on  the  other  side,  not  only 
refracted  in  the  whole,  but  diflerently  re- 
fracted as  to   its  p:u-ts;    the  red   being 
less  turned  out  of  its  coiu-se  than  any  of 
the  other  rays,  and  the  violet  being  the 
most  deflected  of  any.     And  this  difler- 
ence  of  direction   will   be  greater,    the 
greater  the  mean  refraction.     The  edges 
of  a  convex  lens   may  be  considered  as 
wedges  of  tlie  same  nature,  with  regard 
to  the  light,  as  the  prism  here  mentioned. 
Such  a  lens,  refracting  the  red  rays  less 
than  any  other,  will  fijrm  a  red  iniage  at 
a  certain  focal  distance.  The  yellow  "rays, 
being  somewhat  more  refracted,   will  af- 
ford a  yellow  image,  at  a  distance  less  re- 
mote from  the  kns  :  and  for  similar  rea- 
sons, there  will  be  formed,  at  still  near- 
er distances,  images  of  green,  blue,  and 
violet,  with  all  the  intermediate  shades  of 
colour.     The  entii-e  focal  iniage  will  con- 
sist of  all  these  images  uregularly  com- 
bined.     It  has  been^liscovered,  that  the 
quantity  of  dispersion  is  greater  in  some 
kinds  of  glass  than  hi  otliers,  while  tlie 


5f. 


GLvV 


GLA 


1r^ 


vican  refraction  or  focal  lengtli  remains 
the  same.  Two  prisms  of  sucli  different 
kinds  of  g'lass,  i)r()ducing'  the  same  mean 
refraction  toward  contrary  parts  on  a  ray 
of  light,  wonlii  not  therefore  correct  the 
colorific  dispersion,  though  the  ray 
would  ])rocecd  onward  nearly  in  its  ori- 
p^inal  direction.  It  would  be  necessary, 
in  order  that  this  dispersion  produced  by 
the  one  j^lass  should  be  rlccurately  cor- 
rected by  the  other,  tiiat  the  mean  re- 
fraction should  be  greatest  in  that  which 
possessed  the  least  power  in  dispersing 
tiie  rays  of  liglit  ;  and,  in  this  case,  the 
colourless  emergent  ray  would  not  pro- 
ceed in  its  first  direction.  To  aijply  this 
doctrine  to  telescopes — suppose  a  convex 
lens  formed  oi'  such  glass  as  afforded  very 
little  colorific  dispersion  of  the  rays,  and 
a  concave  lens  of  such  glass' as  afforded 
much  of  this  effect:  it  will  follow,  that, 
when  these  two  lenses  possess  such  a  fi- 
gure, as  that  the  concave  shall  destroy  the 
jn'ismatic  colours  produced  by  the  con 
vex,  the  excess  of  mean  refraction  must 
be  in  the  latter ;  and  consequently,  that 
the  compound  glass  will  act  like  a  con- 
vex lens,  and  produce  a  real  colourless 
focal  image. 

The  problem  of  constructing  teles- 
copes which  shall  be  truly  achromatic, 
depends,  as  we  have  before  observed, 
chiefly  on  the  perfection  to  which  the 
glasses  can  be  brought.  The  general 
facts  respecting  glasses  for  this  use  are, 
that  lead,  and  probably  other  metallic  ox- 
ides, increase  the  disjjersive  power  more 
than  alkalis,  and  these  last  more  than 
earthy  fluxes ;  and  thi.t  an  addition  of 
alkali  to  glasses  containing  lead  sei'ves 
greatly  to  dinnnish  '.he  mean  refraction, 
without  much  affecting  the  dispersive 
power  ocasioned  by  the  metal.  Hence  it 
might  seem  easy  to  com])ose  such  glass 
as  the  theorems  of  the  optician  demand  ; 
but  the  practice  is  by  no  means  so  rea- 
dy. Regular  refraction  demands,  that 
the  medium  should  possess  a  uniform 
density  throughout,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  the  parts  of  the  glass  should  be  well 
combined  together.  This  however  is  sel- 
dom the  case,  especially  in  the  dense 
metallic  glass  It  is  found,  that  the  great 
fusibility  of  the  glass  of  lead  causes  it  to 
flow,  and  occupy  the  interstices  between 
the  particles  of  the  sand  before  these  are, 
melted.  So  that  some  very  bright  and 
apparently  homogeneous  glasses  exhibit 
an  infinity  of  small  focal  images  of  a  can- 
dle, when  examined  by  a  magnifier,  which 
are  produced  by  rounded  particles  of 
sand  remaining  in  every  part  of  the  sub- 
stance. Another  fault,  still  more  com- 
mon, consists  in  veins  of  a  diflferent  den- 


sity from  the  rest,  partly  arising  from  im- 
peifect  fusion,  and  partly  from  the  densi- 
ty of  the  glass  in  the  pots  being  greater, 
the  lower  its  position. 

Various  have  been  the  attempts  to  re- 
medy these  defects,  more  especially  since 
the  ISoard  of  Longitude  has  oflered  a  con- 
siilcruble  ])remium  for  this  object.  We 
do  not,  however  possess  any  ample  detail 
of  these  unsuccessful  experiments.  It  is 
generally  unilerslood,  that  it  is  vain  to 
endea\()ur  to  make  this  glass  in  small 
tiirnaces,  because  the  heat  in  these  is 
continually  varying,  and  is  either  too  low 
for  the  requisite  fiuidiiy,  op  so  high  as 
to  extricate  bubbles  of  clastic  matter ; 
whereas  a  steady  heat  is  required  for  the 
purpo.sc.  Macquer  and  others  have  at- 
lempttd  to  correct  the  evil  by  repeated 
fusions  and  ])ulvcrlzation  of  the  glass,  and 
by  exposing  it  to  long  continued  tires,  but 
without  success.  It  is  said,  that  one  of 
the  practices  in  the  English  glass-houses 
consists  in  lading  tlie  melted  matter  from 
one  pot  to  another  in  the  furnace.  But  this,  • 
on  account  of  the  hea\y  duty  of  excise, 
a\id  the  imijolitic  manner  in  which  it  is 
levied,  cannot  be  done  to  any  great  ex- 
tent in  that  country.  If  the  glass  be  suf- 
fered to  cool  in  the  pots  after  a  good  fu- 
sion, its  parts  take  a  symmetrical  ar- 
rangement, of  the  nature  of  crystalliza- 
tion, by  which  the  light  is  acted  upon  in 
a  manner  independent  of  its  figure, 
which  is  thought  to  be  a  great  impedi- 
ment to  its  optical  use.  Mr.  Kier  w  ho 
has  had  much  experience  in  this  branch 
of  chemistry,  is  disposed  to  recommend 
the  tiial  of  component  parts  difi'erent 
from  any  which  have  yet  been  admitted 
into  the  common  glasses.  I 

Without  presuming  to  speculate  in  a      M 
department  of  science,  wherein  our  ex-     fl 
perience  is  much  conhned,  we  shall  point 
otit  a  few  facts,  which  may  be  of  use  to 
the  philosophical  operator,  and  leave  the 
manufacturer  to  his  own  trials.     It  is  ge. 
nerally  aifirnied,  that  Mr.  Dollond  made    ^\ 
his   original  experiments,   and  construct-  ^li 
ed    those     excellent    three-foot    glasses      * 
(which  at  present  bear   so   high  a  price, 
and  are  not  to  be  ^iiadc)  with  one  single 
pot  of  glass  made  at  the  glass-house  near 
Wellclose  Square,  and  that  none  of  tlie 
same  quality  has  since  been   made.     But 
the  proprietor  of  that  glass-house  has  as- 
sured us,   that  the  original  receipts  and 
practice  are  still  followed  in  the  making 
of  optical  glass :  that  the  principal  opti- 
cians always  complain   of  the  bad  (juali- 
ly  of  the  glass,  but  never  fail  to  take  the 
whole  quantity    he  makes    at   their  re- 
quest ;  and  that  when  they  renew  their 
orders,  they  always  desire  it  may  be  ex- 


GLA 


aclly  tlie  same  as  the  last.  From  these 
circumstances  1  think  it  probable,  1 
Tliat,  thoui^ii  one  pot  of  glass  may  dif- 
fer from  another,  yet  there  may  be  as 
g-ood  glass  obtained  for  optical  uses  now 
as  tbrmerly,  if  an  optician  skilled  in  the 
theory  and  pi-actice,  Uke  the  late  Mi-. 
Dollond,  were  to  undertake,  the  task  of 
adapting-  the  curvatures,  *and  selecting 
the  best  lenses.  2.  That  Mr.  Dolloiid's 
purpose  as  a  tradesman  being  now  an- 
swered, by  the  establishment  of  an  exten- 
sive business,  he  has  not  the  same  mo 
lives  for  exertion  upon  powerful  teles- 
copes as  actuated  liis  father  3.  Tiiat  iht- 
profits  of  this  trade  are  greater,  antl 
more  certain,  when  many  hinidreds  of 
'"heap  perspectives  ai-e  made  hy  common 
workmen,  tlian  when  a  few  extraordinary 
tL-lescopes  are  made  by  tlie  most  excel- 
lent artists,  superintended  by  the  master 
iiimself;  and,  consequently,  it  is  not  the" 
interest  of  an  establislitd  lio'ase  to  extend 
the  latter  branch.  4^  Ihat  it  is  not  tlie 
interest  of  a  glass  manufacturer,  who 
can  gain  a  large  and  regular  income  by 
niukuig  common  utensils,  to  emjjio}'  his 
time  in  costly  experiments  upon  optical 
glass,  which,  if  bro-aght  to  perfection, 
v.ould  afford  but  a  moderate  demand, 
probably  no  g-reater  than  he  now  experi- 
ences :  and,  therefore,  tliat  the  improve- 
mei^of  achromatic  telescopes  is  rather 
to  be  expected  from  a  man  of  science, 
who  may  be  a  practical  chemist,  than 
from  a  mere  tradesm;in. 

I  suspect  the  opinion  to  be  ill-founded, 
that  those  kinds  of  gla.-.s  are  unfit  for  op- 
tical  uses,  whiclt  are  veiny  or  ciuuded,  or 
otherwise  unpromising.  On  tlie  contra- 
ry, there  are  reasons  to  think,  that  the 
defects  of  glass  arise  from  irregularities 
too  minute  and  numerous  to  oe  discern- 
ed or  discovered  in  any  way,  but  by  the 
actual  proof  of  constructing  a  telescope. 
There  are  good  g-lasses,  which  abound 
wiiii  the  larger  veins  ;  and  we  possess 
two  achromatic  lenses,  each  of  thirty 
inclies  focus,  the  obvious  qualities  of 
v>hicl),  and  excellence  as  object  glasses, 
clilVer  very  much,  and  in  opjj'>siie  res- 
pects. They  are  each  composed  of  a  con- 
vex of  crown  glass,  applied  to  a  concave 
of  flint.  The  one  was  constructed  for 
the  tube  of  an  astronomical  quadi-ant  It 
produces  no  colour,  has  no  aberration 
from  figure,  and,  when  the  eye  is  placed 
in  its  f  )cus  so  as  to  receive  the  pencil  of 
light  from  a  fixed  star,  the  whole  aper- 
ture is  uniformly  covered  v.'ith  ligiit.  The 
other  glass,  thougij  perfectly  similar,  was 
made  fur  a  pocket  perspective.  It  pro- 
duces scarcely  any  colour,  has  considera- 
ble aberration  from  figure,  and  when  the 


eye  placed  in  its  focus  receives  the  light 
of  a  fixed  star,  the  whole  aperture  is  co- 
vered with  a  light  of  an  irregular,  curd- 
led, or  cloudy  appearance.  I  have  no 
doubt  but  the  former  glass  was  angled 
to  the  superior,  and  the  latter  to^e'in- 
ferior  use,  from  their  obvious  qualities  : 
but  when  tliey  are  examined  by  vhe  true 
test  of  optical  excellence,  the  applica- 
tion of  a  large  magnifying  power,  the 
former  proves  dark  and  indistinct,  while 
tiie  latter  exhibits  the  object  bright  and 
well  defined,  and  is  on  the  whole  an  ex- 
cellent lens. 

Of'  Coloured  Glasses. — The  metallic 
ox}ds  when  mixed  with  an\'  of  the 
glasses,  dissolve  in  them  with  ease  at  a 
melting  lieat,  and 'always  change  the  co- 
lour more  or  less,  sometimes  producing 
very  beautiful  compounds,  which  when 
well  prepared,  have  a  lustre  and  richnes.s 
of  colour  strongly  resembling  that  of  the 
natural  gems,  though  in  an  inferior  de- 
gree, 'i'he  business  of  making  these  co- 
loured glasses  or  artificial  gems,  is  carried 
on  to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  variety  of  ornaments,  and  though 
much  of  the  management  remains  a  se- 
cret in  the  hands  of  the  artists,  a  good 
deal  of  valuable  matter  has  been  made 
public  by  the  labours  of  Xeri,  Kunckel, 
.Margra:af,  Fontanieu,  and  many  other 
practical  chemists. 

It  is  veni"  easy  for  any  person  at  all  used 
to  cliemical  experiments  to  repeat  most 
of  these  in  the  small  way,  with  sufficient 
success  to  satisfy  himself  of  the  leading 
facts,  though  for  tb.ejmrpose  of  manufac- 
ture more  care  in  tlie  clioice  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  materials,  and  a  greater  length 
of  time  in  tiie  melting  part  is  required 
than  most  experimcriters  choose  to  be- 
stow. 

It  may  be  premised  too,  that  the  art  of 
making  coloiu-ed  enameU  is  essentially 
the  same  as  that  of  coloured  glasses,  the 
chief  difltirence  being  that  in  the  former 
case  Xhe ground  or  \iLreons  substance  that 
receives  tiie  colour  is  an  opaque  enamel 
glass,  and  in  the  latter  a  clear  transparent 
g-las.s.  The  way  of  preiiaring  the  enamel 
ground  is  described  under  that  article. 
1  lie  coloiu-ing  power  of  the  metallic 
oxyds  is  also  in  many  instances  much  af- 
fected by  the  degree  of  heat  to  which 
they  are  exposed,  and  to  tlie  other  ingre- 
dients with  which  they  are  mixed,  and 
hence  arise  a  good  many  precautions  and 
niceties  of  luanagemcnt,  many  of  which 
are  only  kno\ui  to  the  practical  artist. 
There  seems  good  reason  to  suppose  that 
much  of  this  difterence  depends  on  the 
degree  of  oxygenation  in  which  the  co- 
louring oxyd  is  left  afte^the  action    o: 


GL\ 


GLA 


fire,  or  of  the  other  inj^-ediciits.  Tlie 
phenomena  tliat  occur  in  llic  use  of  man- 
g'anese  Itave  ah-eady  been  described,  and 
somethiiijj  simihu-  happens  in  using  the 
oxvds'of  iron  and  silver.  Sometimes  a 
metallic  oxyd  may  be  so  nearly  reduced 
to  the  reguhne  slate,  as  not  to  lie  pcrtect- 
ly  sohible  in  the  ghiss,  but  only  suspend- 
ed in  it.  'I'his  liappens  occasionally  witii 
the  oxyd  of  copper,  whicli,  wlu  n  ])ei-fectly 
oxydated,  gives  a  fine  bhitish-green,  but 
when  nearly  in  the '  metallic  state  pro- 
duces a  brown-red  and  not  perfectly  trans- 
parent glass.  There  is  also  a  mutual  ac- 
tion of  the  oxyds  upon  each  other,  so  that 
the  glasses  in  which  oxyd  of  had  enters, 
will  not  receive  a  red  colour  by  iron,  an 
effect  which  is  not  produced  with  the 
merely  alkaline  glasses.  .Much  remains 
to  be  done  on  this  very  curious  and  en- 
tcitaining  subject  of  the  colouring  power 
of  metallic  oxyds,  and  it  is  only  by  a  well- 
conducted  scienufic  series  of  ex])eriments 
that  the  perplexing  intricacy  of  many  of 
the  receipts  of  the  articles  on  this  subject 
can  be  reduced  to  certain  rules. 

In  making  coloured  glasses  to  resemble 
artificial  gems,  the  glass  which  is  to  re- 
ceive the  colour  (which  is  often  called 
crystal)  ought  to  unite  the  qualities  of 
great  purity,  lustre,  and  hardness,  toge- 
ther with  a  sufficient  fusibility  to  melt  at 
a  moderate  heat  those  oxyds  that  are  in 
danger  of  being  decomposed  by  a  high 
teini)ei-ature.  A  vast  variety  of  receipts 
have  been  given  for  such  a  glass,  and  it 
appears  that  several  sorts  are  actually  in 
use  according  to  the  price  and  object  of 
the  manufactured  article-  Tiie  glasses 
that  possess  the  greatest  lustre  and  are 
at  the  same  time  easily  fusible,  are  un- 
questionably those  in  which  the  o.\}d  of 
lead  enters  very  largely,  and  it  appears 
that  many  of  them  are  little  else  than 
oxyd  of  lead  vitrified  with  a  much  smaller 
proportion  of  silex  than  is  used  even  in 
flint-glass,  or  any  other  species.  To 
these  borax  is  an  impoitant  addition,  and 
often  arsenic  and  other  fluxes  are  added. 
But  it  unfortunately  happens,  that  the 
lead-glasses  are  at  the  same  time  the  soft- 
est, and  scratch  with  the  greatest  ease. 
Hence  it  is  the  perfection  of  this  art  to 
find  a  compound,  or  manage  any  of  the 
known  compounds,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  unite  both  lustre  and  hardness;  in  the 
former,  the  natural  gems  (the  diamond 
excepted)  may  be  very  nearly  equalled, 
l>ut  not  in  the  latter. 

Many  of  the  older  artists  have  had  the 
idea  that  a  harder  glass  would  be  obtain- 
ed by  making  rock  crystal  the  siliceous 
basis  than  sand,  flint,  or  any  other  stone 
f'f  this  genus.     But  this  seems  totally  un- 


founded ;  for  when  dissolved  in  a  flux  ol 
any  kind,  the  hardness  of  rock-crystal  is 
irrecoverably  lost,  as  it  is  not  an  i'lherent 
propert}-  of  tliis  particular  species  any 
otiierwise  than  as  depending  upon  its  na- 
tural aggregation,  which  of  course  is  de- 
stroyed. Perhaps  it  may  be  somewhat 
puier  than  the  linest  sand,  or  tliaji  pow- 
dered gun-flints,  since  these  (the  latter  ]d| 
at  least  eertainh)  contain  a  very  minute 
portion  of  iron,  wliich  ])ossibly,  though 
not  very  probably,  may  a  little  affect  the 
ver\'  finest  colours.  It  is  rendered  fria- 
ble by  being  heated  red-hot  and  quench- 
ed in  water  in  the  same  way  that  gun- 
flints  are.  It  should  then  be  ground  m  a 
hard  stone  mortar,  or  in  a  mill,  and  not  in 
any  metallic  mortar.     * 

A  few  of  these  glasses  may  be  here 
given  from  tlie  directions  of  M.  Fonta- 
nieu. 

No.  1.  Mix  20  parts  of  litharge,  12  of 
silex,  4  of  nitre,  4  of  borax,  and  2  of  white 
arsenic,  frit  them  in  a  crUcible  and  after- 
wards melt,  then  pour  the  whole  into  wa- 
ter, separate  any  revived  lead  that  may 
be  foi'ind,  and  melt  again. 

No  2.  Mix  20  parts  of  cerusse,  8  of  si- 
lex (powdered  gun-flints)  4  of  carbonat 
of  potash,  and  2  of  borax.  When  melt- 
ed, pour  into  water,  and  re-melt  in  a  clean 
crucible. 

No.  3     Mix  16  parts  of  minium,   8  of  • 
rock-crystal  in  powder,  4  of  nitre,  and  4 
of  carbonat  of  potash ;  melt  and  re-melt 
as  before. 

No.  4.  Treat  as  above  24  parts  of  bo- 
rax, 8  parts  of  rock-crystal,  and  8  of  car- 
bonat of  potash. 

No.  5.  Make  a  quantity  of  liquor  of 
flints  by  fritting  together  3  parts  of  alkali 
with  1  of  rock-crystal,  which  dissolve  in 
water,  and  saturate  with  dilute  nitric  acid. 
Edulcorate  and  thy  the  silex  which  pre- 
cipitates, and  which  is  then  in  a  very  fine 
impal]iable  powder.  'I'hen  melt  it  in  a 
crucible  with  l\  its  weight  of  very  fine  ;^ 
cerusse,  and  ])our  llic  glass  into  water,  ^jf" 
I'hen  break  it  down  ami  melt  it  with  one- 
twelfth  its  weight  of  borax,  and  pour  into 
water  as  bifore.  Lastly  melt  this  latter 
product  with  one-twell'ih  of  nitre, and  the 
result  will  be  a  very  fine  hard  glass  of  ex- 
treme lustre. 

Of  the  above  glasses.  No.  1  will  be  ex 
tremely  soft  and  tusible,  on  account  of  the 
large  ])roi)ortion  of  ihix,  and  it  requires  a 
very  good  crucible  to  withstand  the  cor- 
roding effect  for  a  number  of  hours.  The 
crucibles  are  found  to  stand  better  if  they 
are  first  lineil  with  any  common  glass 
without  lead,  for  which  purpose  a  little  of 
the  glass.  No.  4,  may  be  moistened  with 
water,  rubbed  over  the  hiside  of  the  cru- 


GLA 

oible,  slowly  and  thorouj^y  dried  and 
heated  red-hot  before  tlie  mixtuhe  is  add- 
ed, which  will  give  it  an  uniform  glazini^. 
Silex  requires,  to  nv<ke  a  perfect  and  suffi- 
ciently workable  glass,  from  1 1  to  twice 
its  weight  of  oxyd  of  lead;  and  a  glass  of 
this  kind  with  a  smaller  quantity  of  oxyd 
of  lead  and  a  little  other  flux,  will  be  very 
hard  and  brilliant,  and  will  imitate  the 
diamond  when  properly  set,  more  than 
most  otlier  compositions* 

The  length  of  time  required  for  fusion 
of  the  coloured  glasses,  appears  to  be,  for 
the  hard  glasses  oi  pastes,  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours,  but  the  softer  mixtures  are 
thoroughly  complete  in  a  ihw  hours  In 
the  glass,  No.  4,  the  silex  is  first  directed 
to  be  reduced  to  the  state  of  the  greatest 
purity,  and  the  most  impalpable  powder, 
by  previous  fusion  with  an  excess  of  alka- 
li, and  precipitation  by  an  excess  of  acid 
It  is  seldom  however  that  such  extreme 
nicety  of  preparation  can  be  required,  and 
probably  finely  powdered  flints  would  an- 
swer as  well,  or  even  fine  sand.  The  pro- 
cess of  pouring  the  melted  glass  into  wa- 
ter, and  re-melting,  is  used  to  mix  the  in- 
gredients thoroughly,  auy^  is  found  by  ex- 
perience to  have  its  use. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  colouring 
matters  which  (one  exce])ted)  are  all  me- 
tallic oxyds.  We  shall  first  mention  the 
effect  of  the  several  metals  individually, 
and  then  the  method  of  producing  the 
particular  colours. 

Of  Gold. — This  mjtal  in  the  state  of 
great  division,  and  oxydated,  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  giving  .0  glass  a 
most  exquisite  purplish-red  resembliilg 
the  ruby,  and  nearly  equalling  it  in  beau- 
ty. It  is  both  the  most  cxpensi\e  and 
the  most  splendid  of  all  the  aitificiul 
gems  or  coloured  glasses,  but  t!ie  munage- 
me^it  seems  to  be  extremely  difficult  to 
ensure  the  completest  and  most  unifurio 
_  success,  principally,  as  may  be  sup[)osed, 
from  the  great  tendency  of  gold  to  assume 
the  reguline  state  by  mere  heat,  by  uny 
carbonaceous  vapour,  or  by  hydi-ogen. 
The  most  celebrated  and  the  commonest 
preparation  of  gold  for  giving  a  purple  to 
glass  and  porcelain,  is  the  purple  precipi- 
tate of  C'nssiui,  or  gold  precipitated  from 
its  nitro-muriatic  solution,  by,  and  toge- 
ther with,  the  oxyd  of  tin.  The  usual 
way  of  making  it  is,  to  dilute  very  largely 
a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua-regia  (formed 
by  about  3  parts  nitric  and  1  muriatic 
acid)  and  add  to  it  drop  by  drop  a  very 
dilute  nitro-muriat  of  tin,  well  saturated 
with  this  metal.  The  liquors  immediate- 
ly become  of  a  purplish  red  colour  (like 
port  wine  and  water)  and  by  standing,  a 
precipitate  of  this  colour  with  some  va- 

TOL.    1. 


GLA 

rieties  of  shade,  slowly  subsides.  A  .simi- 
lar precipitate  also  takes  place  with  the 
nitro-muriat  of  gold  and  the  pale  muriat 
of  tin,  and  also  with  great  certainty  by 
immersing  a  stick  of  tin  in  the  dilute  solu- 
tion of  gold.  Though  the  change  of  co- 
lour always  takes  place  when  the  nitro- 
muriat  of  tin  is  used,  the  precipitate 
sometimes  fails  to  separate  without  any 
apparent  reason-  This  substance  is  a 
most  intimate  mixture  of  the  oxyds  of  tin 
and  of  gold,  but  the  precise  state  of  oxy- 
genation of  the  tin  is  not  well  known,  nor 
its  exact  use.  It  is  certainly  not  essential 
to  give  the  purple-red  tinge  to  glass,  since 
many  otlier  preparations  of  gold  will  pro- 
duce it,  in  which  not  an  atom  of  tin  en- 
ters. Possibly  the  tin  enables  the  gold 
to  bear  a  longer  continuance  of  heat,  and 
a  higher  temperature,  without  reduction. 

The  precipitate  formed  by  metallic  tin 
andtlie  solution  of  gold,  may  be  supposed 
to  be  at  a  lower  state  of  oxygenation  than 
where  the  nitro-mui'iat  of  tin  is  employed, 
and  probably  il  is  always  useful  to  add  a 
little  nitre  to  the  powder  before  mixing"  to 
prevent  the  partial  reduction  of  the  gold 
by  the  heat.  Neither  copper  nor  silver, 
in  small  quantities,  appear  to  injure  the 
colouring  power  of  gold. 

Another  preparation  of  this  metal  used 
in  glass  and  porcelain  colours,  is  the  ful- 
minating gold,  prepared  by  precipitating 
this  metal  from  its  nitro-muriatic  solution 
by  ammonia.  This  preparation  i.s  known 
to  explode  most  violently  when  raised  to 
somewiiat  less  than  a  tin  melting  heat,  or 
even  by  moderate  friction,  but  if  kept  tor 
some  time  at  a  much  lower  tempei  ature, 
being  previously  mixed  with  a  fixed  alka- 
li, it  loses  its  fuiiniiiating  property,  and 
may  be  safely  used.  A  more  managea- 
ble preparation  of  gold  is  the  precipitate 
from  the  nitro-muriat  of  gold,  hycarbonat 
of  potash,  which  is  a  brown-red  or  yellow- 
i.-h  powder,  and  is  not  fulminating,  pro- 
vided ihe  solution  of  gold  be  made  with 
the  muriatic  acid,  and  uot  muriat  of  am- 
monia, for  it  is  the  presence  of  ammonia 
that  is  essential  to  tiie  fulminating  proper- 
ly. For  the  fine  poicelaln  carmines,  this 
carbonated  oxyd  of  gold,  as  well  as  the 
decomposed  fulminating  gold,  is  mixed 
with  luna  cornea,  and  then  with  the  pro- 
per quantity  of  saline  flux  in  which  nitre 
and  borax  usually  enter.  The  colouring 
power  of  tliLse  simjjle  oxyds  of  gold,  is^ 
nearly  twelve  times  as  strong  as  that  of 
the  ])nrple  precipitate,  another  proof  that 
the  tin  does  not  of  itself  add  to  the  body 
of  colour.  An  ingenious  way  of  produc- 
ing-a  most  intimate  admixture  of  the  oxyd 
of  gold  with  silex,  is  to  add  the  nitro- 
muriatic  solution  of  the  metal  to  the  li- 
3    H 


GLA 


GLA 


quui*  sUicuiTi,  or  silicited  alkali,  and,  if 
necessary,  to  add  a  further  quantity  of 
any  acid  to  satiu"ite  the  alkali.  'I'ht;  si- 
lex  is  then  precipitated  in  very  intimate 
combination  with  the  gold,  and  when 
washed  and  dried,  is  fit  to  he  used  as  a 
colour,  when  mixed  with  nitre  and  borax 
or  any  other  flux. 

Whenever  the  ])urple  precipitate  by  tin 
is  used,  it  appears  to  be  the  practice  to  add 
about  one-sixth  of  its  weight  of  the  per- 
fect white  oxytl  of  antimony  by  nitre,  or 
else  of  the  glass  of  antimony.  This  natu- 
rally gives  a  yellow  ;  and  it  seems  by  ex- 
perience to  be  a  very  important  ingredient 
in  the  composition  of  the  fine  ruby  glass. 
The  particular  rules  for  managing  tiic 
fire  in  making  this  nice  and  difficult  pre 
paration,  are  known  only  to  practical  ar 
tists,  but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that 
the  peculiar  risk  is  of  giving  too  much 
heat,  and  thereby  of  destroying  the  co- 
lour altogether.  All  kind  of  smoke  and 
other  vapours  should  also  be  avoided 
The  finest  ruby  glass  is  said  to  come  out 
of  the  crucible,  when  complete,  quite  co- 
lourless, but  to  assume  its  peculiar  exqui- 
site tint  as  it  cools. 

OJ  Silver. — All  the  oxyds  of  silver  give 
naturally  a  yellow  to  vitrescent  mixtures, 
which  appears  to  be  very  pure  and  beau- 
tiful, but  is  not  often  used  in  the  coloured 
glasses  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which 
it  is  destroyed  by  too  much  heat.  It 
seems  to  be  chietly  used  in  the  tentler 
porcelain  and  enamel  colours,  wliere  the 
eye  of  the  artist  can  always  be  upon  his 
work,  and  the  heat  is  lower  and  much 
more  manageable.  In  the  latter  case  the 
oxyd  of  silver  is  generally  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  alumine.  The  phos- 
jjhat  of  silver  formed  by  adding  tiie  ni- 
trat  of  silver  to  the  phosphat  of  soda,  is 
also  employed. 

Of  Iron. — The  shades  of  colour  pro- 
duced by  the  oxyds  of  iron  are  very  nu- 
merous. In  the  general  account  of  glass- 
'"iTia'Kip.git  was  observed,  that  a  very  small 
portion  of  iron,  fully  vitrified  with  a  large 
^  ijody  (if  glass,  gave  dillciiSAt  sl.ades  of 
grce^i  and  yellow,  and  to  this  the  coiour  of 
commwn  green  bottle  glass  seems  to  he 
owing.  A  larger  dose  uf  iron  gives  a  yel- 
low after  thoroiigli  viti-ification,  and  a 
still  larger  gives  a  brownish  black,  which 
seems  to  be  only  ayellovv  very  much  con- 
centrated, since  liii.s  J^itler  colour  is  again 
jjroducod  by  diluting  the  Ijrownish-biack 
with  a  gi'cater  (['wuitiiy  of  uncolourcd 
glass.  The  oxyds  (.tiron  also  pruduoc  a 
red  upon  enamel  :ui<l  porcelain,  but  as  it 
appears,  tljs  is  only  owing  to  imperiict 
vitrification,  tliat  is  im  say,  it  is  only  red  as 
longf  as  it  is  merely  cuiipciuled  in  the  glass 


fiux  in  a  stSI  of  extreme  division,  fur 
when  byraisinp  the  heat  a  complete  fu- 
sion of  the  oxyd  is  produced,  the  colour 
turns  to  yellow.  This  change  is  inge-  X 
niously  prevented  by  combining  the  oxyd 
j)reviously  with  alumine,  by  mixing  the 
sulj)hat  of  iron  and  alum  together  in  solu- 
tion, and  precipitating  both  together  by 
carbonat  of  potash,  as  mentioned  under  _ 
the  article  Enamel.  * 

A  great  many  preparations  of  iron  for 
these  purposes  have  been  given,  parti- 
cvdarly  the  saffron  of  mars,  the  ethiops, 
and  the  red  oxyd  precipitated  from  any 
of  the  solutions,  all  of  which  will  be  men- 
tioned under  the  article  Ikon.  It  does 
not  appear,  however,  that  there  is  any 
certain  foundation  for  preferring  one  to 
the  other,  for  even  the  perfect  oxyd  by 
nitric  acid,  and  which  is  itself  of  a  dark 
red-brown,  when  fully  vitrified  jiroduces 
a  yellow  or  brown  according  to  the  dose, 
as  well  as  any  of  the  sub-oxyds.  Brcgni- 
art  asserts  that  the  presence  of  the  oxyd 
of  lead  singularly  disposes  the  perfect 
oxyd  of  iron  to  lose  its  red  or  rose  co-  , 
lour,  for  which  it  is  used  in  enamelling, 
when  urged  by  strong  fire,  hut  when  no 
lead  is  present  We  colour  is  fixed. 

Of  copper.  All  the  oxyds  and  carbona- 
ted oxyds  of  copper  produce  a  fine  green 
when  thoroughly  vitrified  with  any  kind 
of  glass  or  flux,  and  this  colour  is  one 
of  the  easiest  to  produce  in  experiments  in 
the  small  way  There  does  not  seem  to 
be  much  reason  for  ])relerence  of  one 
preparation  over  ?iie  other.  Those  tliQ 
most  freqeently  employed  are  the  carbo- 
iltited  oxvd  produced  by  adding  a  car- 
bonated alkali  to  the  sulpiiat  of  cojiper, 
and  also  the  jes  ustum  or  copper  oxyda- 
ted  and  calcined  simply  by  heat  and  ac- 
cess of  air.  This  metal,  however,  may  be 
made  to  give  a  carniine  red  (or  mixed 
wiUi  iron  a  full  deep  red)  i)y  adding  to 
glass  containing  it  a  quantity  of  tartar 
when  in  comi)leie  fusion  and  working  oiV 
almost  immediately.  The  oxyd  of  cop-  .^ 
j)er  must  in  this  case  be  reduced  nearly  ^ 
to  the  reguline  state.  A  greater  contlnu-' 
anci;  of  the  heai  restores  the  green  colour, 
riie  oxyd  of  cojjper  is  also  often  mixed 
with  manganese  and  iron  in  tlie  composi- 
tion of  the  luii-lKidied  black  glass.  This 
oxyd  when  oombimid  with  thride  its 
weight  of  alumine  runs  in  a  strong  heat 
into  an  opakc  red  enamel. 

Of  Lead.  The  oxyds  of  lead  naturally 
[Vive  a  yellow  tinge  to  glass,  but  only  con- 
siderably so  v>lien  in  very  large  tpiantity. 
riieir  use  as  a  'flux  has  iieen  repeatedly 
mentioned,  and  tliey  will  readily  \iti-lfy 
most  completely  in  a  moderate  lieat  with- 
out addition,  or  will  unite  with  any  other 


GLA 


GLA 


vitiifiable  matters  and  most  powerfully  as- 
sist their  vitrification.  This  oxyd  is  sel- 
dom used  directly  as  a  colour,  on  ac- 
count of  the  enormous  proportion  requir- 
ed, whicl)  should  be  at  least  three-fourths 
of  the  glass  to  give  a  yellow  of  an  in- 
tensity, and  tliis  would  give  a  compound 
extremely  soft  and  one  that  would  pow- 

^'  erfully  corrode  the  crucibles. 

Of . iittimony.  The  perfect  oxyd  of  this 
metal  gives  a  full  yeilow  to  glass  which 
is  much  used,  botli  alone  and  in  com- 
pound colours  in  v/hich  yellow  is  a  ne- 
cessaiy  ingredient, 

OJ  Manganese.  The  peculiar  circum- 
stances attending  the  use  of  this  metal- 
lic oxyd  in  glass-making  have  already 
been  mentioned.  "When  not  in  contact 
with  carbonaceous  matter  the  proper  co- 
lour given  by  this  oxyd  to  glass  is  a  pur- 
plish-red, rather  muddy  wiien  in  full 
body,  but  still  very  beautiful.  It  is  al- 
most always  combined  with  nitre  when 
thus  employed.  The  colour  is  totally 
destroyed  by  all  the  arsenical  salts  as 
before-mentioned,  and  therefore  arsenic 
in  any  form  should  be  avoided  when  man- 
ganese is  used  as  a  colouring  matter.  It 
also  is  tlie  principal  ingredient  in  most  of 
the  black  glasses. 

Of  Cobalt.  The  colour  given  by  the 
oxyd  of  this  metal  is  a  fine  deep  blue, 
whicii  is  unalterable  in  any  fire,  and  suc- 
ceeds with  any  flux.  The  colouring  pow- 
er is  also  very  intense-  ZaflTre  is  usu- 
ally employed  for  this  purpose.  Cobalt 
is  also  used  for  some  of  the  finer  blacks 
mixed  with  manganese  and  iron,  and  with 
the  yellow  of  antimony  and  lead  it  com- 
poses a  green. 

Of  J\''!ciel.  Though  this  oxyd  is  not 
actually  used,  it  may  here  be  mentioned, 
that  tlie  oxyd  gives  a  violet-blue  glass 
witli  fluxes  of  potash  and  to  those  glasses 
in  which  it  largely  enters,  but  not  with 
soda  or  borax.  Klaproth  has  fully  as- 
rertained  this    in     liis     analysis   of    the 

^^hrysoprase,  which,  from  its  giving  a 
blue  to  potash  glass,  was  thought  to 
contain  cobalt,  but  this  is  not  the  case, 
the  colouring  matter  being  nickel.  Thus 
one  part  qf  the  rough  chrysoprase,  and 
two  parts  of  carbonac  of  potash  fused  in- 
to a  violet-blue  glass ;  and  80  parts  of 
.silex,  60  of  caibonat  of  potash,  and  three 
of  oxyd  of  nickel  from  tiie  chrysoprase, 
also  gave  a  violet-blue  glass.  The  same 
result  was  given  by  using  an  o.'cyd  of  nic- 
kel from  a  known  ore  of  that  metal. 
Equal  parts  of  ti>e  chrysoprase  and  of  car- 
bonat  of  soda  gave  a  tourmaline-brown 
glass  nearly  opake.  Equal  parts  of  chry- 
soprase and  calcined  borax  gave  a  brown 
transparent  gLiss  :  and  60  parts  of  siiex, 


as  much  borax,  and  three  parts  of  oxyd  of 
of  nickel,  also  gave  a  cleai"  light  brown 
glass.  Silex,  phosphoric  acid,  and  oxyd 
of  nickel  in  the  same  proportions  gave  a 
honey-)  ellow  glass  but  not  quite  clear. 

Of  Tungsten.  Though  this  is  not  used 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  with  fluxes  of 
phosphoric  acid  it  gives  a  blue  glass,  but 
not  when  borax  or  alkalies  are  used. 

Of  Chrome.  This  metal  which  is  the 
natural  colouring  matter  of  the  ruby  and 
emerald,  would  be  a  most  valuable  in- 
gredient for  the  ai'tificial  gems  if  it  could 
be  procured  with  a  tolerable  ease.  It 
has  been  found  to  give  a  fine  red  and  also 
a  most  beautiful  and  exquisite  green  to 
glasses,  but  its  great  scai-city  has  pre- 
vented its  frequent  use.     See  Chrome. 

Having  thus  generally  described  the 
colouring  properties  of  the  several  me- 
tallic oxyds,  some  of  the  actual  recipes 
for  the  different  coloured  glasses  may 
be  mentioned.  These  we  shall  chiefly 
give  from  M.  Fontanieu,  and  from  Neri 
and  Kunckel,  to  which  may  be  added 
the  actual  composition  of  a  few  of  the 
beautiful  antique  coloured  glasses,  as 
found  by  the  analysis  of  Klaproth.  Witli 
regard  to  the  recipes  however,  it  may  be 
added  that  there  appears  such  enormous 
difference  in  the  relative  proportions  of 
the  metallic  oxyds  to  the  fluxes  used,  as 
either  to  give  a  suspicion  of  extreme  in- 
accuracy or  to  shew  that  it  must  in  most 
cases  be  determined  by  individual  exp  e 
rience. 

Of  the  Ruby  red,  Purple,  Violet,  ^c.  6y 
Gold.  Little  can  be  added  here  to  what 
has  been  said  above  under  Gold.  The 
particulars  of  the  process  have  always 
been  carefully  kept  secret  by  the  success- 
ful artists,  and  from  the  frequent  failures 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  very 
difficult  process  to  manage.  According 
to  Kunckel  and  others  who  have  suc- 
ceeded, it  appeai-s  that  tlie  colouring 
power  of  tlie  purple  precipitate  of  Cassius, 
or  the  mixed  oxyds  of  gold  and  tin,  is  so 
great  that  one  part  will  give  a  full  rich 
body  of  colour  to  from  600  to  1000  or 
more  of  glass.  The  glass  of  antimony  too 
seems  an  important  addition.  This  ruby 
glass  comes  out  of  the  fire  colourless,  but 
assumes  its  beautiful  hue  as  it  cools.  It 
has  been  thought  tliat  the  colour  is  also 
further  brought .  out  by  exposure  to 
smoke. 

Of  other  Beds,  Purples,  and  Violets. 
Some  of  these  are  composed  of  a  colour- 
less glass  basis,  such  as  one  of  the  five 
before  mentioned,  whh  manganese  either 
alone  or  with  the  purple  precipitate  of 
gold,  or  more  commonly  witli  the  oxyd 
(if  cobalt.     Tlie  colour  given   by  manga- 


GLA 


GLA 


I 


nese  being'  of  a  violet  red,  the  cobalt  will 
give  it  a  more  decided  purple  by  adding: 
its  natural  blue.  It  is  impossible  to  pick 
out  from  the  various  recipes  any  other 
proportions,  than  that  Uie  oxyd  of  man- 
ganese will  cover  very  fully  about  lOU 
times  its  weight  of  glass  when  used  alone, 
and  when  cmi)loyed  w  ith  cobnh,  200  parts 
of  glass  will  be  highly  coloured  wilh  one 
of  manganese,  and  (for  a  purple)  about 
one-third  to  two-fourlhs  of  zafire. 

Neri  gives  tlie  following  receipt  for  a 
glass  to  imitate  tlic  garnet,  namely,  2oz. 
of  rock  crjstal,  6oz.  of  minium,  Ih  grains 
of  manganese,  and  2  grains  of  zafh-e. 
Kunckel  gives  for  a  violet  red  glass  a 
common  lead-glass  basis  with  -ji^ 
of  manganese,  mixed  with  nitre.  Foiita- 
nieu  gives  for  the  imitation  of  the  ame- 
thyst, 24  oz.  of  his  glass,  No.  5  (as  al- 
ready described),  A  oz.  of  manganese, 
and  4  grains  of  purple  p)ecipitate  of 
gold,  together  with  Ih  ounce  of  nitre. 
But  the  quantity  of  colouring  matter 
here  is  so  enormous  iliut  the  vitreous  ba- 
sis should  probably  be  24  pounds  instead 
oi  ounces. 

A  fine  red  has  been  mentioned  to  be 
procured  from  the  oxyd  of  cojiper  (with 
or  without  oxyd  of  iron)  mixed  witli  the 
due  proportion  of  glass  and  wiUi  carbo- 
naceous matter  stirred  in.  For  a  full 
deep  red  tiie  oxyd  of  iron  should  be  three 
or  four  times  as  much  as  the  copper, 
and  in  proportion  as  the  latter  predomi- 
nates the  colour  approaches  to  carmine. 
The  glass  at  first  should  appear  when  hot 
only  of  a  faint  greenish-yellow,  and,  when 
in  full  fusion,  some  tai-tar  is  stirred  in, 
which  in.stantly  reddens  the  whole  and 
causes  it  to  swell  prodigiously,  after 
which  it  again  subsides  into  a  clear  red 
glass,  which  should  be  worked  off  with- 
out delay.  Probably  charcoal  would  an- 
swer as  well  as  tartar. 

The  anti([ue  red  glass  analyzed  by 
Klaproth  must  probably  have  been  made  in 
the  same  way,  that  is  by  carbonizing  a 
^glass  containing  the  oxyds  of  iron  and 
copper.  'I'lie  colour  was  a  lively  cop- 
per-red,  perfectly  opake  and  bright  at 
the  point  of  fracture.  The  earthy  and  me- 
tallic ])arts  of  400  prains,  as  given  by  ana- 
lysis, were  as  follows  : 

Silcx         -         -  -  142 

Oxyd  of  lead     -  -  28 

Oxyd  of  copjier  .-  1.5 

Oxyd  of  iron      -  -  2 

Aluminc  -         -  -  5 

Lione         -        -  -  3 

195 


It  is  observable  that  this  was  opake, 
whereas  the  former  mentioned  glass  is 
transparent.  Klaproth  conjectures  that 
this  antique  glass  was  made  not  by  any 
intentional  proportion  or  selection  of  in- 
greiUents,  but  from  the  scorix  of  some 
co])per  ores. 

Of  Gre'.n  Glasses.  For  these,  which 
are  hilendcd  to  imitate  the  emerald  when 
full-bodied,  and  the  aquamarine  when 
light,  there  are  Ynany  receipts. 

Among  others  the  following  may  be  se- 
lected. Take  160  parts  of  any  glass  basis 
into  which  muc!»  lead  enters,  as  the  glass 
No.  1,  2,  3,  or  5,  mix  it  with  4  parts  of 
the  oxyd  of  copper  made  by  simple  cal- 
cination, and  .r?^  of  a  part  of  any  oxjd  ot 
iron,  and  melt  with  a  sufficient  heat.  In 
this  as  in  all  the  other  emerald  colours  a 
very  small  addition  of  iron  seems  highly 
useful  to  give  somewhat  of  a  richness  of 
tint,  and  to  take  away  the  cold  hue  of  the 
copper  alone.  For  this  reason  too  the 
rich  yellow  of  the  leadtis  of  so  much  ad- 
vantage. 

Another  is,  576  parts  of  the  glass  ba- 
sis, 6  of  the  same  oxyd  of  copper,  and 
only  -j4:j:  of  oxyd  of  iron.  -Another  is, 
200  parts  of  fine"  sand,  400  of  minium,  8 
of  calcined  verdigris,  and  1  of  oxyd  of 
iron.  The  variation  in  these  proportions 
is  extreme. 

Another  method  of  composing  the  eme- 
rald-green is  by  a  nfixture  of  blue  and 
yellow  glass  in  due  proportions.  The 
yellow  may  be  given  by  the  oxyd  of  an- 
timony, and  the  blue  by  cobalt.  Fonta- 
nieu  g'ives  for  this  120  parts  of  any  of  the 
glass  bases,  1  of  mountain  htut,  and  -j^^- 
of  glass  of  antimony :  or  else  576  parts  of 
the  glass  No.  2,  20  of  glass  of  antimony, 
and  3  of  oxyd  of  cobalt  (not  zafti-e). 

When  the  green  has  a  sensible  mixture 
of  blue  in  tl'ie  tint  it  forms  a  fine  semie- 
what  cold  colour  resembling  the  aqua- 
marine. Tiiis  is  produced  in  general  by 
adding  cobalt  in  some  form  or  other  to 
the  matei'ials  for  the  gretn  glass.  For 
this  the  following  receipts  are  given  by 
Neri,  Kunckel,  and  Fontanieu.  Melt 300 
parts  of  any  fine  crystal  glass  made  with- 
out manganese,  add  thereto  at  intervals 
6  parts  of  calcined  copper  or  aiiy  similar 
preparation,  and  ^  of  a  part  ofzailie,  stir 
the  glasa  well  while  mixing,  and  then  let 
them  fuse  quietly  fin*  some  hours.  No 
reasons  appear  however  why  the  whole 
materials  should  not  be  mi.xed  at  first  as 
in  the  usual  mode.  Another  is,  300  jjarts 
'of  fine  soda  glass  with  6  of  calcined  brass, 
melted  together,  stirred  twice  at  long  in- 
tervals, the  heat  being  continued  a  long- 
time, and   finally  suffered   to  remuiii  in 


GLA 


GLA 


quiet  fasion  for  many  hours  before  work- 
ing. Another  is,  256  parts  of  fine  glass, 
and  150  of  litharge  or  minium,  first  melt- 
ed togetlier  and  well  mixed  (or  else  any 
©f  the  glass  bases  already  mentioned  that 
contain  lead),  to  which  is  added  4  parts 
of  calcined  brass  or  of  oxyd  of  copper 
made  by  calcination,  and  ^  a  part  of 
zaiTie.  Another  receipt  for  this  colour 
is  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  blue,  in  such 
proportions  that  the  blue  shall  prevail  a 
little  over  the  perfect  green,  the  natural 
result  of  the  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow. 
This  is  done  by  adding  to  24  parts  of  the 
glass  basis  No.  1  or  No.  3,  1-3  part  of 
glass  of  antimony,  and  -j^-^  of  a  part  of 
oxyd  of  cobalt. 

According  to  Klaproth's  analysis  of  a 
portion  of  an  antique  verdigris-green 
opake  glass,  the  colour  was  formerly,  as 
now,  given  by  copper  and  a  small  portion 
of  iron,  the  same  in  kind  as  those  that 
composed  the  red  glass  above  mentioned, 
and  probably  also  the  oxyds  were  not  ar- 
tificially mixed  but  were  used  as  contain- 
ed in  a  natural  ore.  Two  hundred  grains 
of  this  green  glass  or  paste  yielded 

grains 

OfSilex 130 

O.'cyd  of  copper    ...  20 

Oxyd  of  lead    .     .     .     .'  15 

Oxyd  of  iroa    ....  7 

Lime 13 

Alumine 11 

196 

Of  Blue  Glasses.— These  glasses,  which 
are  intended  to  imitate  the  sapphire,  are 
composed  of  a  common  basis  and  colour- 
ed with  cobalt,  but  generally  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  quantity  of  manganese,  which 
by  addhig  a  violet  tint  gives  a  gi-eater 
richness  of  body.  When  the  manganese 
is  in  large  proportion,  the  colour  then  is 
a  ricii  violet  blue  or  purple  resembling 
the  amethyst.  There  ajjpears  no  agree- 
ment in  the  different  receipts  as  to  thS  re- 
lative proportions  of  manganese,  only  that 
the  latter  should  be  in  less  quantity  than 
tile  cobalt  when  used  in  the  dilute  form 
of  xaitre.  These  mixtures  appear  to  be 
materially  improved  by  being  twice  melt- 
ed and  poured  into  water  and  powdered 
between  the  first  and  second  fusion. 
Among  the  several  receipts  the  following 
may  be  given,  namely,  to  100  parts  of  a 
fine  glass,  without  lead,  add  1  part  of 
zaffre  and  -^^  of  a  part  of  manganese. 
Another  is  240  parts  of  glass  frit,  made 
witii  soda  and  sand  only,  192  of  minium, 
2  of  zaflre  and  one  third  of  manganese 
melted  twice  and  treated  as  above.     Or  a 


very  fine  blue  glass  may  be  made  simplj 
by  the  glass  No.  5,  with  a  necessary  dose 
of  oxyd  of  cobalt  or  zaffre. 

Though  blue  glasses  cannot  be  now 
made  v.'ithout  cobalt,  it  is  certain  .that 
iron  in  some  mode  of  combination  gives 
this  colour  in  great  perfection.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  the  natural  colouring  mattei* 
of  the  sapphire,  lapis  lazuli,  and  some 
other  blue  minerals,  and  is  frequently 
produced  accidentally  in  the  scoriae  of 
iron  ores.  The  art  of  colouring  pastes 
and  enamels  blue  with  iron  was  certainly 
known  to  the  antients  but  is  now  entirely 
lost.  This  is  proved  by  tlie  analysis  of 
some  of  the  antient  blue  enamels,  in  which 
no  metallic  matter  but  iron,  with  a  small 
proportion  of  copper,  can  be  detected. 
Whether  the  copper  assists  in  the  effect 
cannot  be  told.  Klaproth  analyzed  an 
opake  antient  lioman  enamel,  the  colour 
of  which  was  sapphire  blue  verging  to- 
wards that  of  smalt,  and  found  the  fol- 
lowing ingredients. 

parts 

Silex 163 

Oxyd  of  iron      .     .     .       19 
Oxyd  of  copper     .     ,         1 

Alumine 3 

Lime 0.5 


186.5 


Some  of  these  pjates  of  enamel  were 
coloured  equally  throughout,  others  only 
to  a  certain  depth  on  one  surface,  and 
the  colour  was  given  so  uniformly  that 
the  plate  had  tlie  appearance  of  two 
plates,  one  blue  and  the  other  colourless, 
adhering  to  each  other. 

Of  reUoKv  Glasses.— The  oxyds  of  lead, 
antimony,  and  silver  are  those  which  are 
used  to  give  a  yellow  to  imitate  the  varie- 
ties of  tlie  topaz,  or  the  yellow  diamond. 
M.  Fontanieu  gives  the  following  propor- 
tions: 24  parts  of  the  glass  jYo.  1,  or  JVo. 
3,  and  five  eigliths  of  a  part  of  glass  of 
antimony,  or  for  the  deeper  coloured  to- 
paz, six  eighths.  For  tlie  imitation  of  the 
Brazilian  Topaz  he  advises  192  parts  of 
the  glass  J\o.  2,  or  2^o.  3,  eight  and  one 
third  parts  of  glass  of  antimony,  and  one 
ninth  of  a  part  of  the  purple  precipitate  of 
gold.  An  inferior  yellow  glass  may  be 
made  by  fusing  simply  2  pai-ts  of  fine 
sand  or  silex  of  any  kind,  with  7  parts  of 
minium,  but  this  is  vei'y  soft  The  deli- 
cate hue  of  the  yellow  diamond  is  imitat- 
ed by  adding  to  576  parts  of  the  glass 
iVb  4,  25  parts  of  luna  cornea,  or  ten 
parts  of  glass  of  antimony. 

A  colour  varying  in  shade  from  browTi 
to  dingy  smoke  yellow,  and  thence  to  a 
fine  transparent  yellow,  is  given  to  com* 


GLA 


GLA 


mon  pflass  simply  by  adding  to  it  when  in 
soft  fusign,  any  vegetable  carbonaceous 
matter,  part  of  which  rises  to  the  top  and 
is  burnt  oflT,  but  a  part  also  remains  uni- 
formly diffused  through  the  glass,  and 
gives  it  a  fine  yellow  vvitliout  impairing' 
its  transparency.  No  continuance  of  the 
fire  will  burn  out  this  xellow  colour  al- 
together, after  it  has  oucc  lost  its  dingy 
smoked  hue  and  accpiiretl  a  clear  yellow. 
Tartar  has  been  Cv)nnii()nly  used  ibr  this 
purpose,  but  almost  any  vegetable  inflam- 
mable substance  not  H;iid,  will  probably 
ilo  as  well ;  tiie  soft  charcoal  of  the  beech 
answers  the  same  purpose.     ^Nrungaiicsc 


glass  rendered  opake  by  some  addition 
which  in  any  proportion  impairs  the  trans- 
larency;  and  the  blue,  green,  yellow, 
ind  other  coloured  opake  glasses  have 
the  white  glass  for  a  basis,  and  are  co- 
loured in  the  same  way  as  the  transparent 
glasses. 

Jf'/iitc  Class — The  finest  white  glass  is 
a  vitreous  base  made  opake  by  the  ox\  d 
of  tin,  and  is  tiien  called  Enamel,  (which 
sec). 

liut  a  very  good  white  may  be  made  at 
less  expence  b)  substituting  for  the  oxv  d 
of  tin  a  j)retty  large  quantity  of  bone-ash 
or  phosphai  of  lime  in  very  fine  powder. 


lias  been  employed  in  liie  compositioli  of  jit  ajjpears  to  be  owing  chiefly  to  the  ex- 
this  glass,  hut  it  appc;us  to  be  of  no  use.  j  treme  infusibility  of  this  earthy  salt  that 
Sometimes  the  carbonaceous  matter  is  \  the  opacity  is  produced,  so  that  in  fiict 
added  to  the  glass  frit  when  beginning  to  the  glass  thus  mude  is  a  common  vitJ'cs- 
melt  in  the  glass  pots,  at  other  times  it  is  cent  compound  holding  in  intimate  mix- 
mixed  with  it  before  firing.  A  little  nitre  liu'e  a  quantity  of  unvitrescible  earth, 
is  foimd  of  use  in  clearing  the  colour  and  Neri's  receipts  tor  white  glass  are  the 
correcting  the  smoakiness.  but  too  much  following:  mix  together  60  parts  of  white 
of  it  will  destroy  the  colour  altogether.  !  .sand,  40  of  potash,  and  10  of  finely  pow- 
This  glass  swells  much  in  the  pot,  when  dei  ed  bonc-asb,  and  melt  for  the  usual 
preparing,  owing  to  the  escape  of  part  of  time  of  glass-muking.  The  result  is  a 
the  carbonaceous  matter,  especially  when  glass,  which  when  fully  red-hot  is  trans- 
tartar  is  employed  :  but  probably  with  parent,  but  becomes  milky  and  opake  as 
quite  dry  and  fresli  burnt  charcoal,  pre-  soon  as  it  cools.  It  does  not  appear  cer- 
viously  heated  strongly  in  close  vessels  tain  whether  tliis  change  is  chiefly  owing 
for  about  an  hour,  no  such  eflect  would  to  a  deception  of  sight  which  does  not 
take  place  i  allow  the  degree  of  opacity  to  be  distin- 

Of  the  .irfificial  Diamond — Though  I  guishcd  when  red-hot,  or  whether  the 
no  art  has  ever  invented  any  vitreous  com-  i  glass  really  becomes  opake  only  when  it 
position  which  can  be  mistaken  for  the  i  cools,  and'then  deposits  the  bone-ash  by 
real  cut  diamond,  by  an  eye  at  all  prac-  -tiie  elFect  of  a  kind  of  supersaturation  by 
tised,  (unless  by  particular  artifices  in  the  \  heat. 

setting,  which  are  easily  detected)  yet  Another  receipt  is,  130  parts  of  sand 
some  artists  can  prejiare  a  very  fine  bril-  or  calcined  flint,  70  of  nitre,  12  of  borax, 
liant  hard  glass  paste,  which  possesses    12  of  tartar,  5  of  arsenic,  and  15  of  bone- 


great  beauty,  and  a  very  considerable 
nvatcr  or  play  of  light,  which  more  nearly 
imitates  the  dianiond  than  all  the  com- 
mem  artificial  gems.  It  will  be  sufficient 
here  to  add  that  AI.  Fonlanieu  recom- 

,    mends  his  glass  Ah.  1,  for  this  purpose. 

ATliese   glasses    rvc(uire    a    considerable 

ifiiiength  oitime  of  strong  fusion  before  they 
.re  brought  to  tlie  state  of  the  greatest' 
I'  arness  and  brilliance 
OfOpah  Glns.^es — The  materials  which 
1  m  the  opake  glasses  are  a  common  vi- 
icons  basis,  as  for  the  coloured  glasses, 
and  cidiei'  an  excessive  dose  of  colouring 
metallic  oxyd  whicli  slwdl   p.ive  such  a 
depth  and  body  of  colour  as  to  proiluce 
opacity,  or  a    subatancc  whicli  of  itself 
gives  an  opake  vl;i'. cress,  to  which  any 
colour  may   be   alurwaids  adt'ed   if  re- 
quired.    In   gei!cral  it  is  only  the  black 
glasses  whicli  are  n»ade  opake  by  mesi'e 

*  quantity  of  the  same  coloHr  which,  in 
smaller  pn'jjoiiion,  would  be  transparent ; 
and  the  wliu?  glasses  art-  made  with  a 


ash. 

An  imitation  of  the  opal  is  made  ac- 
cording to  Fontanieu  by  mixing  576 parts 
of  the  glass  Ah.  3,  lUofluna  cornea,  'J 
of  magnetic  iron  ore,  and  26  of  bone-ash. 

Black  Glass. —  It  is  not  easy  to  make  a 
very  full-bodied,  perfectly  opake,  fine 
blaclj  glass.  This  is  commonly  made  by 
ijnarganese,  and  it  has  been  i'ound  that 
one  part  of  this  oxyd  will  give  a  full  body 
of  opake  black  to  about  20  of  glass.  A 
finer  black  used  chiefly  by  the  cnamellers 
is  made  (.iS  appears)  by  mixing  together 
equal  parts  of  manganese,  zafire,  and 
scales  of  iron,  and  fusing  one  part  of  this 
mixed  jKiwder  with  15  or  twenty  of  any 
kind  of  glass. 

For  the  other  opake  coloured  glasses 
no  more  need  be  added  than  that  tiiey 
may  be  made  in  the  same  way  as  the- 
transparent  coloured  glasses,  .'iubsli'iuting 
tlie  opake  white  glass  far  the  common  vi-  . 
treous  base.  These  however  are  not 
much    used  in  mass,  or  l()r  any  of  the 


QLA 


GLA 


common  useful  or  ornamental  purposes  to 
which  the  transparent  glasses  are  applied. 
The  opake  coloured  enamels  are  oompos- 
td  on  the  same  general  principles,  the 
base  being  the  while  enamel  made  with 
the  oxyd  of  tin. 

Glass,  blowers  lamp,  ^ 

Glass,  flint,  I 

Glass,  crystal,  ^ 

Glass,  crown,  |    z 

Glass,  gi-een,  J    S 

Glass,  plate,  or  mirror  glass. 

Glass,  coloured, 

Glass,  pastes. 

Glass,  purple, 

Glass,  yellow. 

Glass,  blue. 

Glass,  ruby. 

Glass,  violet, 

Glass,  opake,  white  and  black. 

Glass,  gilding  of     See  Gilding. 

Glass,  silvering  of.  See  Foliating,  also, 
Glass-Jitaking. 

Glass,  method  of  etching  on.  See  £«- 
graving  en  Glass. 

GLASS  OF  BORAX  is  borax  calcined 
till  it  loses  its  water  of  crystallization  and 
flows  into  a  very  thin  limpid  glass.  A 
moderate  red  heat  is  sufficient  for  the 
purpose.  This  becomes  slightly  opake 
by  exposure  to  the  air,  in  consequence  of 
an  incipient  efflorescence. 

GLASS-GALL,  or  Sandiver,  is  the  scum 
of  the  glass-pots  which  arises  during  the 
vitrification    of   the   fi'it.      See    Glass- 

M-\KING. 

GLASSES  (.Metallic)  are  the  oxyds,  or 
sometimes  the  sulphuretted  oxyds  of  the 
different  metals  vitrified  by  heat.  Those 
of  lead  and  antimony  are  the  most  familial- 
to  Chemists. 

GLAUBER'S  SALT,  called  also  Sul- 
phateof  Soda,  Vitriolated Natron,  SaUlr- 
rabiie,  &c 

This  suit  is  produced  either  by  the  di- 
rect combination  of  sulphuric  acid  and  so- 
da, or  duiing  certain  processes  of  single 
or  double  decomposition,  it  is  also  found 
in  mineral  waters,  and  in  the  waters  of 
the  sea. 

It  was  first  discovered  by  Glauber,  in 
165S,  in  the  residue  of  the  distillation  of 
conmion  salt,  and  sulphuiic  acid,  for  pro- 
curing muriatic  acid.  This  salt  and  Ep- 
som salt,  or  sulphat  of  magnesia,  were 
oVtcn  confounded  together,  for  some  time 
aficr  ti'ie  first  discovery  of  each,  till  the 
real  nature  of  the  latter  was  ascertained 
by  Dr.  Black. 

Sulphat  of  soda  is  found  native  in  a  va- 
riety of  places,  and  both  solid  and  dissol- 
ved in  natural  waters,  but  on  the  whole, 
the  quantity  is  but  small.  The  native 
Glauber's  salt,  is  found  in  Hungary,  in 


the  neighbourhood  of  salt  lakes,  and  is 
described  under  this  article.  This  salt 
is  also  contained  in  greater  or  less  quan- 
tity, in  almost  every  natui-al  water  that 
has  any  saline  taste  or  quality,  such  as  the 
Seltzer,  Cheltenham,  &c.  and  particularly 
in  many  of  the  hot  saline  springs,  combi- 
ned with  carbonat  of  soda,  of  which  the 
celebrated  thermal  waiters  of  Carlsbad  are 
striking  instances,  and  are  estimated  by 
fair  calculation  to  pour  out  annually,  up- 
wards of  a  million  of  pounds  of  this  salt, 
along  with  other  ingredients.  Many  brine 
springs  also  contain  this  salt,  which  re- 
mains in  the  mother  water  after  the  ex- 
traction of  tlie  common  salt,  and  may  then 
be  obtained  by  evaporation  and  crystalli- 
zation on  cooling. 

Glauber's  salt,  we  have  observed,  is  al 
so  procured  in  many  processes  of  chemi- 
cal manufacture,  cither  as  a  residue,  or  an 
intermediate  product  in  the  preparation  of 
soda.  A  good  de;J  of  it  is  obtained  in 
manufacture,  as  a  residue  in  the  distilla- 
tion of  muriatic  acid,  from  sulphuric  acid 
and  common  salt,  or  of  oxymuriatic  acid 
from  sulphuric  acid,  common  salt,  and 
manganese ;  or  in  the  manufacture  of  sal 
ammoniac  from  sulphat  of  ammonia  and 
common  salt,  which  last  furnishes  the 
greater  part  of  the  Glauber's  salt,  import- 
ed into  this  country. 

This  salt  is  also  obtained  by  the  de- 
composition of  muriat  of  soda  by  pyrites, 
and  by  gypsum,  (as  described  under  that 
article)  and  is  the  intermediate  step  in 
tlie  mr.nufacture  of  soda  Irom  common 
salt. 

It  is  obtained  in  France  by  the  combus- 
tion of  tile  taniarixgallica.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  procured  in  abundance,  esp>e- 
cially  in  the  eastern  states,  where  salt  is 
made  from  salt  v.ater,bythe  evaporation  of 
tile  mother  water,  remuining  after  the  for- 
mation of  saltj^from  brine  springs,  licks,  S:c. 

A  manufactory  was  some  years  since 
established  in  this  city,  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  sal  ammoniac,  during  wiiich  Glau- 
ber's salt  was  formed.  Glauber's  salt  is 
composed  of  58  water,  23o2  sulphuric 
acid,  and  18-48  soda.  Without  stating 
the  chemical  properties  of  this  salt,  we 
shall  only  observe,  that  the  conversion  of 
the  crystals  into  a  white  powder,  called 
efflorescence,  by  exposure  to  the  air,  is 
nothing  more  than  tlie  separation  of  wa- 
ter, called  the  water  of  crystallization. 
Glauber's  salt,  thus  effloresced,  still  re- 
tains its  medicinal  qualities.  The  best 
mode  of  administering  it,  is  by  dissolving- 
it  in  hot  lemonade. 

GLAZING  of  Pottery.     See  Pottery. 

GLA«[NG,  the  art  of  fixing  lights  of 
glass  in  windows. 


GOL 


GOL 


The  cement,  sometimes,  though  im- 
properly called  a  glaze,  which  is  used  for 
comiecting  the  pane  to  the  window  frame, 
is  C(;mposcd  of"  wliiting,  and  linseed  oil, 
well  tempered  together,  to  which  white 
lead  is  sometimes  added. 

From  the  frequent  accidents,  which 
happen  io  painters  and  glaziers,  from  the 
ii'.isU'adiness  of  their  macl)ines,  and  the 
consequent  danger  to  which  they  are  lia- 
ble, wlicn  glazing  or  painting  windows  in 
the  uppe-  stories  of  a  house,  M''.  Davis 
has  pro])osed  the  following  invention  to 
cbviate  this  inconvenience. 


Fig.  1,  Represents  the  machine  :  the 
part  a  is  similar  to  that  used  by  gla7.iers, 
which  is  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  win- 
dow, b,  is  an  additional  moving  pisce, 
which  presses  against  the  inside  f)f  the 
window  frame,  and  is  brouglit  nearer  to, 
or  removed  farther  from  it,  by  means  of 
the  male  screw  c,  and  its  handle  d. 

Fig,  5.  Shows  the  lower  part  of  a 
window,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
moving  ])iece  b,  including  a  female 
screw,  acts  against  the  inside  of  the  win- 
dow frame. 


^Kjy.  J.       _^^ 


7'\q.'?. 


IMtiiilf'PH'IMIiMiwiiMlMilMii 

jiaiiiii 


Fig.  3,  Shews  a  cross  bar,  introduced 
in  place  of  the  moving  piece  last  niention- 
cd,  which  bar  extends  from  one  window 
side  to  the  other,  and  explains  how  tlic 
machine  may  be  used,  where  any  injury 
might  arise  from  screwing  the  moving 
piece  in  tlic  centre  of  the -recess  of  the 
window. 

The  general  improvement  consists  in 
the  use  of  a  screw  on  that  end  of  tJie  frame 
which  is  within  ilie  house,  and  which 
k<-i:ps  the  niaclune  steady  and  firm,  in- 
stead of  the  two  upright  irons,  wliich  are 
put  through  holes  made  in  the  top  plank 
of  llic  macliinc.in  tlie  common  mode,  and 
which  occasion  the  macliine  to  bo  very 
unsteady  in  use,  and  liable  to  accident 
There  are  two  blocks  marked  e,  t,  which 
may  be  occasionally  put  in,  or  taken  out, 
according  as  the  sUme  work  under  the 
window  may  refiuire. 

(;0l,1).  Gold  is  a  metallic  substance  of 
a  pure  yellow  colour,  remarkably  ductile 
and  malleable,  of  great  specilic  j^'ravity, 
and  nearly  as  soft  as  tin.  hi  fusibility  it 
ranks  between  silver  and  copper;  it  is  uot 


oxydable  by  fusion  in  atmospheric  air  ; 
nor  is  it  acted  on  by  any  of  the  acids  ex- 
cept the  frxvuMiriatic  and  nitro-muriatic. 

Ores  ojOold—i'iiM  is  found  only  in  one 
state,  namelx,  the  reguline,  but  is  hardly 
ever  pure,  being  alloyed  more  or  leSs  b/ 
silver,  cojjper,  tellurium,  and  a  few  o'.her 
metals.  When  alloyed  with  silver  or  cop- 
per,  or  with  both,  it  preserves  its  ductili- 
ty, and  is  reckoned  as  native  gold ;  when 
combined  with  telliinum,  it  entirely  loses 
its  discriminative  external  char.acters,  and 
in  this  state  is  generally  classed  among 
the  ores  of  tellurium.  For  the  conveni- 
ence, however^  of  the  reader,  we  shall  de- 
.scribe  tliis  latter  sub.stance  both  liere, 
and  when  we  come  to  treat  of  telluriuni, 
trusting  that  a  httle  repetition  will  be  ex- 
cused on  this  account. 

Native  Gold— lia  colour  when  pure,  or 
nearly  so,  is  a  bright,  somewhat  orange 
yellow ;  in  proportion  as  it  is  alloyed  with 
silver,  it  inclines  to  a  pale  brass  yeilosv  ; 
when  combined,  as  is  supposed  with  i)la- 
tina,  it  passes  from  brass-yellow  to  steel- 
grey.    It  occui-s  in  detached  lumps  aud 


GOL 


GOL 


grains,  disseminated,  superficial,  reticula- 
ted, dendritical,  capillary,  cellular  and 
scaly,  as  a  snuff-coloured  powder,  and 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  crystallized  in 
small  cubes,  regular  octahedrons  andi 
rhomboidal  dodecahedrons.  The  crystals 
are  for  the  most  part  minute  and  very  ir- 
regular. The  surface  of  tiie  oystals  is 
smooth  and  brilliant ;  of  the  other  varie- 
ties, the  lustre  is  faintly  shining  and  glim- 
mering ;  when  cut  wiili  a  knife  it  displays 
a  bright  and  perfectly  metallic  lustre,  lis 
fracture  is  hackly.  It  is  very  soft,  per- 
fectly ductile  and  flexible,  but  not  elastic. 
Its  specific  gravity  varies  according  to  its 
purity  from  about  17.  to  19. 

Before  the  blow-pipe  it  runs  into  a  glo- 
bule without  emitting  any  vapour. 

Native  gold  is  rather  a  rare  mineral, 
and  is  by  no  means  the  principal  source 
of  this  valuable  metal.  It  occurs  in  veins 
or  dispersed  tlirough  the  substance  of 
primitive  mountains,  especially  argilla- 
ceous schistus,  and  clay  porphyry,  and 
is  accompanied  by^uartz,  feltspar,  cal- 
careous and  heavy  l^ars,  pyrites,  red  and 
vitreous  silver  ore,  galena,  Sec.  Tiie 
j'ichest  mines  of  native  gold  are  found  in 
Br£7.il,  Peru,  and  Mexico ;  some  of  the 
African,  Sumatran,  and  Japanese  gold, 
is  also  procured  fi-om  a  similar  source; 
the  mine  of  Beresof  in  tlie  Uralian  moun- 
tains, and  some  of  the  Hungarian  and 
Transylvanian  mines  likewise  yield  na- 
tive gold,   though  in  small  quantities. 

But  by  far  the  latest  proportion  of  na- 
tive g-nld  is  found  accidentally  dispersed 
through    certain     alluvial    strata.     That 
this,  is  not  its  natural  situation  is  mani- 
fest from  its  occurring  here  only  in  round- 
ed and  flattened  uiasses,  from  microsco- 
pical  spangles    to  pieces  three   or  four  | 
pounds  in  weight,   all  of  wliich  exhibit  ■ 
decidedly  the  effects    of  friction.     It  is  j 
from  the    sands  of    certain    rivers    that  | 
this  stream  gold  as  it  may  be  called,  has  ! 
been  chiefly  procured  ;  and  it  was  natu-  j 
rally  thought  that  its  oiiginal  bed  was  at 
the  mountainous  sotirces  of  these  streams, 
whence  it  was  detached  by  the  force  of 
the  torrents,  and  deposited  in  the  lower 
and  quieter  part  of  the  river.     In  some 
instances  this  is  no  doubt  the  case,  but  in 
most    others   the  transportation    of  the 
gold   appears  to  have  taken  place  at  a 
period  anterior  to  the  formation  of  our 
present  rivers.     Where  gold  is  found  in 
the  bed  of  an  actual  torrent  at  no  great 
distance  from  its  source  and  in  a  moun- 
tamous  country ;  where,  too  the  gold  is 
confined  within  the  present  or  probable 
former   boundaries  of  the  stream  (as  is 
particularly  the  case  with  that   recently 
VOL.    L 


fonad  near  Cronebane  in  the  county  of 
Wicklow  in  Ireland)  it  may  be  consi- 
dered as  indicating  the  presence  of  gold, 
either  dispei-sed  or  in  a  regular  mine  in 
the  adjoining  rocks.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  when  gold  is  found  in  the  bed  of 
a  river  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
its  source ;  if  the  surrounding  country 
is  plain  or  nearly  so  ;  if  the  auriferous 
sand  forms  a  stratum  extending  to 
a  consideralile  distance  beyond  the 
river ;  then  it  is  probable  that  the  river 
has  merely  cut  tlirough  a  previous  allu- 
vial stratum  holding  gold,  and  that  to  en- 
deavour to  find  the  mine  whence  this  me- 
tal originated  bj"  searching  the  rocks  to- 
wards the  source  of  the  stream,  is  mere 
loss  of  time. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  stream 
gold  seems  to  have  been  contained  in  au- 
riferous pyrites,  for  almost  all  the  sands 
from  which  this  metal  is  extracted  are 
highly  ferruginous,  and  of  a  deep  black- 
ish-brown colour :  the  gold  itself  is  most- 
ly of  a  pale  3'ellow,  and  is  considei'ably 
alloj  ed  with  silver.  The  Peruvian,  Mex- 
ican, and  Brazilian  rivers,  are  many  of 
them  extremely  rich  in  gold,  as  are 
likewise  several  of  the  streams  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa :  in  Europe,  the 
Danube,  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone,  af- 
ford small  quantities  of  this  metal,  and 
from  several  other  of  the  lesser  rivers  it 
has  been  extracted  rather  for  curiosity 
than  profit :  the  streams  of  Hungary 
and  Transylvania,  under  the  patient  ma- 
nagement of  the  Zigueners  or  tiipseys, 
yield  a  greater  quantity  of  gold  than  the 
rest  of  the  European  rivers,  yet  hardly 
suiftcient  to  afford  a  very  scanty  main- 
tenance to  the  labourers.  Of  the  alluvial 
strata  yielding  gold,  none  has  ever  been 
found  comparable  in  richness  to  the  plain 
of  Cineguilla  in  the  province  of  Sonora, 
on  t!ie  Eastern  shore  of  the  Californian 
gi:lf:  this  plain  is  about  fourteen  leagues 
in  extent,  and  contains  large  lumps  of 
gold  irregularly  dispersed  through  it  at 
the  depth  of  about  14  inches. 

Besides  the  gold  found  in  Cabarrus 
county,  North  Carolina,  which  furnished 
the  mint  previous  to  the  year  1805,  with 
§11,000  gold  coin— this  metal  has  also 
been  discovered  ni  Virginia.  A  lump  of 
gold  ore  found  near  the  falls  of  Rappahan- 
nock river,  yielded  17  dwt.  of  gold. 
Small  lumps  of  gold  to  the  value  of  seve- 
ral hundred  dollars  have  been  found  in 
the  county  of  Buckingham,  between 
James  and  Appomatox  rivers,  in  the 
same  state. 

Graphic  Gold.    Its  colour  is  tin  white 
with  a  shsde  gf  brass-yellow :  it  occurs 
3  I 


GOL 


GOL 


crystallized  in  small  flattened  prisms 
with  toiii-  or  six  sides,  and  terminated  by 
tetrahcdral  pyramids.  It  is  soft,  brittle, 
and  may  easily  be  cut  with  a  knife. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  Klaproth, 
it  consists  of 

Tellurium    .     .    60 

Gold  ....     30 

Silver  ....    10 

100 

It  has  hitherto  been  found  only  at  Of- 
fenbanya  in  Transylvania,  in  thin  layers, 
upon  grey  quartz,  in  clay  porphyry,  and 
is  accompajiied  by  iron-pyrites,  grey-cop- 
per, blende,  and  occasionally  native  gold. 
White  Gold  Ore. — Its  colour  is  silver- 
white,  passing  into  brass-yellow :  it  oc- 
curs disseminated,  and  in  small  imbedded 
prismatic  crystals.  Externally  it  has  a 
bright  shining  metallic  lustre.  It  is  soft, 
and  somewhat  ductile.  Sp.  gr.  10.6. 
It  consists  according  to  Klaproth,  of 

Tellurium  .     .    44-75 

Gold       .     .     .     26.75 

Lead       .     .     .     19.5 

Silver      .     .     .       85 

Sulphur       .     .       0.5 

100.00 


It  has  hillierto  been  found  only  at  Xa- 
gy-ag,  in  Transylvania,  where  it  occurs  in 
ji  gangue  of  quartz  and  brown  spar,  :ic- 
companied  by  blende,  gi-ey-copper,  and 
copper-pyrites. 

Blaci  Gold  Ore. — Its  colour  varies  fi-om 
tead-grey  to  iron-black :  it  is  seldom  found 
in  mass,  being  generally  disseminated  in 
the  form  of  small  scales,  or  long  hexago- 
nal plates,  either  single  or  accumulated 
on  each  other.  It  has  a  moderately  shin- 
ing metaUic  lustre.  It  stains  the  fingers 
a  little,  is  somewhat  flexible,  and  very 
soft.     Sp.  gr.  8.9. 

It  consists  according  to  Klaproth,  of 

Tellurium     .     .     32.2 

Lead    ....     54. 

Gold    ....      9. 

Silver  ....       0.5 

(>opper      ...       1.3 

Sulphur    ...      3. 

100  0 


II  has  been  found  as  yet  only  at  Na- 
gy-ag  in  Transylvania,  in  a  gangue  of  red 
manganese,  brown  spar,  and  quartz,  ac- 
companied by  galena,  iron  pyrites, 
blende,  plumose  antimony,  and  grey  cop- 
per ore. 

Sp'  5.  Auriferous  Pyrites 

The  bronze-yellow  Iron  Pyrites  in  masa 


or  in  striated  cubes,  and  the  hepatic  py- 
rites when  occurring  in  veins  in  primi- 
tive mountains,  are  sometin)es  found  to 
contain  a  suflicient  quantity  of  pure  gold, 
or  of  gold  alloyed  with  silver,  to  be  well 
worth  the  trouble  of  extracting  by  me- 
thods that  will  be  described  hereafter.  It 
was  formerly  supposed  that  the  gold  as 
well  as  the  iron  in  this  ore,  was  mine- 
ralized by  the  sulphur  ;  the  experiments 
of  Bergman  however, pretty  clearly  shew 
that  this  is  a  mistake,  and  that  the 
gold  in  small  scales  is  merely  interpo- 
sed between  the  laminae  of  the  pyrites. 
A  considerable  proportion  of  the  Ame- 
rican gold,  and  by  far  the  largest  por- 
tion ot  the  Hungarian  gold,  is  obtained 
from  this  ore-  The  produce  of  the 
Hungarian  pyrites  is  very  vaiious,  some- 
times not  exceeding  a  few  graij>s  of  gold 
in  the  quintal  of  ore,  but  in  the  cele- 
brated mine  named  Maria  of  Loretto, 
near  Zalathna,  in  Transj  Ivania,  is  a  vein 
of  auriferous  p)  rites,  that  occasionally 
yields  as  much  as  450  ounces  of  gold  in 
the  quintal.  ig^ 

Sp    6.     AuriferousGalena. 

The  native  sulpliuret  of  lead  common- 
ly called  galena,  almost  always  contains 
a  little  silver^  which  not  unfrequently  is 
sufficiently  abundant  to  be  worth  the 
trouble  of  extracting. 

The  galena  of  Flungary  occasionally 
holds  not  only  silver  but  gold,  and  is  ac- 
cordingly woi'ked  as  one  of  the  ores  of 
this  precious  metal:  the  galena  of  Boicza 
yields  an  ounce  and  a  half  in  the  quintal 
of  an  alloy,  of  which  31  parts  are  silver 
and  1  of  gold. 

Seduction  of  Ores — The  richest  gold 
mines  concerning  the  working  of  which 
we  have  any  very  particular  description 
are  those  of  Hungary:  the  method  of  pro- 
ceeduig  therefore  in  these  establishments 
shall  be  first  mentioned.  The  high  com- 
mercial value  of  gold  compared  with  that 
of  any  other  metal  depends  in  a  consider- 
able degree  on  its  rarity,  hence  even  the 
most  profitable  veins  of  gold  are  of  trif- 
ling magniuide,  and  will  pay  very  well 
to  the  miner  though  mixed  very  intimate- 
ly witli  so  large  a  jjroportion  of  stony 
gangue  and  oilier  iinpurities  as  would 
render  it  impossible  to  work  with  advan- 
tage any  other  metal  similarly  circum- 
stanced 

In  the  Hungarian  mines  tlie  attention 
of  the  miner  is  not  confined  to  the  string? 
of  ore,  but  the  whole  contents  of  the  vein 
are  usually  extracted  It  is  raised  lor  the 
most  part,  in  large  masses  to  the  surface, 
and  is  then  distributed  to  the  workmen, 
who  break  it  first  with  large  hammers  and 
afterwards  with  smaller  ones,  till  it  is  re- 


GOL 


00I> 


duced  to  pieces  of  the  size  of  a  walnut  or 
less.  During  this  process  each  piece  is 
attentively  examined  and  arranged  ac- 
cording to  its  value  :  the  native  gold  even 
to  the  smallest  visible  grain  is  separated 
as  accurately  as  possible  from  the  quartz 
in  which  it  is  chiefly  imbedded,  and  put 
by  itself;  the  auriferous  galena  and  py- 
rites are  also  tlirown  into  separate  heaps. 
The  small  splinters  detached  during  this 
process,  as  well  as  the  sand  and  mud  of 
the  mine  are  also  collected,  washed  and 
sifted,  and  ai-ranged  according  to  their 
fineness  and  apparent  richness.  The 
portion  rejected  in  this  first  examination 
is  afterwards  re-examined  by  boys,  whose 
time  is  of  liitle  value,  and  who  pick  out 
neai'ly  the  whole  of  what  has  been  over- 
looked by  the  men,  and  sort  it  in  the  man- 
ner just  mentioned. 

The  native  gold  with  its  adhering  ma- 
trix is  again  broken  by  hand  into  still 
smaller  pieces,  by  which  an  additional 
quantity  of  impurities  and  stony  matter  is 
got  rid  of:  it  is  then  put  into  a  kind  of 
wooden  box  floored  with  cast  iron  plates, 
and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  by  the  ac- 
tion of  two  or  more  heavy  spars  of  oak, 
shod  with  iron  and  worked  alternately  in 
the  manner  of  a  common  stamping  mill. 
This  powder,  or  flour  as  it  is  called,  be- 
ing now  removed  into  a  convenient  vessel 
like  a  large  bason,  is  mixed  with  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  salt  and  water  to  ren- 
der it  damp,  after  which  a  workman 
takes  a  thin  porous  leather  bag,  puts  a 
quantity  of  mercury  into  it,  and  by  a  con- 
tinued regular  pressure  forces  the  mer- 
cury in  minute  drops  like  dew  thi-ough 
the  leather :  in  this  minutely  divided 
slate  it  falls  upon  the  pulverized  ore,  and 
is  immediately  kneaded  up  with  it  till  the 
requisite  quantity  (depending  in  great 
measure  on  the  proportion  of  gold)  has 
been  added.  Thispartof  the  process  be- 
ing compleated,  the  mixture  is  rubbed 
together  by  means  of  a  wooden  pestle  for 
some  time  to  expedite  the  incorporation 
of  the  mercury  and  gold,  and  is  after- 
wards heated  in  a  pi'oper  vessel  to  about 
tiie  temperature  of  boiling  water  for  three 
or  four  days :  finally,  the  mixture  is 
waslied  very  carefully  by  small  parcels  at 
a  time,  the  earthy  particles  are  carried 
off'  by  the  water,  and  there  remains  be- 
hind only  the  mercury  combined  with  the 
gold  into  an  amalgam.  Part  of  tiie  mer- 
cury is  then  separated  by  pressure  in  a 
leatliern  bag,  and  the  rest  is  driven  ofl"  by 
distillation,  leaving  behind  only  the  gold 
and  the  silver  with  which  it  may  happen 
to  be  alloyed.  (For  a  fuller  account  of 
this  process  see  Silver.) 

Such  is  the  simple  method  by  which 


the  native  gold  of  the  ore  is  extracted;  a 
much  more  complicated  process  however 
is  required  to  separate  that  portion  of  the 
metal  which  is  dispersed  invisibly  in  the 
pyrites,  ochre,  galena,  and  other  metal- 
lic substances,  as  well  as  the  stony  parts 
of  the  gangue.  These  in  the  sorting  al- 
ready described,  are  separated  not  only 
according  to  their  apparent  richness,  but, 
what  is  of  mere  importance,  are  also  ar- 
ranged according  to  their  hardness.  This 
being  compleated  they  are  transferred  to 
the  stamping  mill. 

The  principal  pai-ts  of  a  stamping  mill 
are  the  following:  1.  The  coffers  or  cis- 
terns,  usually  two  in  number,  in  which 
the  ore  is  pulverized,  and  through  which 
a  stream  of  water  that  may  be  increased 
or  diminished  at  pleasui'e,  continually 
passes.  2.  The  stampers  or  vertical  beams 
shod  witli  uon.  3.  The  axle,  fixed  hori- 
zontally, and  working  at  one  end  in  a 
pivot  and  rivetted  at  the  other  into  the 
centi-e  of  a  large  water  wheel.  Hence  the 
mode  of  its  action  is  evident :  a  stream  of 
water  falling  upon  the  wheel  turns  it 
round,  and  at  the  same  time  the  axle  to 
which  it  is  attached :  the  cogs  fastened 
upon  the  axle  raise  alternately  the  stam- 
pers to  a  given  height,  and  then  let  them 
fall  upon  the  ore  that  is  placed  in  the  cof- 
fers, which  in  proportion  as  it  is  suflflci- 
ently  comminuted,  is  carried  by  the  water 
that  is  continually  flowing  through,  out 
at  the  sides  of  the  coffer,  into  the  la. 
bjTinths  where  the  stony  and  metallic 
contents  of  the  ore  are  deposited  nearer 
to,  or  further  from  the  discharging  aper- 
ture, according  to  their  respective  speci- 
fic gravity. 

The  coflTer  is  a  rectangular  hole  sunk 
below  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  both 
floored  and  lined  with  strong  double  oak 
planking :  it  is  about  four  feet  deep,  five 
in  length,  and  two  feet  or  less  in  width. 
The  stampers  are  five  in  number,  and  are 
strong  oaken  beams  terminated  with  iron, 
and  weighing  about  200  pounds  each  -, 
they  are  placed  side  by  side,  about  two 
inches  and  a  half  distant  from  each  other. 
When  any  ore  is  to  be  pounded,  the  first 
thing  is  to  cover  the  bottom  of  the  coffer 
with  a  close-set  flooring  or  pavement, 
composed  of  large  pieces  of  tlie  hardest 
and  poorest  part  of  the  vein,  such  a  floor 
being  found  by  experience  to  be  much 
better  on  many  accounts  than  an  iron  one. 
The  thickness  of  this  floor  is  inversely 
according  to  the  hardness  of  the  ore  to  be 
pounded ;  it  being  manifest  that  the  higher 
this  is  the  smaller  will  be  the  space 
through  which  the  stampers  have  to  fall, 
and  therefore  the  less  will  be  their  mo- 
mentum :  care  must  however  at  all  times 


GOL 


GOL 


be  taken,  that  the  part  of  the  floor  imme- 
diately benealli  the  middle  stamper,  is 
about  two  inches  lower  than  tliat  below 
the  stamper  on  each  side  of  the  middle 
one,  and  that  this  again,  is  al)()iit  an  inch 
lower  than  that  beneatli  tlic  two  outer- 
most stampers.  The  colTer  being  thus 
prepared,  the  stampers  are  set  in  motion 
by  the  water  wheel,  a  small  stream  is  al- 
lowed to  flow  into  the  coffir,  and  the  ore 
is  thrown  in  just  below  the  middle  stam- 
per, by  a  careful  workman,  or  supplied 
in  the  projier  quantity  by  a  iiopper :  the 
ore  being  comminutecl  by  this  stamper,  is 
gradually  delivered  to  the  next  on  each 
side,  where  it  is  still  further  pulverized, 
and  from  which  it  is  passed  on  to  tiie  two 
outermost  stampers,  hy  which  it  is  at 
length  reduced  to  grains  of  sucli  fineness, 
as  to  be  for  a  time  suspended  in  the  water, 
and  carried  by  it  through  one  or  other  of 
the  apertures  which  are  at  each  end  of 
the  cofler. 

Much  care  is  required,  especially  in 
stamping  the  ores  ot  gold  and  silver,  in 
the  first  place  that  no  pieces  be  subjected 
to  the  process  that  can  economically  be 
separated  by  hand  from  tlie  ganguc,  for 
even  when  it  is  the  most  skilfully  con- 
ducted, a  very  notable  proportion  will  he 
lost ;  and  secondly,  that  the  ore  be  pound- 
ed either  fine,  or  coarse,  or  be  subjected 
to  greater  or  less  force  according  as  cir- 
cumstances may  require.  If  the  ore  is 
principally  native  gold  dispersed  in  very 
minute  particles  through  quartz  or  horn- 
stone,  it  will  be  impossible  to  separate 
the  wliole  or  nearly  the  whole  of  the  me- 
tal, except  it  is  reduced  to  exceedingly 
fine  powder,  and  this  may  be  safely  done 
both  because  the  dilfcience  in  specific 
gravity  between  the  two  ingredients  of 
the  ore  is  very  gi-eat,  and  also  because 
the  quartz  if  reduced  to  particles  ever  so 
minute,  does  not  at  all  clot  and  adhei'e  to 
the  gold.  In  this  case  tlierefore  the  floor 
of  the  coffer  may  be  set  as  low  as  possi- 
ble, to  give  the  stampers  their  greatL-si 
momentum,  and  only  a  very  small  stream 
of  water  may  be  let  in,  that  the  current 
passing  out  of  the  coffer  may  carry  with  it 
only  the  smallest  particles.  It  often  how- 
ever happens  that  tlie  gold  is  disseminat- 
ed in  a  very  ochery  and  highly  indurated 
clay,  or  in  calcareous  spar,  and  in  this 
case  there  is  only  a  choice  of  difficulties  : 
if  the  ore  is  not  extremely  comminuted 
much  of  the  metal  will  be  kept  in  tlie 
earthy  matrix,  but  if  on  tlie  other  hand 
the  stamping  is  continued  too  long,  tlie 
whole  will  be  reduced  to  a  fluid  mud, 
which  will  prevent  the  thin  laminje  of  gold 
from  subsiding;  and  long  practice  and 
accurate  judgment  are  required  to  ma- 


nage the  process,  so  that  the  greatest 
quantity  of  gold  shall  be  obtained.  Son»e- 
times,  as  at  Kremnitz,  the  gimguc  con- 
sists partly  of  quartz  and  in  part  of  indu- 
rated clay  ;  in  this  case  the  most  approv- 
ed piaciice  is,  to  I'aise  the  flour  t)f  the 
cotter  to  within  about  eighteen  inches  of 
the  top,  to  put  a  moderate  qtuuitity  of 
ore  at  once  under  the  middle  stamper, 
and  to  let  on,  in  the  beginning  of  ihe  ])ro- 
cess  a  full  stream  of  water ;  by  this  tiie 
clay  as  being  the  softest  is  battered  to 
pieces,  and  cairied  ofl'  by  the  water  be- 
fore the  quartz  is  sufiiciently  connninutcd 
to  be  washed  out  in  any  considerable  pro- 
portion with  it ;  the  stream  of  water  is 
then  slackened,  and  the  quartz,  is  reduc!- 
<d  to  sand  of  the  requisite  fineness. 
There  are  i'ew  things  that  so  much  facili- 
tate the  washing  subsequent  to  stiunp- 
ing,  and  upon  wliich  the  prodiict  of  me- 
tal so  much  depends,  as  the  reduction  of 
the  gangue  to  gnuns  of  an  imiform  size  ; 
this  is  brought  about  by  being  careful  that 
tlie  ore  when  first  put  into  the  coffer, 
falls  under  the  middle  stamper,  and  also 
by  regulating  the  velocity  of  the  water 
wheel;  if  the  motion  of  the  stampers  i.*! 
too  slow,  tlie  only  bad  effect  is  loss  ot 
time;  but  when  their  action  is  too  nujch 
accelerated,  the  water  is  dashed  about 
and  carries  with  it  to  tlie  opening  at  the 
end  of  the  coffer  pieces  of  the  ore  that 
are  not  half  ground,  as  well  as  those  that 
hn\e  gone  through  the  whole  process  : 
this  fault  is  obvious  not  only  fi'om  the  dif- 
ference in  size  between  the  grains,  but 
those  which  have  not  been  sufficiently 
pounded  will  be  of  a  flat  angular  figure, 
and  in  consequence  will  remain  behind 
with  the  metal  in  the  subsequent  wasli- 
ing,  instead  of  being  carried  off  the  tables 
together  with  the  rest. 

When  by  the  process  of  stamping,  the 
ore  is  reduced  to  particles  of  sufficient 
fineness  to  be  carried  out  of  tlie  coflei-  by 
the  force  of  the  water.  It  passes  into  slial- 
low  channels  or  troughs  of  various  dimen- 
sions, constructed  either  ofwood  or  stone, 
and  communicating  at  their  extremities 
with  each  other;  the  whole  series  is  called 
a  labyrinth.  In  these  channels  the  va- 
rious ])arts  of  the  ore  are  deposited,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  specific  gravi- 
ties; the  heaviest  particles  being  detain- 
ed in  the  first,  and  the  lightest  subsiding 
m  the  last  and  lowest.  Each  of  these 
channels  is  grooved  at  its  lower  e.xtrenii- 
ty,  to  admit  of  its  being  closed  at  jjlea- 
sine  by  pieces  of  wood  about  an  inch  in 
height,  vvhicii  slide  down  upon  each 
other  like  the  jilaiiks  in  a.  Chinese  lock. 
It  is  obvious  that  tlie  accuracy  by  which 
the  heavy  particles  can  thus  be  separated 


GOL 


GOL 


fi-om  the  lighter  ones,  ivill  be  much  modi- 
fied by  varying  the  rapidity  of  tlie  stream 
throug-h  these  channels,  so  that  at  its  out- 
set the  stream  shall  be  swift  and  its  velo- 
city shall  graduiilly  decrease  as  it  passes 
successively  fi  om  one  channel  into  ano- 
ther. This  is  effected  by  diminishing- the 
slope  and  aisemcnting  the  width  and 
length  of  the  channels.  Thus  th-it  which 
receives  the  water  immediately  from  the 
coffer  of  the  stamping  mill  is  about  four 
yards  long,  nine  inches  in  depth  and 
breadth,  and  has  an  inclination  of  two  and 
a  half  or  three  inches;  die  second  is  about 
five  yards  long,  twelve  inclies  in  depth 
and  breadth,  and  has  one  inch  of  inclina- 
tion :  the  third  and  fourth  are  six  yards 
long,  with  a  depth  and  breadth  equal  to 
the  former,  and  an  inclination  of  half  an 
inch ;  the  fifih  is  seven  yards  -long,  four- 
teen inches  in  breadth,  twelve  in  aepdi, 
and  is  not  inclined  at  all;  the  sixth  is 
from  eight  to  ten  yards  long,  sixteen 
inches  in  breadth,  twelve  in  depth,  and 
like  the  former  is  intirely  level,  'VVlien 
these  channels  are  about  to  be  used  a  sli- 
der about  an  inch  high  is  put  into  the 
groove  at  the  extremity  of  each,  to  pre- 
vent the  grains  which  are  deposited  fmrn 
being  rolled  out  and  washed  away  by  the 
force  of  the  water :  when  the  deposit  neai'- 
ly  attains  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  slider, 
a  second  is  put  in,  and  tlius  the  process 
goes  on  till  the  channels  are  almost  filled. 
The  water  from  the  cofler  is  now  turned 
off  into  another  lab\rinth,  and  the  con- 
tents of  the  former  are  taken  out,  care 
being' taken  not  to  mix  wliat  has  subsided 
in  any  one  channel  with  what  has  been 
deposited  in  the  others.  By  means  of 
the  foregoing  process,  if  carefully  con- 
ducted, die  metallic  contents  of  the  ore 
will  be  separated  in  a  considerable  de- 
gree from  the  lighter  stony  particles: 
every  thing  however  depends  upon  the 
skill  and  accuracy  of  the  manipulation, 
more  especially  where  gold  ores  are  thus 
treated,  because  in  this  case  the  propor- 
tion of  gangue  to  the  ore  is  greater  than 
in  an)'  other,  hence  even  a  moderate  de- 
gree of  carelessness  or  of  imperfection  in 
the  apparatus,  will  occasion  a  loss  of  full 
one  fourth  of  the  gold. 

The  first  operation  of  washing,  how- 
ever  carefully  conducted,  is  by  no  means 
entirely  adequate  to  the  entire  separation 
of  the  sand  fiora  the  ore,  it  is  therefore  a 
second  time  washed  on  what  are  called 
tables.  These  are  long  planes  of  wood, 
considerably  inclined  (more  ov  less  ac- 
cording to  circumstances)  and  crossed 
here  and  there  at  regular  distances  by 
narrow  shallow  grooves.  To  the  upper 
cxtremitv  of  v,c  t.ble  is  listened  a  Ion? 


wicker  basket,  or  a  perforated  wooder. 
trough,  which  is  filled  with  washed  ore; 
a  little  stream  of  water  is  then  admitted, 
which  passing  between  the  twigs  of  the 
basket  trickles  down  upon  the  table,  car- 
rying with  it  particles  of  the  ore,  which 
are  either  carried  entirely  ofi'  the  table 
by  the  impulse  of  the  water,  or  are  de- 
posited in  the  grooves  according  to  their 
specific  gravity,  the  heaviest  particles  be- 
ing stopped  the  soonest.  By  this  method 
the  auriferous  ores  of  iron  and  copper  py- 
rites, galena,  blende,  &c.  are  sufficiently 
separated  from  the  quartz  and  other 
stony  matter  to  be  fit  for  the  smelting  fur- 
nace; but  the  ores  of  native  gold  general- 
ly undergo  a  third  washing,  which  is  per- 
formed on  small  quantities  at  a  time,  in  a 
wooden  vessel  called  by  English  miners 
a  huddle;  its  shape  somewhat  resembles 
that  of  a  common  fire-shovel  without  a 
handle,  only  the  sides  are  m.ore  elevated 
in  proportion,  and  it  is  furnished  with  two 
ears  to  hold  it  by.  The  ore  being  put  in 
the  vessel  is  gently  immersed  in  water, 
ar.d  a  circular  motion  is  communicated  to 
it  by  a  peculiar  slight  of  hand  not  to  be 
described  by  words,  by  means  of  which 
tlie  lighter  particles  are  by  degrees 
thrown  out  of  the  huddle  into  the  v  ater, 
haidly  any  thing  but  the  gold  remaining 
behind,  which  is  then  either  amalgamated 
or  directly  fused  in  an  earthen  crucible 
with  tlie  addition  of  a  little  nitre. 

The  gold  that  is  found  in  alluvial  soil 
or  in  the  sands  of  rivers,  is  obtained  in 
precisei}-  the  same  way,  except  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  pass  it  through  the 
stamping  mili  previous  to  washing. 

The  proper  auriferous  ores  being  light- 
er than  gold,  and  their  contents  being 
rarely  of  sufficient  value  to  admit  of  that 
accuracy  in  washing  to  which  native  gold 
is  subjected,  are  always  found  after  they 
come  off  the  washing  tables  to  be  mixed 
with  a  very  considerable  proportion  of 
stony  matter.  If  the  metallic  part  con- 
sists of  pyrites,  as  is  usually  the  case,  it  is 
advisable  previous  to  fusion  to  give  it  a 
moderate  roasting  in  order  to  drive  off  the 
greater  part  cf  the  sulphur.  The  extent 
to  which  this  process  ought  to  be  carried 
depends  in  some  degree  on  the  quantity 
and  refractoriness  of  the  stony  part  of 
the  ore,  for  the  sulphur  in  the  subsequent 
fusion  acting  the  part  of  a  flux,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  tiie  cleaner  the  oi-e  Is,  the  more 
perfectly  may  it  be  roasted.  This  being 
finished,  the  ore  is  accurately  mingled 
with  a  little  quick-lime  by  way  of  fiux, 
and  with  galena  proportioned  to  the  quan- 
tity of  gold  and  silver  that  the  pyrites 
contains  according  to  the  result  of  a  pre- 
vious assay.    Ti;e   mixture   being  now 


GOL 


GOL 


placed  in  a  revevberatory  furnace  is  made 
red  hot,  and  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  clot 
together  is  stirred  up  from  time  to  time 
and  kept  at  a  temperature  inadequate  to 
its  fusion  till  part  of  the  sulpiiur  is  driven 
cHf ;  this  being-  effected  the  fire  is  increas- 
ed, the  whole  is  brought  to  a  state  of  thin 
fusion  and  then  let  out  in  the  usual  way 
into  a  mould  of  sand.  During-  the  fusion 
the  iron,  on  account  of  its  powerful  afhni- 
ty  for  sulphur,  resumes  the  portion  of 
•which  it  had  been  deprived  by  the  pre- 
vious roasting,  by  decomposing  the  snl- 
phurels  of  lead  and  copper  wi'h  which  it 
is  mixed,  in  consequence  of  which  these 
metals  by  their  specific  gravity  fall  in 
drops  through  the  vitreous  ferruginous 
iscoria,  carrying  with  them  the  gold  and 
silver,  and  unite  at  the  bottom  into  a  dense 
metallic  mass.  Hence  the  pig  that  is 
formed  in  the  mould  of  sand  is  found  to 
consist  of  two  parts  adhering  to  each 
other,  but  easily  separable  by  a  hammer ; 
the  uppermost  and  by  far  the  largest  por- 
tion is  more  or  less  cellular  and  consists 
of  scoria,  beneath  which  is  a  black  heavy 
compact  mass  containing  the  gold  and 
silver,  together  with  lead,  copper,  some 
sulphur  and  iron.  It  is  now  broken  into 
small  pieces  and  roasted  and  fused  once 
or  twice  more  till  all  the  sulpluu-  and 
other  impurities  are  got  rid  of,  nothing 
remaining  but  the  gold,  silver,  lead  and 
copper. 

Jiejining. — Although  the  refining  of 
gr)ld  generally  relates  to  the  separatic-n  of 
this  metal  from  silver  and  copper,  these 
being  the  principal  substances  with  wiiich 
it  is  alloyed,  yet  it  ma)-  wltli  much  pro- 
priety be  considered  as  including  all  the 
methOds  of  purifying  guld  fi-om  every 
other  metallic  admixture.  In  this  sense 
the  term  is  used  on  the  present  occasion, 
and  we  shall  proceed  to  treat  of  it  accord- 
ingly. 

Separntion  ofGoldfrotn  Lead  and  other 
vietals  by  Cuprilation. — The  nK)st  econo- 
mical method,  and  the  only  one  common- 
ly practised,  of  separating  gold  from  le.ad 
!s  by  a  process  called  cupellation  in  the 
small  way,  and  testing  wlien  practised  on 
a  large  scale.  The  particular  precautions 
requisite  in  cupellation  are  desci-ibcd  lui- 
der  the  article  Assay,  as  the  method  of 
testing  is  under  Sii.veii.  All  that  is  ne- 
cessary to  be  stated  here  therefore,  is 
merely  the  rationale  of  the  process.  I'he 
cupel  or  test  is  a  jioroiis  ini'usible  earthy 
mass,  with  a  shallow  c(nicavily  at  the  top 
for  the  reception  of  the  metal:  this  being 
placed  in  a  furnace  so  as  not  to  be  in  con- 
tact with,  the  burning  fuel,  and  a  current  of 
air  at  the  same  time  passing  over  the  sur- 
face of  th?  tfst,  th^  mct4  is  brought  al- 


most to  a  state  of  ebullition.  At  this 
tennperaturc  the  lead  is  separated  from 
the  gold  in  the  form  of  a  vitreous  oxyd, 
whicii  sinking  into  the  pores  of  the  test 
leaves  the  gold  behind  nearly  in  a  state  of 
purity,  this  latter  metal  being  incapable 
of  oxydation  at  any  temperature  by  sim- 
ple exposure  to  heat  and  air. 

Not  only  leud  may  thus  be  separated 
from  gold,  but  its  ejiect  as  a  flux  in  sco- 
rifying and  carrying  down  most  of  the  im- 
])erfect  metals  is  so  gi-eat  that  by  means 
of  ihe  process  of  cupellation  with  lead,  re- 
peated according  to  the  proportion  of  the 
alloy  and  its  affinity  to  the  gold,  these 
may  also  be  got  rid  of  nearly  to  the  last 
atom.  And  this  method  is  actualh  prac- 
tised where  the  proportion  of  alloy  is  but 
small ;  when  however  it  exceeds  a  certain 
ratio  it  is  more  economical  to  have  re- 
course to  the  other  methods  detailed  m 
tliis  section. 

h  is  to  be  observed  however  that  when 
fine  or  pure  gold  is  thus  cupelled  with 
lead,  it  always  retahis  a  small  portion  of 
this  metal,  which  however  minute  is  suf- 
ficient to  impair  both  its  colour  and  ducti- 
lity. If  besides  lead  the  mixture  contains 
copper  to  the  amount  of  one  twenty-fourth 
of  tiie  gold,  the  whole  of  the  lead  will  be 
separated  but  hardly  any  of  the  copper. 
If  in  addition  to  the  above  ingredients  the 
alloy  contains  a  somewhat  greater  propor- 
tion of  silver  than  it  does  of  copper,  tliis 
latter  is  separated  by  cupellation  and  a 
littleof  the  lead  remains:  but  if  the  amount 
of  silver  is  equal  to,  or  exceeds  that  of 
the  gold,  both  the  copper  avid  lead  may 
be  comijletely  worked  off,  the  gold  and 
silver  remaining  behind.  Hence  it  is,  that 
the  refiners  in  sejiarating  the  base  metals 
from  gold  by  cupellation,  always  add  to 
the  mixture  a  considerable  proportion  of 
silver. 

Cupellation  with  lead  alone  does  not 
succeed  when  gold  is  alloyed  with  tin  :  in 
this  case  the  tin  with  part  of  the  lead 
forms  a  very  spungy  and  retKactory  oxyd, 
wluch  floats  upon  tlie  surface  of  the  melt- 
ed metal  and  retains  a  part  of  the  gold. 
This  difHculty  however  is  ingeniously  ob- 
viated by  the  addition  of  some  iron  filings, 
which  combine  with  the  tin  into  an  alloy 
that  may  be  scorified  by  lead  without  any 
great  trouble. 

Sep'.irutron  of  Gold  from  Jintimony. — If 
the  proportion  of  :uitimony  exceeds  that 
of  the  gold,  the  alloy,  which  will  be  very 
brittle,  must  be  reduced  to  small  pieces 
and  mixed  with  abcnit  a  fourth  of  its 
weiglit  of  sulpluu-  and  fused  in  a  covered 
eaithen  crucible.  When  the  fusion  is 
com  pleat  it  must  be  poured  into  a  melt- 
ing cone,  previously  heated  and  greased* 


GOL 


GOL 


and  when  cool  will  be  found  to  consist  of 
two  parts  readily  separable  from  each 
other;  tlie  upper  will  be  sulphuret  of  an- 
timony holding  a  very  little  gold;  the 
lower  will  be  the  rest  of  the  gold  still 
combined  witli  reguUis  of  antimony.  The 
greater  part  of  the  antimony  being  thus 
separated,  the  lest  may  be  got  rid  of,  by 
melting  the  alloy  at  a  high  heat  and  di- 
recting a  stream  of  air  from  a  pair  of  bel- 
lows into  a  crucible  containing  it,  by 
which  the  antimony  is  oxydated  and  vo- 
latilized in  the  form  of  a  white  vapoui*. 
Shortly  after  this  appearance  has  ceased 
and  the  gold  has  acquired  a  clear  bright 
green  colour,  it  is  to  be  poured  out,  and 
being  then  remeltedin  a  smaller  crucible, 
together  with  some  nitre,  the  last  portions 
of  antimony,  if  any  should  happen  to  re- 
main, will  be  compleatly  oxydated  and 
separated  from  the  gold.  The  small 
quantity  of  gold  detained  in  the  sulphuret 
of  antimony  may  be  procured  by  bringing 
it  into  thin  fusion  and  tlien  precipitating 
part  of  the  antimony  by  the  addition  of 
about  a  Hfth  of  its  w  eight  of  ii-on  filings  : 
the  gold  will  fall  down  together  with  tiie 
antimony,  and  may  be  separated  in  the 
way  just  described. 

Separation  of  Gold  from  Silver  and  the 
imperfect  metals  by  Sulphuret  of  ,intivior.y. 
— By  this  method  all  the  common  imper- 
fect metals  except  z.inc  may  be  separated 
from  gold :  for  in  the  fii-st  place,  gold  is 
incapable  of  combining  with  sulphur,  and 
in  the  next  place  most  of  the  other  metals 
have  a  stronger  affinity  for  sulphur  than 
antimony  has  It  is  obvious  therefore  that 
if  to  an  alloy  of  gold  and  cojiper,  for  ex- 
ample, be  added  some  suljjhuret  of  an- 
timony, the  copper  will  become  sulphu- 
retted at  the  expence  of  the  antmiony, 
which  in  its  turn  will  combine  \\  ith  the 
gold. 

Earthenware  crucibles  are  the  only 
ones  that  can  be  employed  where  sul- 
phuretted metals  are  concerned,  but  if 
these  are  used  without  any  preparation 
tJiey  ai'e  extremely  liable  to  crack  and  be 
corroded.  The  black-lead  crucibles  are 
fitter  for  this  purpose  than  the  common 
kind,  but  these  last  when  prepared  ac- 
cording to  the  method  recommended  bv 
Schefier  are  more  durable  and  convenient 
than  those  of  black-lead.  The  prepara- 
tion is  very  simple:  take  a  well-burnt 
crucible  and  soak  it  for  two  or  three  days 
in  linseed  oil,  then  clear  away  the  oil  to 
such  a  degree  as  that  some  finely  pul- 
verized glass  of  boiax  being  dusted  over 
the  inner  surface  may  just  adhere,  let  it 
then  be  set  by  in  a  dry  place  for  two  or 
three  weeks  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  In 
such  a  crucible  above  two  hundred  fu- 


sions, according  to  Scheffer,  may  be  per- 
formed in  safety. 

The  g-.)ld  alloy  being  nJeltedin  the  cru- 
cible, there  is  thrown  in,  at  two  or  three 
different  times,  about  twice  its  weight  of 
coarsely    pulverized    sulphuret    of  anti- 
mony :  at  each  addition  the  mixture  froths 
and  swells  up  so  that  the  crucible  must 
be   large  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
contained ;  and   especial    care    must  be 
tuken  to  prevent  any  pieces  of  charcoal 
from  falling  in,    as  this  would  infallibly 
cause  the  melted  matter  to  run  over.     If 
the  purity  of  the  gold  as  previously  found 
by  the  assay  is  less  tlian  16  carats,  the 
crude  antimony  before  it  is  added  should 
be  melted    with    about    a  fourth    of  its 
weight  of  common  sulphur,  by  which  too 
large  an  addition  of  antimony  to  the  gold 
is   avoided.      As    soon    as   the   mixture 
sparkles  on  the  surface  and  is  perfectly 
fluid,  it  must   be  poured  into  a  melting 
cone  previously  heated  and  greased,  and 
a  tremulous  motion  by  continued  slight 
blows   must   be    communicated   to    the 
mould  to  promote  the  setthng  of  the  pre- 
cious metal.     When  the  matter  in   the 
cone  is  become  solid,  it  may  easily  be  got 
out  by  inverting  the  cone  and  giving  it  a 
few  blows  in  this    situation  :    it    will  be 
found  to  consist  of  a  reguline  mass  of 
gold  and  antimony  covered  by  a  scoria 
composed  of  the  former  alloy  of  the  gold 
united  to  the  sulphur  of  tlie  antimony. 
The  gold  however  still  retains  a  little  of 
its  alloy,  and  in  conseqtience  requires  to 
be  again  melted  a  second,  or  even  a  third 
or  fourth  time,  with  the  same  quantity  of 
sulphuret  of  antimony.    Prom  these  last 
fui^ions  the  gold  receives  only  a  slight  ad- 
dition of  aittimony,  as  this  metal  unites 
witli  it  only  in  proportion  as  it  is  depriv- 
ed of  its  own  sulphur  by  the  small  por- 
tion of  alloy  yet  remaining  in  the  gold. 
These  processes  being  duly  performed, 
the  antimony  is  to  be  separated  in  tlie 
manner  already  described  and  the  gold 
remains  perfectly  pure.     "Where  the  pro- 
portion of  antimony  is  consideiable,  it  is 
likely  that  its  separation  fiom  the  gold, 
which  is  usually  a  tedious  business,  might 
be  expedited  by  a  judicious  fusion  with 
sulphur,  which  converting  part  of  the  an- 
timony  into  sulphuret  would  cause   its 
spontaneous    separation   from    the    rest. 
The  metals  from  which  gold  may  be  pu- 
rified with  particular  advantage  by  means 
of  antimony   are  ii'on,  copper,  tin,  lead 
and  silver. 

Separation  of  a  small  quantity  of  Gold 
from  a  large  quantity  of  Copper. — In  old 
gilt  copper  v.ire,  button-maker's  clip- 
pings, and  auriferous  copptr  from  Japan 
and  other  places,  although  the  proper- 


GOL 


GOL 


lion  of  precious  metal  is  too  ^eut  to  he 
neglected,  yet  it  is  by  no  means  suffici- 
ently large  to  admit  of  separation  bj-  the 
cupel  or  by  sulphuret  of  antimony.  'I'he 
process  of  eliquation,  or  of  fusing  the 
copper  with  a  large  quantity  of  lend,  and 
then  exposing  the  mixture  to  a  heat  ca- 
pable of  melting  out  this  latter  wliile  the 
fiiriner  still  continues  solid,  although  prac- 
tised with  success  in  the  separation  of 
silver  from  copper  has  been  repeatedly 
attempted  in  vain  for  the  extraction  of 
gold.  But  the  following  method,  first 
published  by  Alonzo  Barba,  may  on  this 
occasion  be  resorted  to  with  good  effect. 

Let  the  cop-per  be  fii-st  melted  and  gra- 
nulated by  being  poiucd  into  water ;  then 
heat  the  metal  red-hot  in  a  crucible,  and 
project  on  it  at  different  times  portions  of 
common  sulj^hur  till  the  whole  becomes 
black  and  brittle  ;  then  reduce  it  in  a  mor- 
tar or  by  any  other  convenient  way  to  a 
fme  powder  and  subject  it  to  amalgama- 
tion in  the  same  manner  as  the  projier 
ores  of  gold ;  the  mercury  will  dissolve 
out  the  whole  of  the  latter  metal  without 
exerting  the  least  action  on  tlie  sulphuret 
of  copper,  which  may,  afterwards  be 
brought  to  the  malleable  metallic  state  by 
roasting  fusion,  as  already  described  in 
tlie  article  copper. 

There  is  another  method  however  s'tlU 
more  advantageous  which  may  be  em- 
ployed ftU'  this  purpose.  Equal  weights 
of  sul])hur  and  litharge  are  to  be  nnxcd  i 
together  and  combined  by  hasty  fusion 
into  a  black  spuikling  mass:  the  gold 
I.olding  copper  being  tlien  melted,  tlic 
ailphuretted  lead  is  thrown  in  by  small 
quantities  at  a  time  till  its  amount  nearly 
equals  that  of  the  copper.  All  the  ingre- 
dients, in  consequence  of  tb.e  lead  being 
in  the  state  of  ox_\d,  unite  together  into 
an  unif;)rm  mass.  When  tlie  whole  is  in 
compleat  fusion  some  finely  pulverized 
charcoal  is  :.dded  at  two  or  three  several 
times,  being  carefully  stirred  in,  with  a 
piece  of  strong  copper  wire.  The  char- 
coal immediately  deoxygenutes  the  lead, 
wliich  sinking  to  the  boliom  in  its  metal- 
lic form,  draws  with  it  the  whole  of  the 
gold  also,  leaving  a  scoria  of  sulphuret- 
ted copper  floating  on  its  surface.  The 
gold  is  afterwards  freed  from  the  lead  by 
cu|)ellation. 

This  same  process  might  no  doubt  be 
applied  to  the  separation  of  gold  from 
iron. 

Separation  nf  gold  from  Silver — If  the 
proportion  of  gold  is  very  small,  the  best 
way  of  separating  it  fiom  the  silver  is  by 
means  of  sulphur.  For  this  pin-pose  the 
alloy  is  melted,  and  granuluted  by  being 


potired  into  cold  water  kept  constantly  »n 
agitation  l)y  vt,  wicker  brush  or  rod.  '  Of 
the  granulated  metal  from  an  eighth  to  a 
fifth  is  reserved,  and  the  rest  is  well 
mingled  with  about  an  eighth  of  its  weight 
of  pulverized  sulphur,  which  readily  ad- 
heres to  the  moist  grains.  This  mixture 
is  put  into  a  covered  crucible  and  gently 
heated  for  some  time,  that  the  metal  may 
be  thoroughly  penetrated  by  the  sulphur  : 
when  this  is  efl'ecled,  the  fire  is  to  be 
raised,  and  the  mass  brought  into  fu- 
sion, hi  these  circumstances  it  might  be 
thought  the  gold,  on  account  of  its  great 
specific  gravity,  having  also  no  affinity 
with  sulphuretted  silver,  would  fall  in 
drops  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible,  and 
there  unite  into  a  mass  by  itself.  This 
however  is  not  the  case  ;  the  sulphuretted 
silver  forms  a  tough  viscous  fluid,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  minute  grains  of 
gold  are  prevented  from  subsiding.  When 
therefore  the  mass  has  been  in  full  fusion 
about  an  hour,  so  that  iJie  sulphur  is 
complealiy  united  with  the  silver,  and  anj- 
accidental  excess  of  it  has  burnt  off",  one 
third  of  the  reserved  silver  in  grains  i:i 
added,  and  as  soon  as  melted  is  stirred 
with  a  wooden  rod  in  order  to  mix  it  very 
accurately  with  the  other  materials  and 
thus  bring  it  in  contact  with  the  gold, 
with  which  it  immediately  combines. 
After  another  hour  of  fusion,  a  like  quan- 
tity of  grained  silvei-  is  again  added,  and 
an  hour  after  Uhis  the  remaining  third. 
The  crucible  is  now  kept  carefully  cover- 
ed, and  at  a  pretty  high  temperature  for 
about  three  hours,  its  contents  being 
well  stirred  up  fiom  the  bottom  at  least 
once  every  half  hour.  At  the  end  of  this 
ti)nc  the  siu-face  of  the  mass  instead  of  ex- 
hibit ing  the  dark  brown  colour  of  sid- 
phurelted  silver,  will  ha^e  become  whit- 
ish in  consequence  Of  the  escape  of  part 
of  the  sulpiiur,  and  some  bright  whiie 
drops  of  melted  silver  of  the  size  of  peas 
will  also  a])pear.  The  mutter  must  now 
be  poured  into  a  greased  cone,  with  the 
usual  precautions,  and  when  cold  will  be 
found  to  consist  of  a  mass  of  sulphurett- 
ed silver,  resting  upon  a  white  metallic 
button  about  equal  in  weight  to  the  added 
.silver,  and  containing  the  whole  of  the 
gold  that  was  at  first  mixed  with  the  en-  ^ 
tire  mass.  If  the  sulphuretted  silver  re-  ^ 
tains  any  gold,  this  may  be  separated  by 
fusion  in  an  open  crucible :  part  of  tlie 
sulphur  burns  off,  and  a  corresponding 
quai.aty  of  silver  is  reduced  to  the  me- 
tallic state  :  this  being  mixed  with  the; 
rest  by  being  carefully  and  repeatedly 
stin  ed  with  a  piece  ©f  stick  will  attract 
the  v.hole  of  the  gold^  remaining  in  the 


GOL 


GOL 


silver  tliat  is  still  sulphuretted,  and  being 
poured  into  a  cone  will  collect  in  one 
mass  at  the  bottom.  * 

The  gold-lioldihg  silver  collected  in 
these  two  operations  bein^  melted,  and 
granulated,  is  subjected  to  one  or  more 
repetitions  of  ihe  same  process,  till  the 
silver  tliat  is  left  contains  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  gold  to  make  it  worth  while  to 
proceed  to  parting  by  aqua  forlis.  It  is 
possible  indeed,  to  separate  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  silver  by  means  of  sulphur; 
but,  when  the  silver  comes  to  be  rich  in 
gold,  the  sulphuretted  silver  always  takes 
up  a  portion  of  it  which  is  not  separable 
again  entirely  witliout  repeated  fusions; 
so  that,  when  the  gold  amounts  to  a 
twentieth  of  the  silver,  it  is  scarcely  ad- 
vantageous to  attempt  a  further  purifica- 
tion by  means  of  sulphur. 

It  appears  from  various  experiments 
that  the  affinity  of  gold  for  copper,  and  of 
silver  for  lead  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  which  subsists  between  gold 
and  silver,  and  upon  this  is  founded  a  ve- 
ry ingenious  and  economical  method  of 
separating  the  gold  from  old  gilt  lace  or 
silver  wire,  which  has  been  practised  in 
Saxony  to  a  considerable  extent.  The 
metal  being  granulated,  one  sixteenth  of 
it  is  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  li- 
tharge, and  one  eighth  of  sandiver,  and  is 
named  the  precipitating  mixture  :  the  next 
is  mingled  with  an  eighth  of  pulverized 
sulphur,  and  is  brought  into  fusion  In  the 
same  manner  as  already  described.  When 
the  fusion  is  compleat,  which  isknov.n  by 
a  kind  of  flashing  at  its  surface,  half  of 
the  precipitating  mixture  is  added  at 
three  different  times,  with  an  interval  of 
about  five  minutes  between  each,  and  the 
fusion  is  then  continued  about  ten  mi- 
nutes longer.  Part  of  the  sulphuretted 
silver  is  then  laded  out  with  a  small  cru- 
cible made  red  hot,  and  the  remainder 
being  poured  into  a  melting  cone,  there 
subsides  to  the  bottom  a  quantity  of  me- 
tallic silver  combuied  with  the  greater 
pai't  of  the  gold.  The  sulphuretted  sil- 
ver being  again  melted,  the  remainder  of 
the  precipitating  mixture  is  added  in  the 
same  manner  as  at  first,  and  a  second 
portion  of  gold  holding  silver  is  thus  pro- 
cm-ed.  The  sulphui-et  still  retains  a  small 
quantity  of  gold,  in  consequence  of  which 
it  is  a  third  time  fused,  and  a  precipitating 
njjxture,'  equal  in  weight  to  the  preced- 
ing, but  composed  of  an  alloy  of  equal 
parts  of  copper  and  lead,  is  added,  by 
which  a  thu-d  precipitaie  of  gold-holding 
silver  is  thrown  down,  and  the  sulphuret 
has  now  lost  all  its  gold. 

The  several  metallic  masses  thus  pro- 
cured are  melted  with  an  eighth  part  of 
VOL.    I. 


lead,  then  granulated,  and  subjected  to 
exactly  the  same  u-eatment  by  sulphur, 
and  the  precipitating  niixtui-es  as  at  first. 
The  silver  thus  obtained  being  now  very 
rich  in  gold  is  granulated,  mixed  with  a 
sixteenth  of  sulphur,  and  kept  in  fusion 
for  about  half  an  hour,  without  the  addi- 
tion of  any  precipitant :  beingpoured  into 
a  cone,  the  sulphuret  is  separated  from 
the  metal,  and  this  last  is  ti-eated  twice  or 
thrice  more  with  sulphur  in  the  same 
manner.  The  metallic  button  which  now 
begins  to  exhibit  a  yellow  colour  is  melt- 
ed  with  a  sixteenth  of  copper,  then  gra- 
nulated and  mixed  with  a  sixteenth  of 
sulphur  :  this  mixture  being  first  gently 
heated  in  a  covered  crucible,  and  then 
fused  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  is 
poured  into  a  cone,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
the  gold  is  found,  of  a  brass  colour,  and 
about  eighteen  carats  fine-  Its  purifica- 
tion is  then  compleated  by  sulphuret  of 
antimony,  as  we  have  ah'eady  described. 

When  gold  and  silver  are  alloyed  toge- 
ther in  such  proportions  that  the  former 
of  these  metals  is  not  much  less  than  a 
sixteenth,  nor  greater  than  a  fourth  of  the 
whole  mass,  the  usual  method  of  separat- 
ing them  is  by  means  of  nitrous  acid,  or 
aquafortis.  The  operation  is  technically 
called /)arf/n^,  and  differs  from  the  pro- 
cess described  under  the  same  name  in 
the  Assay,  only  in  beuig  performed  in 
larger  quantities,  and  without  some  of 
those  nice  manipulations  which  aie  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  the  accuracy  of  an 
assay. 

Silver  is  readily  dissolved  in  nitrous 
acid,  \\'hile  gold  in  ordinary  cases,  is  not 
at  all  attacked  by  this  menstruum  :  in  con- 
sequence of  which  when  this  latter  metal 
amounts  to  one  third  of  the  mass,  it  com- 
bines with  and  protects  by  its  own  insolu- 
bility a  portion  of  the  silver  from  the  ac- 
tion of  the  acid  :  hence,  the  necessity  of 
avoiding  too  large  a  proportion  of  gold  in 
tlie  alloy.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  ex- 
pence  of  nitrous  acid  is  considerable,  it  is 
requisite  that  the  silver  should  be  rich  bi 
gold,  to  render  this  process  which  is  very 
convenient  on  many  accounts,  also  econo- 
mical. The  refiner  therefore,  will  be 
careful  not  to  use  pure  silver,  but  such  as 
contains  a  little  gold,  in  lowering  the  fine- 
ness of  such  as  is  too  rich  in  gold  to  be 
successfully  parted  by  itself,  and  by  every 
other  contrivance  will  study  to  employ  no 
more  acid  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

A  proper  selection  being  made  of  poor 
and  rich  ingots  of  mixed  metal,  the  whole 
is  melted  in  an  iron  crucible,  and  well 
mixed  by  repeated  stimng :  it  is  then  lad- 
ed otit  by  a  clean  iron  ladle,  and  granu- 
lated by  being  poured  into  cold  water 
.1   K 


GOL 


GOL 


ft 


The  glasses  in  which  the  pai-ting  is  per- 
formed, thence  called  parting  glasses,  are 
nearly  of  the  figure  of  a  truncated  cone, 
with  a  rounded  bottom,  about  twelve  in- 
ches high,  and  seven  inches  wide  at  the 
lower  extremity ;  especial  care  must  be 
taken  in  the  choice  of  them,  that  they  are 
without  flaws  of  any  kind,  well  annealed, 
and  of  an  equal  thickness  througliout. 
Each  glass  is  to  be  cliarged  with  about 
forty  ounces  of  metal,  to  which  is  added 
niti'ous  acid,  already  half  saturated  with 
silver,  in  such  quantity  as  to  stand  two  or 
three  fingers'  breadth  above  the  surface 
of  the  metal.  Twenty  or  more  of  these 
glasses,  are  placed  in  a  sand-bath,  and  a 
moderate  heat  is  applied,  gradually  in- 
creasing, till  by  the  time  that  the  acid  is 
saturated,  it  is  nearly  boiling.  The  nitrat 
of  silver  being  now  decanted  oft,  a  fresh 
quantity  of  stronger  acid  is  added  and  is 
boiled  on  the  metal  till  it  is  nearly  satura- 
ted :  by  this  time  almost  the  whole  of  the 
silver  is  taken  up,  and  tlie  undissolved  re- 
sidue appears  like  a  heavy  brown  mud, 
consisting  of  the  gold  divided  into  very 
fine  particles,  and  a  little  silver.  The 
nearly  saturated  acid  is  now  poured  off', 
and  replaced  by  a  third  portion  of  still 
stronger  pure  nitrous  acid :  this  is  made 
to  boil,  and  is  continued  at  tlie  same  tem- 
perature, till  tiie  production  of  nitrous  gas 
ceases,  and  ihc  bubbles  become  large, 
wliich  is  a  sign  that  the  whole  of  the  sil- 
ver is  dissolved.  Tlie  acid  being  poured 
out  and  reserved  for  the  first  part  ot  a  fu- 
ture similar  process,  the  gold  is  washed 
with  repeated  portions  of  hot  water,  till 
the  washings  give  no  stain  to  a  piece  of 
polished  copper  on  being  dropped  on  its 
surface-  The  edulcorated  gold-powder 
being  dried,  is  mixed  with  a  little  nitre 
and  borax  and  melted ;  and  is  then  per- 
fectly pure.  The  unsaturated  nitrat  of 
silver,  is  reserved  for  the.  next  parting  : 
that  which  is  saturated  is  poured  boiling 
hot  into  a  large  wooden  bowl  lined  willi 
copper,  and  in  whicii  are  laid  several  cop- 
per-plates :  upon  these  the  silver  is  preci- 
pitated in  the  metallic  state  in  conse- 
quence of  the  superior  affinity  of  the  acid 
for  copper :  the  plates  are,  from  time  to 
time,  cleared  of  their  silver  crust,  in  or- 
der to  expose  a  fresh  surface  to  the  acid, 
and  expe<lite  the  entire  decomposition  of 
the  nitrat  of  silver  :  this  being  effected, 
the  nitrat  of  copper  is  poured  off",  the 
plates  are  scraped,  and  tlie  silver  after 
edulcoration,  is  melted  witli  a  little  nitre, 
and  is  thus  obtained  pure.  If  tlie  nitrat  of 
silver  be  perfectly  neutralized,  its  decom- 
position by  copper,  goes  on  slowly  and 
imperfectly:  this  inconvenience,  is,  how- 


ever, at  once  removed  by  the  addition  of 
a  very  few  drops  of  nitrous  acid.  In  pro- 
portion as  tfre  quantity  of  copper  in  the 
acid  increases,  and  th^t  of  the  silver  di- 
minishes,  the  remaining  niti-at  of  silver 
requires  more  time  and  a  greater  heat  to 
be  decomposed,  and  even  after  long  con- 
tinued boiling  with  copper,  a  solution  of 
any  of  the  neutral  muriats  will  throw 
down  a  white  precipitate  of  muriated  sil- 
ver :  it  would  appear,  therefore,  to  be  a 
saving  both  of  time  and  expence,  when 
the  action  ot  the  copper  begins  to  be  lan- 
guid, to  throw  down  the  remainder  of  the 
silver  by  an  addition  of  common  salt.  The 
nitrat  of  copper  obtahied  in  the  process  of 
parting,  is  turned  to  good  account  by  be- 
ing employed  in  the  preparation  of  Verdi- 
ter,  (see  Colour-Making)  and  from 
the  nitrat  of  hme  resulting  from  this  last, 
the  acid  is  again  procured  by  distillation 
in  the  usual  manner,  witli  green  vitriol  or 
sulphuric  acid. 

Separation  of  Gold  from  Platina — Plati- 
na  being  like  gold,  one  of  the  perfect  me- 
tals, thai  is,  unosydable  by  simple  expo- 
sure to  heat  and  air,  cannot  be  got  rid  of 
by  cupellation  ;  nor  can  any  of  the  various 
methods  in  wliich  sulphur  or  a  sulphu- 
retted metal  is  employed  as  the  precipi- 
tant, be  made  use  of  with  success;  for  pla- 
tina seems  to  have  at  least  as  little  affini- 
ty for  sulphur  as  gold  itself  has. 

Mercury,  although  capable  of  combin- 
ing both  with  gold  and  platina,  unites 
with  the  former  much  more  readily  than 
with  the  latter  :  upon  this  fact  is  founded 
a  method  of  separating  these  metals, 
which,  though  imperfect,  may  be  advan- 
tageously applied  as  a  preparatory  pro- 
cess. When  the  gold  contains  so  large  a 
proportion  of  i)latina  as  to  be  brittle,  it 
must  be  pidverized  in  a  mortar ;  but  if  the 
alloy  is  ductile,  it  must  be  reduced  to 
small  pieces  by  granulation.  This  being 
done,  some  mercury,  seven  or  eight  times 
the  weight  of  the  alloy,  is  to  be  heated  to 
ebullition  in  an  iron  crucible,  and  the  al- 
loy, previously  made  red  hot,  is  to  be 
dropped  into  it,  and  the  whole  kept  in  di- 
gestion nearly  at  the  boiling  point  for  half 
an  hour.  The  mixture  being  then  emp- 
tied into  an  iron  mortar  and  covered  with 
hot  water,  is  to  be  carefully  triturated  for 
some  hours,  renewing  the  water  from 
time  to  time  :  by  this  means  the  gold  will 
combine  with  the  mercury,  and  a  conside- 
rable proportion  oi  the  platina  will  rise  to 
the  surface  of  the  amalgam  in  the  form  of 
a  black  powder,  which  may  readily  be  se- 
parated. When,  by  this  means,  tlieallo) 
is  ])urified  as  much  as  possible,  the  super- 
fluous mercury  is  separated  by  straininjj- 


GOL 


GOL 


through  a  leatlier  in  the  usual  way,  and 
the  stiff  amalg-am  is  fi-eed  from  the  resi- 
dual mercury  by  distillation. 

The  gold  still  holding  a  little  platina,  is 
now  melted  with  thrice  i{s  weight  of  sil- 
ver, and  the  mixture  being  granulated,  is 
parted,  with  aquafortis,  in  tlie  manner  al- 
ready described.  Now,  it  is  a  singular 
circumstance,  that  although  platina  by  it- 
self, or  even  mixed  with  gold,  is  perfect- 
ly insoluble  in  niti'ous  acid ;  yet,  when 
combined  with  a  large  jjropoi-tion  of  sil- 
ver, it  is  perfectly  soluble  in  this  men- 
strum,  giving  it  a  dark.3elloWish  brown 
tinge.  When,  therefore,  this  triple  alloy 
is  digested  in  nitrous  acid,  the  silver  and 
platina  dissolve,  leaving  tiie  gold  behind. 
Of  the  gold  tlius  separated  and  carefully 
washed,  a  few  grains  must  be  ag^n  melt- 
ed with  thrice  tlieir  weight  of  silver,  and 
treated  witli  nitrous  acid,  in  order  to  as- 
certain whether  the  platina  is  entirely  got 
rid  of;  for,  if  it  contains  ^  per  cent,  or 
even  less,  the  acid  instead  of  being  co- 
lourless, will  be  very  sensibly  tinged,  in ; 
which  case  the  process  must  be  again  re- 
peated on  the  whole:  this,  however,  is 
scarcely  ever  necessary  where  the  previ- 
ous trituration  with  mercury  has  been 
carefuU}-  performed.  The  silver  contain- 
ed in  the  nitrous  solution,  together  with 
the  platina,  cannot  be  separated  by  cop- 
per, as  is  usual  in  common  parting,  be- 
cause some  of  the  platina  would  be  preci- 
pitated at  the  same  time  ;  but,  if  a  solu- 
tion of  common  salt  is  had  recourse  to, 
the  silver  will  be  thrown  down  in  the. 
state  of  muriat,  and  tlie  platina  will  re- 
main in  solution. 

Another  and  more  compendious  me- 
thod of  separating  gold  from  platina,  is  to 
dissolve  the  alloy  in  nitro-munatic  acid, 
and  to  throw  down  the  gold  by  the  addi- 
tion of  carbonat  of  soda,  or  a  large  quan- 
tity of  g'.een  sulphat  of  iron,  neitlier  of 
which  will  at  all  decompose  the  solution 
of  platina :  the  gold,  when  precipitated,  is 
to  be  dried,  mixed  with  a  little  nitre  and 
borax,  and  fused,  after  which  it  will  be  in 
a  state  of  absolute  purity. 

Purification  of  Gold  by  Cementation. — 
A  very  few  words  are  necessary  on  this 
subject,  as  the  process  is  now  we  believe 
wholly  obsolete.  It  has  been  already  men- 
tioned, that  nitrous  acid  is  incapable  of 
acting  upon  a  small  quantity  of  silver  or 
copper,  or  other  metals,  by  which  gold 
may  happen  to  be  alloyed,  where  the  pro- 
portion of  this  latter  is  so  great  as  to  co- 
ver and  envelope  the  particles  of  alloy. 
This  takes  place,  however,  only  when  the 
acid  is  liquid,  and  applied  at  a  tempera- 
ture  not  exceeding  that  of  ebullition  :  at  a 
greater  heat  a  much  larger  proportion  of 


gold  is  required  to  prevent  the  action  of 
the  acid  on  the  base  metal,  so  that  by  per- 
severance  and  judicious  management,  the 
gold  may  be  obtained  nearly  pure.  The 
process  by  which  this  is  effected  is  called 
cementation,  and  is  thus  performed. 

Take  the  impure  gold  and  beat  or  la- 
minate  it  till  it  is  somewhat  thinner  tlian  a 
guinea  ;  then  heat  it  red  hot,  and  allow  it 
to  cool  slowly,  that  it  may  be  as  soft  as 
possible ;  select  a  sound  cementing  pot, 
which  is  an  earthen  vessel  shaped  like  a 
low  hollow  cylinder  closed  at  one  end,  and 
cover  its  bottom  to  the  heighth  of  about  a 
finger's  breadth,  with  a  cement  compos- 
ed of  one  part  of  nitre,  two  parts  of  calci- 
ned sulphat  of  iron,  and  two  parts  of  pow- 
dered tiles  ground  together  to  a  fine  pow- 
der, and  moistened  with  urine  ;  upon  this 
cement  place  a  single  layer  of  gold  plate, 
then  another  layer  of  cement,  and  so  on 
alternately  till  the  pot  is  full,  observing 
that  the  upper  as  well  as  the  under  layer 
is  of  cement ;  then  lute  on  very  accurate- 
ly  a  cover,  and  place  the  pot  in  a  furnace, 
so  that  it  may  be  kept  at  a  moderate  red 
heat  for  twenty -four  hours,  care  being  ta- 
ken not  to  increase  the  temperature  so  as 
to  endanger  the  fusion  of  the  gold.  At 
this  heat  the  metal  being  softened,  and 
the  acid  being-  liberated  in  a  very  active 
state,  tlie  .gold  is  penetrated  more  or  less 
by  it,  and  the  silver  and  other  metals,  ex- 
cept platina,  that  the  gold  may  contain, 
are  corroded  and  oxydated.  When  the 
pot  is  removed  from  the  fire,  it  must  be 
carefully  unpacked,  ;ind  the  gold  plates 
boiled  first  in  water,  and  then  in  dilute  ni- 
trous acid,  by  which  they  will  be  separat- 
ed f'lom  the  mctalhc  salt  and  oxyd,  and 
will  be  found  when  assayed,  to  be  conside- 
rablj-  purer  than  at  first.  Everj'  repeti- 
tion of  the  process  renders  the  gold  pu- 
rer, but  in  a  decreasing  ratio  ;  so  that  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  persevere  in  it  longer 
than  four  or  five  times. 

If  comnion  salt  is  substituted  to  nitre 
in  the  cement  mentioned  above,  muriatic 
acid  gas  will  be  liberated  instead  of  ni- 
trous aci4,  and  will  be  found  to  be  equally 
efficacious,  acting  only  Jon  the  alloy  of  the 
gold;  but  cai-e  must  be  taken  not  to  em- 
ploy both  nitre  and  muriat  of  soda  in  the 
same  cement,  otherwise  nitro-muriatic 
acid  will  be  produced,  and  the  gold  as 
well  as  the  alloy  will  be  corroded- 

The  only  purpose  to  which  cementation 
is  now  applied,  is  to  give  a  superficial,  and 
therefore,  in  some  measure,  fraudulent 
fineness  to  gold  highly  alloyed. 

In  foreign  countries,  where  trinkets 
and  small  work,  are  required  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  assay  of  the  touch,  a  variety 
of  needles  are  necessary ;  but  they  are  not 


aoL 


GOL 


much  used.  They  afford,  however,  a  dc 
gree  of  information,  which  is  more  consi- 
derable than  miglit  at  first  be  expected. 
Tlie  atitntive  assayer  not  only  compares 
the  colour  of"  the  stroke  made  upon  the 
touch-s'.one  by  the  metal  under  examina- 
tion, with  that  produced  by  his  needle, 
but  will  likewise  attend  to  the  sensation 
of"  roughness,  dryness,  smoothness,  or 
greasiness,  wJiich  the  texture  of  the  rub- 1 
bed  metal  excites,  when  abraded  by  <he 
stone.  When  two  strokes,  perfectly  alike 
in  colour,  are  made  upon  the.  stone,  he 
may  tlien  wet  them  with  aqua  fortis, 
which  will  afi"cct  tliem  very  differently,  it" 
they  be  not  similar  compositions  ;  or,  the 
stone  itself  may  be  made  red-hot  by  the 
fire,  or  by  the  blowpipe,  if  thin  black  pot- 
tery  be  used,  in  which  case,  the  phenome- 
na of  oxidation  will  difl["er  according  to 
the  nature  and  quantity  of  the, alloy. 

Gold  ores  may  be  assayed  in  t/ie  moist 
nuay  by  pounding  them  very  fine,  weigh- 
ing a  determinate  portion,  and  attempting 
their  solution  in  nitiic  acid,  which  will 
dissolve  the  matrix  if  it  consist  of  calca- 
reous earth  ;  or  if  it  be  sulphat  of  lime, 
tlu  powder  may  be  digested  in  aqua  re- 
gi:  ,  as  long  as  any  metallic  substance  is 
taken  up;  after  which,  the  gold  may  be 
precipitated  by  an  addition  of  sulphat  of 
iron,  which  will  cause  It  to  fall  down  in 
the  middle  state.  See  Assaying. 

Physical  properties  of  Guld,  ajid prepara- 
tion of  Gold-leaf  and  Gilt-ivire. — The  co- 
lour of  pure  gold  by  reflected  light,  is  a 
full  bright  yellow,  verging  on  one  hand  to- 
wards orange,  and  on  the  other  towards 
brass-yellow  -.  it  is  remarkable,  that  gold 
fused  with  borax,  becomes  considerably 
paler  than  usual;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
when  fused  with  nitre,  it  becomes  more 
highly  coloured,  without  any  other  per- 
ceptible change  being  induced  by  either 
of  these  salts  :  hence,  as  this  metal  is 
reckoned  beautiful  in  proportion  to  the 
fullness  and  brilliancy  of  its  colovu",  the 
borax  flux  used  by  the  goldsmiths  is  ge- 
nerally mixed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
nitre  to  counterbalance  its  discolouring 
pr^iperly.  The  colour  of  gold  when  in 
high  fusion,  is  blueish-green,  of  nearly  the 
same  tint  with  that  of  gold,  by  transmit- 
ted light :  this  latter  may  conveniently  be 
observed  by  laying  a  leaf  of  gold  between 
two  thin  plates  of  colourless  glass,  and 
holding  it  between  the  eye  and  a  strong 
light. 

The  specific  gravity  of  gold  is  only  in- 
ferior to  thatof  platina  :  with  regard  to  its 
precise  amount  a  considerable  variation 
may  be  observed  on  comparing  the  re- 
ports of  different  authors,  one  stating  it  as 
high  as  20.  and  another  as  low  as  18.75. 


This  difference  is  no  doubt,  in  part,  attri- 
butable to  slight  impurities  in  the  gold  it- 
self, partly  also  to  imperfection  in  the  ba- 
lances made  use^of,  to  differences  of  tem- 
peratuj-e,  to  the  gold's  being  cast  in  sand 
or  metal,  to  its  being  hammered  or  not, 
and  to  other  causes,  which,  in  the  article 
Alloy  we  have  briefly  pointed  out,  as  af- 
fecting the  specific  gravity  of  metallic 
substances.  Accordmg  to  an  experiment 
by  Mr.  EUicot,  whose  accuracy  is  well 
known,  the  specific  gravity  of  an  ingot  of 
gold  refined  by  antimony,  was  equal  to 
19184,  and  of  the  same  when  hammered, 
to  19.207.  According  to  Lewis,  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  fine  gold  at  58°  Fah. 
amounted  to  19.376.  Brisson  reports  the 
specific  gravity  of  fine  gold  in  ingot  to  be 
equal  to  19.258,  and  of  the  same  when 
hammered,  to  19,361. 

In  hardness  this  metal  ranks  somewhat 
above  silver  and  below  copper.  It  is  ex- 
tremely flexible,  and  so  tough,  that  when 
at  length  by  repeated  bendings  it  is  made 
to  break,  both  the  fractured, pieces  ap- 
pear terminated  by  a  wedge-shaped  ex- 
tremity. tYom  its  softness  and  toughness, 
it  receives  with  perfect  exactness  the  im- 
pression of  tlie  dies  in  coining,  and  for  the 
same  reasons  it  does  not  file  freely,  clog- 
ging up  the  teeth  of  the  instrument  in  a 
very  short  time  It  possesses  little  elasti- 
city or  sonorousness.  It  receives  great 
biilliance  from  the  burnisher,  but  not 
from  the  action  of  polishing  powders.  It 
is  inodorous  and  insipid.  The  tenacity  of 
gold  is  by  no  means  so  great  as  was  sup- 
posed by  the  earlier  chemists  ;  it  is  inferi- 
or in  this  respect  to  iron,  copper,  platina, 
and  silver.  A  wire  of  gold  one-tenth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  will  support  about 
2541bs.  avoirdupois,  before  it  breaks.  It  is 
extremely  malleable  both  when  hot  and 
cold,  and  very  ductile. 

In  consequence  of  the  high  commercial 
value  of  gold,  it  is  scarcely  ever  employed 
in  mass,  or  in  thick  plates  for  ornamental 
purposes,  but  advantage  has  been  taken  of 
its  remarkable  malleability,  to  reduce  it  in- 
to leaves  of  an  almost  incredible  thinness, 
so  that,  in  this  state,  notwithstanding  its 
high  specific  gravity,  it  will  float  in  tlie 
air  like  a  feather.  Of  the  ingenious  art 
called  Gold  belting,  we  shall  proceed  to 
give  a  short  account. 

The  gold  selected  for  this  purpose  is 
as  pure  as  possible ;  the  quantity  used 
at  one  time  by  the  English  artists  is  two 
ounces.  'I'his  being  melted  in  a  black 
lead  crucible  with  some  borax,  is  poured 
into  an  iron  mould  previously  heated  and 
greased,  by  which  it  is  formed  into  a 
plate  six  or  eight  inches  long,  and  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  wide.     This  plate  i.s 


GOL 

heated  red  hot,  in  order  to  burn  off  the 
tallow,  and  is  then  extended  by  forging 
on  an  anvil,  and  afterwards  passed  be- 
tween steel  rollers,  till  it  becomes  a 
long  ribband  as  thin  as  paper.  The 
ribband  is  now  cut  into  150  equal  pieces, 
each  of  which  is  forged  on  an  anvil  till 
it  is  about  an  inch  square,  after  which 
they  are  well  annealed.  Each  of  the 
squares  in  this  state  weighs  six  grains 
and  four  tenths,  and  in  thickness  is  equal  to 
■^^^  of  an  inch.    The  150  plates  of  gold 


thus  produced,  are  interlaid  with  pieces 
of  very  fine    vellum  about  four  inches 
square,  and  about  twenty   vellum  leaves 
are  placed  on  the  outsides  ;  the  whole  is 
then  put  into  a  case  of  parchment,  over 
which  is  drawn  another  similar  case,  so 
that  the  packet  is  kept  close  and  tight 
on  all  sides.    Being  now  laid  on  a  smooth 
block  of  marble,  from  COO  to  600  lbs.  in 
weight,  the  heavier  the  better,  the  work- 
man  begins  the  beating  with  a  round- 
faced  somewhat  convex  hammer,  called 
the    cutch    hammer,     weighing    sixteen 
pounds ;  the  packet  is  turned  occasion- 
ally upside  down,  and  beaten  with  strong 
but  not  acute  strokes,  till  the  gold  is  ex- 
tended nearly    to   an  equality   with   the 
vellum   leaves,   to   ascertain   which   the 
packet  is  opened  from  time  to  time,  and 
also  bent  and  rolled  between  the  hands 
to    facilitate  the   extension  of  the   gold 
between  the  leaves.     The  iirst  pai't  of  tlie 
process  being  completed,   the  packet  is 
then  taken  to  pieces  and  each  leaf  of  gold 
is  divided  into  four  with  a  steel  knife ; 
the  600  pieces  thus  produced  are  inter- 
laid with  pieces  of  ox-gut,  of  tlie  same 
dimensions  and  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  vellum.     The  beating  is  continued, 
but  with   a  lighter  hammer  called  the 
shoddering  hammer,  and  weighing  about 
twelve  pounds,  till  the  gold  is  brought  to 
the  same   dimensions  as   the  interposed 
membrane.    It  is  now  again  divided  into 
four,  by  means  of  a  piece  of  cane  cut  to 
an  edge,  the  leaves  being  by  this  time  so 
light  that  any  accidental  moisture  con 
densing  on  an  iron  blade,  would  cause 
them  to  adhere  to  it.     The  2400  leaves 
hence    resulting  are  parted  into  three 
packets,   with   interposed  membrane  as 
before,  and  beaten  with  the  finishing  or 
gold  hammer,  weighing  about  ten  pounds, 
till  they  acquire  an  extent  equal  to  the 
former.    The  packets  are  now  taken  to 
pieces,   and  the  gold  leaves,  by  means 
of  a  cane  instrument  and  the  breath,  are 
laid  on  a  flat  leathern  cushion  and  cut  one 
by  one  to  an  even    square,   by   a  cane 
frame  ;  they  are  lastly  laid  in  books  of  25 
leaves  each,  the  paper  of  which  is  pre- 
viously smoothed  and  rubbed  with  red 


GOL 

bole,  to  prevent  them  from  adhering. 
Hence  it  appears  that  each  of  the  inch- 
square  pieces,  into  which  the  ribband  of 
gold  was  divided,  is  extended  by  beating 
to  196  square  inches,  or  16  leaves,  weigh- 
ing 0.4  of  a  grain  e.ich,  and  not  exceed- 
ing in  thickness  -f5  0X5^5  of  an  inch.  Eve- 
ry grain  of  gold  fumishes  30.6  square 
inches.    . 

Gold  wire,  as  it  is  called,  is  in  fact  only 
silver  wire  gilt,  and  is  jirepared  in  the 
following  manner.  A  solid  cylinder  ot 
fine  silver  weighing  about  twenty  pounds, 
is  covered  with  thick  leaves  of  tjokUvliich 
arc  made  to  adhere  inseparablj  to  it  by 
means  of  the  burnisher :  successive  la- 
minx  are  thus  applied,  till  the  quantity  ot 
gold,  if  intended  for  common  gold  wire, 
amounts  to  100  gi'ains  for  every  pound 
troy  of  silver  ;  if  for  double  gilt  wire,  to 
about  140  grains.  This  gilt  silver  rod  is 
then  drawn  successively  through  holes 
made  in  a  strong  steel  jihite  till  it  is  re- 
duced to  the  size  of  a  tliick  quill,  care- 
being  taken  to  anneal  it  accurately  after 
each  operation.  The  succeeding  process 
is  similar  to  the  former,  except  that  a 
mixed  metal  somewhat  softer  than  steel 
is  employed  for  the  drawing  plates,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  gilding  from  being 
stripped  off,  and  no  further  annealint^'  is 
requisite  after  it  is  brought  to  be  as  slen- 
der as  a  crow-qyill.  When  the  wire  is 
spun  as  thin  as  is  necessary,  it  is  wound 
on  a  hollov/  copper  bobbin,  and  carefully 
annealed  by  a  very  gentle  heat :  finally  it 
is  passed  ttu-ough  a  flatting  mill,  anfl  tlie 
process  is  complete. 

According  to  Dr.  Halley,  six  ftet  in 
length  of  the  finest  gilt  wii-e  before  flat- 
ting, will  counterpoise  no  more  tlian  a 
grain :  and  as  the  gold  is  not  quite  -^-^ 
of  the  whole,  a  single  grain  of  gold  thus 
extended  will  be  345.6  feet  lofig.  By 
the  operation  of  flatting,  the  length  of 
the  wire  is  increased  about  a  seventh, 
and  its  width  is  equal  to  Jg-  of  an  inch; 
hence  the  surface  occupied  by  one  grain 
is  equal  to  9S.7  square  inches,  with  a 
thickness  of  - 


4  9()W  o^^''' f '':*'• 
Gold  requires  for  its  fusion  a  lov, 
white  heat  equivalent  to  32°  of  Wedge- 
wood,  or  13O0  of  Fahrenheit,  and  in  this 
state  its  surface  appears  of  a  luminous 
blueish  green  colour.  Gold  may  be  al- 
loyed with  various  metals.  When  gold 
is  rendered  standard  by  copper,  that  is, 
when  the  proportion  of  this  last  amounts 
to  38  grains  in  the  ounce,  the  resulting 
alloy  is  of  a  deep  yellow  colour  inclining 
to  red;  is  harder  than  pure  gold,  but 
perfectly  ductile.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
less  than  that  of  tiie  mean  of  its  ingr<  - 


GOL 


GUM 


liients  in  a  remai'kable  degi'ee.  Equal 
parts  of  copper  and  gold  also  form  a 
perfectly  ductile  alloy.  It  is  not  howe- 
ver every  kind  of  reputedly  pure  cop- 
per which  can  safely  be  used  for  alloy- 
ing gold :  even  the  Swedisli  dollar  cop- 
per occasionally  renders  the  gold  with 
which  it  is  mixed,  as  bi  illle  as  j^lass : 
this  appears  to  be  owing  to  the  Icatl  and 
antimony  which  most  cop])er  contains, 
and  which  though  not  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  aftect  ill  any  material  degree  the 
ductility  of  the  copper  itself,  are  fully 
adequate  to  destroy  the  ductility  of  the 
gold  with  which  they  are  mixed ;  since 
no  more  than  -j-^g^  "'^  either  of  these  me- 
tals is  enougli  for  this  purpose,  as  wc 
liave  already  mentioned. 

In  the  year  1792,  a  law  was  passed  for 
establishing  a  mint,  and  for  regulating 
the  coins  of  the  United  States  :  by  this 
law  the  following  gold  coins  were  to  be 
struck. 

1.  Eagles;  each  to  be  of  the  value  of 
ten  dollars,  and  to  contain  two  hundred 
and  forty-seven  and  one-eighth  grains  of 
pure  gold,  or  two  hundred  and  seventy 
grains  of  standard  gold. 

2.  Half  eagles ;  each  to  be  of  the  va- 
lue of  five  dollars,  and  to  contain  123 
grains  of  pure  gold,  or  135  grains  of 
standard  gold. 

3.  Quarter  eagles ;  qach  to  be  of  the 
value  of  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents,  and 
to  contain  si.\.ty-onc  seven-eights  of  pure 
goU:,  or  sixty-seven  four-eights  grains 
of  standard  gold. 

Gold  Coin,  ~^ 

Gold  litre,  >  See  Gold. 

Gold  Lenf,  J 

Gold  Thread,  or  spun  gvU,  is  flatted 
gold  warped  or  laid  over  a  thread  of  silk, 
by  twisting  it  with  a  wheel  and  iron  bob- 
bins. To  dispose  the  wire  to  be  spun  or 
silk,  they  pass  it  between  two  rollers  of 
a  little  mill  :  these  rollers  are  of  nicely 
polished  steel,  and  about  three  inches  in 
diameter.  They  are  set  very  close  to  each 
other,  and  turned  by  means  of  a  handle 
fastened  to  one  of  them  which  gives  mo- 
tion to  the  other.  'I'he  gold  wire  in  pass- 
ing between  tiic  line  is  rendered  quite 
■Hat,  but  without  lo.^ingany  of  its  gilding  ; 
and  is  rendered  so  exceedingly  thin  and 
flexible,  that  it  is  easily  spun  on  silk 
thread  by  means  of  a  hand  wheel,  and  so 
wound  on  a  spool  or  bobbin. 

Gold  Brocade,  is  a  slufi"  of  gold,  raised 
and  enriched  with  flowers,  foliages,  and 
other  ornaments,  according  to  the  fancy 
of  the  merchant  or  manufacturer.  For- 
merly the  word  signified  a  stuff"  wove  all 
of  gold,  both  in  the  warp  and  in  the 
woof.     In  manufacturing   brocades,   the 


flatted  gilt  wire  is  spun  on  threads  oi 
yellow  silk,  approaching  to  the  colour  of 
gokl.  The  machinery  used,  where  a 
number  of  threads  are  twisted  at  once  by 
the  turning"  of  a  wheel,  is  rather  compli- 
cated. For  further  information  consult 
Lewis'  Commerce  of  Arts,  where  this 
miunifacture,  as  well  as  the  mode  of 
cleansing  brocades,  may  be  found  at 
length 

Gold  Piatesj  for  enamelling.  See  Ena- 
melling. 

Goid  (.shell,)  sec  Gilding. 

GoU  Size,  for  burnished  gilding,  as 
well  as  for  japanners.  See  GiLDiNcand 
.Iapanning. 

Gold,  recovering  of  from  gilt  work. 
This  may  be  effected  in  several  ways.  If 
silver  be  gilt,  the  gold  may  be  removed 
l>y  nitro-m(u-iatic  acid,  which  dissolves  it. 
Sec  Gold. 

Gnld  Lacquer.    See  LAC(iUEn. 

GRANULATION.  The  process  by 
which  a  metal  is  reduced  into  grains  is 
called  granulation.  This  is  for  the  most 
part  effected  by  melting  the  metal,  and 
then  pouring  it  in  a  very  slender  stream 
into  cold  water.  As  soon  as  the  metal 
touches  the  water  it  divides  into  drops, 
which  have  a  tendency  to  a  spherical 
shape,  and  are  more  or  less  perfect  ac- 
cording to  the  tliinness  of  the  stream,  the 
height  from  which  it  falls,  and  the  tem- 
perature both  of  the  water  and  of  the  metal. 
Tin,  and  some  others  of  the  most  fusible 
metals,  may  be  reduced  to  much  finer 
grains  than  can  be  effected  in  the  usual 
way,  by  pouring  it  when  melted  into  a 
wooden  box  smeared  on  the  inside  with 
chalk,  and  shaking  it  violently  before  it 
has  time  to  become  solid  By  this  means 
tin  is  reduced  to  a  fine  powder;  and  there 
is  no  doubt  but  that  the  less  fusible  me- 
tals might  likewise  be  so  pulverized  by  a 
similar  manipulation. 

GRAPHITE,  or  Plumbago.   SeeCoAL. 

GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC.  See  Specific 
Gravity. 

GREEN,  in  Dveing.     See  Dyeing. 

GREEN  EARTH.'  This  is  a  mineral, 
found  in  different  places ;  and,  when  of  a 
good  colour,  is  made  use  of  as  a  pigment 
by  painters.     See  Colour  Making. 

(iRERN  VITRIOL,  Sidphat  of  Iron,  or 
Copperas.    See  Iron  and  Copperas. 

GUM  ELASTIC.     See  Caoutchouc. 

GUM.  The  mucilage  of  vegetables. 
It  is  usually  transparent,  more  or  less 
biittle  when  dry,  though  difficultly  pul- 
verable ;  of  an  insipid,  or  slightly  saccha- 
rine taste ;  soluble  in,  or  capable  of  com- 
bining with  water  in  all  proportions,  to 
which  it  gives  a  gluey  adhesive  consist- 
ence in  proportion  as  its  quantity  is  great- 


GUM 


GUlJ 


er.  It  is  separable,  or  coagulates  by  the 
action  of  weak  acids ;  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
or  in  oil;  and  capable  of  the  acid  fermen- 
tation, when  diluted  with  water.  The  de- 
structive action  of  fire  causes  it  to  emit 
much  carbonic  acid,  and  converts  it  into 
coal  without  exhibiting-  any  flame  Dis- 
tillation affords  water,  acid,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  oil,  a  small  quantity  of  ammonia, 
ana  much  coal. 

These  are  the  leading  properties  of 
gums,  rightly  so  called;  but  the  inaccu- 
rate custom  i)f  former  times  applied  the 
term  gum  to  all  concrete  vegetable  juices ; 
so  thai  in  common  we  hear  of  gum  copal, 
g^m  sandarach,  and  other  gums,  which 
are  either  pure  resins,  or  mixtures  of  re- 
sins with  the  vegetable  mucilage. 

The  principal  gums  are,  1.  The  com- 
mon gums,  obtained  from  the  plum,  the 
peach,  the  cherry  tree,  &c. — 2.  Gum  Ara- 
bic, which  flows  naturally  from  the  acacia 
in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  elsewhere.  This 
forms  a  clear  transparent  mucilasre  with 
water. — 3.  Gum  Seneca,  or  Senegal.  It 
does  not  greatly  differ  from  gum  Arabic: 
the  pieces  are  larger  and  clearer ;  and  it 
seems  to  communicate  a  higher  degree 
of  the  adhesive  quality  to  water.  It  is 
much  used  by  calico-printers  and  others. 
The  first  sort  of  gums  are  fi'equently  sold 
by  this  name,  but  may  be  known  by  their 
darker  colour. — 4.  Gum  Adragant  or 
Tragacanlh.  It  is  obtained  from  a  small 
plant  of  the  same  name  growing  in  Syria, 
and  other  eastern  parts.  It  comes  to  us 
in  small  white  contorted  pieces  resem- 
bling worms.  It  is  usually  dearer  than 
other  gums,  and  forms  a  thicker  jelly 
with  water. 

Mr.  Willis  has  found,  that  the  root  of 
the  common  blue  bell,  hyacinth  us  non 
descriptus,  dried  and  powdered,  affords  a 
mucilage  possessing  all  the  qualities  of 
that  from  gum  arable.  The  roots  of  the 
vernal  squill,  white  hly,  and  orchis,  equal- 
ly yield  mucilage. 

GUM-UESIN.  These  are  for  the  most 
part  the  juices  of  various  trees  of  tropical 
climates,  which  ooze  out  from  natural 
cracks  in  the  bark,  or  artificial  Incisions, 
and  harden  by  the  sun  and  air  into  irregu- 
lar roundish  masses.  The  gum-resins 
therefore  are  the  juices  of  the  respective 
plants  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  natu- 
ral state,  and  they  retain  the  sensible  pro- 
perties of  smell  and  taste  for  a  very  great 
lengtli  of  time.  A  similar  juice,  but  in- 
ferior in  quality,  may  also  be  obtained 
from  some  of  them  by  macerating  in  wa- 
ter the  entire  vegetable,  or  part  of  the  ve- 
getable that  yields  it,  and  evaporating  the 
water  to  an  extract,  but  this  is  vcr\'  sel- 
dom practised. 


The  gum-resins  are  almost  exclusively 
employed  in  medicine,  and  only  a  very- 
few  of  them  liave  engaged  the  attention  of 
chemists.  Though  they  agree  in  those 
leading  characters  which  constitute  a 
gum-resin,  there  is  a  vast  difference  in 
the  composition  of  the  several  species 
when  examined  chemically,  and  they 
pass  almost  by  imperceptible  gi-adations 
either  into  the  pure  resins,  or  into  the 
extracts  and  gummy  mucilages. 

Of  the  most  important  gum-resins  may 
be  enumerated,  myrrh,  galbanum,  guaia- 
cum,  asafoetida,  ammoniacum,  olibanum, 
sagapenum,  and  perhaps  opium.  The  che- 
mical analysis  of  these  and  others  where  it 
presents  any  important  results,  will  be 
given  under  the  respective  articles. 

The  genera)  or  characteristic  proper- 
ties of  a  gtnn-resin  are  (as  its  name  im- 
ports) sucb  as  would  be  produced  by  a 
natural  mixture  of  gum  and  resin.  To 
the  resinous  part  they  chiefly  owe  the 
property  of  burning  with  much  flame, 
melting' In  dfops  by  the  lieat;  of  giving 
by  distillation  a  large  portion  of  volatile 
oil  and  some  ammonia.  To  the  gtimmy 
part  they  owe  their  partial  solubility  in 
water,  so  that  when  rubbed  with  this  fluid 
they  form  an  emulsion,  generally  whitish, 
which  remains  a  considerable  time  turbid, 
and  even  \Vhen  by  rest  the  gum  resin  has 
again  subsided,  the  clear  liquor  always 
retains  some  of  the  taste  and  smell  of  the 
substance  employed 

Some  of  the  gum -resinous  juices  are 
also  mixed  with  a  kind  of  Extract,  or  a 
coloured  and  bitter  substance  soluble  in 
water  and  alcohol,  and  also  Tan  is  very 
commonly  united  to  them.  On  the  whole 
the  term'  Gum-liesin  is  more  properly  a 
pharmaceutical  than  a  chemical  distinc- 
tion. 

GUNPOWDER,  is  a  mechanical  mix- 
ture of  nitre,  charcoal,  and  sulphur,  the 
explosive  powers  of  which  are  familiar  to 
every  one.  The  method  of  manufacture 
is  extremely  simple,  but  considerable 
precautions  are  necessary  in  the  selec- 
tion of  pure  and  good  materials,  in  en- 
suring a  very  intimate  admixtiu-e,  and  in 
avoiding  any  strong  collision  or  any  other 
event  wliich  might  produce  fire,  and  thu::: 
kindle  the  powcler,  and  be  productive  of 
the  most  .dreadful  accidents. 

Among  the  number  of  improvements 
which  have  been  made,  in  the  machinery 
and  apparatus,  for  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder,  in  the  United  States,  as  well 
as  to  tlie  improvements  in  refining  saltpe- 
tre, and  in  tlie  preparation  of  coal,  to 
whicli  the  excellence  of  some  American 
gunpowder  is  attributed,  we  may  add, 
tliat  our  countrv  is  indebted  to  the  Messrs. 


\5UN 


GUN 


Duponts,  of  Brandywme,  as  well  as  to 
Mr.  John  H.  Worrell,  of  the  Frankford 
(formerly  Dccalur's)  mills,  Mr-  Wiielen, 
of  Hall  mills,  and  others,  for  the  produc- 
tion of  this  article,  which  is  now  equal,  if 
not  superior,  to  t!.e  French  and  Englisn 
powder. 

Tile  actual  mode  of  makinjy  gunpow- 
der CLUinot  be  better  described  than  from 
the  account  given  by  Mr.  Coleman,  of  the 
Koyal  Powder  .Mills  of  Wallham  Abbey. 
The  ingredients  of  gunpowder  are  taken 
ill  the  following  proportion,  namely,  75  of 
sahpetre,  15  of  charcoal,  and  lO  of  sul- 
phur. 1  lie  saltpetre  used  is  almost  en- 
Urely  that  which  is  imported  from  the 
Indies,  which  comes  over  in  the  rough 
state  mixed  with  earthy  and  other  salts, 
and  is  refnied  bj^  solution,  evaporation, 
and  crystallization.  After  this  it  is  fused 
in  a  moderate  heat,  so  as  to  expel  all  the 
pure  water,  but  none  of  the  acid,  and  is 
then  fit  for  use  The  great  use  of  re- 
fining the  nitre  is  to  get  rid  of  the  de- 
liquescent sails,  which  by  rendering  the 
powder  made  of  it  liable  to  become,  damp 
by  keeping,  would  most  materially  lus- 
pair  its  goodness.  The  sulphur  used  is 
imported  from  Italy  and  Sicily,  where  it 
is  collected  in  its  native  state  in  abun- 
dance. It  is  refined  by  melting  and  skim- 
ming, and  when  very  impure,  by  subli- 
mation It  should  seem  that  the  FiUglish 
sulphur,  extracted  in  abundance  from 
some  of  the  copper  and  other  mines,  is 
loo  impure  to  be  economically  use>l  foi- 
gunpowder,requiring  expensive  processes 
of  refining. 

The  charcoal  formerly  used  in  this  ma- 
nufacture was  prepared  in  the  usual  way 
of  charring  wood,  piles  being  formed  of 
it  and  covered  with  sods  or  fern,  and  suf- 
fered to  burn  witij  a  slow  smothering 
flame.  This  meliiod  however  cannot  with 
any  certainty  be  depended  on  to  j)ruduce 
charcoal  of  an  uniformly  good  quality, 
and  thei'ei'ore  a  most  essential  improve- 
ment has  !)een  adopted  in  this  cotmtry,  to 
which  the  present  superior  excellence  of 
American  powder  may  be  in  a  good  mea- 
sure attributed,  which  is,  that  of  enclosing 
the  wood,  cut  into  billets  about  nine  inches 
long,  in  iron  cylinders  placed  horiy.ontal- 
ly,  and  burning  them  gradually  to  a  red 
heat,  continuing  the  hre  till  every  thing 
volatile  is.  driven  oil',  and  the  wood  is 
completely  ( harred.  But  as  the  jiyrolig- 
neous  acid;  tlie  volatile  product  of  the 
wood  heated /icr  sc,  is  of  use  in  manufac- 
ture, it  is  collected  by  pipes  passing  out 
of  the  iron  cylinder,  and  di|)ping  into 
casks  where  tlje  acid  liquor  condenses. 
This  acid  is  used  in  some  parts  oj'  calico- 
printing,  chiefly  as  the  basis  of  some  of 


the  iron  liquors  and  mordants  for  dark- 
coloured  patterns.  The  wood  before 
charring  is  barked.  It  is  generally  either 
alder  or  willow,  or  dog-wood,  but  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  any  certain  ground 
for  preferring  one  wood  to  another  pro- 
vided it  be  fully  charred. 

The  above  three  ingredients  being  pre- 
pared, they  are  first  separately  ground  to 
fine  powder,  then  mixed  in  the  proper 
proportions,  after  which  the  mixture  is 
fit  for  the  important  operation  of  tho- 
roughly incorporating  the  component 
parts  in  the  mill.  A  powder  mill  is  a- 
sUght  wooden  building,  with  a  boarded 
roof,  so  that  in  the  event  of  any  moderate 
explosion,  the  roof  will  fly  off  without 
difficulty,  and  the  sudden  expansion  will 
thus  be  made  in  the  least  mischievous 
direction.  Stamping  mills  were  formerly 
used  here,  which  consisted  simply  of  a 
large  wooden  mortar,  in  which  a  very 
ponderous  wooden  pestle  was  made  to 
work,  by  the  power  of  men,  or  horses,  or 
water,  as  convenience  directed.  These 
performed  the  business  with  veiy  great 
accuracy,  but  the  danger  from  over-heat- 
ing was  found  to  be  so  great,  and  the  ac- 
cidents attributable  to  this  cause  were  so 
numerous,  that  stamping  mills  have  been 
mostly  disused  in  large  manufactures, 
and  tlic  business  is  now  generally  per- 
formed by  two  stones  placed  vertically, 
and  running  on  a  bed-stone  or  trough. 

The  mixed  ingredients  are  put  on  this 
bed-stone  in  quantities  not  exceeding  40 
or  50  pounds  at  a  time,  and  moistened 
with  just  so  much  water,  as  will  bring  th& 
mass  in  the  grinding  to  a  consistence 
considerably  stilier  than  paste,  in  which  it 
is  foimd  by  experience  that  the  incorpo- 
ration of  the  ingredients  goes  on  witli  the 
most  ease  and  accuracy.  These  mills 
are  worked  either  by  water  or  horses. 

The  composition  is  usually  worked  for 
about  seven  or  eight  hours  before  the 
mixture  is  thought  to  be  sufficiently  inti- 
mate, and  even  this  time  is  often  found,  by 
the  inferior  quality  of  the  powder,  to  fcic 
too  little.  The  fine  powder  manufac- 
tured at  Battle  in  Sussex,  is  still  however 
mad-  in  large  mortars  or  stamping  mills, 
in  the  old  way,  with  heavy  lignum  vitse 
pe.stles.  Only  a  very  few  pounds  of  the 
materials  are  worked  at  a  time. 

The  composition  is  then  taken  from  the 
mills  and  sent  to  the  corning-liouse,  to  be 
corned  or  grained.  This  process  is  not 
essential  to  the  manufacture  of  perfect 
gunpowder,  but  is  adopted  on  account  of 
the  much  greater  convenience  of  using  it 
in  grains  than  in  fine  dust  Here  the  stiff 
paste  is  first  pressed  into  hard  lumps, 
which  are  put  into  circular  sieves  with 


GUN 


GUN 


parcliment  bottoms,  perforated  with  holes 
of  different  sizes,  and  fixed  in  a  frame 
connected  with  a  Jiorizontal  wheel.  Vlach 
of  tiiese  sieves  is  also  furnished  with  a 
runner  or  oblate  spheroid  of  ligiium  vitsc, 
wiiich  being'  set  in  motion  by  the  action  of 
the  wheel,  squeezes  the  paste  through 
the  holes  of  the  parchment  bottom,  form- 
ing grains  of  different  siz^s.  The  grains 
are  then  sorted  and  separated  from  the 
dust  by  sieves  of  progressive  dimensions. 

They  are  then  glazed  or  hardened,  and 
the  rough  edges  taken  off,  by  being  put 
into  casks,  filling  them  somewhat  more 
than  half-full,  which  are  fixed  to  the  axis 
of  a  water-wheel,  and  in  thus  rapidly  re- 
volving the  grains  are  shaken  against 
each  other  and  rounded,  at  the  same  time 
receiving  a  slight  gloss  or  glazing.  iVIuch 
dust  is  also  separated  by  this  process 
The  glazing  is  found  to  lessen  the  force 
of  the  powder  from  a  fifih  to  a  fourth,  but 
the  powder  keeps  much  better  when 
glazed,  and  is  less  liable  to  grow  damp. 

The  powder  bemg  thus  corned,  dust- 
ed and  glazed,  is  sent  to  the  stove-house 
and  dried,  a  part  of  the  process  which 
requires  the  greatest  precautions  to  avoid 
explosion,  which  in  this  state  would  be 
much  more  dangerous  than  before  the  in- 
timate mixture  of  themgredients- 

The  stove-house  is  a  square  apartment, 
three  sides  of  which  are  furnished  with 
shelves  or  cases,  on  p)-oper  supports,  ar- 
ranged round  the  room,  and  the  fourth 
contains  a  large  cast-iron  vessel  called  a 
gloo-tn,  which  projects  into  the  room,  and 
is  strongly  heated  from  the  outside,  so 
that  it  is  impossible  that  any  of  the  fuel 
shouM  come  in  contact  with  the  powder. 
For  gieater  security  against  sparks  by 
accidental  friction,  the  glooms  are  cover- 
ed with  sheet  copper,  and  are  always  cool 
when  the  powder  is  put  in  or  taken  out  of 
the  room.  Here  the  grains  are  thorough- 
ly dried,  losing  in  the  process  all  that  re- 
mains of  the  water  added  to  the  mixture 
in  the  mill,  to  bring  it  to  a  working  stiff- 
ness. This  Mr.  Coleman  finds  to  be  from 
three  to  five  parts  in  100  of  the  compo- 
sition. The  powder  when  di'v  is  then 
compleat. 

The  government  powder  for  ordnance 
of  all  kinds  as  well  as  for  small  arms,  is 
generally  made  at  one  ^ime,  and  always 
of  the  same,  composition  ;  the  difference 
being  only  in  the  size  of  the  grains  as  se- 
parated by  the  respective  sieves. 

A  method  of  drying  powder  by  means 
of  steam -pipes  running  round  and  cross- 
ing the  apartment  has  been  tried  with 
success:  by  it  all  possibility  of  an  acci- 
deiU  from  over-heating  is  prevented.  The 
temperature  of  the  room  when  heated  in 
VOL.  I. 


the  common  way  by  a  gloom-stove  is  al- 
ways regulated  by  a  thermometer  hung 
in  the  door  of  the  stoves. 

The  strength  of  the  powder  is  some- 
times injured  by  being  dried  too  hastily 
and  at  too  great  a  heat,  for  in  this  case 
some  of  the  sulphur  sublimes  out  (which 
it  will  do  copiously  at  a  less  heat  than 
will  inflame  the  powder)  and  the  intimate 
mixture  of  the  ingredients  is  again  de- 
stroyed. Besides  if  dried  too  hastily,  the 
surface  of  the  grain  hardens  leaving  the 
inner  part  still  damp. 

Mr.  Coleman  deduces  from  experiment 
the  following  inferences,  namely :  that  the 
ingredients  of  gunpowder  only  pulverized 
and  mixed  have  but  a  very  small  explo- 
sive force :  that  gunpowder  granulated 
after  having  been  only  a  short  time  on  the 
mill,  has  acquired  only  a  veiy  small  por- 
tion  of  its  strength,  so  that  its  perfection 
absolutely  depends  on  very  long-continu- 
ed and  accurate  mixture  and  incorpora- 
tion of  the  ingredients  :  that  the  strength 
of  gunpowder  does  not  depend  on  gi'anu- 
lation,  the  dust  that  separates  during  this 
process  being  as  strong  as  the  clean 
graiiis :  that  powder  undried,  is  weaker 
in  every  step  of  the  manuiacture  than 
when  dried :  and  lastly,  that  charcoal 
made  in  iron  cylinders  in  the  way  already 
mentioned,  makes  much  stronger  powder 
than  common  charcoal.  This  last  circum- 
stance is  of  so  much  consequence,  and  is 
so  fully  confirmed  by  experience,  that  the 
charges  of  powdgr  now  used  for  cannon 
of  ail  kinds  have  been  reduced  one-third 
in  quantity,  when  this  kind  of  powder  is 
employed. 

In  barrelling  powder,  particular  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  moistm-e,  and  this 
business  is  also  generally  reserved  for  dry 
weather. 

When  powder  is  only  a  little  damp,  it 
may  be  restored  to  its  former  goodness 
merely  by  stoving,  but  if  it  has  been  tho- 
roughly wetted,  the  nitre  (the  only  one  of 
the  ingredients  soluble  in  water)  separates 
more  or  less  from  the  sulphur  and  char- 
coal, and  by  again  crystallizing,  cakes  to- 
gether the  powder  in  whitish  masseswhich 
are  a  loose  aggregate  of  grains  covered 
on  the  surface  with  minute  efflorescences 
of  nitre.  In  this  case  the  spoiled  powder 
is  \-)\\\.  into  warm  water  merely  to  extract 
the  nitre,  and  the  other  two  ingredients 
are  separated  by  straining  and  thi'own 
away. 

Tlie  specific  gravity  of  gunpowder  is 
estimated  by  Count  Rumford  to  be  about 
1.868. 

The  strength  and  goodness  of  powder 
is  judged  of  in  several  ways,  namely,  by 
the  colour  and  feel,  by  the  flame  when  a 
3  L 


GUN 

stnaU  pinch  is  fired,  and  by  measuring  the 
actual  projectile  force  by  the  tprouvettt, 
and  by  the  distance  to  wliicli  a  given 
weight  will  project  a  ball  of  given  dimen- 
sions under  circumstances  in  all  cases  ex- 
actly simihir. 

Wlieii  powder  rubbed  between  the  fin- 
gers easily  breaks  down  inlo  an  impaljJ- 
able  dust,'  it  is  a  mark  of  coniaining  too 
much  cliarcoai,  and  the  same  if  it  readily 
soils  white  paper  wlien  gently  drawn  over 
it.  The  colour  should  not  be  absolutely 
black,  but  is  preferred  to  be  more  of  a 
dark  blue  with  a  little  cast  of  red.  The 
ti'ial  by  firing  is  thus  managed ;  lay  two 
or  three  small  heaps  of  about  k  dram  each 
on  clean  writing  paper,  about  three  or 
four  inches  asunder,  and  fire  one  of  them 
by  a  red-hot  iron  wire :  if  the  flanne  as- 
cends quickly  with  a  good  report,  send- 
ing up  a  ring  of  white  smoke,  leaving  the 
pa];er  free  fiom  white  specks  and  not 
biu-nt  into  holes,  and  if  no  sparks  fly  off 
from  it,  setting  fire  to  the  contiguous 
heaps,  tlie  powder  is  judged  to  be  very 
good,  but  if  otherwise,  either  the  ingre- 
dients arc  badiy  mixed,  or  impure- 

Tile  conuT.on  eprouvettcs  or  powder- 
triers  are  small  strong  bari'els,  in  wliicli 
a  determinate  quantity  of  the  powder  is 
fired,  and  the  force  of  expansion  measur- 
ed by  the  action  excited  on  a  strong  spring 
or  a  gieat  weight. 

Another  method  often  adopted,  is  to 
fire  a  very  heavy  ball  from  a  short  mortar 
with  a  given  weight  of  the  powder  and  to 
find  the  range  of  projection.  The  Frencii 
eprouvette  for  government  powder  is  a 
mortar  of  7  niches  (French)  in  calibre, 
which  with  three  ounces  of  powder  should 
throw  a  copper  globe  of  60lbs.  weight  to 
the  distance  of  300  feet.  No  powder  is 
admitted  which  does,  not  answer  this 
trial. 

Both  these  methods  have  been  objected 
to,  the  former  because  the  spring  is  mov- 
ed by  the  instantaneous  stroke  of  the 
flame  and  not  by  its  continued  pressure, 
which  is  somewhat  difi'erent ;  and  the 
otlier  on  account  of  tlie  tediousness  at- 
tending its  use  when  a  large  number  of 
barrels  of  jiowder  are  to  be  tried.  Ano- 
ther method,  wliich  unites  accuracy  with 
disjjatch,  is  to  suspend  a  small  cannon  as 
a  pendulum,  to  fire  it  with  powder  only, 
and  to  judge  of  the  force  of  explosion  by 
that  of  the  recoil,  wliich  in  this  circum- 
stance is  a  greater  or  less  arc  of  a  circle. 
Tiiat  whicli  Dr.  l^hitton  employs  on  this 
principle  is  a  small  cannon  about  one  inch 
in  tiie  bore,  the  charge  of  which  is  two 
ounces  of  powder. 

The  cause  and  measure  of  the  explo- 


GUN 

sive  force  of  fired  gunpowder  has  been 
much  investigated.  It  is  generally  allow- 
ed to  be  chiefly  owing  to  the  sudden  ge- 
neration of  a  quantity  of  gas  or  elastic 
vapour,  the  chemical  constitution  of  which 
will  be  presently  mentioned. 

To  determine  the  elasticity  and  quan- 
tity of  this  elastic  vapour  produced  from 
a  given  quantity  of  powder,  Mr.  Uobins 
premises,  that  its  elasticity  is  equally  in- 
creased by  heat  and  diminished  by  cold 
as  that  of  common  air  (which  is  confirm- 
ed by  Mr.  Dalton's  late  experiments)  and 
consequently  its  weight  is  the  same  with 
the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  air  of  liie 
same  elasticity  and  temperature.  Hence, 
and  from  direct  experiments,  he  con- 
cludes that  the  elastic  fluid  produced  by 
the  firing  of  gunpowder  is  nearly  three 
tenths  of  tile  weigiit  of  the  powder  itself, 
which,  expanded  to  the  rarity  of  common 
air,  is  about  244  times  tlie  bulk  of  the 
powder.  Hence  it  would  follow,  that  the 
mere  conversion  of  confined  powder  into 
elastic  vapour,  would  exert  against  tlie 
sides  of  the  containing  vessel  an  expan- 
sive force  244  times  greater  than  the  elas- 
ticity of  common  air,  or  in  other  words, 
than"  the  pressure  of  the  atmospliere.  But 
to  this,  is  to  be  superadded  all  the  in- 
crease of  expansive  power  produced  by 
the, heat  generated,  whicli  is  certainly 
very  intense,  tliough  its  exact  degree 
cannot  be  ascertained.  Supposing  it  to 
be  etjual  to  the  full  heat  of  red-hot  iron, 
this  would  increase  the  expansion  of  com- 
mon air  (and  also  of  all  gasses)  about  four 
times,  which  in  the  present  instance  woidd 
increase  the  244  to  nearly  1000,  so  tliat 
in  a  general  way  it  may  be  assumed,  that 
the  expansive  force  of  closely  confined 
powder  at  the  instant  of  firing  is  1000 
times  greater  than  tjie  pressure  of  com- 
mon air  :  and  as  this  latter  is  known  to 
press  with  the  weight  of  14^  jjounds  oil 
every  square  inch,  tlie  force  of  explosion 
of  gunpowder  is  1000  times  this,  or, 
14750!  b.  or  about  six  tons  and  a  half  on 
every  square  incli.  This  enormous  force, 
however,  tliminishes  in  proportion  as  tlie 
elastic  fluid  dilates,  being  only  half  the 
strength  when  it  occupies  a  double  space, 
one-third  of  tlie  strength  when  in  a  triple 
space,  and  so  on. 

Mr.  Uobins  found  that  the  strength  of 
powder  is  tlie  same  in  all  variations  of  the 
density  of  the  atmospliere,  but  not  so  in 
every  state  of  moisture,  being  mucli  im- 
paired by  a  damp  air,  or  with  i)owder 
damped  by  careless  keeping  or  any  otlier 
cause,  so  tliat  the  same  powder  which 
will  discharge  a  bullet  at  the  rate  of  1 700 
feet  in  a  secondf  in  dry  air,  will  only  pro- 


GUN 


GUN 


pel  it  about  1200  feet  when  the  air  is  fully 
moist,  and  a  similar  difierence  holds  be- 
tween dry  and  moist  powder. 

A  very  considerable  variation  is  found 
in  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  of 
the  powder  of  different  nations  and  difler- 
ent  manufactones,  nor  is  it  exactly  as- 
certained wliether  there  is  any  one  pro- 
portion which  ous^ht  always  to  be  adher- 
ed to  and  for  every  purpose-  The  pow- 
der made  in  England,  is  the  same  for  can- 
non as  for  small  arms,  the  difference  be- 
ing only  in  the  size  of  the  grains,  but  in 
France  it  appears  that  there  were  former- 
ly six  different  sorts  manufactiu-ed,  name- 
ly, the  strong  and  the  weak  cannon  pow- 
der, the  strong  and  the  weak  musquet 
powder,  and  tlie  strong  and  the  weak 
pistol  powder.  The  following  are  the  pro- 
portions in  each,  though  the  reason  of 
this  nicety  of  distinction  is  not  very  ob- 
vious. For  the  strong  cannon  powder  the 
nitre,  sulphur,  and  charcoal  we:e  in  the' 
proportions  of  100  of  the  first,  25  of  the 
second,  and  25  of  the  third  :  for  the  weak 
cannon  powder,  100,  20,  and  24  :  for  the 
strong  musquet  powder,  100,  18,  and 
20 :  for  the  weak,  100,  15,  and  IS :  for 
tlie  strong  pistol  powder,  100,  12,  and 
15;  for  the  weak,  100,  10,  and  18. 

The  Chinese  powder  appears  by  the 
analysis  of  Mr  Napier  to  be  nearly  in  the 
f  proportions  of  lOO  of  nitre,  18  of  charcoul, 
and  11  of  sulphur.  This  powder  winch 
■was  procured  from  Canton  was  large- 
grained,  not  very  strong,  but  hard,  well- 
coloured,  and  in  very  good  preservation. 

The  sulphur _^is  not  (properly  speak- 
ing) a  necessary  ingredient  in  gunpow- 
der, since  nitre  and  charcoal  alone,  well 
mixed,  will  explode,  but  the  use  of  the 
sulphur  seems  to  be  to  diffuse  the  fire  in- 
stantaneously through  the  whole  mass  of 
powder.  But  if  the  following  experiments 
are  correct,  it  should  seem  that  the  ad- 
vantage  gained  by  using  sulphur  in  in- 
creasing the  force  of  explosion  only  ap- 
plies to  small  charges,  but  in  quantities 
of  a  few  ounces,  the  explosive,  or  at  least 
the  projecting  force  of  powder  without 
sulphur,  is  full  as  great  as  with  sulphur. 

The  following  are  a  few  out  of  many 
trials  made  at  the  Roj'al  Manufactory  at 
Essone,  near  Paris,  in  the  year  1756,  to 
determine  the  best  proportions  of  all  the 
ingredients.  Of  powder  made  with  nitre 
and  chaixoal  alone,  16  of  nitre  and  4  of 
charcoal  Avas  tlie  strongest,  and  gave  a 
power  of  9  in  the  eprouvette.  With  all 
three  ingredients,  16  of  nitie,  4  of  char- 
coal, and  I  of  stilphur,  raised  the  eprou- 
vette to  15,  and  both  a  less  and  a  gi-eater 
quantity  of  sulphur  produced  a  smaller 
effect.    Then  diminisiiing  the  charcoal. 


a  powder  of  16  of  nitre,  S  of  charcoal, 
and  1  of  sulphur  gave  a  power  of  1"  in 
the  eprouvette,  which  was  the  highest 
produced  b)-  any  mixture.  This  last  was 
also  tried  in  the  mortar-eprouvette  against 
the  common  proof  powder,  and  was  tbund 
to  maintain  a  small  superiority.  The  pow- 
der made  without  sulphur  in  the  propor- 
tions above  indicated  was  also  tried  in  the 
mortar-eprouvette,  and  with  the  follow- 
ing singular  result :  when  the  ciiarge  was 
only  two  ounces  it  projected  a  sixty  pound 
copper  ball  213  feet,  and  the  strongest 
powder  with  sulphur  projected  it  249 
feet ;  but  in  a  charge  of  three  ounces, 
the  former  projected  the  ball  475  feet 
and  the  latter  only  472  feet :  and  on  the 
other  hand  the  great  inferiority  of  Ibrce 
in  the  smaller  eprouvette  of  the  powder 
without  sulphur  has  been  just  noticed. 

Gunpowder  is  reckoned  to  explode  at 
about  600°  Fahr  but  if  heated  to  a  de- 
gi'ee  just  below  that  of  faint  redness,  the 
sulphur  will  mostly  burn  off,  leaving  the 
nitre  and  charcoal  unaltered.  The  gasses 
produced  by  the  explosion  of  powder 
iiave  not  been  analyzed  with  accuracy 
since  the  discovery  of  all  the  varieties  of 
gasses  with  the  basis  of  carbon,  but  they 
are  certainly  carbonic  acid,  sulphureous 
acid  gas,  and  carburetted  hydrogen.  The 
residue  is  chiefly  a  sulphuret  of  potash, 
formed  by  a  part  of  tne  sulphur  uniting 
with  some  of  the  alkali  of  the  nurc,  and 
hence  the  hepatic  smell  of  a  foul  and  damp 
gun-barrel. 

I'he  analysis  of  gunpowder  performed 
with  suflicient  accuracy  for  most  practi- 
cal purposes,  is  very  easy  and  simple,  but 
an  absolutely  acciu-ate  analysis  is  more 
difficult.  The  usual  way  is  first  to  boil 
the  powder  with  three  or  four  times  its 
weight  of  water,  edulcorating  it  with 
more  hot  water  till  no  saline  taste  re- 
mains. This  extracts  the  nitre  only,  the 
quantity  of  which  may  be  either  ascertain- 
ed by  dr3'ing  the  residue  and  estimating 
as  nitre  all  the  loss  oi  weight,  or  more  di- 
rectly by  evaporating  the  w  atery  solution. 
If  the  residue,  consisting  of  the  sulphur 
and  charcoal,  is  now  spiead  on  an  eartli- 
en  plate  of  any  kind  and  slowly  heat- 
ed, the  sulphur  takes  fire  and  burns  off 
gradually,  whilst  the  charcoal  remains  un- 
touched, when  the  lieatis  kept  down  suf- 
ficiently. Beaum6  found  however,  that 
when  all  the  sulphur  is  expelled  which 
will  be  driven  off  in  this  heat,  a  certain 
portion  will  still  remain  and  will  not  biuti 
away  at  a  lower  temperature  than  will 
consume  the  charcoal :  so  that  to  the  last 
the  burning  residue  will  smell  strongly 
sulphureous.  This  retained  portion  of 
sulphur  he  finds,  by  tb©  results  of  many 


GUN 


GYP 


otbei'  experiments,  to  be  very  uniformly 
about  one  twenty-tburtliparlof  the  whole- 
sulphur  employed ;  wlience  for  all  com- 
mon purposes  an  adcqnale  correction 
may  be  made,  by  estimatmg-  that  the  filow 
weak  ombustion  ol  tlie  residue,  i.iler  the 
nitre  has  been  got  out,  destroys  only  |§ 
of  tiie  sulphur  instead  of  il)e  wliole.  On 
tryinjj-  to  separate  them  by  an  alkaline  so- 
lution, he  f  )un(l  some  of  the  sulphur  to 
remain  undissolved  and  still  adhering  to 
the  charcoal.  The  way  to  ensure  perfect 
accuracy  in  analysis,  woidd  be  first  to  se- 
parate the  nitre  by  hot  water,  then  t;)  aci- 
dify all  the  sulphur  by  the  nitric  acid,  to 
dissolve  and  to  precipitate  it  by  a  solution 
of  nitrat  or  muriat  of  barytes,  and  from 
the  known  constituents  of  tins  salt  to  find 
the  quantity  of  sulphur,  whilst  the  ciiar- 
coal  here  remains  perfectly  untouched. 

The  discovei'y  of  the  astonishinij  fulmi- 
nating property  of  the  salts  v.-itii  the  oxy- 
muriatic  acid,  led  several  chemists  to  tiie 
idea  of  substituting  the  oxymuriai  of  pot- 
ash to  the  nitre  in  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder, and  experiments  liave  been  made 


on  a  sufficient  scale  to  shew  that  this  gun- 
powder far  exceeds  tlie  common  powtler 
in  energy  of  exphjsive  power,  'i'he  oxy- 
muriats  however  appear  to  act  in  a  difli-r- 
ent  manner  from  the  mixtures  with  nitre, 
and  to  exert  all  their  power  extremely 
suddenly  and  in  a  very  small  space,  so 
as  to  destroy  every  substance  in  innntdi- 
ate  contact  with  them  at  the  time  of  ex- 
plosion, but  to  be  infciior  in  pi-ojeciile 
force  to  common  gunpowder.  All  the  ex- 
plosive compounds  with  the  oxymuriats 
iiave  also  the  very  dangerous  projiertji  of 
exploding  with  very  moderate  friction, 
and  hence  they  have  never  been  employed 
in  the  large  way. 

GUN -FLINTS,  manufacture  of.  See 
Flint.  '^ 

GYP.SU1VI.  This  is  a  native  combina- 
tion  of  lime  and  sulplun-ic  acid.  I'here 
are  several  varieties.  It  is  used  in  agricul- 
ture as  a  manure,  and  also,  in  stucco  work, 
(t  has  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States,  in  considerable  quantities. 
See  Agriculture. 


IIAll 

H.EMATITK.     See  Iron. 

HAHNEMAN'S  WINK  TEST.— The 
following  description  of  a  liquor  for  dis- 
covering, in  wines,  the  presence  of  such 
metals  as  ai-e  injurious  to  health,  is  bv 
Dr.  Hahneman. 

The  property  which  liver  of  sulpluir 
and  he])atic  air  possess,  of  precipitating 
lead  of  a  black  colour,  has  long  been 
known,  and  ihis  property  has  been  made 
use  of  in  the  preparation  of  a  liquor  called 
Liquor  probatorius  IVurteml>urgicti.i,  b\ 
which  it  was  supj)osedthe  purity  of  wines 
might  be  ascertained. 

But,  in  examining  wines  which  are 
suspected  to  he  adulterated,  tliis  liquor 
can  by  no  means  lie  trusted  to,  because 
it  precipitates  iron  of  tbe  same  colour  as 
it  does  lead,  winch  is  so  poisonous  a  me- 
tal. For  this  reason,  many  respectable 
wine  merchants  have  been  tiiought  guil- 
ty of  adulterating  their  wines,  to  the 
great  injury  of  their  cliaracter. 

Consequently  there  was  still  wanting  a 
test  or  re-agent  that  should  jnnnt  out,  in 
wines,  the  presence  of  such  metals  only 
as  are  injurious  to  heahh.    TJiis  proper- 


IIAH 

ty  the  tbllowing  liquor  ]iossesses,  as  it 
precipitates  lead  and  ct^per  of  a  black 
colour,  arsenic  of  an  orange  colour,  &.c. 
It  docs  not,  however,  precipitate  iron, 
which  frequently,  by  various  means,  gets 
unobserved  into  wines,  but  which  is 
in  many  cases  salutary,  to  the  human 
frame. 

Prtparation  of  the  ticiv  probatory  liquor. 
— Mix  together  equal  parts  of  oxster 
shells  and  crude  brimstone,  both  finely 
powdered  :  put  the  mixture  into  a  cruci- 
ble, and  place  the  crucible  in  a  wind 
furnace.  When  it  is  heated,  let  the 
fire  be  suddenly  increased  till  the  cru- 
cible becomes  of  a  white  heat,  in  whicU 
state  it  is  to  be  contiiuied  for  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hoiu'.  The  mass,  when 
cold,  is  to  ht  reduced  to  powder,  and 
kept  in  a  bottle  closely  stopped. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  liquor,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  grains  of  the  above 
powder,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty 
grains  of  cream  of  tartar,  are  to  be  put 
into  a  very  strong  bottle,  which  is  to  be 
filled  up  with  common  water,  that  has. 
been  previously  boiled  for  about  an  Lour 


HAI 


HAI 


and  then  suffered  to  cool.  The  bottle 
must  be  immediately  corked,  and  after- 
wards shaken  from  time  to  time  When 
it  has  remained  still,  for  a  few  hours,  tlie 
clear  liquor  must  be  decanted  into  small 
phials,  capable  of  holding  one  ounce, 
into  each  of  which,  twenty  drops  of  spi- 
rit of  sea-salt  have  been  previously  drop- 
ped. Tiie  mouths  of  the  phials  must 
then  be  wpll  closed  with  stopples,  com- 
posed of  wax  mixed  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  turpentine.  # 

If  one  pan  of  the  above  liquor  be 
mixed  with  three  parts  of  the  wine 
meant  to  be  examined,  the  slightest  im- 
pregnation of  lead,  &c.  will  be  imme- 
diately discovered,  by  a  very  percepti- 
ble black  precipitate.  But,  if  the  wine 
contains  i;  on,  the  liquor  will  have  no  ef- 
fect upon  that  metal. 

When  the  above  precipitate  has  subsi- 
ded to  the  bottom,  we  may  find  out 
whether,  the  wine  contains  any  iron,  by 
decanting  the  clear  liquor,  and  adding  to 
it  a  little  salt  of  tartar ;  if  there  is  any 
iron  in  the  wine  the  liquM"  will  immedi- 
ately turn  black. 

Wines  whicn  are  pyre  and  unadultera 
ted,    remain   clear  after  the  addition  of 
this  liquor.     See  Tes  i  s. 

HAIR.  The  chemical  composition  of 
hair  appears,  by  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Hatchett,  to  resemble  very  closely  that  of 
nail  and  horn.  Boiling  water  extracts 
from  hair  a*very  small  proportion  of 
gelatin,  and  the  hair  afier  drying  is  some- 
wiiat  stitfcr  and  more  brittle  than  be- 
fore. The  chief  constituent  of  hair  ap- 
pears to  be  organic,  condensed  albumen. 

Hair  m.^y  be  dyed  permanently  in  se- 
veral ways.  A  black  or  dark  colour, 
which  is  generally  desired,  is  given  by 
many  metallic  solutions,  particularly  that 
of  Sliver  much  weakened  ;  but  these  are 
liable  to  corrode  its  substance,  if  not 
carefully  used.  Pallas  relates  that  the 
women  of  Astracan  dye  their  hair,  while 
growing,  of  a  fine  glossy  black,  in  the 
following  way :  twenty-five  galls  are  first 
boiled  in  oil,  then  dried  and  powdered  : 
to  this  is  added,  3  drachms  of  green  vitri- 
ol, one  drachm  of  cream  of  tartar,  and  one 
drachm  of  indigo,  and  the  whole  stirred 
up  with  a  quart  of  water,  to  which  is 
added  a  handful  of  the  dyeing  herb  henne. 
Tlie  hair  is  anoiited  with  this  over 
night,  care  being  taken  not  to  blacken  the 
skin,  and  is  washed  off  in  the  morning. 
Tiiis  application  gives  a  shining  black 
which  lasts  several  months. 

If  two  drachms  of  lunar  caustic  be 
dissolved  in  eight  ounces  of  water,  a  so- 
lution will  be  tbrmed,  which,  applied  fre- 
quently to  the  hair,   blackens   it.     We 


lately  examined  a  white  or  rather  red- 
dish white  powder,  for  a  perfumer  of  this 
city,  which  is  sold  to  blncken  hair,  and 
bund  it  to  be  composed  of  litharge, 
quick-lime,  and  whiting.  It  is  applied 
when  melted  by  water.  Ihe  peruke- 
makers  dye  hair  black,  by  boiling  it  in 
an  iron  pot  with  water  and  lithar.e,'e. 

From  numerous  experiments  Mr.  Vau- 
quclin  infers,  that  black  hsir  is  formed  of 
nine  different  substances,  namely  : 

1  An  animal  matter,  which  constitutes 
the  greater  part ;  2.  A  white  concrete  oil 
in  small  quantity  :  3.  Another  oil  of  a  gre- 
}ish  green  colour,  more  abundant  than 
the  former ;  4-  Iron,  the  state  of  which 
in  the  hair  is  uncertain  ;  5.  A  few  parti- 
cles of  oxide  of  manganese  ;  6.  Phosphat 
of  lime ;  7.  Carbonat  of  lime,  in  very 
small  quantity  ;  8.  Silex,  in  a  conspicuous 
quantity  ;  9.  Lastly,  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  .sulphur. 

The  same  experiments  shew,  that  red 
hair  diflers  from  black  only  in  containing 
a  red  oil  instead  of  a  blackish  green  oil ; 
and  that  white  hair  difiers  from  botli 
these  only  in  the  oil  being  nearly  co- 
lourless, and  in  containing  phosphat  of 
magnesia,  which  is  not  found  in  them. 

From  tiiis  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
the  constituent  principles  of  hair,  Mr. 
Vauquelin  thinks  we  may  account  lor  the 
various  colours  that  distinguish  it.  Ac- 
cording to  him,  the  black  colour  will  be 
owing  to  a  black,  and  as  it  were  bitu- 
minous oil,  and  perhaps  likewise  to  a 
combination  of  sulphur  with  iron.  Car- 
rotty  and  flaxen  hair  will  be  occasioned 
by  the  presence  of  a  red  or  yellow  oil, 
which,  when  deepest,  and  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  brown  oil,  produces  the 
dark  red  haii-.  Lastly,  white  hair  is  ow- 
ing to  the  absence  of  the  black  oil  and 
sulphuretted  iron.  He  beheves,  that  in 
the  carrotty  and  flaxen,  as  well  as  in  th^. 
white,  there  is  always  an  excess  of  sul- 
phur; since,  on  the  application  of  white 
metallic  oxides  to  tliem,  such  as  those  of 
mercury,  lead,  bismuth,  &c.  they  grow 
black  very  speedily.  The  manner  in 
which  this  substance  acts  on  metallic  bo- 
dies leads  him  to  suspect,  that  it  is  com- 
bined with  hydrogen. 

Fine  perfumed  powder,  for  the  hair. — 
Take  a  pound  of  Florentine  orris-root,  in 
fine  powder ;  two  ounces  of  powdered 
gum-benjamin  andstoi-ax;  yellow  saun- 
ders  a  pound  and  a  half;  cloves,  two 
drachms ;  some  powdered  dried  lemon- 
peel.  Mix  the  above,  well  powdered, 
and  sift  them  through  a  lawn  sieve,  with 
twenty  pounds  of  common  starch,  or  com- 
mon hair-powder. 

HAIR  POWDER.— This   is  generally 


HAT 


HEA 


prepared  from  wlieat,  being  tlie  feciila  or 
starch  of  grain.  It  is  however,  usualis 
prepared  from  starch,  by  pulverization, 
&c.  It  is  frequently  adulterated  witli 
lime,  and  sometimes  as  Dr.  Darwin  says, 
with  alum.     See  Starch. 

HAIR-HOPE-PUMP.     See  Engines. 

HALTER-CAST.     See  Farriery. 

HAM,  the  lower  part  of  an  animal's 
thigh,  adjoining  to  the  knee.  It  usually 
denotes  the  thigh  of  a  hog.  Hams  may 
be  cured  by  covering  them  with  salt, 
which  is  to  remain  for  24  hours,  then  wipe 
them  dry,  and  let  them  be  placed  in  the 
following  pickle  for  three  weeks,  viz.  take 
one  pound  of  brown  sugar,  a  quarter  of  a 


for  a  method  of  dyeing,  staining,  and  co- 
mring  beaver  hats  green,  or  any  other 
colour.  The  articles  employed  in  dye- 
•  iig  are  fustic,  turmeric,  saffron,  alum,tar- 
■.ar,  indigo  and  vitriol,  with  urine,  or  pearl 
;ish,  at  the  option  of  the  dyer ;  which  are 
used  together,  or  separately,  according  to 
the  colour  required.  Patents  have  also 
been  granted  tor  substitutes,  or  new  ma- 
terials, in  this  blanch  of  manutaciure,  as, 
for  molejur,  kid  hair,  water  proof  hats,  in 
imitation  of  beaver,  &.c.  which  is  extend- 
ed to  silk,  linen,  leather,  cotton,  or  other 
material  of  wearing  ;ipp;irel.  For  further 
information  on  this  subject,  set-  I{eptrtory 
fifjjrts,  vol.  16.  Nicholson  s  j^hilmopliicai 


pound  of  saltpetre,  three  and  a  half  pints  Journal,  \o\.  1,  2,  and  3,  4to.  The  dye- 
of  salt,  which  is  to  be  mixed  with  a  sufSci-  ing  of  hats  was  noticed  under  the  article 
ent  quantity  of  water.  See  Bacon.  If  Dyeing,  which  see.  Several  patents  have 
hams,  by  keeping,  should  become  tainted, .  been  obtained  from  the  government  of  the 
they  may  be  restored,  as  we  have  found  by  United  Slates  for  improvements  m  this 
trying  the  experiment ;  by  boiling  them  in  i  art. 

water,  in  which  an  ounce  of  salt  petre  has  J  HEAT.  The  sensations  expressed  in 
been  dissolved,  and  a  few  lumps  of  char- '  common  language  by  the  words  heat  and 
coal  thrown  in,  i  cold,  are  of  too  simple  a  naiure  to  re- 

The  following  method  of  preserving '  quire  or  to  admit  of  definition.  These 
hams,  or  other  smoked  meatthrougli  the  ivords,  howcv*,  are  not  always  used  in 
summer,  is  extracted  from  the  Archives  of  their  true  sen.se,  , but  are  indiscrimi- 
Useful  Knowledge,  conducted  by  Dr.  nately  applied  both  to  the  sensation  it- 
James  Mease.  *       '•  self,  and  to  that  which  causes  it.    Thus, 

Wrap  up  the  meat  in  tow,  of  either  flax  we  say,  that  we  are  hot  or  cold;  and 
or  hemp,  atter  shaking  out  the  loose  shives,  that  the  fire  or  ice,  which  heats  or  cools 
and  pack  it  in  a  tierce  or  barrel,  taking  |  us,  is  likewise  hot  or  cold,  tliough  the  sen- 
care  that  there  be  next  the  tierce  and  be-  '  sations  we  expti'ience  are  certainly  very 
tween  every  piece  of  meat,  a  thick  layer  diflerent  things  from  that  which  enables 
of  tow  packed  in  as  close  as  possible  :  then  1  bodies  to  e.xcite  them.  It  may  ai.so  be 
set  it  away  in  a  dry  cellar  or  upper  room.  I  remarked,  that,  in  this  ambiguous  man- 
It  is  enough  that  the  barrel  or  tierce  be  '  ner  of  speaking,  there  is  another  cause  of 
sufficient  to  keep  the  mice  out,  as  no  fly  {  uncertamty,  which  arises  from  the  use  of  a 
or  insect  will  enter  the  tow.  variable  standard  ofcomparison.  Every  one 

Tow  and  Hax  are  such  bad  conductors  knows,  that  the  estimation  of  heat  or  cold 
of  heat,  that  a  piece  of  ice  will  be  pre-  j  differs  in  various  persons,  because  each 


served  a  long  time  wrapi}ed  up  in  tow 
Cut  straw  also  answers  extremely  well  to 
keep  hams  in.  Ashes  are  apt  to  commu- 
cate  a  bad  taste  to  meat.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  tire  flies  from  having  ac- 
cess to  the  meat  before  being  packedavvay. 

Various  modes  of  preserving  hams 
have  been  recommended  ;  but  the  forego- 
ing receipt  has  received  the  sanction  of  ex- 
perience. A  dryand  completely  darkroom, 
will  preserve  hams  in  the  best  order. 

HAT-MAKING.  Hats  are  manuf\ic- 
tured  of  wool,  fur,  &.c.  The  making  of 
hats  being  too  well  known  to  rcquiie  mi- 
nute description,  we  shall  only  observe, 
that  it  consists  in  furring  the  fell,  accord- 
ing to  the  art  of  the  hatter,  and  shapening 
the  hat,  which  is  then  dyed  in  a  liquid  pre- 
pared of  logwood,  and  a  mixture  ofgreei 
and  blue  vitriol ;  when  it  is  stiffened  with 
common  glue. 

A  patent  was  granted  to  a  Mr.  Golding, 


forms  his  judgment  fioni  his  own  sensa- 
tions ;  and  the  same  body  may  ajipear  Jiot 
to  one  person,  and  cold  to  another,  or  hot 
and  cold  to  the  same  person  at  different 
times  ;  though  the  vuriaiiou  is  not  in  the 
body  itselfj  but  m  the  state  of  the  ])erson 
in  whom  these  sensations  are  excited. 
Hence,  it  appears  necessiay,  in  order  to 
avoid  error  ni  the  pursuit  of  inquiries  con- 
cerning heat,  that  the  sense  of  the  words 
made  use  of  should  be  accurately  defin- 
ed, and  that  some  fixed  standard  ofcom- 
parison be  made  use  of  instemlof  the  hu- 
man body  ;  which,  though  fixed  enough 
for  the  conunon  affairs  of  life,  is  certainly 
not  enough  so  for  the  purposes  of  science. 

The  word  heat,  in  a  philosophical 
sens*',  is  used  to  denote  the  cause  of  the 
;)ower  which  bodies  possess  of  exciting 
the  sensations  of  heat  or  coldness- 

The  word  temperature  denotes  the 
state  of  the  body,   with  respect  to  that 


HEA 


HEA 


power.  So  that  a  body  which  excites  a 
more  intense  sensation  of  heat  or  cold- 
ness, thuH  another  body,  is  said  to  possess 
a  higher  or  lower  temperature. 

It  has  not  yet  been  determined  in  what 
heat  itself,  or  the  cause  of  temperature, 
consists.  Two  opinions  have  long  divid- 
ed tiie  scientific  world.  One  is,  that  heat 
consists  of  a  peculiar  motion  or  vibration 
of  the  parts  of  bodies,  so  that  the  tempe- 
rature is  higher,  the  strong-er  the  vibra- 
tion. The  other  is,  that  heat  is  a  sub- 
stance or  fluid,  the  greater  or  less  quanti- 
ty of  which  produces  a  higher  or  lower 
temperature.  The  decision  of  this  great 
question  is  highly  deserving  of  the  atten- 
tion of  philosophers.  But  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  consider  its  merits  in  our 
first  steps  of  investigation,  because  the 
doubts  respecting  it  will  not  impede  our 
reasoning  concerning  such  phcenomena  as 
are  well  known.  P'or,  since  effects  ai'e 
proportioned  to  their  causes,  we  may 
speak  of  the  quantities  of  heat  in  bodies, 
without  deciding  whether  they  be  quanti- 
ties of  motion  or  quantities  of  matter ;  the 
relation  of  these  quantities  to  each  other, 
and  not  their  peculiar  nature,  being  the 
cliief  object  of  our  research. 

That  heat  is  actually  matter,  which 
was  an  opinion  held  by  some  in  ve- 
ry ancient  times,  is  now  pretty  generally 
maintained ;  and  it  is  as  generally  distin- 
guislied  by  the  name  Caloric.  To  that 
article,  therefore,  we  refer,  for  what  is  at 
present  known  on  the  subject:  the  facts 
being  the  same,  whether  we  understand 
by  it  a  peculiar  substance,  or  a  powej'  of 
producing  certain  efiects. 

Heat  communicated  to  Rooms  by 
steam,  according  to  Mr.  Neil  Snodgrass, 
of  Renfrew. —  Trans  Sac.Jlrts,  Vol  24. 

Mr.  Snodgrass  was  induced  to  try  the 
efi'ect  of  steam  for  warming  the  air  of 
apartments  (from  observing  the  method 
of  drying  muslins  by  wrapping  them 
round  hollow  cylinders  heated  by  steam, 
which  was  practised  near  Glasgow)  both 
on  account  of  the  saving  of  fuel  it  would 
produce,  and  its  removing  all  danger  of 
conflagi-ation,  to  which  mills,  heated  in 
the  usual  manner,  are  most  exposed. , 

He  put  this  method  in  practice  at  a  mill 
at  Dornach,  with  such  success  as  to  heat 
it  completely  with  one  halfxh^  fuel,  that 
would  be  necessary  for  this  purpose  with 
the  best  constructed  stoves  ;  but  as  the  ap- 
paratus for  this  mill  was  not  as  pertect  as 
that  afterwards  contrived,  it  need  not  be 
here  detailed. 

Two  cotton  mills  belonging  to  G.  Hous- 
ton, Bsq.  of  Johnstone,  were  also  wai-med 
by  steam ;  in  one  of  these,  six  stories 
high,  a  lying  pipe  of  cast  iron,  5  inches  in 


diameter,  is  carried  along  the  middle  of 
the  cieling  of  the  lower  story,  about  two 
feet  from  the  cieling,  with  a  small  declivi- 
ty to  carry  off  the  water.  This  pipe  heats 
the  lower  story,  and  from  it  arise  tin  ^pes 
of  7J^  inches  in  diameter,  at  intervals  of  7 
feet  from  each  other,  which,  passing  per- 
pendicularly upwards  through  all  the 
floors  in  the  mill,  form  a  line  of  heated  co- 
lumns in  the  middle  of  each  room.  In  the 
other  mill  this  plan  has  received  some  al- 
terations on  account  of  the  irregularity  of 
the  building.  Valves  opening  inwards 
were  added  to  the  tin  pipes,  to  prevent 
their  compression  by  accidental  conden- 
sation of  the  stream;  and  another  valve 
was  placed  opening  outwards  at  the  low- 
er part  of  the  apparatus,  to  permit  the  air 
contained  in  the  pipes  to  pass  as  its  place 
was  occupied  by  steam. 

Certificates  of  five  otlier  mills  being 
heated  in  tlie  same  manner,  to  great  ad- 
vantage, by  Mr.  Snodgrass,  were  receiv- 
ed by  the  Society  for  Arts,  &c. 

In  Hew  manufactories,  where  tlie  mode 
of  heating  may  be  made  an  original  part 
of  the  plan,  Mr  Snodgrass  recommends 
an  apparatus,  of  which  the  following  is  a 
description : 

Vertical  pipes  of  cast  iron,  about  7  in- 
ches in  diameter  in  the  lower  stories,  and 
6  inches  diameter  in  the  upper  stories,  as- 
cend from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the 
mill,  in  the  middle  of  the  apartments,  at 
about  7  or  8  feet  distance  from  each  other. 
These  pipes  come  close  to  the  beams  in 
each  story,  and  are  contrived  so  as  to  sup- 
port them"  by  projecting  pieces,  like  brack- 
ets, cast  to  them  in  the  proner  places, 
which  go  under  the  beams  ;  and  by  wed- 
ges driven  between  them  and  the  beams, 
eacl)  can  be  made  to  have  a  due  bearing ; 
and  thus  these  pipes  perform  the  double 
office  of  steam  flues,  and  of  pillars  to  sup- 
port the  mill-floors. 

The  joints  of  the  pipes  are  each  of  the 
length  of  the  height  of  the  story  where  it 
is  placed,  and  fit  into  each  other  by  a  pro- 
jecting socket  at  the  place  of  contact, 
which  is  stuflTed  in  the  intervals  so  as  to 
be  steam  tight  These  vertical  pipes  all 
communicate  at  top  with  a  smaller  hori- 
zontal pipe,  which  passes  to  the  open  aii- 
through  the  wall,  where  it  has  a  valve  fit- 
ted to  it,  openmg  outwards,  to  admit  the 
air  to  pass,  contained  at  first  in  the  pipes ; 
the  vertical  pipes  all  communicate  at  the 
bottom  with  a  small  horizontal  copper 
pipe  gently  inclined  towards  the  boiler, 
with  a  valve  for  the  same  purpose  as  that 
just  mentioned  at  its  upper  end,  outside 
the  building,  and  an  inverted  syphon  at 
the  other  end,  over  a  hot  well,  from 
whence  the  boiler  is  supplied  with  water^ 


IJEA 


IIOX 


and  into  wliich  all  tjie  hot  water  runs, 
that  is  formed  by  the  condensation  of  the 
steam  in  tlie  ])ipcs.  The  boiler  is  outside 
the  building',  and  communicates  with  the 
first. vertical  pipe  near  tlie  top  of  the 
ground  floor,  by  an  inclined  pipe  passing 
through  the  wall  from  its  upper  part ;  the 
steam  ascends  through  t1>e  first  vertical 
pipe,  in  this  apparatus,  then  enters  the 
horizontal  pipe  at  the  top,  from  whence  it 
descends  into  ail  the  vertical  pipes,  forc- 
ing out  the  air  before  it  as  it  proceeds. 

The  boiler,  for  a  mill  60  feet  long  and 
33  feet  wide,  is  6  feet  long,  Si  broad,  and 
3  deej);  it  is  fed,  and  managed  in  the  usual 
manner ;  but  tlie  smoke  from  its  fiie 
piare  after  passing  through  a  short  level 
brick  fiue,  ascends  into  a  cast  metal  pipe 
enclosed  in  a  vertical  brick  flue,  in  the 
gable  of  the  huikling;  from  which  brick 
flue,  small  openings  ai*e  made  into  each 
story  a  few  feet  above  the  floor;  and  ano- 
ther opening  being  made  in  it  near  the 
ground  outside,  a  current  of  air,  heated 
by  the  iron  smoke  pipe,  passes  fi*om  below 
into  every  apartment.  Tlie  air  passages 
may  have  tlie  space  of  their  apertures  re- 
gulated by  registers ;  and  as  the  ii'on 
smoke  pipe  does  not  touch  the  fire,  hav- 
ing a  short  brick  flue  intervening,  and 
consequently  can  never  be  heated  so  as  to 
be  liable  to  crack,  or  in  any  other  way 
transmit  inflamed  substances  to  the  mill, 
there  can  be  little  or  no  danger  of  fire, 
while  this  part  of  tiie  plan  still  further 
economises  the  heat. 

The  strengih  of  the  pipes,  which  are 
,3-8tlisof  an  inch  thick,  renders  unnecessa- 
ry, valves  opening  inwards,  as  llie  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosjiliere  cannot  damage 
them. 

'I'his  apparatus  will  heat  the  air  in  the 
rooms  to  84"  in  the  coldest  season ;  and  '\t 
is  evident,  that  by  increasing  the  number 
of  pipes,  and  the  sufjply  of  steam,  any 
heat  under  212°.  may  be  produced. 

Tlie  Society  of  Arts  voted  Mr.  Snod- 
grass  40  guineas,  or  the  gold  medal,  at 
bis  option,  for  this  commiuiicatiim. 

'Ihe  merit  of  Mr.  Snodgrass  in  the  des- 
cribed apparatus,  consists  in  a  judicious 
api)lication  of  well  known  principles,  not  in 
inventitm  ;  for  count  Kimiford,  had  seve- 
ral years  ago,  heated  rooms  by  steam  con- 
veved  by  piiHs,asmay  be  Seen  in  hispu!)- 
lication  on  tiiis  snljject,  inserted  in  the 
Repository  of  Arts,  vol.  15.  p.  186.  and 
elsewhere. 

Mr.  G  een,  of  Wandsworth,  also,  in 
179;1,  obtained  a  patent  for  warming 
rooms  by  air,  heated  wiUi  steam  ;  but  his 
method  had  not  the  same  similarily  to 
that  of  Mr.  Snodgrass's,which  count  lium- 
fbrd's  possesses. 


"W  1th  respect  to  this  plan  of  heating 
rooms,  or  apartments,  we  may  remavky 
that  it  has  been  carried  into  effect  in  se- 
veral manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
United  Slates,  in  one  of  which  in  particular, 
that  of  Craig,  Marqucdant,  &.  Co.  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Philadelphia,  the  pLin 
has  been  successfully  practised.  Count 
Rumford  long  since  recommended  the 
use  of  steam  as  a  vehicle  for  conveying 
heat  li'om  one  place  to  another,  by  means 
of  pipes,  attached  to  boilers,  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  dye  houses,  &.C. 

HEMP  For  the  growth  and  cidture 
of  hem]),  see  Agriculture.  After  it 
is  prepared  by  breaking  and  hackling,  it 
is  spun  into  thread,  whence  it  is  made 
into  twine,  cloth,  netting,  &,c.  Besides 
the  uses  of  hemp  here  enumerated,  the 
refuse,  called  hemp  sheaves,  affords  a 
fuel,  and  the  seeds,  by  expi'ession,  pro- 
duce an  oil,  which  is  useful  to  burn  in 
lamps.  On  the  subject  of  the  manufac- 
tures of  hemp,  see  Address  to  the  Culti- 
vators, the  Capitolists,  and  Manufacturers 
in  the  United  States,  bv  Trncli  Coxe. 

HIGGINS'  BLEACHING  LIQIOR. 
Sulpiuu"  4  pounds,  slacked  lime  24b. 
and  water  16  gallons,  boiled  half  an  hour 
in  an  iron  vessel,  the  liquor  strained  ofi' 
and  16  gallons  more  poured  on  the  dregs 
and  also  strained  ott';  the  two  solutions 
being  mixed  together  and  poured  into  33 
gallons  more  of  water,  makes  a  liquor  of 
a  proper  standard  in  which  cloth  may  be 
stee[)ed  in  tlie  process  of  bleaching,  the 
sulphuret  serving  as  a  substitute  for  jjot- 
ash  for  condensing  the  oxy-muriatic  gas. 
See  Bleach  I  xg. 

HOG.     See  Anhnals,  Domestic. 

HONEY.  The  most  anciently  used  and 
one  of  the  most  grateful  of  all  the  sacciia- 
rine  juices,  is  a  natural  compound  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  sugar,  intimately 
mixed  with  several  other  substances  tliat 
give  it  its  slimy  consistence,  its  jieculiar 
colour,  smell,  and  flavour,  together  with 
a  small  i)ortion  of  natiual  acid. 

Ihniey  is  found  dillering  much  in  con- 
sistence and  colour,  being  sometimes 
nearly  as  stifi"  as  soft  suet,  sometimes  as 
tliin  as  a  balsam,  an('  of  various  shades 
of  yellow,  gold-colour,  brown,  and  soine- 
timcs  nearly  white-  The  goodness  of  ho- 
luy  iov  culinary  purposes  is  chielh  deter- 
mined by  the  delicacy  of  flavour,  but  the 
comparative  quantities  of  sugar  and  oil.er 
chemical  diflerencts  have  not  been  much 
examined. 

When  honey  is  gently  warmed  over  a 
slow  fire  it  liquefies  and  a  tiiiek  hcum 
rises  to  the  top,  which  when  removed 
leaves  the  honey  somewhat  purer  than  be- 
fore, and  makes  the  despumated  or  cla- 


HON 


HON 


lifted  honey  used  in  pharmacy.  If  the 
Jioneyis  naturally  thick  it  should  be  pre- 
viously diluted  with  a  little  water.  When 
clarified  honey  is  slowly  evaporated  it 
becomes  a  thick  tenacious  mass,  loses  its 
{lelicacy  of  flavour,  and  acquires  one 
somewhat  disagreeable,  becomes  brown 
and  foul,  and  can  never  by  this  means  be 
made  to  yield  crystals  of  pure  sugar.  The 
stronger  the  heat,  and  the  browner  and 
higher-flavoured  it  becomes.  Whilst  eva- 
porating, a  vapour  rises,  which  ti^kes  fire 
at  the  approach  of  a  candle  and  fills  the 
house  with  a  very  strong  and  penetrating 
smell.  Neuman  obtained  from  32  ounces 
of  honey  by  distillation  per  se  on  a  slow 
fire  about  24  ounces  of  an  acid  watery  li- 
quor mixed  with  a  brown  oil-  The  re- 
sidue strongly  heated  gave  a  coal  difficult 
of  incineration. 

Owing  to  the  abundant  quantity  both 
of  sugar  and  of  extract  or  mucilage  in 
]ione>-,  it  very  readily  enters  into  the  vi- 
nous fermentation  and  yields  a  very  stront:^ 
wine,  called  niead,  which  possesses  much 
of  a  honey  flavour  that  lessens  by  keep- 
ing, and  a"  very  strong  body.  Neuman 
obtained  a  mead  from  36  ounces  of  honey 
diluted  with  4  quarts  of  warm  water  and 
fermented  with  yeast,  whicli  by  distilla- 
tion and  rectification  gave  8  ounces  of 
strong  alcohol. 

The  most  interesting  experiments  on 
honey  are  those  wliich  have  been  made 
with  a  view  of  purifying  it,  and  separat- 
ing the  ti-uly  saccharine  part  from  every 
other.  For  the  purification  from  its  pe- 
culi.ir  flavour  which  is  ofiensive  to  some 
palates,  and  from  the  yellow  colour,  mere 
despuniation  and  the  other  usual  modes 
of  clarification  will  not  answer ;  Mr. 
Lowitz  has  indeed  found  that  when  dilut- 
ed will)  water  and  passed  through  fresh 
burnt  charcoal  it  lost  its  smell  and  co- 
lour, but  on  again  inspissating  it  by  a 
very  gentle  fii'e,  it  soon  acquired  its  for- 
mer brown  colour  and  did  not  shew  any 
tendency  to  crystallization.  By  long 
keeping,  this  honey  spontaneously  sepa- 
rated into  a  mass  of  white  concrete  gra- 
nulated matter  entangled  in  a  viscid 
slime.  In  this  state  it  resembled  the  white 
concrete  natural  honey  often  met  with. 
This  concrete  matter  was  dissolved  b^- 
hot  alcohol,  which  left  the  other  part 
nearly  untouched.  On  letting  the  alcoho- 
lic solution  stand  at  rest  for  some  days  a 
,,.  number  of  spherical  knobs  began  slowly 
^_  to  separate,  which  gradually  increased, 
*■  forming  a  snow-white  crust,  which  on 
„  being  removed  and  dried  would  bear  cut- 
ting wit!)  a  knife  into  thin  slices.  This  1 
appeared  to  be  the  saccharine  part  of  the  I 
honey  in  a  considerable  state  of  purity,  | 
VOL.    I. 


but  still  so  intimately  united  with  some 
other  ingredient  as  not  to  be  ciystaUiz- 
able,  as  pure  sugar  is,  but  only  to  sepa- 
rate  in  tliese  cauli'flower-hke  knobs,  which 
examined  by  the  microscope,  appeared 
composed  of  small  thin  longish  crystals. 

Mr.  Lowitz  also  gives  as  characteristic 
differences  between  this  white  sugar  of 
honey  and  common  white  sugar,  that  the 
foi-mer  is  rendered  brown  by  lime-water, 
and  with  lime  in  substance  and  a  little 
water  a  strong  effervescence  takes  place, 
and  the  mixture  becomes  black,  thick, 
and  nauseous,  which,  clarified  by  char- 
coal  and  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness, 
leaves  a  bitter  yellow  extract.  None  of 
these  appearances  take  place  with  lime 
and  common  white  sugar,  neitlier  disco- 
louration nor  decomposition  being  pro- 
duced. The  caustic  fixed  alkalies  also 
produce  a  similar  eflect  upon  the  sugar 
of  honey,  but  not  upon  common  sugar. 
The  saccharine  part  of  honey  therefore 
appears  most  intimately  combined  with 
the  extractive,  and  it  appears  probable 
that  no  direct  attempts  to  procure  pure 
sugar  from  honey  will  succeed,  except 
by  going  through  the  whole  process  by 
which  sugar  is  obtained  from  the  cane 
juice.  In  this  latter  way,  and  with  the 
use  of  claying,  Neuman  asserts  that  he 
has  obtained  a  good  sugar  from  honey  re- 
sembling the  fine  moist  sugars  prepared 
in  this  way,  but  still  not  in  tlie  form  of 
hard  well-defined  crystals- 
Honey  is  often  adulterated  with  flour, 
whicli  may  be  detacted  by  diflfiising  it  in 
biood-warm  water,  by  which  all  the  ho- 
ney will  be  dissolved  and  the  flour  remain 
nearly  unaltered,  and  a  subsequent  boil- 
ing of  the  residue  in  the  water  will  con- 
vert the  flour  into  thick  paste. 

Honey  is  used  only  for  culinary  and 
medicinal  purposes.  The  distilled  acid 
spirit  was  formerly  thought,  but  quite 
erroneously,  to  be  a  solvent  for  gold  and 
silver.  The  same  honey -lu ate r  has  the  re- 
putation of  making  the  hair  grow,  and 
with  as  little  foundation.     See  Bees. 

H(mey  Vinegar. — This  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  or  mixing  one  pound  of  honey 
in  three  or  four  quarts  of  water,  and  ex- 
posing the  mixture  to  ferment  till  it  be- 
comes acid,  in  a,  temperature  of  between 
70  and  SO  degrees.  The  product  is  white. 
HOKX.  Under  the  general  article  of 
horn  may  be  included  (chemically  con- 
sidered) a  great  variety  of  toiig'h,  some- 
what flexible,  semitrar.sp.-.rent  organs  in- 
tended by  nature  for  defence  or  covering. 
Of  this  kind  are  the  hollow  horns  of  the 
ox,  goaty  ram,  and  some  other  animals, 
tlie  hooi'y  the  horny  claw  and  nail,  and 
the  horny  scale  of  certain  insects  and  ani- 
3  31 


IIOR 


IIOR 


mills,  chicHy  colcl-bloocled,  such  as  the 
.v/ic//  (so  called)  of  the  tortoise.  All  these 
resemble  each  other  very  closely  in  clie- 
iTiical  character,  and  dill'er  considerably 
from  some  of  the  harder  and  bony  de- 
fences of  some  animals,  sucli  as  the  stag'-- 
Iiorn,  ivory,  ithd  the  liard  tusks  of  the 
sea-cow,  and  many  others. 

Horn  (used  in  the  above  general  sense) 
has  various  degrees  of  liardness,  but  is 
always  in  some  degree  tough  and  flex- 
ible, even  in  the  cold,  so  that  however 
dried,  it  cannot  be  bruised  to  powder  as 
bone  can.  It  is  also  distinguished  from 
bone  very  remarkably,  in  being  softened 
very  compleatly  by  beat,  either  naked, 
or  through  tlie  medium  of  water,  so  as 
then  to  be  readily  bent,  moulded,  and 
made  to  adhere  by  pressure  to  oUier 
pieces  of  horn  in  the  same  state. 

No  sucii  change  takes  place  wilh  bone. 

The  valuable  experiments  of  Mr.  Hat- 
chett,  with  those  of  ])receding  chemists, 
have  also  shewn  a  most  decided  chemical 
difllerence  between  horn  and  bone.  "When 
bone  is  boiled  witli  water  in  an  open  ves- 
sel, (as  mentioned  under  that  article)  a 
large  quantity  oi'  gelatin  is  extracted,  and 
tlie  insoluble  residue  consists  of  the  earth 
of  bone,  together  with  the  albuminous 
cai'tilage,  so  tlial  the  texture  remains  un- 
broken. On  tlie  othei-  iiand,  the  diflPer- 
ent  species  of  horn  boiled  with  water 
even  for  many  days,  give  to  it  but  very 
little  gelaui),  or  any  other  ])rinciple,  but 
of  tills  small  portion  of  gelatin,  the  softer 
and  more  flexible  horns  give  the  most. 
The  horn  itself  during  'he  digestion,  is 
softened  considerably  by  the  hot  water, 
but  on  being  taken  out  and  dried,  it  be- 
comes more  brittle  than  at  fii-st,  and  in 
projiortion  to  the  loss  of  gelatin.  Bone 
therefore  contains  much  gelatin,  and  horn 
scarcely  any. 

Another  difference  appears  after  tbe 
Utmost  action  of  fire  on  each.  When  bone 
is  burnt,  a  number  of  substances  are  pro- 
cured, as  described  under  that  article, 
and  tlie  last  residue  is  an  earthy  salt, 
chiefly  phosphat  of  linic,  amounting  on 
an  average  to  from  half  to  one  thiid  of  the 
entire  weight  of  the  bone.  Wiien  horn 
is  treated  in  the  sanie  way,  the  volatile 
products  are  indeed  the  same,  or  nearly 
so,  but  instead  of  a  large  eartliy  residue, 
scarcely  any  earth,  or  any  odier  com- 
bustible matter  remains.  Bone  then  fore 
contains  much  phosphat  of  lime,  but  horn 
hardly  any. 

But  the'  substance  which  they  possess 
in  common  is  that  condensed  tough  mat- 
ter, insoluble  in  water  and  weak  acids, 
which  Mr.  Hatchett  has  so  satisfactorily 
siiewu  to  resemble  albumen  in  all  essen- 


tial properties,  and  which  in  bone  forms^ 
forms  the  original  organic  cartilage  on 
which  the  earth  is  depositsd  during  the 
growth  of  the  animal,  and  in  horn  forms 
almost  the  whole  substance. 

Horn  therefore  seems  to  consist  in  by 
far  the  largest  proportion  of  condensed 
albumen,  combined  however  with  a  small 
and  varying  portion  of  gelatin,  which  mo- 
difies its  texture  and  flexibility,  and  also 
with  a  small  portion  of  phosphat  of  lime. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  boiling 
water  in  open  vessels  had  hardly  any  ac- 
tion  on  horn,  but  when  confined  in  a  di- 
gester, liorn  as  well  as  bone  is  totally  so- 
luble, because  water  assisted  by  the 
strong  heat  of  a  digester,  will  dissolve 
condensed  albumen  as  well  as  gelatin. 
This  method  therefore  is  not  sufficiently 
distinctive  for  chemical  analysis. 

The  fixed  alkalies  readily  and  totally 
dissolve  horn  into  «  yellow  saponaceous 
hquor. 

The  products  obtainable  from  horn  and 
bone  of  all  kinds  by  distillation  per  se, 
were  early  attended  to  by  chemists,  as  it 
is  from  these  substances  that  a  variety  of 
valuable  ammoniacal  salts  and  prepara- 
tions are  obtained. 

The  products  from  bone  and  horn  by 
fire  are  very  similar,  as  it  is  only  the  soft 
pai-ts,  such  as  gelatin  and  albumen,  that 
are  decomposed  in  the  process,  the  earthy 
phosphat  remaining  inert  without  adding 
to,  or  modifying  the  volatile  products. 
These  latter  are  a  we;ik  ammoniacal 
phlegm  or  water,  on  the  first  impiession 
of  the  fire,  to  which  succeeds  an  oil,  thin 
and  limjiid  at  first,  but  afterwai-ds 
brov.n  and  foul,  and  at  last  of  a  pitchy 
colour  and  consistence,  and  an  extremely 
fetid  empyreunialic  smell.  During  the 
whole  of  the  distillation,  carbonat  of  am- 
monia comes  over,  partly  dissolved  in  all 
the  liquid  products,  and  partly  concret- 
ing on  the  sides  of  the  receiver  in  crystal- 
line plates.  A  second  distillation  with  re- 
gulated heat  is  used  to  pmcure  the  am- 
monia purer :  but  it  can  hardly  ever  be 
totally  fieed  by  tliis  means  from  the  vo- 
latile oil ;  so  that,  though  limpid  and 
gratefully  ammoniacal,  the  alkaline  li- 
quor or  salt  thus  obtained,  always  re- 
tains somewhat  of  the  peculiar  smell  of 
the  oil,  as  nuist  be  observed  by  every  one 
who  coTn])ares  the  scent  of  common  spi- 
rit of  hartshorn  with  that  of  the  ])nre  car- 
bonat  of  ammonia  or  sal  volatile,  which 
is  prepared  in  a  different  way,  and  from 
otiier  materials. 

But  horn  (properly  speaking)  is  seldom 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  distillation, 
being  too  valuable  as  an  article  of  maim- 
facture  to  be  thu?  sacrificed.     The  only 


HOR 


HOR 


horn  ever  used  thus  is  the  Jldg^s  or  hart. 
shorn,  which  as  above  mentioned,  par- 
takes much  more  of  the  nature  of  bone, 
is  not  flexible  like  ox  and  other  horn : 
when  in  shavings,  readily  dissolves  by 
boiling  water  into  a  pure  nutritious  gelly, 
entangling  the  phosphat  of  lime  along 
•with  it,  which  makes  it  slightly  opake 
Stag's  horn  therefore  is  somewhat  inter- 
mediate in  properties  between  bone  and 
true  horn. 

Horn  and  tortoise  shell  being  applied 
to  a  number  of  mechanical  purposes, 
must  be  cut,  bent  and  shaped  in  an  in- 
finite variety  of  ways.  This  is  done  in 
most  instances  by  tiie  assistance  of  heat 
applied  either  dry,  with  warmed  irons  or 
burning  charcoal,  or  by  softening  the  horn 
in  boiling  wa:er,  and  sometimes  with  tlie 
assistance  of  a  weak  alkaline  liquor. 
When  thus  softened,  one  part  may  be 
made  to  adhere  to  another  by  mere  pres- 
sure as  firmly  as  the  undivided  substance 
Thus  for  example,  to  make  the  horn  ring 
that  surrounds  a  common  opera  glass,  a 
fiat  piece  of  horn  is  cut  out  of  the  requi- 
site shape,  the  ends  intended  to  join  are 
thinned  down  by  a  file,  the  piece  is  then 
put  into  boiling  wate;  till  sufficiently  sup- 
ple, and  is  then  rolled  round  a  warmed 
iron  cylinder,  and  held  in  that  position  by 
a  vice,  so  that  the  ends  overlap  each 
other.  Another  piece  of  iron  heated  and 
grooved  is  then  laid  upon  tlie  seam  of  the 
joined  ends,  and  pressed  upon  th.e  cylin- 
der, and  confined  there  by  iron  wire ; 
and  the  heat  of  the  two  partially  melts 
tliat  portion  of  the  horn,  and  cements  the 
ends  so  compleatly,  that  no  seam  or  join 
ing  can  be  observed  when  cold. 

In  a  similar  manner,  two  pieces  of  tor- 
toise shell  may  be  joined  together,  by 
first  neatly  shaping  with  a  file  the  part's 
that  are  to  be  united,  then  tying  a  thick 
paper  doubled  in  several  folds  over  the 
joining,  and  pressing  the  whole  together 
■with  a  hot  iron  instrument  like  curling 
irons,  heated  just  sufficiently  tliat  the 
sliell  when  warmed  by  it,  will  begin  to 
bend  by  its  own  weight.  When  cold,  the 
joining  is  perfect,  and  without  seam.  Too 
great  heat  would  make  the  shell  rise  in 
w  hite  opake  blisters,  and  spoil  its  besuty. 
Horn  is  made  to  imitate  tortoise  shell, 
ji  the  following  manner :  make  a  paste 
with  two  parts  of  quick-lime,  one  of  li- 
tharge, and  a  little  soap-makers'  ley,  or 
solution  of  caustic  pot-ash ;  apply  it  skil- 
fully on  a  thin  plate  of  horn  in  a  way  that 
will  best  imitate  the  natural  spots  of  the 
tortoise  shell,  leaving  the  light  parts  un- 
'uuched ;  let  this  paste  <lry  on,  then  brush 
it  ofT,  and  the  horn  will  be  permanently 
stained.     The  effect  is  much  improved  by 


laying  beneath  it  when  used,  a  piece  of 
brass  leaf  This  staining  mav  be  vai-ied 
at  pleasure,  by  substituting  other  colour- 
ed substances  to  the  litharge. 

To  make  Horn  soft— Tvike  one  pound 
of  wood-ashes,  two  pounds  of  quick-lime, 
one  quart  of  water ;  let  it  l^pil  together  to 
one  third ;  then  dip  a  feather  into  it,  and 
if,  in  drawing  it  out,  the  plume  comes 
ofl^,  it  is  boiled  enough  ;  if  not,  let  it  boil 
longer  ;  wlien  it  is  settled,  filter  it  through 
a  clotli ;  then  put  in  shavings,  or  filings, 
of  horn  ;  let  them  soak  therein  three 
days ;  and,  anointing  your  hands  first 
with  oil,  work  the  horn  shavings  into  a 
mass,  and  prim,  mould,  or  form  it  in 
what  shape  you  please 

To  cast  Horn  into  Moulds. — Take  horn 
shavings  as  many  as  you  will,  and  lay 
them  in  a  new  earthen  pot;  take  two 
parts  of  wood-ashes,  and  the  third  part 
of  lime  ;  pour  clear  lye  upon  it,  so  as  to 
cover  it  all  over ;  boil'it  well ;  stir  t  with 
an  iron  ladle,  till  it  has  the  consistence  of 
a  paste :  if  you  will  have  it  of  a  red  co- 
lour, then  take  red  lead,  or  vermillion, 
as  much  as  you  think  proper,  and  temper 
it  with  the  paste;  then  cast  it  into  a 
mould,  and  let  it  di-y :  you  may  smooth 
it  with  a  knife,  and  it  will  be  of  one  solid 
piece ;  you  may  in  this  manner  bring  lorn 
to  what  coloui"  you  will  have  it. 

To  prepare  Horn  Leaves  in  Imitation  of 
Tortoise -shell, froin  the  Laboratory. — Take 
of  quick-lime  one  pound,  and  litharge  of 
silver  eight  ounces ;  mix  with  some  urine 
into  a  paste,  and  make  spots  with  it,  in 
what  form  or  shape  you  please,  on  both 
sides  of  the  horn;  when  dry,  rub  off  the 
powder,  and  lepeat  this  as  many  times 
as  you  will.  Then  takevermiUon,  which 
is  prepared  with  size,  lay  it  all  over  one 
side  of  the  horn,  as  also  on  the  wood,  to 
which  you  design  to  fasten  it. 

For  raised  work,  form  the  horn  in  a 
mould  of  what  shape  soever:  put  it  bv 
to  dry,  and  with  the  aforesaid  paste  and 
the  vermilion  give  it  the  colour ;  then  lay 
on  a  clear  glue  (neither  too  thick,  nor  too 
thin)  both  upon  the  horn  and  the  wood  on 
which  it  is  to  be  fixed,  and  close  it  to- 
gether ;  do  this  work  in  a  warm  place, 
and  let  it  stand  all  night ;  then  cut,  or 
file  off",  the  roughness,  or  what  is  super- 
fluous about  it;  rub  it  over  with  a  coal, 
and  polish  it  with  tripoli  and  linseed  oil. 

The  work  made  in  this  manner  looks, 
very  beautiful  and  natural ;  and  m.iy  be 
used,  by  cabinet-makers,  for  pillars,  pi- 
lasters, pannels,  or  any  other  embellish- 
ment in  cabinet-work. 

Another  .Method  to  Count;yfit  Tortoiie- 
shell  on  Horn. — Take  of  good  aqua-fbitis 
wo  ounces,  and  of  fine  silver  one  drachm ;    ' 


HOR 


UOR 


let  the  silver  dissolve,  and,  after  you  liave 
spotted  or  marbled  your  lioni  witii  wax, 
strike  the  solution  over  it ;  let  it  dry  of 
itself,  and  the  horn  will  be,  in  those 
places  which  are  free  from  wax,  of  a 
brown  or  black  colour.     Or, 

Lay  the  wax  all  over  the  horn ;  then, 
with  a  pointed  skewer,  or  iron,  draw 
wliat  \  ou  will,  laying  the  figure  you  draw 
open  on  the  horn ;  tlicn  jjour  on  tlie  above 
solution ;  let  it  si.. ml  a  little,  and,  afier 
you  have  poured  it  off",  either  scrape  or 
melt  the  wax ;  wipe  it  with  a  clean  rag, 
and  polish  it. 

Instead  of  the  solution  of  silver,  you 
may  boil  litharge  of  silver  in  a  strong  i}e 
made  of  quick-lime,  so  long,  till  it  be- 
comes of  a  black  tincture:  or,  instead  of 
silver,  you  may  dissolve  lead  h>  aqua- 
fortis. 

To  Solder  Hiyrn  together,  ajter  it  has 
been  Imed  with  proper  Foils  or  Colours. — 
Take  two  pieces  of  horn,  made  on  pur- 
pose to  meet  together,  either  for  handles 
of  knives,  razors,  or  any  thing  else;  lay 
fi;)i!s  of  what  colour  you  please  on  the  in- 
side of  one  of  the  horns,  or,  instead  of 
foils,  painted  or  gilded  paper,  or  parch- 
ment; then  fix  the  other  i)iece  u])on  it; 
lay  a  wet  linen  fillet,  twice  dovibled,  over 
the  edges,  and  widi  a  liot  iron  rub  it 
over,  and  it  will  close  and  join  together 
as  firm  as  if  made  one  piece. 

HOliN,  to  shape  or  bend  into  different 
forms.     See  Horx. 

HORN,  how  joined.     See  Horn. 

HOUX,  made  to  imitate  tortoise-shell- 
See  Horn. 

HORN,  spirit  of  harts.     See  Horn 

HOROLOGY.  We  have  taken  the  lib- 
erty of  introducing  at  the  request  of  seve- 
ral watchmakers,  the  following  treatise  on 
clock  work,  which,  from  its  simplicity  and 
usefulness,  is  supposed  to  be  valuable  to 
tlie  practical  and  scientific  horologist. 

It  is  necessary  first  to  explain  the  tech- 
)ilcu.l  terms,  or  terms  of  art,  and  the  names 
of  tlie  various  parts  of  a  clock  and  watch. 

The  wlieels,  and  tlie  rest  of  tiie  work, 
is  contained  in  the  frame,  which  consists 
of  the  pillars  and  the  plates. 

That  which  the  main-spring  lies  in,  is 
the  spring-box:  that  which  the  spring 
winds  about,  in  the  middle  of  the  spring- 
box,  is  the  spring-arbor;  to  which  the 
spring  is  hooked  at  one  end.  At  the  top 
of  th^  spring-aibor,  is  the  endless-screw, 
andiiu  wheel:  but  in  sjiring-elocks,  it  is  a 
ratcliet- wheel,  witli  its  eliek^tliat  stops  it. 

That  which  the  main-spring  draws,  and 
ubout  which  the  clsain  or  string  is  wound, 
and  which  is  communly  t:iper,  is  the 
fusee.  In  larger  work,  going  with  wc  ights, 
where  it  is  cvlindrical,  it  is  called  the  bar- 


rel: the  small  teeth  at  the  bottom  of  tlia 
fusee,  or  barrel,  that  stop  it  in  winding  up, 
is  the  ratchet.  That  which  stops  it  when 
wound  ui),  and  is  driven  up  by  the  string, 
or  chain,  is  the  gardegut. 

The  parts  of  a  wheel  are,  the  hoop,  or 
rim;  the  teeth;  the  cross;  and  the  collet, 
or  piece  of  brass,  soldered  on  the  arbor,  or 
spindle,  on  which  the  wiieel  is  rivctted. 

A  pinion  is  that  little  wheel  which  plays 
in  the  teeth  of  the  wheel :  its  teeth  (whicli 
are  commonly  4, 5,  6, 7,  8,  &c.)  are  called 
leaves,  not  teeth. 

The  ends  of  the  spindle  are  called  pi- 
vots; the  holes  in  whicii  they  run,  pivot; 
holes. 

The  guttered  wheel,  v/ith  iron  spikes  at 
the  bottom,  in  whicli  the  line  of  ordinary 
thirty-hour  house  clocks  runs,  is  called 
the  pulley. 

The  dial -plate,  the  hands,  screws, 
wedges,  stops,  &c.  hardly  need  mention, 

I'iiiis  much  fov  general  names,  which 
are  common  to  all  parts  of  a  movement. 

The  mosttisual  movements  are  watches 
and  clocks.  "Watches,  strictly  taken,  are 
all  sucii  movements  as  show  the  parts  of 
lime ;  and  clocks  are  such  as  publish  it," 
by  striking  on  a  bell,  &.c.  But  commonly, 
the  name  of  watches  is  api)ropriated  to 
such  as  are  carried  in  the  pocket;  and 
that  of  clock  to  the  larger  movements, 
whether  they  strike  the  hour  or  not. 
Watches  which  strike  the  hour,  are  called 
pocket-clocks,  or  more  commonly  repeat- 
ing-watches. 

The  parts  of  a  movement  to  be  consi- 
dered, are  the  watch  and  clock  parts. 

The  watch  part  of  a  movement  is  that 
which  serves  to  measure  the  hours;  in 
which  the  first  thing  to  be  noticed  is  the 
balance,  whose  parts  are  the  rim,  wliich 
is  the  circular  part  of  it ;  the  verge  is  its 
spindle  to  which  belong  the  two  pallets, 
or  leaves,  which  play  in  the  teeth  of  the 
croMU-whecl :  in  pocket-watches,  the 
strong  stud  in  which  the  lower  pivot  of  the 
verge  plays,  and  in  the  middle  of  which 
one  pivot  of  the  balance-wheel  plays,  is 
called  the  pottance.  The  bottom  of  this 
is  called  the  foot;  the  middle  part  (in 
which  the  pivot  of  the  balance-wheel 
turns)  is  called  the  nose  ;  the  upper  part, 
the  shoulder  of  the  pottance.  The  piece 
wiiich  covers  the  b.'ilance,  and  in  which 
the  upper  pivot  of  the  balance  plays,  is 
the  cock.  The  small  spring  in  pocket- 
watches  underneath  the  balance,  is  the  re- 
gulator, or  penduium-s]>riiig. 

The  partsof  a  i)endulum  are  the  verge, 
pallets,  and  cocks,  as  befoie.  'I'he  ball 
in  long  pendulumsi,  the  bob  in  short  ones, 
is  the  weight  at  the  bottom,  which  is  fix- 
ed to  the  wire  or  rod.     The  term  pecu- 


\ 


C:i::  ;'k  Work 


HOR 


HOR 


liar  to  tlie  royal  swing',  are  the  pads, 
which  are  the  pallets  in  others,  and  are 
fixed  on  the  aibor  ;  the  fork  is  also  fixed 
to  the  arbor,  and  about  six  inclies  below, 
catches  hold  on  the  rod,  at  a  flat  piece  of 
bniss,  called  the  flat,  in  which  the  lower 
end  of  the  spiini^  is  fastened. 

The  names  of  the  wheels  next  follow : 
the  crown-wheel  in  small  tirne-pieces,  and 
the  swing-wheel  in  rojal  pendulums,  is 
that  wheel  that  drives  tlie  balance,  or 
pendulum. 

The  contrate-wheel  is  that  wheel  in 
pocket-watches  and  others,  which  is  next 
to  liie  crown-wheel,  whose  teeth  and  hoop 
lie  contrary  to  those  of  other  wheels ; 
whence  it  takes  its  name. 

The  g-reat  wheel,  or  first  wheel,  is  that 
which  the  fusee,  &c.  immediately  drives 
Next  to  it  are  the  second  wheel,  third 
wheel,  8cc. 

Then  follows  the  work  between  the 
frame  and  dial-plale  ;  and  first  the  pinion 
of  report,  which  is  the  pinion  that  is  com- 
monly fixed  on  the  arbor  of  the  great 
wheel,  and  in  old  watches  used  to  have 
generally  but  tour  leaves ;  this  drives 
the  dial-wheel,  which  carries  about  the 
hand. 

The  last  part  to  be  mentioned  is  the 
clock,  which  is  that  part  which  serves  to 
strike  the  hours ;  in  v\hich  the  great  or 
first  wheel,  is  that  wliich  the  weight  or 
spring  first  drives.  In  thirty -hour  clocks 
this  is  commonly  the  pin-wheel :  this 
wheel  with  pins,  is  called  the  sti-iking 
wheel  or  pin-wheel. 

Kext  to  this  striking-wheel  follows  the 
detent  w'heel,  or  hoop-wheel,  it  having  a 
hoop  almost  round  it,  in  which  is  a  vacan- 
cy, at  which  the  clock  locks. 

The  next  is  the  third,  or  fourth  wheel 
(according  as  it  is  distant  from  the  first 
wheel)  called  also  the  warning  wheel. 

And,  lastly,  is  the  flying  pinion,  with  a 
fly,  or  fan,  to  gather  air,  and  so  bridle  the 
rapidity  of  the  clock's  motion. 

Besides  these,  there  is  the  pinion  of  re- 
port, which  drives  round  the  locking- 
wheel,  called  also  the  count-wheel,  with 
eleven  notches  in  it  commonly,  unequally 
'Mstant  from  one  another,  to  make  the 
clock  strike  the  hours  of  1,  2,  3,  &c. 

Thus  much  for  wheels  of  the  clock 
part. 

The  detents  are  those  stops  which,  by 
being  lifted  up,  or  let  down,  lock  or  un- 
lock the  clock  in  striking. 

The  hammers  strike  the  bell;  the  ham- 
mer tails  are  what  the  striking  pins  draw 
buck  tile  hammers  by. 

Latches  are  what  lift  up  and  Unlock 
the  work. 

Catches  are  what  hold  by  hooking. 


I     The  lifting  pieces  lift  up  and  unlock  the 
{  detents,  in  the  clock  part. 
I      The  train  is  the  number  of  beats  or  vi- 
brations  which  the   watch   makes  in  an 
hour,  or  any  other  certain  time. 

There  are  besides  these,  several  other 
terms  which  ckck -makers  use  in  various 
sorts  of  pieces,  as  the  snail  or  siepwheel 
I  in  repeating  clocks,  the  rack,  the  safe- 
I  guards,  the  several  levers,  lifters,  and  de- 
tents:  but  it  would  be  tedious,  and  it  is 
Ufccdless,  to  mention  the  particulars. 

For  the  bi  i  ^er  unde;  standing  these 
terms  of  art,  and  the  parts  of  a  clock, 
they  are  represented  in  a  plate ;  in  which 
two  distinct  pirts  may  be  observed,  the 
watch  and  the  clock  part. 

The  wheels.  Sac.  on  the  right  hand,  is 
the  watch  part;  those  on  the  left,  the 
clock. 

p.  D.  (Plate  clock-work.  Fig.  2.)  the 
spnng  boxes .  of  the  watch  and  clock 
part. 

E.  E.  The  great  wheel  of  each  part. 
F  i'   The  fusee  of  eaca  part,   about 
which  the  chain  or  string  is  wound 

o.  o.  The  click  and  spring  of  each 
part. 

g  g.  The  ratchet  of  each  part. 

a.  Tlie  hoop,  or  rim  of  tlie  second 
wheel. 

b.  The  cross  thereof. 

c.  The  pinion. 

d.  The  third  wheel. 
X.  The  pallet-wheel. 

L.  The  pin-wheel,  with  the  striking 
pins  e.  e.  e. 

m.  The  hoop  wheel. 

n.  The  warning-wheel,  or  fourth  wheel 

O    The  detent. 

P.  The  lifting  piece. 

2.  The  f;ui,  and  flying  pinion. 

R.   rhe  bell. 

S.  The  hammer. 

T.  The  hammer-tail. 

y.  The  hammer-spring, 

V.  V.  The  chain,  or  string  of  the  watch 
and  clock. 

The  pendulum  consist  of,  1.  The  rod. 
2.  The  fork.  3.  The  flat.  4.  The  great 
ball.  5.  The  corrector,  or  regulator; 
being  a  contrivance  of  very  great  use  to 
bring  the  pendulum  to  its  nicest  vibra- 
tions, and  is  fixed  on  the  verge  at  the  end 
of  the  pallets  5.  5. 

To  divide  the  Circuwference  of  a  Circle 
into  any  given  number  (f  equal  parts,  in/ie- 
ther  even  or  odd. — As  ihere  are  very  un- 
common and  odd  numbers  of  teeth  in 
some  of  the  wheels  of  tiie  astronomical 
clocks,  and  wOiich  consequently  couid 
not  be  cut  by  an\-  common  engine  i:?ed 
by  clock-makers  for  ciitiing  the  numbers 
of  teeth  in  their  clock-wheels,  the  follow- 


rioR 


IIOR 


mg  directions  are  given,  to  shew  liow  to 
divide  the  circumt'ercnce  of  a  circle  into 
any  given  odd  or  even  number  of  equal 
parts,  so  as  that  number  may  be  laid 
down  upon  the  dividing  plate  of  a  cutting- 
engine. 

There  is  no  odd  number,  but  from 
which,  if  a  certain  number  be  subtract- 
ed, there  will  remain  an  even  number, 
easy  to  be  subdivided:  thus,  sniiposing 
the  given  number  of  equal  divisirxis  of  a 
circle  on  the  dividing  plate  to  be  69,  sub- 
tract 9,  and  there  will  remain  60. 

Every  circle  is  supposed  to  contain  3G0 
degrees  ;  therefore  say,  as  the  given  num- 
ber of  parts  in  the  circle,  which  is  69,  is 
to  360  degrees,  so  is  9  parts  to  tiie  cor- 
responding arc  of  the  circle  that  will  con- 
tarn  them  ;  which  arc,  by  the  rule  of  three, 
will  be  found  to  be  46.95.  Therefore,  by 
the  line  of  chords  on  common  scale,  or 
rather  on  a  sector,  set  oH'46  94  (or  46.9) 
degrees  with  your  compasses,  in  the  peri- 
phery of  the  circle,  and  divide  that  arc,  or 
portion  of  the  cy-cle,  into  9  equal  parts, 
and  the  rest  of  the  circle  into  60  ;  and  the 
whole  will  be  divided  into  69  equal  parts, 
as  was  required. 

Again,  suppose  it  were  required  to  di- 
vide the  circumference  of  a  circle  into  83 
equal  parts,  subtract  3,  and  80  will  re- 
main. Then  as  83  parts  are  to  360  dc- 
gi-ees,  so,  by  the  rule  of  proportion,  are 
o  parts  to  13.01  degrees;  which  small 
fraction  may  be  neglected.  Therefore, 
by  the  line  of  chords  and  compass,  set 
off  13  degrees  in  the  periphery  oi'the  cir- 
cle, and  divide  that  ])ortion  or  arc  into  3 
equal  parts,  and  the  rest  of  the  circle 
into  80,  and  the  thing  will  be  done, 

Once  more — Suppose  it  were  required 
to  divide  a  given  circle  into  365  eciual 
parts,  subtract  5,  and  360  will  remain; 
then,  as  365  parts  are  to  360  degrees,  so 
are  5  parts  to  4  93  dej:,*rees.  Therefore, 
set  off  4.93  (or  4.9)  dc-grees  in  tlie  circle  ; 
divide  that  space  into  5  equal  parts,  aiul 
the  rest  of  the  circle  into  360;  and  the 
whole  will  be  divided  into  365  equal  parts, 
as  was  required. 

This  rule  or  method  is  very  useful,  in 
dividing  circles  into  an  odd  nund)er  of 
equal  parts,  or  wheels  into  odd  niunbers 
ot  equal -sixcd  teeth  with  equal  spaces  be- 
tween them ;  antl  it  is  as  easy  to  divide 
any  given  circle  int"  any  odd  inimber  of 
equal  parts,  as  to  divide  it  into  any  even 
number.  For  this  purjiose,  the  line  of 
chords  on  a  sector  is  j^reicrable  to  that  on 
a  plain  scale,  l)ccause  tijc  sector  may  be 
opened  so,  as  to  make  the  r;i.dius  of  the 
lii\e  of  chords  upon  it  equal  to  the  r:idius 
ortlic  c'h'i  II  cmt!'-.  hv.'css  the  j-adiiis  of 


the  circle  exceed  the  whole  length  of  the 
sector  when  it  is  opened,  so  as  to  resem- 
ble a  straight  ruler  or  scale;  and  tlds  is 
what  very  seldom  happens. 

Any  person  who  is  used  to  handle  the 
compasses,  and  the  scale  or  sector,  may 
very  easily,  by  a  little  practice,  take  off 
degrees,  and  fractional  parts  of  a  degree, 
by  the  accuracy  of  his  eye,  from  a  line  of 
chords,  near  enougli  the  truth  for  the 
above  mentio.ied  piu'pose. 

Supposing  the  distance  between  the  centres 
of  tiuu  ^ilut'ls,  one  (f  which  is   to  turn  the 
other,  he  given ;  tluit  the  mnnber  of  teeth'iw 
tine  of  these  "wheels  is  different  front  the 
mtmher  of  teeth  in  the  other;  anil  it  is  re- 
(jutred  to  make  the  diameters  oj  these  'wheels  ' 
in  such  proportion  to  one  another   as  their 
numbers  of  teeth    .re,  so  that  the  teeth  in 
both  wheels  may  be  of  equal  size,  and  tlie 
spaces  betiveen  them  equal,  that  either  i.f 
them  may  turn  the  other  easily  and  freely ^■^^ 
it  is  required  to  find  their  diaineters. — Her^H 
it  is  plain,  that  the  distance  between  the 
centres  of  the  wheels  is  equal  to  tiie  sum 
of  both  their  radii  in  the  working  parts  of    m 
the  teeth.     Therefore,  as  the  number  of 
teeth  in  both  wheels,  taken  together,  is 
to  the   distance   between   their   centres, 
taken  in  any  kind  of  nteasure,  as  feet, 
inches,  or4DartB  of  anlnch,  soisthenum* 
her  of  teeth  in  either  of  the  wheels  to  the 
radius  or  semi-diameter  of  that  wheel,    "^ 
taken  in  the  like  measure,  from  its  centre 
to  the    working  part  of  any  one  of  its 
teeth. 

Thus,  suppose  the  two  wheels  must  be 
of  such  sizes  as  to  have  their  distance  be- 
tween their  centres  five  inches;  that  one 
wheel  is  to  have  75  teeth,  and  the  other 
■  to  have  33,  and  that  the  sizes  of  tlie 
teetii  in  both  the  wheels  are  equal,  so 
tliat  either  of  them  may  turn  the  other. 
'Ihe  sum  of  the  teeth  in  both  wheels  is 
108;  therel()re  say,  as  108  teelh  are  to 
five  inches,  so  are  75  teeth  to  3.47  inches; 
and  as  1G8  are  to  5,  so  is  33  to  153 
inches ;  so  that,  from  the  centre  of  the 
wheel  of  75  teeth  to  the  working  part  of 
any  tooth  in  it,  is  3  47  inches;  and  from 
tlie  centre  of  the  wheel  of  33  teeth  to  the 
working  part  of  either  of  its  teetii,  is  1.53 
inches. 

Gmcr^il  preliminary  Rules,  and  Di^'ec- 
tions  for  Calculation — For  the  more  clear 
understanding  this,  it  must  he  observed, 
that  those  atitomata  (whose  calculation  is 
ciiiefly  intended)  measure  out  long  por- 
tions "  of  time  by  little  interstices,  or 
strokes:  thus  the  strokes  of  the  balance 
of  a  watch  measure  out  minutes,  hours, 
days,  8ic. 

JN'ov/  to  scatter  those  strokes  amoiigst 


HOR 


HOR 


wheels  and  pinions,  and  to  proportionate 
them,  so  as  to  measure  time  regularly, 
is  the  design  of"  calculation. 

And,  in  the  first  place,  any  wheel  being 
divided  by  its  pinions,  shews  bow  many 
turns  that  pinion  hath  to  one  turn  of  that 
wheel.  Thus,  awheel  of  60  teeth  driv- 
ing a  pinion  of  6,  will  turn  round  a  pinion 
10  times  in  going  round  once.  6)60(10. 

From  the  fusee  to  the  balance,  the 
wheels  drive  the  pinions;  and  conse- 
quently the  pinions  run  faster,  or  go 
more  turns,  than  the  wheels  they  run  in ; 
but  it  is  contrary  from  the  great  wheel  to 
the  dial-wheel.  Thus,  in  the  last  ex- 
ample, the  wheel  drives  round  the  pinion 
ten  times ;  but  if  the  pinion  drove  the 
wheel,  it  must  turn  ten  times  to  drive 
the  wheel  round  once. 

Here  it  will  be  requisite  to  shew  how 
to  write  down  the  wheels  and  pinions, 
wliich  may  be  done  either  as  vulgar  frac- 
tions, or  in  the  way  of  division  in  vulgar 
arithmetic.  For  example,  a  wheel  of  60 
moving  a  pinion  of  5,  may  be  set  down 
60-5tlis,  or  5)60 ;  wiiere  the  uppermost 
figure  60,  or  numerator,  is  the  wheel ; 
the  lowermost,  or  denominator,  is  the 
puiion ;  or,  in  the  latter  example,  the 
first  fig'ure  is  the  pinion,  the  next  without 
the  hook  the  wheel. 

The  number  of  turns  which  the  pinion 
hath  in  one  turn  ofthe  wheel,  is  set  with- 
out a  hook  on  the  right  hand,  as  5)60(12; 
I.  e.  a  pillion  5  playing  in  a  wheel  of  60, 
move  round  12  times  in  one  turn  of  the 
wheel. 

A  whole  movement  maybe  no-     4)36(9 
ted  thus,     fg  */    Y     T°   I'' 


notches  in  the  crown  wheel ;  or  5)55(11 
rather,  because  easier  to  mean  5)45(9 
capacities,   as   in   the   margin,     5)40(b 

where  the  uppermost  number 

above  the  line  is  the  pinion  of  17 

report  4,  tlie  dial-wheel  36,  and  9  turns  of 
the  pin  of  report.  The  second  number 
(under  the  line)  is  5,  the  pmion,  55  is  the 
great  wheel,  and  11  turns  ofthe  pinion  it 
driveth ;  the  third  numbers  are  the  second 
wheel,  &c. ;  the  fourth  the  contrate-wheel, 
&c. ;  and  the  single  number  17  under  all, 
is  the  number  ofthe  crown-wheel. 

By  knowing  the  number  of  turns  which 
any  pinion  hath  hi  one  turn  ofthe  wheel  it 
works  in, you  may  also  find  out  how  many 
turns  a  wheel  or  pinion  has  at  a  greater 
distance,  as  the  contrate-wheel,  crown- 
wheel, &.C. ;  for  it  is  but  multiplymg  toge- 
ther the  quotients  (by  tl>e  quotients,  is 
commonly  meant  tlie  number  of  turns  ; 
which  number  is  set  on  the  right  hand 
without  the  hook,  as  shewn  in  the  last  ex- 
ample), 'and  the  number  produced  is  the 
number  of  turns.    An  example  will  make 


5)55(11  this  plain.  Let  us  choose  three 
5)45(9  numbers,  here  set  down,  the 
5)40(8  first  of  which  hath  11  tums,the 
next  9,  and  the  last  8.  If  you  multiply  11 
by  9,  it  produceth  99,  for  9  times  11  is 
99 ;  that  is,  in  one  turn  of  the  wheel  55, 
there  are  99  turns  of  the  second  pinion  5, 
or  the  wheel  40,  which  runs  concentrical, 
or  on  the  same  arboi-  with  the  second  pi- 
nion 5;  for  as  there  are  H  turns  of  the 
first  pinion  5,  in  one  tiu-n  of  the  great 
wheel  55,  or  (which  is  the  same)  of  the 
second  wheel  45,  which  is  on  the  same 
spindle  with  that  pinion  5  ;  so  there  are  9 
times  11  turns  in  the  second  pinion  5,  or 
wheel  40,  in  one  turn  ofthe  great  wheel 
55.  If  you  multiply  the  last  quotient  S 
(that  is,  8  times  99  is  792)  it  shews  the 
number  of  turns  which  the  third  and  last 
pinion  5  hatii ;  so  that  this  third  and  last 
pinion  turns  792  times  in  one  turn  of  the 
first  wheel  55.  Another  example  will 
8(80(10  make  it  still  more  plain.  The 
6(54(9  example  is  in  the  margin.  The 
5)40(8       turns  ai-e  10,  9,  and  8.     These 

multiplied  as  before,  rttn  thus, 

15    viz.  10  times  9  is  90 ;  that  is, 

the  pinion  6  (which  is  the  pinion  ofthe 

third  wheel  40,  and  runs  in  the  second 

wheel  54)  turns  20  times  in  one  turn  of 

the  first  wheel  80.     This  last  product  90 

being  multiplied  by  8,  produces  720 ;  that 

is,  the  pinion  5    (whicli  is  the  pin  of  the 

crown-wheel  15)  turns  720  times  in  one 

tum  of  the  first  wheel  of  80  teeth. 

A    ixhole   moxenient  of  a  modern  pocket 

Watch,  may  be  noted  thus  : 

The  great  wheel,  48         12 

Centre-wheel,  54  6 

Third  wheel,  48  6 

Contrate-wheel,  48  6 

Balance-wheel,  15  2  pal. 

Thus,  when  the  w.atcli  is  wound  up,  the 
chain  from  the  spring  exerts  a  force  upon 
the  fusee,  which  gives  motion  to  all  parts 
ofthe  machine. 

Tiie  great  wheel  on  the  fusee  having  48 
teeth,  and  driving  the  centre-wheel  by  a 
pinion  of  12  leaves,  make  the  centre- 
wheel  turn  round  four  times  in  one  turn  ot 
the  fusee.  Thus  also  we  may  account  for 
all  others  ;  for, 

.If  12)48(4  turns  ofthe  centre-wheel. 

So  6)54(9  turns  ofthe  third  wheel. 
6)48(8  turns  of  the  contrate-wheel, 
6)48(8  turns  of  the  balance. 

Tlien  multiply  these  several  quotients 
together  successively,  and  you  will  find 
the  turns  of  each  of  those  wheels  respect- 
ivelv  in  one  tunt  of  the  fusee. 

Thus,  1  turn  of  the  fusee,  or  great 
wheel ;  4  mul.  1  gives  4  tui-ns  ofthe  cen- 
[  tre -wheel ;  9  mul  4  mul.  1  gives  36  turns 
of  the  third  wheel ;  8  mul.  9  mul.  4  mid.  1 


IIOR 


HOR 


^ives  ?88  turns  of  the  canti-ate-whcel ;  8 
uiul.  9  nml  4  m'li  1  gives  2304  tiu-ns  of 
the  b»lanct-\vln'v.'l. 

And  the:  h;thuice-wtieci  havisip:  15  teeth, 
and  each  striking  a  paliet  twice  ui  one  re- 
•  vohition,  tlierc  will  bi  3u  !>tr(;kcs  upon  the 
axis  OT  die  baiasice,  v  hlcli  are  called  the 
beats  of  the  balance  ;  consequently  there 
must  be  2304  rnul.  30,  which  is  equal  to 
69120  strokes  or  beats  in  one  turn  of  the 
fusee  or  gicat  wheel 

But  tiiough  these  particulars  arc 
neccssaiy  t(»  be  premised,  the  princi- 
pal regard,  in  the  division  of  time,  is  to  be 
paid  to  tlie  centre-wheel ;  for  this  wlicei 
alone  is  tiiat  upon  which  both  the  hour 
and  minute  hand  is  moved  or  carried 
round  upon  tlie  face  of  the  watch,  to 
shew  tlie  hour  of  the  day,  the  minute  of 
the  hour,  &c. 

If  we  would  find  out  the  number  oi' 
beats  of  the  balance  in  the  time  of  those 
turns  above-mentioned,  it  must  be  noted, 
tliatas  the  watch  goes  30  hours,  and  the 
minute  hand,  and  consequently  the  cen- 
tre-wheel goes  round  once  in  an  hour,  the 
said  centre-wheel  will  have  30  turns  in  the 
time  of  the  watch's  going  round  ;  and  be- 
cause it  hath  four  turns  in  one  of  the  fu- 
see, therefore  we  must  say  4)30(7.5  the 
nuniber  of  turns  of  the  fusee,  in  winding 
up  the  watch.  Wlience  we  find  69120 
mul.  7.5  equal  to  518,400,  the  num- 
ber of  the  beats  in  30  liours  Then 
30)518400(17280,  the  number  of  beats  in 
an  hour,  which  is  termed  the  train,  of  a 
watcii ;  wliicli  train  is  said  to  f)e  swifter  or 
slower,  as  the  number  of  beats  in  an  iiour 
is  more  or  less  .-  so  again,  if  we  divide  this 
train  17280  by  3600,  the  seconds  in  an 
liour,  the  quotient  will  be  almost  5.  or 
nearly  5  beats  per  second  in  such  a  watcii. 

By  this  analysis,  it  is  easy  to  firm  an 
idea  of  the  n>anner  of  calculation  for  the 
luimbers  ot  the  teeth  and  lea\es  for  the 
several  wheels  and  pinions  in  a  watch ; 
which  may  farther  be  illustrated  by  an 
example  of  a  train  14100,  which  will 
beat  quurter  seconds,  because  such  a 
train  is  useful  for  phiiosopliical  purposes, 
as  well  as  for  the  just  division  of  time. 

Suppose  the  intended  watch  is  to  go 
32  hours;  then  it  will  be  found  that 
14400  umUiplied  by  32=460800=the 
beats  of  the  balance  in  32  hovu-s.  And 
if  the  number  of  turns  hi  tlie  fusee  be  8, 
then  8)460800(  =  57600  —  the  beats  in 
one  turn  of  the  fusee. 

Again,  sujjpose  the  niunber  of  teeth  in 
the  balance-wheel  be  \5,  there  will  be  30 
beats  in  one  turn  of  this  wheel ;  then 
oO)57600(  =  1920,  which  will  be  the 
number  arising  from  the  continued  niul- 
tiplication    of   all  the   qvu)tients   of  the 


wheels,   divided    by    the    pinions    they 
drive  from   the   great  wheel  to  the  ba- 
lance-wheel,  as    has    been    already  ex-  ^ 
empiihed. 

The  ne.\t  care  is  to  break  this  num- 
ber into  four  convenient  small  numbers, 
which,  multiplied  together,  shall  make 
the  same  number  1920.  Then  say, 
4(J920(  _  480. .  Again,  say,  6)480(  i= 
80:  and  as  80  =  8  multiplied  by  10, 
consequently  the  four  numbers  sought 
for  are  4,  6,  8,  and  10;  because,  mul- 
tiply tl;'.  se  luunbers  together,  and  they 
will'  make  exactly  1920:  thus  4  nml.  6 
mul  8  nml   10  =  1920. 

Tlie  quotients  thus  investigated,  we 
may. easily  find  what  large  numbers,  di- 
vided by  small  ones  will  produce  the 
Said  quotients :  thus  12)48(  =  4.  Con- 
sequenth',  if  we  allow  48  teeth  to  the 
great  wiieel  on  the  fusee,  it  must  drive  a 
pillion  ot  l2  on  the  centre-wheel.  So 
again,  if  for  tlie  quotient  6,  we  choose 
54  and  9,  thus  9)34(  =  6,  it  shews  that 
the  teeth  of  the  centre-wheel  may  be  54; 
and  it  must  drive  a  pinion  of  9  on  the 
tiiird  wheel.  Or  if,  instead  of  54  and  9, 
we  chuse  48  and  8,  it  will  answer  tlie 
same  end:  thus  8)48(  =  6.  Or,  for  the 
quotient  10,  we  may  easily  perceive  that 
50  and  5  will  answer  the  inquiry :  thus 
5)50C  =  10;  so  the  third  wheel  having 
50  teeth,  must  drive  a  pinion  of  5  on  the 
contrate-wheel :  where  note,  tliat  if  t!ic 
said  wheel  has  40  or  60  teet!i,and  drive 
a  pinion  of  4  or  6,  we  shall  find  the 
same  number  of  turns  exactly  :  and  for 
tlie  quotient  8,  we  have  the  number  48 
and  6 :  thus  6)48(  =  8;  or,  7)56(  =  8 : 
or  5)40(  =:r  8;  therefore,  if  the  coutrate- 
v\  heel  be  allowed  40,  or  43,  or  56  teeth, 
it  will  dri\e  a  pinion  of  5,  6,  or  7  leaves 
on  the  balance-wheel. 

This  is  the  way  to  determine  and  ad- 
just all  the  wlieels  and  pinions  in  tlie  body 
of  a  watch,  from  the  fusee  to  the  balance, 
so  far  as  relates  to  the  minute  of  an  hour, 
and  to  the  seconds  and  quarter  seconds 
of  a  minute.  <^ 

Having  shewn  the  way  of  calculating        i 
numbers  for  the  watch  part,  the  principle       „ 
of  the    striking   part  vill    next  demand 
consideration. 

AlthouL;h  this  part  consists  of  many 
wheels  and  pinions,  yet  respect  needs  to 
he  had  only  to  the  count-wheel  striking- 
wheel,  and  detent-wheel,  which  move 
round  in  this  proportion  ;  the  count-wheel 
B  (Kig.  4)  moves  round  commonly  once 
hi  12  or  24  hours.  The  detent  wheel 
moves  roimd  every  stroke  the  clock 
strikes;  sometimes  but  once  in  two 
strokes.    From  wlience  it  follows, 

1.  That  as  many  pins  as  are  in  tl.e  in- 


HOR 


HOR 


wheel,  so  many  turns  has  Oie  detent-whafel 
in  one  turn  of  the  pin  wlieel ;  (or  whicli  is 
the  same)  th«  pins  of  the  pin-wheel  are 
the  quotient  of  that  wheel,  divided  by 
the  pinion  of  the  detent-wheel.  But  if 
the  detent-wheel  move  but  once  round 
in  two  strokes  of  the  clock,  then  the 
said  quotient  is  but  half  the  number  of  pins. 

2-  As  many  turns  of  the  pin-wheel  as 
are  required  to  perform  tlie  strokes  of  1 2 
hours  (which  ai-e  78),  so  many  turns 
must  tlie  pinion  of  report  have,  to  turn 
round  the  count-wheel  once.  Or  thus  : 
divide  78  by  tlie  number  of  striking-pins, 
and  the  quotient  tiiereof  will  be  tlie  quo- 
tient for  the  pinion  of  report  and  tlie 
count-wheel.  All  this  is,  in  case  the  pi- 
nion of  report  be  fixed  to  the  arbor  of  the 
pin-wheel,  as  is  veiy  commonly  done. 

The  example  in  the   mai-gin  will  ex- 
plain this  more  clearly.  Here  8)4'8(6 
the   locking-wheel   A    is  48, 


the  pinion  of  report  is  8,  the  6)78(13  ps. 
pin- wheel  is  78,  the  striking-  6)60(10 
pins  are  13  ;  and  so  the  rest.  6)4^(8 
It  need  only  be  remarked  here,  that  78 
being  divided  by  the  13  pins,  gives  6, 
which  is  the  quotient  of  the  pmion  of 
report  O,  as  was  before  hinted ;  and  the 
liolches  of  the  plate  B  sen-e  to  let  the 
locking  piece  C  fall  into,  which  comes 
from  the  detent  D. 

As  for  the  warning-wheel  and  flying- 
pinion,  it  matters  little  what  numbers 
they  have,  their  use  being  only  to  bridle 
the  rapidity  of  the  motion  of  the  other 
wheels. 

J\'umbers  of'  several  sorts  ofviovetnents. 
— Although  the  directions  that  have  been 
given  ai'e  sufficiently  plain  to  accomplish 
a  50ung  practitioner  in  the  art  of  calcu- 
lation, yet  it  may  be  very  convenient  to 
set  down  some  numbers  fit  for  several 
movements,  partly  to  be  as  examples  to 
exercise  the  young  reader,  and  partly  to 
serve  such  who  want  leisure  to  attain  to 
the  art  of  calculation. 

j\'uinbers  of  an  eight  day  piece,  with  six- 
teen turns  of  tiie  barrel:  the  pendiditm, 
vibrates  seconds,  and  shews  minutes,  se- 
conds, ijfc. 


Watch  part. 

8)96 

8)60—40)40—6)72 

7)56 

30 


Clock  part 
8)78 

7)o6  8  pins. 
7)49 
7)49 


In  the  watch  part,  the  wheel  60  is  the 
minute-wheel,  which  is  set  in  the  middle 
of   the   clock,   that  its  spindle   may  go 
VOL.  I. 


through  the  middle  of  the  dial-plate,  to 
carry  tiie  minute-hand. 

Also,  on  liiis  spindle  is  the  wheel  40, 
a,  (Fig.  3),  which  drives  another  wheel 
b  of  40 ;  which  last  hath  a  pinion  6,  c, 
which  drives  round  that  of  72  d  in  12 
hours.  Note  two  tilings :  1.  That  tlie  two 
wheels  40,  are  of  no  olh.er  use  but  to  set 
the  pinion  6  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
the  minute-wheel,  to  drive  the  wheel  72, 
which  is  concentrical  with  the  minute- 
wheel  ;  for  a  pinion  6  driving  a  wheel 
72,  would  be  sufficient,  d"  die  minute- 
hand  and  hour-hand  had  two  different 
centres.  2.  'Ihese  numbers, 60 — 40)40 — 
6(72,  set  thus,  ought,  according  as  above, 
to  be  thus  read  %"iz.  the  wheel  60  hath 
another  wheel  40  on  the  same  spindle ; 
which  wheel  40  divides  (plays  in,  or 
turns  round)  another  wheel  40 ;  which 
has  a  pinion  6  concentrical  with  it ;  which 
pinion  dj  ives  or  divides  a  wheel  of  72 ;  for 
a  line  parting  two  numbers  (as  60 — 48), 
denotes  those  two  numbers  to  be  con- 
centrical, or  to  be  placed  upon  the  same 
spindle.  And  when  two  numbers  have 
a  hook  between  them  (as  48)  48),  it 
signifies  one  to  run  in  the  other. 

In  the  striking  part,  there  are  8  pins 
on  the  second-wheel  56.  The  count- 
wheel  may  be  fixed  unto  the  great  wheel, 
which  goes  round  once  in  12  hours. 

.3  piece  of  thirty-tv!0  days,  ivith  sixteen 
turns  both  parts  :  the  luatch  shevrs  hours, 
minutes,  and  seconds  ;  and  the  pendulum 
vibrates  seconds. 

Watch  part,  witli  six-  Striking  part,   with 

teen  turns.  sixteen  turns. 

16)95  10)130 

^)"2     ^2    8)96    {24  pins 


8)60—48)48—6)7 
7)56 


30 


2)39 
6)72  double  hoop 
6)60 


The  pinion  of  report  is  fixed  on 
the  end  of  tlie  arbor  of  die  pinvwheel. 
The  pinion  is  12,  the  covnt-wheel  39  ; 
thus,  12)39. 

.  j  T'KO-JHontlis  Piece  of  Sixty  four  Days 
Hsith  Sixteen  Turns  :  Pendulum  vibrates 
Seconds,  and  shtws  Minutes,  Seconds,  iS^C. 

Watch  part.  Clock  part. 

9)90  10)80 

S^76  10)65 
8)60—43)48—6)72      „..,  ^I2pins 
7)56  -''^*^— 8)52 

5)60  double  hoop. 

;-')  5)50 

3  N 


HOR. 


IIOR 


Here  the  third  wheel  is  the  pin-v.hecl; 
which  also  curries  the  pinion  of  report  8j 
driving  the  count-wheel  52. 

.2  Seven-Month  Piece,  ivlth  Turns,  rendu- 
lum,  and  Motions,  as  before. 


8)60 
8)56 
8)48 


\Vatch. 


Clock. 

8)96 

8)88—27)12 
8)64—16  pins 


6)45—48)48—6)72  6)48  double  hoop 


5)40 


6)48 


A   Year-Piece  of  384  Days,  "UvVA   Turns, 
Pendulums,  and  Motions,  as  before.  ^ 

Watch.  Clock. 

12)108  10)120 

9)72  8)96—36)9 

8)64  6)7826  pins 

8)60—48)48—6)72   6)72  double  hoop 
7)56  6)60 


If  you  had  rather  have  the  pinion  of  re- 
poi't  on  the  spindle  of  the  pin-wheel,  it 
must  be  13)39. 

APiece  (f  Thirty  Hours,  Pendulum  about 
Six  Inches, 


Watch. 
12)48 

6)78 
6)60 
6)42 


Clock, 
8)48 

6)78  13  pins 

6)60 

6)48 


A  Thirty-Hour  Piece,  to  swin^  Seconds. 


Watcli  part. 

Clock  part. 

6)90 

6)r8l3  pins 

6)72 

6)54 

7)49 

30 


Repeating-  JVurk. 
Let  A  be  a  j>i<.'ce  of  brass  cut  down  in 
twelve  spiral  stcj)s,  in  form  of  a  snail 
(from  wlience  it  lakes  its  name)  as  in  llie 
hgure;  let  this  be  fixed  on  ihc  socket  of 
the  hour  wheel ;  and  B  G  LF  (Fig  1)  the 
rack,  with  14  teeth,  turning  on  its  centre 
L,  having  a  spring  M  to  force  the  end  F 
upon  the  steps  of  the  snail  A,  wiien  at  li- 
berty. Tlie  pin  at  I  in  the  motion-wheel, 
takes  hold  of  the  lifting-piece  DMK; 
and  the  end  K,  in  rising,  lifts  up  the  hook 


C,  which  lies  in  the  teeth  of  the  rack,  and 
rises  until  tlie  teeth  are  disengaged  from 
il ;  the  end  F  then  falls  down,  and  slx)p3 
against  the  steps  of  the  snail  A,  which,  in 
the  figure  is  at  two  o'clock. 

The  arbor  of  the  third  or  galhering- 
wheelm  Fig.  2)  comes  through  the  plate 
on  which  the  pallet  E  m  (Fig.  1)  is  fixed  ; 
a  turn  of  which  answering  to  one  stroke  of 
the  hammer,  gathers  tlie  rack  up  one 
tooth :  12  steps  of  the  snail  answer  12 
teeth  in  the  rack ;  and  when  the  gather- 
ing pallet  E  m,  has  taken  as  many  teeth 
in  the  rack  as  tlie  number  of  the  hour,  the 
end  E  of  the  pallet  stops  against  a  pin  in 
the  rack  at  G,  and  is  tlicre  at  rest  until 
the  hook  C  is  again  lified  out  of  the  teeth 
by  the  lifting-piece,  as  before. 

When  the  hook  C  is  lifted  out  of  the 
teeth  of  tlie  rack,  the  clock  would  strike 
continually,  as  the  hook  being  out  of  the 
teeth,  prevents  the  rack  being  gathered 
up  ;  but  that  the  end  K  of  the  lifting-piece 
has  a  small  arm  which  goes  through  tlie 
plate,  and  a  pin  in  the  wheel  n,  which 
stops  against  it  in  such  a  manner,  tiiat 
when  the  lifiing-piece  is  suffered  to  fall  by 
the  pin  I,  having  gone  past  the  pin  in  the 
rim  of  the  wheel  n,  it  is  clear  of  the  arm 
at  the  end  of  the  lifting -piece  K ;  the 
wheel  being  then  at  hberty,  the  clock 
strikes  until  the  gathering  pallet  E  stops 
against  the  pin  of  the  rack  at  G,  as  be- 
fore. By  putting  a  small  string  to  the 
top-end  of  the  sjiring  S,  to  come  through 
the  case,  it  may  be  made  to  strike  the  last 
hour  at  any  time,  except  when  on  the 
warning. 

In  relation  to  this  subject,  we  shall  no- 
tice pendulums. 

A  Pendulum  is  a  heavy  body  hanging 
to  asriiall  cord,  or  wire,  which  is  movea- 
ble round  a  centre.  It  is  that  well-known 
instrument  so  useful  in  measuring  time, 
and  ascertaining  with  accuracy  its  nicer 
divisions. 

A  body  thus  suspended  being  put  in 
motion,  describes  an  arc,  in  one-half  of 
wliich  it  descends,  and  ascends  in  the 
otiier. 

H  C  (Fig  5)  is  a  pendulum,  consisting 
of  a  body  I',  attaclied  to  a  thread,  P  C, 
which  is  fastened  to  tlie  point  C,  and  is 
moveable  round  it.  If  the  body  P  was 
let  free,  and  not  retained  by  the  tiiread,  it 
would  fall  in  the  vertical  line  P  L :  but  be- 
ing- retained  by  the  thread  P  C,  it  is  for- 
ced to  describe  the  arch  PA,  which  is  the 
segment  of  a  circle,  of  which  F  C  is  the 
radius. 

Tiie  body  P  acquires  a  velocity  in  frill- 
ing through  the  P  A,  tliat  has  a  tendency, 
when  it  arrives  at  tJie  point  A,  to  cany  it 
ofTin  the  tangent  A  D ;  but  being  prevcutr 


HOR 


HOR 


ed  from  moving  in  a  straie^ht  line,  by  the 
string  which  continually  draws  it  towards 
the  centre,  it  is  forced  to  describe  the 
curve  A  E,  which,  provided  the  pendulum 
were  not  affected  bj-  the  resistance  of  the 
air,  or  the  friction  at  the  centre,  would  be 
exactly  similar  to  the  arch  P  A  ;  that  is, 
it  would  rise  to  the  same  height  as  it  fell 
from.  Having  arrived  at  E,  it  will  fall 
back  again  to  A,  and  go  on  with  its  ac- 
quii-ed  velocity  to  P,  and  so  on,  continual- 
ly backwards  and  forwards. 

Each  swing  that  it  makes,  is  called  a 
•vibration,  or  oscillation. 

If  the  pendulum  vibrated  in  vacuo,  and 
tliere  was  no  friction  at  the  point  of  sus- 
pension, the  vibrations  would  not  only  be 
all  equal,  but  they  would  continue  for 
ever ;  but  as  this  is  not  the  case,  the  vi- 
brations  become  less  and  less,  till  at  last 
the  motion  totally  ceases. 

But  it  is  a  remarkable  property  of  the 
pendulum,  which  whs  first  observed  by 
Galileo,  that  all  the  vibrations  of  the 
same  pendulum,  whether  great  or  small, 
were  performed  in  very  nearly  equal 
times. 

The  longer  a  pendulum  is,  the  slower 
are  its  vibrations,  and  tlie  contrary  ;  con- 
sequently, if  a  pendulum  be  required  to 
vibrate  seconds,  it  must  liave  a  determi- 
nate length.  This  lenglli  is  found  to  be 
39.13  incliesin  Britain 

If  a  pendulum  be  heated,  it  expands, 
and  becomes  longer ;  consequently  it  vi- 
brates slower. 

Pendulums  of  the  same  length  vibrate 
slower,  the  nearer  they  are  brought  to  the 
equator,  because  the  semi-diameter  of  the 
earth's  equator  is  about  seventeen  miles 
longer  than  the  axis  of  the  earth,  conse- 
quently gravity  is  less  at  the  equator  than 
at  the  poles  ;  and  because  the  centrifugal 
force  at  the  equator,  arising  from  the  di- 
urnal motion  of  the  earth,  being  grcater 
than  that  at  tlie  poles,  lessens  gravity  by 
^\-^  part.  A  pendulum,  therefore,  to 
vibrate  seconds  at  the  equator,  must 
be  somewhat  shorter  than  at  tlie 
poles. 

When  we  consider  a  simple  pendulum, 
or  a  ball  suspended  by  a  string,  having  no 
sensible  weight,  we  "suppose  the  whole 
weiglit  of  the  ball  to  be  collected  in  its 
centre  of  gravity,  and  the  length  of  tlie 
pendulum  is  the  distance  from  the 
centre  of  gravity  to  the  point  of  suspen- 
sion. 

But  when  a  pendulum  consists  of  a 
ball,  or  any  other  figure,  suspended  by  a 
metallic  or  wooden  rod,  the  length  of  the 
pendulum  is  the  distance  from  tlie  point 
of  suspension  to  a  point  in  the  pendulum, 
called  the  ccr.tre  oj oscillation,  v.hich  does 


not  exactly  coincide  with   the  centre  of 
gravity  ot  the  ball. 

If  a  rod  of  iron  were  suspended,  and 
made  to  vibrate,  that  point  in  which  all  its 
force  .^vas  collected,  and  to  wliich,  if  an 
obstacle  were  applied,  all  its  motion 
would  cease,  and  be  received  by  the 
obstacle,  is  called  its  centre  of  oscilU- 
tion. 

A  single  pendulum,  consisting  of  a  ball 
and  a  tiiread,  whose  length  is  two-thirds 
of  the  length  of  a  bar  without  a  ball,  will 
be  found  to  perform  its  oscillations  in 
equal  times  with  the  bar.  Hence,  a  point 
taken  one -third  of  the  length  of  the  bai* 
I  from  the  lower  end,  is  its  centre  of  oscil- 
lation. 

The  pendulums  of  clocks  usually  vi- 
brate in  die  arcs  of  circles.  It  has  for- 
merly been  thought  an  advantage  to  make 
them  vibrate  in  the  arcs  of  cycloids  ;  but 
the  difficulties  that  attend  the  practical 
application,  are  such,  that  there  is  good 
reason  to  think  that  they  produce  greater 
errors  in  the  measurement  of  time  than 
those  they  are  intended  to  re"medy. 

To  find  the  length  of  a  Pendulum  that  shall 
inake  any  dumber  of  Vibrations  in  a  gi- 
ven Time. 

Reduce  the  given  time  into  seconds, 
then  say,  as  the  square  of  the  number  of 
vibrations  given  is  to  the  square  of  this 
number  of  seconds,  so  is  39.13  to  the 
length  of  the  pendulum  in  inches. 

Example.  Suppose  it  makes  30  vibra- 
tions in  a  minute,  a  minute  is  =  60  se- 
conds; then. 

As  900,  the  square  of  30:  3600  the 
square  of  60  : :  39.13:  156  8  inches,  the 
length  required. 

h"  tlie  bob  of  the  pendulum  be  not  a 
whole  sphere,  but  a  thin  segment  of  a 
sphere,  as  in  most  clocks ;  then,  to  find 
the  centre  of  oscillation,  say,  as  the  dis- 
tance between  tiie  point  of  suspension  and 
the  middle  of  the  bob,  is  to  half  the 
breadth  of  the  bob,  so  is  half  the  breadth 
of  the  bob  to  a  third  proportional.  Set 
one -third  of  this  length,  from  the  middle 
of  the  bob  do\\-nward3  ;  which  gives  the 
centre  of  oscillation."  Then  the  distance 
between  the  centres  of  suspension  and 
oscillation,  is  the  exact  lengtli  of  the  pen- 
dulum. 

Haring  the  length  of  n  Pendulum  given,  to 
find  limu  inany  Vibrations  it  xsillviake  in 
any  gi'cen  time. 

Reduce  the  time  given  into  seconds, 
and  the  pendulum's  length  into  inches; 
then  say,  as  the  given  length  of  the  pen  - 


HUS 


IIYD 


tlulum  is  to  39.13,  so  is  the  square  of  the 
time  ^iven  to  the  square  of  the  number  (if 
vibrations,  whose  square  root  is  the  num- 
ber sought. 

Example.  Suppose  the  length  oi"  the 
penduUim  is  156.8  inches,  to  tind  how  oft- 
en it  will  vibrate  in  a  minute  I  minute 
=  60  seconds.  1  lien  156.^::  39.13:: 
3600  the  square  of  60  :  900,  the  square 
root  of  which  is  30,  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions souj^ht. 

As  heat  expands,  and  cold  contracts  all 
metals,  a  pendulum-rod  is  longer  in  warm 
than  in  cold  weather;  and  hence  a  source 
of  irregularity  in  clocks. 

Various  ex])cdients  have  lieen  tried  for 
remedying  this  defect ;  the  best  of  whicli 
is  the  meliiod  of  i'onTiing  the  pendulum  of 
bars  of  brass  and  steel,  so  placed,  that 
the  expansion  of  one  con-ects  that  of  tiie 
other,  and  thus  preserves  the  centre  of 
oscillation  always  in  the  samei)lace.  Tiiis 
is  called  the  gridiron  pendulum,  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  gridiron. 

Deal-wood  is  found  to  expand  very  lit- 
tle in  the  direction  of  the  grain:  hence  it 
is  much  fitter  lor  pendulum-rods  than  me- 
tal. Baking,  varnishing,  gilding,  or  soak- 
ing them  in  any  midtcd  matter,  is  said  to 
render  them  less  accurate;  but  ru!)biMg 
on  the  outside  with  wax  and  a  clotii,  is  re- 
commended. 

HOliSE.  See  Animals,  Domf.s- 
1  I  c. 

HORSE,    Disease    of  the.     See   Far- 

UlEllV- 

HOUSE  MEDICINES.  Under  this 
head  are  included  those  articles,  or 
drugs,  administered  or  applied  to  tlje 
horse  for  the  purpose  of  curing  disease; 
such  as  purges,  clysters,  poultices,  pow- 
ders, &c.     See  Faukiery. 

HORTICULTUliE.  As  the  system  or 
practice  of  horticulture,  or  gardening,  is 
extensive,  embracing  in  itself  a  variety  of 
subjects,  some  of  which  we  have  treated 
of  under  Agriculture,  we  refer  tlie 
reader,  for  every  infoimation  on  this 
branch  of  domestic  or  rural  economy,  to 
the  excellent  treatise  of  Mr.  Jitriuinl 
Macmalinn,  who,  with  tlieoretical  know- 
ledge, extensive  reading,  and  practi- 
cal  skill,  has  presented  ti>e  world  with 
one  of  the  best  systems  which  has  ever 
appeared. 

HOUSE  TAIN  TS,  are  particidar  pig- 
ments used  in  ^painting  ol"  houses,  with 
their  a]>pendagcs.  The  colours  gener;d- 
ly  used  are  mentioned  under  Colour 
Making.     See  Paints. 

HUSBANDRY.  As  this  subject  em- 
braces the  business  of  tlie  farmer,  which 
includes  the  tillage  of  the  ground,  and 
several  other  occupations,  as  tlie  rearing 


of  cattle,  the  making  of  butter,  cheese, 
raising  fiax,  the  management  of  bees,  &.c. 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  articles  Ani- 
mals, Domestic,  Agriculture, 
Bees,  &c. 

HYDRAULICS,  a  branch  of  science 
wkich  treat**  of  the  motion  of  fluids,  and 
their  application  in  forniing  water  en- 
gines of  every  description ;  such  as  sy- 
phons, engines,  fountains,  &.c.  See  En- 
gine. 

\Vc  shall  here  describe  the  diving  hell 
of  i)r.  Halley. 

In  order  to  facilitate  our  y)ower  of  re- 
maining on  the  suilkce  of  water,  or  of 
breathing  when  at  the  bottom,  difleient 
methods  have  been  contriv/id.  As  to  the 
'irst,  the  cork  waistcoat,  marine  spencer, 
£cc.  answers  the  purpose  tolerably  well; 
for  the  latter,  the  diving-bell  is  a  well- 
known  security.  Dr.  JLilley,  in  afliving- 
bell  of  his  own  contrivance,  remained 
fifty-two  feet  deep  at  the  bottom  of  tiie 
sea,  for  the  space  of  an  hour  and  a 
half. 

The  diving-bell  is  an  Instrument  long 
known  and  in  use.  That  made  by  I)i', 
Hidley  was  in  the  form  of  a  great  bell, 
and  was  coated  with  lead,  so  as  to  make 
it  sink  in  water:  it  was  three  feet  wide  at 
top,  five  feet  wide  at  bottom,  and  eight 
feet  high.  Into  this  great  !)ell  the  diver 
entered,  and  sat  upon  a  small  seat  within- 
side  prepared  for  that  purpose,  and  re- 
ceived light  from  a  strong  glass  at  top. 
Thus  prepared,  by  means  of  a  rope,  the 
bell,  the  man,  and  all,  were  let  dov.  n  to 
the  bottom,  in-order  to  search  for  goods, 
or  fix  cords  to  wrecks  of  ships,  and  sucli 
like  purposes. 

Thoug'h  the  machine  is  open  at  tlie  bot- 
tom, and  goes  down  many  fathoms,  only 
an  inconsiderable  quantity  of  water  en- 
ters into,  or  rises  in  it,  so  that  the  diver 
has  air  enough  above  such  water  to 
breathe  and  live  ia  for  some  time.  This 
you  may  illustrate  by  an  easy  expei'i- 
nient;  take  a  gla.ss  tumbler,  and  plunge 
it  into  water,  with  the  mouth  downwards 
and  the  sides  perpendicular  to  the  sur- 
face, and  you  will  find  very  little  water 
rise  in  the  tumhlc-r.  It  is  the  air  contain- 
ed therein  wiiich  resists  and  prevents  the 
W  ater  rising-. 

It  is  iJi  this  topmost  ])art,  which  is  emp- 
ty, or  only  filled  with  air,  that  the  diver 
keeps  his  head,  and  breathes  tliat  air 
which  thus  resists  the  ascending  water; 
here  he  can  ix-main  for  some  time,  living 
upon  the  condensed  air,  and  at  the 
same  lime  performing  what  he  descended 
for. 

But,  to  be  more  particular  in  the  de- 
scription of  Dr.  JIaUcy's  bell.     In  the  top 


HYD 


HYD 


was  fixed,  as  before-mentioned,  a  strong 
clear  sjltiss  to  let  in  the  light  from  above, 
:ind  likewise  a  cock  to  let  out  the  hot  ain 
that  had  been  polluted  by  rej>eated  inspi- 
ration below.  It  was  suspended  to  the 
mast  of  a  ship,  and  so  hoisted  over  the 
ship's  side  as  to  be  let  down  wiihout  dan- 
fTer.  In  this,  two  or  more  divers  were 
let  down  to  the  bottom,  and  two  barrels 
of  air  were  let  down  to  them,  to  supply 
them  with  fresh  air,  which  alternately 
rose  and  fell  like  two  buckets.  As  the 
air  from  thp  barrels  was  let  into  tlie  space 
in  the  bell  free  from  water,  it  entered 
cold,  and  expelled  the  hot  air,  which  liad 
been  spoiled,  out  throug^h  the  cock  at  the 
top.  By  this  method,  air  was  communi- 
cated in  such  plenty,  that,  the  Doctor  in- 
forms us,  that  he  was  one  of  five  who 
were  together  at  the  bottom  in  ten  fathom 
of  water,  for  above  an  hour  and  a  half  at 
a  time,  without  any  sort  of  ill  conse- 
quence; and  he  might  have  continued 
there  as  long  as  he  pleased,  for  any  thing 
that  appeared  to  the  contrary.  By  the 
glass  at  the  top  of  the  bell,  so  much  light 
was  transmitted  when  tlie  sun  shone,  and 
the  sea  was  undisturbed,  that  he  could 
see  perfectly  well  to  read  and  write,  or  to 
find  any  thing  that  lay  at  the  bottom ;  but, 
in  dark  weather,  and  wlien  the  sea  was 
rough,  he  found  it  as  dark  as  night  at  the 
bottom.  But  then  this  inconvenience 
might  be  remedied,  by  keeping  a  candle 
buriiing  in  the  bell  as  long  as  he  pleased; 
for  he  found  by  experience,  that  a  candle' 
polluted  the  air  by  burning,  just  as  a 
man  would  by  respiring,  both  requiring 
about  the  same  quantity  of  fresh  air  for 
their  support,  to  the  amount  of  nearly  a 
gallon  in  a  minute. 

This  mrchine  was  so  far  improved,  that 
one  of  the  divers  might  be  detached  to 
the  distance  of  erghtj-  or  a  hund'-ed  yai  ds, 
by  a  close  cap  being  put  upon  his  head, 
with  a  glass  in  tlie  fore  part  for  him  to 
see  through,  and  a- pipe  to  supply  him 
with  air,  communicating  with  the  great 
bell;  tliis  pipe  was  flexible,  coiled  round 
his  arm,  and  served  him  as  a  clue  to  find 
his  way  back  to  the  bell  again.  The  only 
iacvinvenience  that  Ualley  complained  of 
was,  that  upon  their  first  descending,  '>e 
und  his  companions  found  a  small  pain  m 
their  ears,  as  if  the  end  of  a  quill  were 
thrust  forcibly  through  into  tlie  aperture 
of  the  ear.  One  of  the  divers,  however, 
witling  to  r-emcdy  this  inconvenience, 
slufftd  his  ears  with  oiiewcd  paper, 
wiiich,  as  the  bell  descended,  was  so  for- 
cibly pressed  into  the  cavities  of  that 
orgiin,  that  ttie  surgeon  could  "not  ex- 
tract the  stuffing  wiiliout  great  diflScul- 
ty. 


The  following  is  a  description  of  Dr 
Halle v's  machine. 


It  is  about  three  feet  wide  at  the  top, 
five  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  eight  feet 
high  ;  containing  about  63  cubic  feet,  or 
eight  hogsheads.  Its  sides  are  loaded 
v/ithlead  to  make  it  sink  in  the  water,  and 
on  the  top  of  the  bell,  C,  is  a  thick  clear 
glass,  to  give  light  to  the  machine  when 
it  is  immersed :  D  is  a  stop  cock,  by 
which  the  impure  and  rarefied  air  is  dis- 
chai'ged  .-  towards  the  middle,  E,  is  a 
seat  for  the  divers  to  rest  upon,  and  a 
broad  iron  rim,  F,  is  suspended  by  fines 
fri)m  the  bottom  of  the  bell  for  the 
men  to  stand  upon  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire. 

Triedivaid,  a  Swedish  engineer,  has 
made  some  improvements  on  this  ma- 
chine  since  Haltey'sXime-  That  contrived 
by  him  is  less  than  Halley's,  and  conse- 
quently more  easily  managed ;  it  is  illu- 
minated witli  three  convex  glas.ses  in. 
stead  of  one.  It  has  been  found,  that  tlie 
nearer  the  diver's  head  is  to  the  surface 
of  the  water  in  the  bell,  the  better  he 
breathes,  for  the  air  at  that  place  is  most 
comfortable  and  cool.  In  Triedv:aUfs 
bell,  the  diver's  head  is  therefore  nearer 
the  water,  and  when  there  is  a  necessity 
for  his  liking  up  his  head  to  the  top  of  the 
bell,  he  has  a  flexible  pipe  in  his  mouth, 
with  which  he  breathes  only  the  air  at 
the  surface  of  the  water  at  tiie  bottom  of 
the  bell. 

The  following  is  a  shdJt  description  of 


II  YD 


HYD 


Thus  we  find,  that  scarce  any  part  ot 
nature  is  wholly  secluded  from  human 
visitation,  since  means  have  been  found 
to  ascend  into  the  aerial  regions,  and  to 
descend  without  danger  to  the  baltom  of 
the  ocean. 


a  submarine  vessel,  or  dinng  machine,  in- 
vented by  Mr.  David  Bushnell,  of  Ci>nnec- 
ticut. 

The  external  shape  of  the  submarine 
vessel  bore  some  resemblance  to  two  up- 
per tortoise  shells  of  equal  size,  joined  to- 
gether; the  place  of  entrance  into  the 
vessel  being  represented  by  the  opening 
made  by  the  swell  of  the  shells,  at  the 
head  of  the  animal.  The  inside  was  ca- 
pable of  containing  the  operator,  and  air 
sufficient  to  support  him  thirty  minutes 
without  receiving  fresh  air.  At  the  bot- 
tom, opposite  to  the  entrance,  was  fixed 
a  quantity  of  lead  for  ballast.  At  one 
edge,  which  was  directly  before  the  ope- 
rator, who  sat  upright,  was  an  oar  for 
rowing  forviard  or  backward.  At  the 
other  edge  was  a  rudder  for  steering. 
An  aperture,  at  the  bottom,  with  its  valve, 
was  designed  to  admit  water,  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  descending ;  and  two  brass  forc- 
ing pumps  served  to  eject  the  water  with- 
in, when  necessary  for  ascending  or  de- 
scending, or  continuing  at  any  part - 
cular  depth. — A  water  guage  or  ba- 
rometer deternuned  the  depth  of  the 
descent,  a  compass  directed  the-course, 
and  a  ventilator  within  supplied  the 
vessel  with  fresh  air,  when  on  the  sur- 
face. 

Of  .15-.  Smeaton's  Diving  Chest. — See 
the  annexed  figure.  Titis  machine  v.-as 
used  with  great  success  by  Mr.  Sme^ton, 

at  Kamsgate.  Instead  of'the  usual  form  jn  addiUon  to  the  engines  for  raising 
of  a  bell,  or  of  a  conical  Uib  of  wood '  Vater,  mentioned  under  the  article  En- 
sunk  by  weights  extenially  applied,  .>!r.  ^g,  we  shall  here  insert  otliers  which 
Smeaton's  was  a  square  chest    of  cast  appear  useful. 

m)n.  which  being  50  cwt.  was  heavj-  .i  pump,  on  a  construction,  invented  by 
enough  to  sink  itself;  and  being  4\  feet  j/r.  .AbA;e— This  pump  fig.  3,  dcsenes 
in  height,  4  i  feet  in  lenprth,  and  3  feet  notice  as  it  keeps  a  continual  stream; 
wide,    afforded  room  sufficient   for  two  being    composed   only   of   one    straiglit 


men  at  a  time  to  work  under  it      It  was 


pipe,  or  tube,  and  two  pistons,  having 


peculiar  to  this  machine,  that  the  men  eacli  a  bucket  and  a  valve.  It  raises  as 
therein  were  supplied  with  a  constant  in-  much  water  with  the  same  power,  and 
flux  of  fresh  air  without  any  attention  of  in  the  same  time,  as  two  barrels  with  four 
theu^;  that  necessan-  article  being  am-,  valves  will  do;  and 'being  simple  in  its 
ply  supplied  by  a  forcing  air  pump,  in  a  j  principles,  mav  be  constructed  at  a  mode- 
boat  upon  the  water's  surface.  Tl»e  fi-|rate  price  compai-ed  with  M.  de  la 
fure  will  give  you   an  idea  of  this  ma- 1  Hire's  pump 

chine  ;  only  in  the  model  from  which  the|  A  is  a  straight  tube,  or  barrel,  in  which 
drawing  was  made,  tlie  sides  were  of  1  two  buckets  work:  tlie  bucket  B  is 
glass,  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  j  work'd  bv  the  rod  C ;  and  the  bucket 
effects  visible.  In  Mr.  Smeaton's  chest,  |d  is  worked  by  the  rod  E;  wliich  rod 
Ijgljt  was  admitted  through  four  strong!  goes  through  a  hole  in  the  bucket  B, 
pieces  of  glass  fitted  to  tlie  upper  pail  of]  and  is  moved  up  and  down  bv  two  cir- 
tbe  chest.  •     1  cular  pieces  of  wood  F,  fixed  to  two  haji- 


HYD 


HYD 


dies  gg,   which  causes  one  bucket  to 
ascend  with  its  load  and  vice  versa. 


•^n  Engine  for  raising  ivater  by  a  conti- 
nual stre.im,  by  means  of  a  hair  rope.  In- 
vented by  Sieur  Vera  — A  is  a  uhecl  4  feet 
over,  having  an  axis  and  a  winch  :  B  B, 
two  pullies  14  inches  diameter,  in  order 
to  keep  the  ropes  to  a  proper  distance 
in  the  well,  and  be  in  contact  with  a 
greater  surface  of  die  wheel :  C  C,  a  hair- 
rope^  near  one  inch  diameter  :  D  a  re- 
servoir to  collect  the  water :  E,  a  spout 
to  convey  the  water  from  the  reservoir  • 
F,  the  top  of  the  well :  G,  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  well;  H,  a  frame  in 
which  the  lower  pulley  I  is  fixed:  I,  a 
pulley  under  w' hich  the  rope  runs,  in  or- 
der to  keep  it  tight :  K,  the  handle  to 
turn  the  wheel  L  L  L,  a  box  made  of  thin 
boards,  in  order  to  collect  the  water  into 
the  reservoir-  D. 

When  the  handle  K  is  turned  about 
with  a  considerable  velocity,  the  water 
which  adheres  to  the  rope  C  C  '^in  wells 
not  veiy  deep)  is  very  considerable ;  the 
rope  thus  passes  through  the  tube  D, 
which,  being  5  or  6  inches  higher  than 


the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  hinders  the 
water  from  returning  back  into  the  well, 
and  is  conveyed  in  a  continual  stream 
through  the  spout  E.  Some,  of  the  above 
engines  improved  by  Mr.  Stamford,  have 
raised'  a  greater  quantity  of  water  tiun 
any  person,  unskilful  in  hydraulics,  could 
suppose  in  tlie  same  time,  from  such  a 
simple  contrivance. 


;^^L 


Of  the  disposition  of  pipes  of  conduit.—^ 
In  some  cases  the  pump  cannot  be  placed 
conveniently  perpendicular  to  the  well ; 
for  example,  being  to  raise  water  out  of 
the  well  at  A,  fig.  5,  by  means  of  a  pump 
at  B,  the  best  way  will  be  to  carry  the 
barrel  as  low  as  the  spring  is,  communi- 
cating therewith  by  means  of  the  pipe  at 
C.  The  bucket  then  playing  in  the  bar- 
rel D  C,  will  have  the  same  effect  as  it 
the  well  was  made  perpendicular  to  tlie 
pump  ;  because  the  water  by  its  proper 
weight,  will  always  replenish  D  C,thi'ough 
A,  through  the  level  of  the  well  watev 
at  E. 


IIYD 


•    IIYD 


And  if  it  should  happen,  from  some 
considerable  impediment,  that  the  barrel 
cannot  get  down  to  the  well  directlj',  it 
may  be  led  about  any  other  way  for  sake 
of  convenience.  And  tlien  making  t!ie 
pipe  of  conveyance  E,  less  in  diameter 
than  the  bairel,  it  will  sooner  be  ex- 
liausted  of  air,  by  moving  the  piston ; 
and  the  water  will  follow  very  briskh',  as 
by  the  leaden  pump  at  D. 

It  will,  Imwevcr,  always  be  more  easy 
to  draw  water  witli  pipes  that  are  large, 
and  of  an  equal  bore  throughout,  because 
tlie  water  will  have  a  less  velocity  in 
them,  and  the  friction  will  be  in  pro- 
poi-tion  less.  Upon  this  account,  the 
pumps  ordinarily  made  by  the  plumbers 
go  not  so  easy  as  those  bo-c<l  out  of 
trees  ;  because,'  by  making  iheir  pipe  that 
brings  up  waler  from  the  spring  so  much 
less  than  the  bucket,  they,  as  it  were, 
wire-draw  the  water  raised.  If  the  bar- 
rel, for  instance,  be  four  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  the  pipe  of  conduit  one,  it  will 
in  rising  move  sixteen  times  as  fast 
llirougii'this  as  it  will  in  that,  to  tlie  cx- 
per.ce  of  needless  labour,  as  well  as  the 
^rcatwear  and  friction  of  the  machine 

For  the  like  reason,  it  will  also  be  a 
fault  to  bore  a  pump  conically  upward, 
because  the  water  cannot  with  freedom 
get  away  so  fast,  as  a  vacuum  may  be 
made  in  the  moving  j/iston  ;  and  the  re- 
flection of  tlie  water  from  the  sides,  will 
always  be  a  hindrance  to  the  operation. 

OJ  the  Furcing  Pimtp,  fig.  6. — It  is  so 
called,  because  it  not  only  raises  the  wa- 
ter into  the  barrel,  like  the  foregoing; 
but  it  afterwards  forces  it  up  into  the  re- 
servoir in  a  lofty  situation.  The  pipe 
and  barrel  are  the  same  as  in  the  other 
pump,  but  the  piston,  G,  is  solid,  having 
no  valve,  so  that  no  water  can  get  above 
it.  At  tile  bottom  of  the  barrel,  B,  a  pipe 
M  Mj  is  fixed,  and  at  riglit  angles  to  this 


pipe,  a  cistern,  or  air  vessel,  K,  K  ;  at  the 
bottom  of  the  air-vessel  there  is  a  valve, 
b  ;  from  the  top,  a  small  pipe,  O  H  I,  is 
inserted  so  as  nearly  to  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  air-vessel,  and  at  the  same  time  be 
air-tight  at  top. 


6. 


iS 


MM'    '■::::■■■••-•■  "^ 


mi 


Tlie  pipe-valve,  a,  rises  when  we  draw 


HYD 


HYD 


the  piston  up  ;  but  falls  down,  and  stops 
the  hole,  the  moment  the  piston  is  at  its 
greatest  height.  Nov,  as  the  water 
which  has  been  raised  above  this  valve 
cannot  get  back  again  into  the  pipe,  but 
has  a  free  passage  by  the  pipe,  M  M, 
that  opens  into  the  air-vessel,  it  is  forced 
into  this  vessel  by  depressing  the  piston, 
and  retained  therein  by  its  valve  b,  which 
shuts  the  moment  the  piston  begins  to  be 
raised,  because  the  pressure  of  the  water 
against  the  under  side  thereof  then 
ceases. 

The  water,  being  thus  forced  into  the 
air-vessel  by  repeated  strokes  of  the  pis- 
ton, has  now  got  above  the  lower  end,  I, 
of  the  pipe,  and  begins  to  condense  the 
air  in  the  air-vessel ;  for  the  air  has  no 
way  to  get  out  of  this  vessel,  but  through 
the  tube,  O  H  I,  of  the  pipe,  and  is  pre- 
vented from  escaping  this  way  when  the 
mouth  of  the  tube  is  covered  with  wa- 
ter. It  is  also  gradually  more  and  more 
condensed  as  the  water  rises  in  this  ves- 
sel ;  till  at  last,  as  you  see,  it  presses  so 
strongly  upon  the  water  as  to  force  it  up 
through  the  pipe  O  H  I;  from  whence  it 
spouts,  at  F,  in  a  jet  to  a  great  height, 
and  is  supplied  by  alternately  raising  and 
depressing  the  piston. 

The  higher  the  surface  of  the  water  is 
raised  in  the  air-vessel,  the  smaller  is  the 
space  into  which  tlie  air  is  condensed ; 
and  consequently,  its  spring  will  be 
stronger,  and  the  pressure  greater  upon 
the  water,  which  will  be  thereby  driven 
with  greater  force  through  the  pipe  ;  and 
as  the  spring  of  the  air  continues  to  act 
even  while  the  piston  is  rising,  the 
stream  will  be  uniform  as  long  as  the  pis- 
ton is  worked. 

The  valve  of  the  pipe  opens  to  let  the 
water  follow  the  piston  in  rising.  Whilst 
this  valve  is  open,  that  of  the  air-vessel 
is  closed,  to  prevent  the  water,  which  is 
forced  into  the  air-vessel,  from  running 
back  by  its  pipe  into  the  air-vessel. 

The  effect  of  this  kind  of  pump  is  not 
limited  to  tlie  raising  of  water  to  any 
particular  altitude ;  since  the  air's  con- 

VOL.  I. 


idensation  may  be  increased  to  any  de- 
gree. 

If  the  air's  condensation  be  double  to 
that  of  the  atmospliere,  its  elastic  force 
will  raise  the  water  to  about  the  height 
of  thirty -four  feet.  If  ^^e  condensation 
be  increased  three-fold,  the  altitude  to 
which  the  water  may  be  raised  by  it  will 
be  about  twice  the  former  height,  or  six- 
ty-eight feet ;  the  altitude  of  the  raised 
water  being  increased  thirty-four  feet  for 
each  addition  of  unity  to  the  number 
wliicii  expresses  the  air's  condensation. 

The  engines  used  for  extinguishing 
fire  are  upon  this  consti'uction  ;  consist- 
ing of  two  barrels,  by  which  water  is 
alternately  driven  into  a  close  air-vessel. 
The  forcing  of  the  water  therein  con- 
denses the  air ;  which  presses  the  water 
so  strongly,  that  it  rushes  out  with 
great  impetuosity  and  force  through  a 
pipe  that  comes  down  into  it,  and  makes 
a  continued  uniform  stream  by  the  con- 
densation of  air  upon  its  surface. 

Of  a  npt\>  Jiand-Pttnip,  invented  by  Mr. 
Walter  Taylor,  of  Southampton,  and 
used  by  the  Royal  J^avy  tf  Great  Bri- 
tain. 

Every  friend  of  mankind  must  rejoice 
on  being  informed,  that  the  accidents  to 
which  ships  that  spring  a  leak  at  sea  were 
liable  from  the  imperfections  of  the  chain 
pump,  are  liappily  removed  by  the  inge- 
nious contrivances  of  Mr.  Walter  Taylor, 
of  Southampton,  well  known  for  his  me- 
chanical abilities,  which,  in  other  instan- 
ces as  well  as  in  this,  have  proved  equally 
beneficial  to  himself  and  to  his  country.  It 
seems  rather  surprizing,  that  the  common 
pump,  whose  effects  are  so  well  known, 
should  have  remained  for  centuries  ina- 
dequate to  the  purposes  of  the  navy.  The 
mechanism  adopted  by  Mr.  Taylor  is  so 
important,  and  in  various  particulars,  so 
different  from  what  is  in  general  applied 
to  the  common  pump,  that  it  may  witli 
great  propriety  be  considered  as  a  new  in- 
vention. 

3  o 


liYD 


IIYH 


Mr.  Taylor's  pumps  have  been  In  gene- 
ral use  in  the  British  navy  for  some  years : 
they  have  answered  every  expectation  he 
first  formed,  though  he  has  made  many 
ihnprovements  on  them  Here  are  three 
figures,  which  will  give  a  general  idea 
of  these  pumps;  they  are  copied  from  draw- 
ings which  were  kindly  communicated  by 
Mr.  Taylor.  Fig.  1  is  a  section  of  one  of 
Mr.  Taylor's  pumps,  of  a  simple  con- 
struction. The  piston  is  represented  as 
descending  in  a  chamber  properly  adapt- 
ed thereto.  At  a  and  b  you  have  a  view 
of  Mr.  Taylor's  pendulum  valves ;  which, 
from  their  form,  disengage  themselves 
from  chipsj  gravel,  sand,  &c.  The  piston 
is  also  so  contrived,  that  no  chips,  gravel, 
or  sand,  can  get  between  tlie  leather  and 
lower  part  of  the  piston  ;  to  both  which 
defects  the  former  consti'uctions  were  lia- 
ble. Fig.  7  is  a  separate  view  of  the  pen- 
dulum valve. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  pump  working  with 
one  piston-rod,  and  fig.  2  a  pump  work 
ing  with  two  piston-rods  ;  the  one  rising 
as  the  other  fsdls  :  in  fig.  1  and  2,  the  rods 
are  supposed  to  be  worked  by  levers.  By 
a  judicious  application  of  ropes,  to  be  car- 
ried on  either  deck,  see  fig.  3,  Mr.  Taylor 
is  enabled,  where  men  are  plenty,  as  in  a 
man  of  war,  to  raise  any  quantity  of  wa 
ter.  The  drawing  is  taken  from  a  pump 
with  a  seven-inch  bore,  and  heaves  one 


ton  per  minute  twenty-four  feet  high,  with 
ten  men,  five  only  working  at  a  time-  One 
is  now  constructing  by  Mr.  Taylor,  to 
heave  five  tons  per  minute  twenty-four 
feethigh.  The  pumps  are  also  so  con- 
structed, that  a  copper  pump  may  be  ta- 
ken out  of  the  wooden  case,  in  order, 
when  necessity  reqvures,  to  make  two 
pumps  for  separate  work. 

0/  tJie  Hessian  pump  Jigures  1  and  2. 
fig.  8. 

ABC,  DE,  two  tin  vessels,  soldered  to- 
gether, but  communicating  with  each 
other  by  a  hole  at  bottom.  The  larger  ves- 
sel is  furnished  with  a  rim,  to  receive  the 
water  thrown  up  by  the  circulating  tubes, 
and  convey  it  into  the  vessel  DE  ;  m,  n, 
o.  p,  represent  four  tubes  of  metal  or 
glass,  open  at  both  ends,  but  bent  at  top, 
and  fixed  in  an  angular  position  to  the  axis 
K  L.  When  in  their  place,  the  extremi- 
ty, L,  of  the  axis,  rests  upon  a  point  at  the 
bottom  of  the  large  vessel,  whUe  the  up- 
per part  is  steadied,  and  kept  in  a  verti- 
cal position,  by  passing  through  a  hole  in 
a  bar  going  over  the  large  vessel  ABC. 

Fill  tlie  vessels  about  two  thirds  with 
water,  and  then  make  the  tubes  circulate 
rapidly  by  turning  the  handle  S,  and  tlie 
rotatory  centrifugal  motion  will  raise  the 
water,  and  discharge  it  into  the  small  ve-j- 
sel  D  Ej  by  the  pipe  h= 


HYD 


HYD 


Dela  Hire's  Pump,  fig.  9. 

This  engine  is  iiUtnded  to  raise  water 
as  fas.1  by  the-  descent  us  by  the  ascent 
of  tlie  piston. 

The  pipe  B  is  fitted  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  barrel  in  which  the  piston  works.  C 
is  connected  with  the  smaller  one.  There 
is  a  valve  on  tne  top  of  ihe  pipes  li  C,  and 
also  on  the  two  pipes  ¥,¥,  which  proceed 
from  the  pump  barrel  into  the  air  vessel 
P.  The  water  is  forced  up  B.  The 
valve.«  e  and  s  lie  closed  ;it  E  F.  As  soon 
as  the  piston  is  as  low  as  it  can  go,  the 
valve  at  D  closes  the  pipe.  When  the  pis- 
ton is  rai.sed  tiie  water  is  forced  through 
E,  and,  after  opening  the  valve  e,  h)to  tiie 
air  vessel  P.  (See  the  annexed  figure.) 


A  very  simple  contrivance  for  raising 
water  to  small  heit^hts,  ni:iy  ho  elfectecl 
without  much  friction,  and  without  the 
assistance  of  the  pump  maker  or  plumber. 
The  pump  is  formed  of  a  square  t'  unk, 
open  ut  botli  ends,  and  having  a  litth'  cis- 
tern or  spout  at  top  Near  tlie  boftom 
there  is  a  partition  made  of  board,  perfo- 


rated with  a  hole,  and  covered  witli  a 
cli.ck.  A  long  cylindrical  bag  or  pudding, 
made  of  leather,  with  a  fold  of  thin  leatli- 
er,  such  as  sheep  skin,  between  the  can- 
vass bags,  is  firmly  raised  to  the  board  at 
bottom,  with  soft  leathers  between.  The 
upper  end  of  this  bag  is  fixed  on  a  round 
board,  having  a  hole  and  valve.  This 
board  may  be  turned  in  the  lathe,  with  a 
groove  round  its  edge,  and  the  bag  fasten- 
ed to  it  by  a  card  bound  tight  round  it. 
The  fork  of  the  piston-rod  is  fixed  into 
this  board  :  the  bag  is  kept  distended  by  a 
number  of  hoops  or  rings,  placed  a  few  in- 
ches distance  from  each  otlier.  Thus  the 
bag  will  represent  tlie  barber's  bellows- 
powder-puff.  When  this  pump  is  put  into 
water,  and  the  piston  forced  down,  it  is 
evident  that  the  air  is  driven  out,  and  on 
pulling  up  the  piston  rod,  the  lower  valve 
will  open  and  the  upper  one  close;  now, 
as  there  is  no  communication  through  the 
lathe  or  bag,  except  by  the  upper  valve, 
it  is  evident,  that  on  compressing  the  bag, 
the  water  will  pass  from  the  bag  into  the 
pump,  and  by  repeating  the  operation  of 
raising  and  depressing,  the  water  will  pass 
out  of  the  pipe  at  top.  This  pump  is  with- 
out friction,  will  last  a  long  time,  and 
will  r.iise  a  considerable  quantity  of  wa- 
ter. This  pump  is  similar  to  the  one  de- 
scribed by  Bclidor,  vol.  11,  page  120,  and 
some  other  writers  on  hydraulics. 

The  most  ingenious  contrivance  of  a 
pump  without  friction,  may  be  found  des- 
cribed in  the  works  of  Dr.  Desgauliere, 
called  the  quicksilver  pump,  which  is  ve- 
ry complicated,  and  not  much  known.  It 
is  called  llaskins  pump.  In  Darwin's  Phy- 
tologia,  or  in  the  Domestic  Encyclopedia, 
may  be  seen  a  useful,  though  a  complica- 
ted engine  for  raising  water,  called  Hiero's 
Fountain,  which  is  designed  to  raise  wa- 
ter to  a  great  perpendicular  height,  f()r 
the  irrigation  of  land,  in  such  situations 
as  \\'A\'c  the  advantage  of  a  small  fall. 

]Vatcr  Press,  fig.  10. 


A  is  a  cast  iron  c)  linder,  ground  very 
acctu-alely  within,  that  the  piston  e  m.iy 
lit  exceedingly  close.  C  is  the  plunger, 
and  n  a  vaive  Ihat  ojicns  upwards  Tiie 
water  is  brought  into  the  pipe  n  o.  The 
]5lungcr  C    forces  the  water  from  n  o, 


HYD 


HYD 


through  the  valve  X  into  the  bottom  of  jpiston  downwards,  allows  the  air  which 
the  cylinder,  and  drives  up  the  plunger  C.  had  come  from  the  suction-pipe  into  the 
m  represents  a  bundle  of  hay,  or  bag  of 'barrel  during  the  ascent  of  the  piston,  to 


cotton,  or  any  other  substance,  whicli  is 
thus  bi'ought  into  a  compass  twenty  or 
thirty  times  less  than  it  generally  occu- 
pies.     The   power   of  this  engine,  it  is 


get  through  its  valve.  Upon  drawing  up 
the  piston,  the  air  is  also  drawn  off 
through  the  rising-pipe,  liepeating  this 
process  brings  the  water  at  last  into  the 


obvious,  depends  upon  the  strength  of  |  working-barrel,  and  it  is  then  driven  along 
the  materials  of  which  it  is  made,  and  by  the  rising-pipe  by  the  piston, 
the  force  applied  to  it.  A  single  man, 
working  at  S,  can,  by  a  machine  of  this 
kind,  bring  hay  or  cotton  into  the  compass 
before  mentioned.  A  press  for  the  pur- 
pose of  packing  hay  or  cotton,  is  now  in 
use  in  this  city,  not  by  water,  but  by 
m^ns  of  screws.  It  is  in  the  possession 
of  Mr.  Simmons,  who,  we  believe,  is  the  in- 
ventor or  patentee.  See  Engines.  It 
may  be  proper  to  mention,  that  a  patent 
for  a  hvdro-mechanical  press  was  grant- 
ed to  Mr  Beverly.  Dec  26th,  1803,  by 
the  government  of  the  United  States. 

The  common  sucking-pump  may,  by  a 
small  addition,  be  converted  into  a  lifting- 
pump,  fitted  for  propelling  the  water  to 
any  distance,  and  with  any  velocity.  The 
annexed  figure   No.    11,  is   a    sucking, 
pump  whose  workingbarrel  A  B,  has  a  la- 
teral pipe  C,  connected  with  it  close  to 
the  top.     This  termmates  in  a  main,  or 
rising-pipe,  furnished,  or  not,  with  a  valve. 
The   top   of  the  working-barrel   A  B  is 
shut  by  a  strong  plate,  having  a  hollow 
neck  terminating  in  a  small  flanch.     The 
piston-rod  passes  through  this  neck,  and 
is  nicely  turned  and  polished.  A  number 
of  rings  of  leather  are  put  over  tlie  rod, 
and  strongly  compressed  round  it  by  ano- 
ther flanch  and  several  screwed  bolts.  By       This  is  one   of  the  best  forms  of  a 
this  contrivance,  the  rod  is  closely  grasp-pump.     The    rai'efaction    may    be   very 
ed  by  the  leathers,  but  may  be    easily 'perfect,    because    the     piston     can     be 
drawn  up  and  do wii,  while  all  passage  of ;  brought   so  near   to   the  bottom  of  the 
air  or  water  is  eftectuaily  prevented.  The  working-barrel ;   and    for    forcing  water 
piston  is  perforated,  and  furnished  with  a  |iii  opposition    to   great  pressures,  it  ap- 
vabc  opening  upwards.     There  is  also  a  :pears  prefer.ible  to  the  common  forcing- 
valve,  T,  on  the  top  of  tlie  suction  pipe; 'pump;  because   in   that,   the  piston-rod 
and  it  will  be  of  advantage,  though  not  is  compressed  and  exposed  to  bending, 
absolutely  necessary,  to  put  a  valve  L  at  which  greatly  hurts  tlie  pump,  by  wear- 
the  bottom  of  tlie  rising-pipe.     Now,  sup-jing  the  piston  and  barrel    on    one  side, 
pose  the  piston  at  the  bottom  of  the  work-  This  soon  renders  it  less  tight ;  and  much 
ingbarrel;  when  it  is  drawn  up,  it  tends  .water  squu'ts    out  by  the  sides    of  the 
to  compress  the  aii  above  it,  because  the  piston     But  in  this  pump  the  piston-rod 
valve   in  the  piston  remains  shut  by  its  is  always  drawn,  or  pulled,  which  keeps 
own  weight-     Tiit  air,  therefore,  is  driv-  it  straight,  and  rods  exert  a  much  great- 
en  through  the  valve  L,  into  the  rishig-  er  force  in  opposition  to  a  pull  than  to 
pipe,  and  escapes.     In  the  mean  time,  the  compression.  The  collar  of  leather  round 
air  which  occupied  the  small  place  be-  the  piston  rod,  is  found  by  experience  to 
tween  the  piston  and  the  valve  T,  ex])ancls  be  very  impervious  to  water;  and  though 
into  the  upper  part  of  the  working-bar-  it  needs  but  little  repair,  yet  the  whole 
rel ;  and  its  elasticity  is  so  much  diminish-  is  very    accessible  ;  and  in  this  respect 
ed  thereby,  that  the  atmosphere  presses  much  preferable  to  the  common  pump, 
the  water  of  the  cistern  into  the  suction-  in  deep  mines,  where  every  fault  ©f  the 
pipe,  where  it  rises  until  an cqailibriuu;  is  piston  obliges  us  to  diaw  up  some  hun- 
again  produced.     The  next  stroke  of  the,  dred  feet  of  piston-rods.    By  this  addi- 


HYD 


ti\U 


tion  too,  any  common  pump,  for  the  ser- 
vice of  a  house,  may  be  converted  into 
an  engine  for  extinguishing  fire,  or  may 
be  made  to  convey  the  water  to  every 
part  of  the  house ;  and  this  without 
hurting  or  obstructing  its  common  uses. 
All  that  is  necessary,  is  to  have  a  large 
cock  on  the  upper  part  of  the  working- 
bari-el,  opposite  to  the  lateral  pipe  in  this 
figure.  This  cock  serves  for  a  spout, 
when  the  pump  is  used  for  common  pur- 
poses ;  and  the  merely  shutting  this 
cock,  converts  tlie  whole  into  an  engine 
for  extinguishing  fii-e,  or  for  supplying 
distant  places  with  water.  It  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  add,  tliat,  for  tliese  ser- 
vices, it  will  be  requisite  to  connect  an 
air-vessel  with  some  convenient  part  of 
the  rising-pipe,  in  order  that  the  current 
of  water  may  be  continual. 

It  is  of  considerable  importance,  tliat 
as  equable  motion  as  possible  be  pro- 
duced in  the  main  pipe,  which  diminishes 
those  strains  which  it  is  otherwise  liable 
to.  The  application  of  an  air-vessel  at 
the  beginning  of  the  pipe,  answers  this 
purpose.  In  great  works,  it  is  usual  to 
effect  this  by  the  alternate  action  of  two 
pumps.  It  will  be  rendered  still  more 
uniform,  if  four  pumps  be  emploj'ed, 
succeeding  each  other  at  tlie  interval  of 
one  quarter  of  tlie  time  of  a  complete 
stroke. 

But  ingenious  men  have  attempted  the 
same  thing  with  a  single  pump  ;  and 
many  different  constructions  for  this  pur- 
pose have  been  proposed  and  executed. 
The  annexed  figure  represents  one  of 
the  best.  It  consists  of  a  working-bar- 
rel, a  i>,  closed  at  both  ends  ;  the  pis 
ton  c  is  solid,  and  the  piston-rod  passes 
tlirough  a  collar  of  leathers  at  the  top 
of  the  barrel-  This  barrel  communicates 
laterally  with  two  pipes,  h  and  i,  the 
communications  being  as  near  to  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  band  as  possible. 
At  each  of  the  communications  are  two 
valves,  opening  upwards.  The  two  pipes 
unite  in  a  larger  rising-pipe  at^;  which 
bends  a  little  back,  to  give  room  for  the 
piston-rod.  Suppose  the  piston  down 
close  to  the  entry  of  the  lateral  pipe 
A ;  when  il  is  drawn  up,  it  compresses 
the  air  above  it  and  drives  it  through 
the  valve  in  the  pipe  i,  whence  it 
escapes  through  the  rising-pipe;  at  the 
same  time  it  rarifies  the  air  below  it. 
Therefore  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere 
shuts  the  valve  w,  and  causes  the  wa- 
ter in  the  cistern  to  rise  through  the 
valve  n,  and  fill  the  lower  part  of  the 
pump.  ^Vhen  the  pbton  is  pushed  down 
again,  this  water  is  first  driven  through 
'he  valve  fn,  because  n  immediately  shuts; 


and  then  most  of  the  air  which  was  irt 
this  part  of  the  pump  at  the  beg^ning, 
goes  up  through  it,  some  of  the  water 
coming  back  in  its  stead.  In  the  mean 
time,  tlie  air  which  remained  in  the  up- 
per part  of  the  pump  after  the  ascent  of 
the  piston,  is  rarified  by  its  descent ;  be- 
cause the  valve  o  shuts  as  soon  as  the  pis- 
ton begins  to  descend,  ihe  valve  p  opens, 
the  air  in  the  suction-pipe  h,  expands  into 
the  barrel,  and  the  water  rises  into  the 
pipes  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  next  rise  of  the  piston  must  bring 
more  water  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
barrel,  and  must  drive  a  little  more  air 
through  the  valve  o,  namely,  part  of  tiiat 
which  had  come  out  the  suction-pipe  h  ; 
and  the  next  descent  of  the  piston  must 
drive  more  water  into  the  rising-pipe  J^, 
and  along  with  it,  most,  if  not  all,  of 
the  air  which  remained  below  the  pis- 
ton, and  must  rarefy  still  more  the  air 
remaining  above  the  piston  ;  and  more 
water  will  come  in  through  the  pipe  /i, 
and  get  into  the  barrel  It  is  evident, 
that  a  few  repetitions  will  at  last  fill 
the  barrel  on  both  sides  of  the  piston 
with  water.  When  this  is  accomplished, 
there  is  no  difficiUtj  in  perceiving  how, 
at  every  rise  of  the  piston,  the  water  of 
the  cistern  will  come  in  by  the  valve  n, 
and  the  water  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
barrel  will  be  driven  through  the  valve 
o;  and  in  every  descent  of  the  piston, 
the  water  of  the  cistern  will  come  uito 
the  barrel  by  the  valve  p,  and  the  wa- 
ter below  the  piston  will  be  driven  through 
the  valve  m ;  and  thus  there  will  be  a 
continual  influx  into  the  barrel  through 
the  valves  «  and  />,  and  a  continual  dis- 
charge  along  the  rising-pipe  /,  through 
the  valves  m  and  o. 


This  machine  is  certainly  equiralent  t* 


HYD 


HYD 


two  forcing-pumps,  although  it  has  but 
one  barrel  and  one  piston ;  but  it  has  no 
sort  of  superiority.  It  is  not  even  more 
economical,  in  most  cases  ;  because  pro- 
bably, the  expence  of  the  additional 
workmanship  will  equal  that  of  the  bar- 
rel and  piston,  which  is  saved.  There  is, 
indeed,  a  saving  in  the  rest  of  the  ma- 
chinery, because  one  lever  produces  both 
motions.  It  therefore  cannot  be  called 
infeiior  to  two  pumps:  and  there  is  un- 
doubtedly some  ingenuity  in  the  contri- 
vance. 

Mr  Dearborn  has  obtained  a  patent 
from  the  United  States  for  a  pump,  which 
answers  as  a  lifting  as  well  as  forcing 
pump. 

Chain-punip.~  The  chain-pump  con- 
sists of  two  square,  or  cyhndrical  bar- 
rels, through  which  a  chain  passes,  hav- 
ing a  great  number  of  flat  pistons,  or 
valves,  fixed  upon  it  at  proper  distances. 
This  chain  passes  round  a  kind  of  wheel- 
work,  fixed  at  one  end  of  tiie  machine. 
The  teeth  of  this  are  so  contrived  as  to 
receive  one  half  of  the  flat  pistons, 
which  go  free  of  the  sides  of  the  barrel 
by  neai"  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and  let 
them  fold  in,  and  they  take  hold  of  the 
links  as  they  rise.  A  whole  row  of  the 
pistons,  which  go  free  of  the  sides  of 
the  barrel  by  near  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 
are  always  lifting  when  tlie  pump  is  at 
work,  and  as  this  machine  is  generall_\ 
worked  with  briskness,  thej-  bring  up  a 
full  bore  of  water  in  the  pump.  It  is 
wrought  either  by  one  or  two  handles, 
according  to  the  labour  required. 

The  many  fatal  accidents  which  hap- 
pen to  ships  from  the  choking  of  their 
pumps,  make  it  an  inr.portant  object,  in 
naval  affairs,  to  find  some  machine  for 
freeing  ships  from  water,  not  liable  to  so 
dangerous  a  defect.  The  chain-pump 
being  found  least  exceptionable  in  this 
respect,  was  adopted  in  the  British  navy  ; 
but  the  chain-pump  itself  is  not  free  from 
imperfections.  If  the  valves  are  not  well 
fitted  to  tlie  cylinder,  through  whicli 
they  move,  much  water  will  fall  back ; 
if  they  are  well  fitted,  the  friction  of  many 
valves  must  be  considerable,  besides  the 
friction  of  the  chain  round  the  sprocket- 
wheels,  and  that  of  the  wheels  them- 
selves. To  which  may  be  added,  the 
great  wear  of  leathers,  and  the  disad- 
vantage  which  attends  the  surging  and 
breaking  of  the  chain-  The  preference 
therefore,  which  has  been  given  lo  chain- 
pumps  over  those  which  work  by  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  must  have 
arisen  from  one  circumstance,  that  they 
have  been  found  less  liable  to  choke. 

In  point  of  friction,  of  coolness,  and  of 


cheapness,  the  sucking-pump  has  so  evi. 
dently  the  advantage  over  the  chaiuT 
pump,  that  it  will  not  fail  to  gain  tlie  pre- 
ference, whenever  it  shall  be  no  longer 
hable  to  be  choked  with  gravel  and  with 
chips. 

Buchanan's  pump,  which,  like  the 
common  pump,  acts  by  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  is  not  liable  to  the  de- 
fects incident  to  other  pumps  upon  that 
pruiciple,  being  essentially  diflPerent  from 
any  now  in  use. 

The  principal  object  of  its  invention 
was  to  remove  the  imperfection  of  chok- 
ing, and  in  attaining  this  important  end, 
a  variety  of  collateral  advantages  have  al- 
so been  produced,  which  enhance  its 
utility. 

The  points  in  which  it  differs  essen- 
tially from  tlie  common  pump,  and  by 
which  it  excels,  are,  that  it  discharges  the 
water  below  the  piston,  and  has  its  valves 
lying  near  each  other. 

The  advantages  of  this  arrangement 
are — that  the  sand  or  other  matter, 
which  may  be  in  the  water,  is  dis- 
charged without  injuring  the  barrel  or 
the  piston-leatliers  ;  so  that,  besides 
avoiding  unnecessary  tear  and  wear,  the 
power  of  the  pump  is  preserved,  and  not 
apt  to  be  diminished  or  destroyed  in  mo- 
ments of  danger,  as  is  often  the  case 
with  the  common  and  chain-pumps — that 
the  valves  are  not  confined  to  any  parti- 
cular dimensions,  but  may  be  made  capa- 
ble of  discharging  everj'  thing  that  caii 
rise  in  the  suction-piece,  without  danger 
of  being  choked — that  if  there  should 
happen  upon  any  occasion  to  be  an  ob- 
struction in  the  valves,  they  are  both 
within  the  reach  of  a  person's  hand,  and 
may  be  cleared  at  once,  without  the  dis- 
junction of  any  part  of  the  pump — and 
that  the  pump  is  rendered  capable  of 
being  instantaneously  converted  into  an 
engine  for  extinguishing  fire.  Besides,  it 
occupies  very  little  space  in  the  hold,  and 
thus  saves  room  for  stowage. 

But  this  pump  is  not  confined  to  nauti- 
cal uses  alone  ;  its  adaptation  extends  to 
the  raising  of  water  in  all  situations,  and 
with  peculiar  advantage  where  it  happens 
to  be  mixed  with  sand  or  substances 
which  destroy  other  pumps  ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  alum-works,  in  mines,  in  quar- 
ries, in  the  clearing  of  foundations ;  and 
in  its  double  capacity  it  will  be  verj-  con- 
venient  in  gardens,  bleaching-grounds,  in 
stable  and  farm  yards,  and  in  all  manu- 
factories, or  other  places,  where  tliere  is 
'  a  necessity  for  raisuig  water  and  the  risk 
of  fire. 

With  all  these  advantages,  it  is  a  sim- 
ple and  durable  pump,  and  may  be  made 


HYD 


HYD 


citlier  of  metal  or  wood,  at  a  moderate 
expense. 


Fig.  13,  is  a  vertical  section  of  the  pump, 
as  made  of  metal,  in  which  A  is  the  suc- 
tion-piece, B  the  inner  valve,  C  the  outer 
valve.  ^ 

The  valves  are  of  the  kind  called  clack- 
•oalves.  Their  hinges  are  generally  made 
of  metal,  as  being  more  durable  than  lea- 
ther. 

D  the  working-barrel,  E  the  piston,  G 
the  spout. 

The  following  parts  are  necessary  only 
when  the  pump  is  intended  to  act  as  a 
fire-engine. 

H  an  air-vessel,  which  is  screwed  like  a 
hose-pipe,  that  it  may,  at  pleasure,  the 
more  readily  be  fixed  or  unfixed. 

There  is  a  perforated  stopple  for  the 
spout,  made  for  receiving  such  pipes  as 
are  common  to  fire-engines.  It  is  oval 
and  tapered,  and  being  introduced  trans- 
versely, upon  being  pulled  back,  becomes 
immediately  tight. 

These  parts  being  provided,  all  that  is 
necessai'y  to  make  the  pump  act  as  a  fire- 
engine,  after  having  been  used  as  a  suck- 
ing-pump, is  to  plug  up  the  spout  with 
the  stopple. 

No  particular  mode  being  essential  in 
the  working  of  this  pump,  it  may,  accord- 
ing to  choice,  or  circumstances,  be 
wrought  by  all  the  mell^ods  practised 
with  the  common  pump.  In  many  cases, 
however,  it  may  be  advantageous  to  have 
two  of  them  so  connected,  as  to  have  an 
alternate  motion  ;  in  which  case,  one  air- 
vessel,  and  even  one  suction-piece,  might 
serve  both. 

Its  principles  admit  of  various  modifi- 
cations; but,  as  what  is  already  mentioned, 
may  be  sufficient  to  indicate  its  superiori- 
ty over  the  common  and  cliain-pumps, 
and  the  advantages  likely  to  result  from 
its  general  use,  a  further  detail  is  unne- 
cessary. 

To  this  we  may  add,  thai  the  testimo- 


nies of  several  navigators  confirm  in  the 
fullest  manner,  tlie  hopes  that  were  con- 
cei\  ed  of  its  utility,  and  warrant  the  re- 
commendation of  it,  as  the  best  adapted 
for  the  purpose  of  any  pump  hitherto  in- 
vented. 

Tlie  great  desideratum  in  a  piston  is, 
that  it  be  as  tight  as  possible,  and  have 
as  little  friction  as  is  consistent  with  this 
indispensable  quality. 

The  common  form,  when  carefully  exe- 
cuted, has  tliese  properties  in  an  eminent 
degree,  and  accordingly  keeps  its  ground 
amidst  all  the  improvements  which  inge- 
nious artists  have  made.  It  consists  of  a 
hollow  cylinder,  having  a  piece  of  strong 
leather  fastened  round  it,  to  make  it  fit 
exactly  the  bore  of  the  barrel,  and  a  valve 
or  flap  to  cover  the  hole  through  which 
the  water  rises.  The  greatest  difficulty 
in  the  construction  of  a  piston,  is  to  give 
a  sufficient  passage  through  it  for  the  wa- 
ter, and  yet  allow  a  firm  support  for  the 
valve  and  fixture  for  the  piston-rod.  It 
occasions  a  considerable  expense  of  the 
moving  power  to  force  a  piston  with  a 
narrow  perforation  through  the  water 
lodged  in  the  working-barrel.  When  we 
are  raising  water  to  a  small  height,  such 
as  10  or  20  feet,  the  power  so  expended 
amounts  to  a  fourth  part  of  the  whole,  if 
the  waterway  in  the  piston  is  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  suction  of  the  barrel,  and  the 
velocity  of  the  piston  two  feet  per  second, 
which  is  very  moderate.  Tliere  can  be 
no  doubt,  therefore,  that  metal  ]Mstons 
are  preferable,  because  their  greater 
strengtli  allows  much  wider  aper- 
tures. For  common  jiurposes,  however, 
they  are  made  of  wood,  as  elm  or 
beech. 

There  are  many  ingenious  contrivances 
to  avoid  the  friction  of  the  piston  in  the 
pumps;  but  this  is  of  little  importance  in 
great  works,  because  the  friction  which  is 
completely  sufficient  to  prevent  all  escape 
of  water  in  a  well  consti-ucted  pump,  is 
i)ut  a  very  trifling  part  of  the  whole 
force. 

In  the  great  pumps  which  are  used  in 
mines,  and  are  worked  by  a  steam-engine, 
it  is  very  usual  to  make  the  pistons  and 
valves  Without  any  leather  whatever, 
'['he  working-barrel  is  boird  truly  cylin- 
drical, and  the  piston  is  made  of  metal, 
of  a  size  that  will  just  pass  along  it  with- 
out sticking.  "When  this  is  drawn  up 
with  a  velocity  competent  to  a  properly 
loaded  machine,  the  quantity  of  water 
which  escapes  round  the  j/iston  is  insig- 
nificant. The  piston  is  made  without 
leathers,  not  to  avoid  friction,  which  is 
also  insignificant  in  such  works,  but  to 
avoid  the  frequent  necessity  of  drawing 


HYD 


HYD 


h  up  for  repairs  through  such  a  length  of 
pipes. 

If  apump  absolutely  without  friction  be 
wanted,  the  folIo\ving  seems  preferable, 
for  simplicity  and  peiformance,  to  any 
we  have  seen,  when  made  use  of  in  pro- 
per situations. 


Let  NO,  fFig'  14,  J  be  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  pit,  and  K  the  place  of 
delivering.  The  pit  must  be  as  deep  in 
water  as  from  K  to  XQ.  A  is  a  wooden 
trunk,  round  or  square,  open  at  both  ends, 
and  having  a  valve,  P,  at  the  bottom. 
The  top  of  this  tiyjnk  must  be  in  a  level 
with  K,  and  has  a  small  cistern,  F.  It 
also  communicates  laterally  with  a  rising- 
pipe  G,  furnished  with  a  valve  opening 
upwards.  L  is  a  beam  of  timber,  so  fitted 
to  the  trunk,  as  to  fill  it  without  sticking, 
and  is  of  at  least  equid  length.  It  hangs 
by  a  chain  from  a  working-beam,  and  is 
loaded  on  the  top  with  weights  exceeding 
that  of  the  column  of  water  which  it  dis- 
places. 

Now,  suppose  this  beam  to  descend 
from  the  position  in  which  it  is  drawn  in 
,  the  figure ;  the  water  must  rise  all  round 
it,  in  the  crevice  whicli  is  between  it  and 
the  trunk,  and  also  in  the  rising-pipe ;  be- 
cause the  valve  P  shuts  and  O  opens ;  so 
that  when  the  plunger  L  has  got  to  the 
bottom,  the  water  will  stand  at  the  level 
of  K.  \V'hen  the  plunger  is  again  drawn 
up  to  the  top  by  the  action  of  the  moving 
power,  the  water  sinks  again  in  the  trunk, 
but  not  in  tlie  rising-pipe,  because  it  is 
*-%tcpped  by  rhe  valve  O.  Then  allowing 
the  plunger  to  descend  again,  the  water 
roust  Agam  rise  in  the  trunk  to  the  level 
of  K,  and  it  nuisi  now  flow  out  at  K;  and 
the  quantity  discharged  will  be  equal  to 
the  part  of  the  btram  below'  the  surface  of 
the  pit-water,  dctlucting  the  quantity 
which  fills  the  small  space  between  the 
beam  and  the  trunk.  This  quantity  may 
VOL.    I. 


be  reduced  almost  to  nothing;  for  if  the 
inside  of  the  trunk,  and  the  outside  of  the 
beam,  be  made  tapering,  the  beam  may 
be  let  down  till  they  exactly  fit;  and  as 
this  may  be  done  in  square  work,  a  good 
workman  may  make  it  exceedingly  accu- 
rate. But,  in  this  case,  the  lower  half  of 
the  beam,  and  trunk,  must  not  tiiper ;  and 
this  part  of  the  trunk  must  be  of  sufficient 
width  round  the  beam,  to  allow  free  pas- 
sage into  the  rising-pipe;  or,  which  is  bet- 
ter, the  rising-pipe  must  branch  off  from 
the  bottom  of  the  trunk.  A  discbarge 
mav  be  made  from  the  cistern  F,  so  that 
as  little  water  as  possible  may  descend 
along  the  trunk,  when  the  piston  is 
raised. 

In  relation  to  the  subjects  of  hydraulics, 
the  following  list  of  patents  have  been 
granted,  bvthe  government  of  the  United 
States,  to'  sundi-y  persons,  at  different 
times : 

Elijah  Ormsbee,  screw  engine  for 
throwing  water.    March  21,  1798. 

John  Manning,  improvement  in  rais- 
ing  water  froin  fountains.  April  10, 
1798. 

John  :Martin,  regulating  tlie  action  of 
the  tide  on  his  spiral ,4vheel.  April  27, 
1798. 

Mark  Isambard  Brunei,  machine  for 
raising  water.    April  27,  1798. 

Isaac  Lazell,  machine  for  remo^g 
rocks,  Zic.     May  18,  1798. 

James  Smallman  and  Nicholas  J.  Roose- 
velt, a  double  steam  engine.  May  31, 
1798. 

Charles  Stoudingen,  machine  for  pro- 
pelling vessels.     June  2,  1798. 

Walter  Brewster,  water  wheel  flume 
for  large  streams.     June  7,  1798. 

Mark  Reevee,  pipes  and  pumps  for 
conveying  water.    December  14,  179S. 

Andrew  Clover,  machine  for  clean- 
ing docks  and  harbours.  December  14, 
1798.  .  .  « 

Joseph  Huntley,  machine  for  raismg 
water.     January  10, 1799. 

Edward  Reed,  improvement  in  a  ho- 
rizontal water  wheel.  February  14, 
1799. 

Benjamin  T^ler,  a  flax  and  hemp  mill. 
February  26,  i  799. 

Josiah  Shacford,  improvement  in  pro- 
pelling boats.     March  21,  1799. 

Samuel  Morey,  obtaining  force  from 
water  by  steam.     March  27,  1799. 

Samuel  Morey,  improvement  in  iiis  wa- 
ter engine.     April  24,  1799. 

AViUiam  Harris,  machine  for  raising  wa- 
ter.    May  17, 1799. 

Samuel  Eli  Hamlin,  a  capstan  fire  en- 
gine.   August  30,  1799. 
3  P 


HYD 


HYD 


John  Stickney,  pumps  for  ships,  mines, 
8cc.     November  29, 1799. 

Thomas  Payne,  saw  mill.  December 
2,  1799 

.  Patrick  Lyon,  engine  for  throwing  wa- 
ter.    February  12, 1800. 

Aaron  Brookfield,  raising  water  for 
mills.     October  24, 1  SOU 

Samuel  Murray,  obtaining  force  from 
water  by  the  assistance  of  steam.  No- 
vember'l7,  1800 

John  Strong,  hydraulic  engine.  March 
24, 1801. 

John  Eveleth,  forcing  pump.  Jime  13, 
1801. 

William  Palmer,  machine  for  raising 
water      August  25,  1801. 

John  Poole,  syplionic  steam  machine. 
October  13,  1801. 

Hezekiah  Richardson,  junior,  and  Levi 
Richardson,  improvement  in  a  saw  mill. 
April  28,  lt-02. 

Jacob  Perkins,  improvement  in  pumps. 
July  9,  1802. 

Samuel  Briggs,  junior,  imprnvpment  in 
a  steam  engine      Octobci  9,  1802. 

John  Baptiste  Aveilhe,  a  machine  for 
raising  water.  (A  perpetual  motion!!!!!!!) 
October  4,  1802 

James  Cowen,  improvement  in  the  con- 
struction of  mill  wheels.  December  14, 
1802. 

Elisha  Rigg,  improvement  in  the 
method  of  making  pumps.  July  29, 
1794. 

Benjamin  Wynkoop,  a  new  mode 
of  propelling  vessels.  September  13, 
1794. 

Joshua  Ilathway,  improvement  in  hy- 
draulics.    October  29,  1794. 

Frederic  Lipart,  a  machine  for  raising 
water  from  a  running  stream.     1805. 

Benjamin    Tomlinson,    a  machine   for 
raising  and  projecting   tluids.     May  27, 
1805 
0  William  Tin,  a  spring  pump  for  raising 

w.'Uer.     February  13,  1805. 

Jacob  Smith,  junior,  an  improvement  in 
the  fire  engine.     .May  20,  1805. 

Daniel  Watson,  an  improvement  in 
the  common  suction  pump.  March  4, 
1808. 

Ildvvard  Lady,  junior,  a  firing  pump 
with  double  actions,  applied  to  engines. 
March  9,  18U8. 

John  .lohnsun,  a  wheel  to  run  under 
w.iter.     March  21,  1808. 

Isaac  Stilwell,  apparatus  for  propelling 
(boats  by  the  force  of  the  current.  Jutie 
3, 1808 

David  Burt,  a  hydrant  for  drawing  wa- 
ter for  iujucducis.     June  22,  1808. 
Kicharfl  llamsy,   an   improvement   in 


making  condijit  pipes,  &c.  from  clay. 
June  24,  1808 

Besides  these,  other  patents  have  been 
obtained  tor  hydraulic  engines,  and  instru- 
ments connected  with  hydraulics,  both  in 
America  and  liurope.  An  enumeration  of 
the  latter  may  be  seen  in  the  Repertory  of 
Arts. 

HYDRAULICS,  ABSTRACT  OF— 1. 
h  draulics  teaches  the  laws  of  fluids  in 
mottor]. 

2.  The  velocity  of  spouting  fluids,  is  as 
the  square  root  of  the  depth  of  the  orifice 
below  the  surface 

3.  Water  in  bended  pipes  always  rises 
as  high  as  the  source  from  whence  it 
springs :  hence  the  construction  of  jets,  or 
fountains,  and  the  supplying  of  towns  with 
water. 

4.  Asyphon'is  a  bended  pipe  of  unequal 
legs.  The  cause  of  its  action  in  emptying 
vessels,  is  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere  added  to  the  preponderance  of 
weight  in  the  longest"  leg.  « 

5.  Pumps  for  raising  water  are  of  three 
kinds:  the  sucking,  Jorcitig,  and  lifting 
pump. 

6.  The  water  in  a  sucking-pump  is 
raised  from  the  well  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere;  and  it  can  be  raised  by  this 
means  only  33  feet. 

7  A  lifting  pump,  not  depending  upon 
this,  may  i-aise  the  wat?r  to  any  height, 
according  to  the  power  applied. 

8.  \  forcing  pump  is  also  unlimited,  in 
regard  to  the  lieightto  which  it  may  raise 
water. 

9.  An  air-vessel  is  added  to  a  forc- 
ing-pump, to  give  a  more  equable 
stream. 

10.  A  constant  stream  is  also  produced 
by  tTco  barrels,  with  pistons  moving  up 
and  down  alternately. 

11.  The  chain-pump  also  produces  the 
same  efiect,  and  has  very  little  fric- 
tion. 

12.  Buchanan's  pump  is  superior  to  the 
chain-pump,  and  is  one  of  the  best  yet  in- 
vented. 

13.  There  ai"e  many  contrivances  to 
avoid  friction  in  pumps;  but  in  great 
works,  the  friction  of  the  piston  is  of  little 
importance. 

14.  Fiui:gers,  are  pistons  that  nearly  fill 
the  working-barrel :  these  do  not  act  upon 
the  principle  of  the  pressure  ofUie  atmos- 
phere. ■ 

15.  Valves  in  pumps  are  of  various  con- 
structions: the  most  usual  and  best  are 
the  clad  valve,  the  button  and  tail 
valve,  the  conical  valve,  and  the  globular 
valve. 

16.  It  is  immaterial  whether  a  pump  b^ 


HYD 


HYD 


placed  perpendicular  to  the  well  or  not, 
provided  it  have  a  communication  with 
by  pipes. 

17.  In  pump-work,  all  contractions,  oi 
sudden  enlargements,  in  the  pipes,  should 
be  avoided 

18.  The  steam-engine  was  originally 
invented  by  the  marquis  of  Worcester, 
but  was  first  put  in  practice  to  any  extent, 
by  captain  Savary. 

19.  Savary's  engine  had  no  lever,  but 
acted  by  the  immediate  pressure  of  the 
steam  upon  the  water. 

20.  Newcomen  improved  it,  by  adding 
a  lever,  or  beam,  and  attaciiing  to  it  a  pis- 
ton which  worked  in  a  cylinder.  Upon 
this  piston  tlie  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
is  made  to  act,  by  forming  a  vacuum  un- 
derneath it. 

21.  Mr.  Watt  improved  the  cylinder, 
by  surrounding  it  with  bad  conductors  of 
heat;  and  ihis  prevented  awaste  of  steam, 
by  cooling. — He  also  condensed  tlie  steam, 
to  form  the  vacuum  under  the  piston,  in 
a  separate  vessel.  Instead  of  dejiressing 
the  piston  by  tlie  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
j>here,  he  u.sed  the  force  of  steam,  intro- 
duced above  it,  while  the  piston  was 
raised  up  again  by  the  load  at  the  other 
end  of  the  beam.  His  last  improvement, 
is  the  double  steam-engine;  in  wluch  the 
piston  is*  forced  both  up  and  down, 
by  the  immediate  pressure  of  the 
steam. 

With  respect  to  the  improvements 
which  have  been  made  on  the  steam  en- 


cinnamon,  and  the  same  quantity  of  pi- 
:  lento  ;  add  a  small  portion  of  yeast,  and 
el  it  ferment,  after  which  bottle  it  for 
ise.  Mead  was  the  favourite  beverage 
!)f  the  ancient  Britons  and  Anglo-Saxons. 
As  it  contains  a  large  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid,  it  is  extremely  wholesome,  and 
if  mixed  with  a  little  soda  will  form  a 
substitute  for  soda  -water,  sold  in  oiur 
city. 

H^T)ROMETER.  This  is  an  instru- 
ment principally  used  by  brewers  and  dis- 
tillers to  determine  ftie  strength  of  tkett 
liquors. 


The  neck  A  B  is  a  piece  of  brass,  or 
any  other  metal  which  is  graduated,  to 


gine,  in  this  country,  by  Oliver  Evans  and  |  show  the  diflerent  depths  to  which  the 
others,  we  shall  notice  them  under  the    instrument  descends  in  different  gravi- 


article  Steam  Engine 

HYDROGARBURET,  or  carbonated 
hydrogen  gas.  The  only  use  made  of 
this  gas,  is  for  the  purpose  of  lighting 
rooms,  houses,  manufactories,  &c.  by 
inflaming  it,  and  is  known  under  the 
name  of  the  gas  light,  which  see.  I'he 
species  of  hydrocai-buret  used  for  this 
purpose,  is  tiiat  obtained  from  pit  coal, 
although  the  same  has  been  obtained  for 
tlie  sapie  use  from  wood  by  destructive 
distillation.  Dr.  Kughler  informs  us, 
that  the  gas  obtained  from  ligneous  sub- 
stances, gave  a  belter  and  a  clearer 
light,  without  the  inconvenience  of  tan, 
than  that  from  pit  coal.  See  Gas 
Eight. 

HYDROMEL  or  wiearf,  is  a  fermented 
liquor  made  of  honey  and  water.  It  is 
generally  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  Put  90  pounds  of  honey  into  oO  gal- 
lons of  water,  boil  the  mixture  or  solu- 
tion, taking  care  to  separate  the  scum  ; 
remove  it,  and  put  it  into  a  barrel,  and 
add  2  ounces  of  ginger,  half  an  ounce  of 


ties  of  fluids,  B  is  a  brass  bulb  to  which 
the  neck  is  fastened :  and  C  is  a  weight 
which  is  sometimes  huu^  from  the  bot- 
tom to  keep  the  instrument  in  an  erect 
position  when  the  bulb  is  immersed  in 
the  fluid;  and  at  A  is  a  small  shoulder 
to  receive  the  weights  which  are  laid 
on  the  instrument,  to  adjust  it  to  any 
particular  depth  on  the  graduated 
neck. 

Now,  as  the  resistance  of  fluids  is  ac- 
cording to  their  density,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  instrument  will  sink  deepest  in  thoscy 
fluids  that  are  the  lightest,  and  this  vari- 
ation  is  shown  by  the  scale  or  neck. 
When  the  instrument  is  immersed,  the 
fluid  which  is  displaced  by  it  is  equal  in 
bulk  to  that  part  of  the  instrument  which 
is  covered  by  the  water,  and  in  weight  to 
the  whole  instrument.  Then,  supposing 
its  weight  to  be  40'  0  gi-ains,  the  differ- 
ent bulks  of  fluids  containing  Uie  weight 
of  4000  grains  may  be  compared,  so  that 
if  a  difference  of  one  tenth  of  an  inch  take 
place  in  iTic  neck   by   immersing  it  in 


IIYD  ^ 


HYB 


two  diflerent  fluids,  it  shows  that  the 
same  wci.^lit  of  the  liquors  dUicrs  in 
bulk  by  the  majjnitude  oi  one  tenth 
of  an  inch  of  the  stem  of  the  instru- 
ment. 

The  specific  gravity  of  fluids  may  be 
found  by  putting  an  ounce,  or  any  other 
weight,  of  distilled  water  into  a  glass 
phial,  and  maiking  the  height;  then 
empty  tiie  bottle  and  fill  it  up  to  the  same 
height  exactly  with  any  other  fluid,  and 
weigh  them  both  in  a  nice  balance ;  the 
ditlerence  of  these  weights  will  be  the 
difference  of  their  specific  gravities,  for 
their  bulks  are  equal. 

'I'he  following  observation  on  the  hy- 
drometer are  given  by  Nicholson  :  The 
best  method  of  weighing  equal  quantities 
of  corrosive  volatile  fluids,  to  determine 
their  specific  gravities,  appears  to  consist 
in  inclosing  them  in  a  bottle  with  a  coni- 
cal sto])per,  in  the  side  of  which  stopper 
a  fine  maik  is  cut  with  a  file.  The  fluid 
being  poured  into  the  bottle,  it  is  easy 
to  put  in  the  stopper,  because  the  redun- 
dant fluid  escapes  tiirough  the  notch,  or 
mark,  and  may  be  carefully  wiped  oft". 
Equal  bulks  of  water,  and  other  fluids, 
ai'e  by  thi^  means  weighed  to  a  great  de- 
gree of  accuracy,  care  being  taken  to 
keep  the  temperature  as  equal  as  possi- 
ble, by  avoiding  any  contact  of  the  boUle 
with  the  hand,  or  otlierwise.  The  bottle 
itself  shows  with  much  precision,  by  a 
rise  or  fall  of  the  liquid  in  tlie  notch  of  ilie 
stopper,  wliether  any  sucl»  changt  liuvc 
taken    place.      Sec    Specific    Guavi- 

TV. 

But  as  the  operation  of  weighing  re- 
quires considerable  attention  and  steadi- 
ness, and  also  a  good  balance,  tiie  float- 
ing instrument  called  the  hydrometer  has 
always  been  esteemed  by  i)liilo.sophcrs, 
as  well  as  men  of  business.  It  consists 
of  a  hollow  ball,  either  of  metal  or  glass, 
capable  of  floating  in  any  known  liquid : 
fi'oni  the  one  side  of  the  ball  proceeds  a 
stem,  whirh  terminates  in  a  weight,  and 
from  llie  side  diametrically  opposite  pro- 
ceeds unotiier  stein,  most  eonnnonly  ol 
an  equal  thickness  thiougliout.  '["lie 
weight  is  so  proportioned,  that  the  instru- 
ment may  float  with  the  last  mentioned 
stem  uprigiii.  In  the  less  accurate  hy- 
ilrometers  this  stem  is  graduated,  anil 
.serves  to  show  the  density  of  ihe  fluid,  by 
the  deptli  to  wiiich  it  sinks  ;  as  the  hea- 
vier fluids  will  buoy  up  the  instrument 
more  tiian  siicii  as  are  liglucr.  In  this 
wayjljiowever,  it  is  clear,  that  the  stem 
Huist'De  comjjaralively  thick,  in  order  to 
I)ossess  any  extensive  range.  For  the 
weight  of  vitriolic  ether  is  not  equal  to 


three  fourths  of  the  same  bulk  of  water; 
and  therefore  such  an  hydrometer,  in- 
tended to  exhibit  the  comparative  densi- 
ties of  these  fluids,  must  have  its  stem 
equal  in  bulk  to  more  than  one  fourth  of 
tiie  whole  instrument.  If  this  bulk  be 
given  chiefly  in  thickness,  the  smaller 
differences  of  densit}-  will  not  be  percep- 
tible, and  it  cannot,  with  any  convenience, 
be  given  in  lengtli. 

To  remedy  this  imperfection,  various 
contrivances  have  been  proposed  tor  the 
most  part  grounded  on  the  consideration, 
that  a  change  in  the  ballast,  or  weight 
employed  to  sink  the  ball,  would  so  far 
change  the  instrument,  that  the  same 
short  range  of  graduations  on  a  slender 
stem,  which  were  employed  to  exhibit 
the  densities  of  ardent  spirit,  might  be 
employed  in  experiments  upon  water. 
Some  iiave  adjusted  weights  to  be  screwed 
upon  the  hiwer  stem ;  and  others,  with 
more  neatness  and  accviracy,  have  ad- 
justed them  to  be  slipped  upon  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  upper  stem.  But  the 
method  of  Fahrenheit  appears  to  be  on  all 
accounts  the  simplest  and  most  accu- 
rate. 

Tiie  hydrometer  of  Fahrenheit  consits 
of  a  hollow  ball,  with  a  counterpoise  be- 
low, and  a  very  slender  stem  jjbove,  ter- 
minating hi  a  small  dish.  The  middle, 
or  lialf  length  of  the  stem,  is  distinguish- 
ed bj'  a  fine  line  across.  In  this  instru- 
ment «very  division  of  the  stem  is  reject- 
ed, and  it  is  immersed  in  all  experiments 
to  the  middle  of  the  stem,  by  placing  pro-' 
per  weights  hi  the  little  dish  above.  Then 
as  the  part  immersed  is  constantly  of  tiie 
same  magnitude,  and  tlie  whole  weight 
of  the  hydrometer  is  known ;  this  last 
weight  added  to  tlie  weights  in  the  dish, 
will  be  equal  to  the  weight  of  fluid  dis- 
placed by  the  instrument,  as  all  writers 
on  hydrostatics  prove.  And  accordingly 
the  specific  gravities  for  tlie  common  form 
of  the  tables  will  be  had  by  the  pro- 
portion : 

As  thfe  whole  weiglit  of  the»hydro- 
meter  and  its  load,  wiien  adjusted 
hi  distilled  water, 
Is  to  the  number  1,000,  kc. 
So  is  the  whole  weight  w  hen  adjusted 

in  any  other  fluid 
To  tiie  number  exjircssing  its  speci- 
fic gravity.  .-^j,^ 
In  order  to  show  (he  degree  of  accu- 
racy an  instrument  of  this  kind  is  capa- 
bieof,  h  may  in  tiie  first  place  be  observ- 
ed, that  the   greatest  impediment  to  its 
sensibility  arises  from   the  attraction   or 
repulsion  between  the  surface  of  the  fluid 
and  that  of  the  stem.     If  the  instrument 


HYD 


HYD 


6e  carefully  wiped  with  a  soft  clean  linen 
clotli,  the  metallic  surface  will  be  equally 
disposed  to  attract  or  repel  the  fluid.  So 
that  if  it  possess  a  tendency  to  descend, 
tiiere  will  be  a  cavity  surrounding  the 
stem  ;  or  if,  on  the  contrary,  its  tendency 
be  to  rise,  the  fluid  will  stand  round  the 
stem  in  a  small  protuberance.  The  ope- 
rator must  assist  this  tendency,  by  ap- 
plying the  pincers,  with  which  he  takes 
up  his  weights,  to  the  rim  of  the  dish.  It 
is  very  easy  to  know  when  the  siu-t'ace  of 
the  fluid  is  truly  flat,  by  observing  the 
reflected  image  of  the  window,  or  any 
other  fit  object  seen  near  the  stetti  in  the 
fluid.  In  this  way  tlie  adjustment  of  the 
weights  in  the  dish  may,  without  difficul- 
ty, be  brought  to  the  fiftieth  part  of  a 
grain.  If,  therefore,  the  instrument  dis- 
place 1000  grains  of  water,  the  result 
will  be  very  true  to  foiu*  places  of  figures, 
or  even  to  five.  This  will  be  as  exact  as 
most  scales  are  capable  of  affording. 

Some  writers  have  spoken  of  the  ad- 
justment of  an  hydrometer  of  tliis  kind, 
so  that  it  shall  at  some  certain  tempera- 
ture displace  1000  grains  of  water,  as  if 
this  were  a  great  diflicuity.  It  is  true, 
indeed,  that  the  performance  of  a  piece 
of  workmanship  of  this  nature  would  re- 
quire both  skill  and  judgment  on  the  part 
of  the  artist :  but  it  is  by  no  means  ne- 
cessary. Nothing  more  is  required  on  the 
part  of  the  workman,  than  that  tlie  hy- 
drometer shall  be  light  enough  to  float  in 
ether,  and  capable  of  sustaining  at  least 
one  third  of  its  own  weight  in  the  dish, 
without  oversetting  in  a  denser  fluid. 
This  last  requisite  is  obtained  by  giving  a 
due  length  to  the  stem  beneath,  to  which 
the  counterpoise  is  attached.  With  such 
an  instrument,  whatever  may  be  its 
weight,  or  the  quantity  of  water  it  dis- 
places, the  chemist  may  proceed  to  make 
his  experiments,  and  deduce  his  specific 
gravities  by  the  proposition  before  laid 
down.  Or  to  save  occasional  computa- 
tion, he  may  once  for  all  make  a  table  of 
the  specific  gravitie.i,  corresponding  to 
every  number  of  the  load  in  the  dish, 
from  one  grain  up  to  the  whole  number 
of  grains,  so  tliat  by  looking  for  the  load 
in  one  column,  he  may  always  find  the 
specific  gravity  in  the  column  ojjposite. 
We  find  this  metliod  very  ready  and  conve- 
nient in  practice  :  but,  if  it  be  preferred, 
tiie  weights  may  be  adjusted  to  the  hy- 
drometer, so  as  to  show  the  specific  gra- 
vity, without  computation  or  reference. 
For  this  purpose  the  hydrometer  must 
be  properly  counterpoised  in  distilled 
water,  at  the  assumed  standard  tempera- 
ture ;  suppose  60°,  and  the  whole  weight 
of  the   instrument  and   its   load  called 


1.000,  Sec.  Then  the  weight  of  the  in- 
strument and  its  load  must  be  separately 
determined  in  grains  and  parts,  or  other 
weights,  by  a  good  pair  of  scales.  And 
as  the  whole  weight  of  the  instrument 
and  its  load  is  proportioned  to  the  weight 
of  the  instrument  alone  ;  so  will  be  the 
number  1.000,  &c.  to  a  fourth  term  ex- 
pressing the  weight  of  the  instrument  in 
such  parts  as  make  the  whole  1.000,  &c. 
Make  an  actu^d  set  of  decimal  weights 
of  which  1.000,  &c.  shall  be  equal  to  the 
hydrometer  and  its  load.  And  it  is  clear, 
that,  whatever  may  be  the  load  in  these 
weights,  if  it  be  added  to  the  number  de- 
noting the  weight  of  the  insb'ument,  the 
sum  will  denote  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  fluid,  wherein  the  instrument  floats 
with  that  load. 

By  following  the  above  easy  method 
it  will  be  found,  that  every  hydrometer, 
wheresoever  made,  must  give  the  same 
results.  The  subject  is  indeed  in  itself 
sufficiently  simple,  and  would  require 
scarcely  any  discussion,  if  it  had  not  hap- 
pened>  th.-^t  many  philosophers,  for  want 
of  recjuisite  attention,  have  made  their 
experiments  with  hjdrometers  gradu- 
ated on  the  stem  by  no  certain  rule  by 
which  operators  at  a  distance  from  each 
other  might  compare  their  experiments. 
The  hydrometers,  or  pese-tiqueurs  of 
Baume,  though  in  reality  comparable 
with  each  other,  are  subject  in  pai't  to 
the  defect,  that  their  results,  h.aving  no 
independent  numerical  measure,  requu-e 
explanation  to  those  who  do  not  know 
the  instruments.  Thus,  for  example, 
when  a  chemist  acquaints  us,  that  a  fluid 
indicated  14  degrees  of  the  pese-iiqueur 
of  Baume  we  cannot  usefully  apply  this 
result,  imless  we  have  some  rule  to  de- 
duce the  correspondent  specific  gravity  : 
whereas  we  sliould  not  have  been  in  any 
respect  at  a  loss,  if  the  author  had  men- 
tioned the  specific  gravity  itself  As  a 
considerable  number  of  French  philoso- 
phors  refer  to  this  instrument,  it  will  be 
of  use  to  explain  its  principles. 

Mr.  Haume  appears  to  have  directed 
his  attention  chiefly  to  the  acquisition  of  a 
means  of  making  hydrometers  with  a  gra- 
duated stem,  which  should  correspond  in 
their  results,  notwithstanding  any  dift'er- 
ences  in  their  balls  or  stems,  'rbere  is 
little  doubt  but  he  w^as  led  into  tlie  me- 
thod he  adopted,  by  reflecting  on  that  by 
which  tlicrmomete'rs  are  usually  gradu- 
ated (see  Thekmometer.)  As  ther- 
mometers are  graduated,  independent  of 
each  othef,  by  commencing  with  an  inter- 
val betwiien  two  stationary  points  of  tem- 
perature, so  -Mr.  Baume  adopted  two 
determinate   densities    for    the    sake   of 


HYD 


HYD 


marking  an  interval  on  the  stem  ofliis 
hydrometer.  These  densities  were  those 
of  pure  water,  and  of  wuter  containing 
^1  parts  of  its  weight  of  pure  dry  com- 
mon salt  in  solution-  The  temperature 
Avas  10  degrees  of  Reaumur  above  freez- 
ing, or  54.5"  of  Fahrenheit  His  instru- 
ment for  salts  was  so  balanced,  as  near- 
ly to  sink  in  pure  water.  VViiea  it  was 
plunged  in  this  saline  solution,  the  stem 
arose  in  pai-t  above  the  surface.  The 
elevated  portion  was  assumed  to  be  15 
degrees,  and  he  divided  the  rest  of  the 
stem  witli  a  pair  of  compasses  into  si- 
milar degrees. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  inquire  in  this 
place,  whether  this  interval  be  constant, 
or  how  far  it  may  be  varied  by  any  dif- 
ference in  the  purity,  and  more  especially 
the  degree  of  dryness,  of  the  salt.  Nei- 
tlier  will  it  be  requisite  to  inquire  how 
far  the  principle  of  measuring  specific 
gravities  by  degrees  representing  equal 
increments,  or  decrements,  in  the  bulks 
of  Huids,  ot  equal  weight  but  different 
specific  gravities,  may  be  of  value,  or 
the  contrary  It  does  not  seem  probable, 
that  Baume's  instrument  vill  ever  become 
of  general  use  ;  for  which  reason  nothing 
further  need  be  ascertained,  than  the  spe- 
cific gravities  corresponding  with  its  de- 


grees, in  order  that  such  experiments  as 
h;ive  this  element  among  their  data  may 
be  easily  understood  by  chcmicaU 
readers 

Mr  Baume,  in  his  Elemens  de  Phar- 
macie,  lias  given  a  table  of  the  degrees  of 
his  hydrometer  for  spirits,  indicated  by 
different  mixtures  of  alcohol  and  pure 
water,  where,  he  says,,  the  spirit  made 
use  of  gave  37  degrees  at  the  freezing 
point  of  water  ;  and  in  a  column  of  the 
table  he  states  the  bulk  of  this  spirit, 
compared  with  that  of  an  equal  weight 
of  water,  as  thirty-five  three-eights  to 
thirty.  The  last  proportion  answers  to  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.842,  very  nearly.  As  a 
mixture  of  two  parts,  by  weight,  of  this 
spirit,  with  thirty  of  pure  water,  gave 
twelve  degrees  of  the  hydrometer  at  the 
freezing  point.  This  mixture,  therefore, 
contained  6^  parts  of  Blagden's  standard 
to  100  water  ;  and,  by  Gilpin's  excellent 
tables,  its  specific  gravity  must  have 
been  0.9915.  By  the  same  tables,  these 
specific  gravities  of  0  842  and  0.9915 
would,  at  10°  Reaumur,  or  55°  fahr. 
have  fallen  to  0.832  and  0.9905,  Here 
'then  are  two  specific  gravities  of  spirit 
corresponding  with  the  degrees  12  and 
37,  whence  the  following  table  is  con- 
structed. 


Beaum6's  Hydrometer  for  Spirits. 
Temperature  55o  Fahrenheit,  or  10°  Reaumur, 


)eg.  Sp.  Gr. 

Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 

Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 

Dear 

10  =  1.000 

17  =  .949 

23  =  .909 

29 

11  =  .990 

18  =  .912 

24  =  .903 

30 

12  =  .985 

19  =  935 

25  =  .897 

31 

13  =  977 

20  =  928 

26  =  .892 

32 

14  =  .9-0 

21  =  .922 

27  =  .886 

:-,^ 

15  =  .963 

22  =  .915 

28  =  .880 

54 

16  =  .955 

Sp.  Gr. 

=  874 

=  .868 

=  .862 

=  .857 

=  .852 

=  .847 


Deg.  Sp.  Gr, 


35  = 

36  = 
o7  — 

38  = 

39  = 

40  = 


.842 
.837 
.832 
,827 
822 
.817 


With  regard  to  the  li\  drometer  for  salts,  the  learned  author  of  the  first  part  of 
the  Encyclopedic,  Guyton-de-Vlorveau,  who  by  no  means  considers  this  an  accurate 
instrument,  affirms,  that  the  sixty-sixth  degree  corresponds  nearly  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.848  ;  and  as  this  number  lies  near  the  extreme  of  the  scale,  I  shall  use 
It  to  deduce  the  rest. 


Ueg.  Sp.  Gr. 
0  =  1.000 
3  =  1.020 
6  =  1.040 
9  =  1.064 
12  =  1.0^^9 


Bcaumes  Hxjdrometcr for  Salts. 
Temperature  55°  Fahrenheit,  or  10"  Rcatmiur. 


Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 

15  ~.  1.114 
18  —  1.140 
21  =  1.170 
24  =  1.'.J00 
27  =  1  :?".0 


Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 
1.261 
1.295 
1.333 
1.373 
1.414 


30 
33  = 
36  = 
39  = 

4,3  ~ 


beg.   S|).  Gr. 
45  =    1.455 


48  = 
51  = 
54  = 
57  r= 


l.aOi) 
1.547 
1.594 
1.659 


Deg.   Sp.  Gr. 
60=    1.717 


63  = 
66  = 
69  = 
72  = 


1.779 
1.848 
1.920 
2  00(5 


HYD 


HYD 


It  may  not  be  amiss  to  add,  however,  that  In  the  Philosophical  Magazine,  Mr, 
Bingley  the  asay-master  of  the  mint,  has  given  the  following  numbers  as  the  specific 
gravity  of  nitric  acid  found  to  answer  to  the  degrees  of  an  areometer  of  Baume  by 
actual  trial ;  temperatui-e  about  60°  Fahr.  But  hts  appears  to  have  been  a  different 
instrument,  as  it  was  graduated  only  fi'om  0  to  50. 


Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 
18  =  1150 
20  =  1.167 
26  =  1.216 
28  =  1.233 


Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 

29  =  1.250 

30  =  1  267 

31  =  1.275 

32  =  1.283 


I  Deg.  Sp.  (3r. 
I  34  =  1.300 
33  =  1.312 

36  =  1.333 

37  =  1.342 


Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 

38  =  1.350 

39  =  1.358 

40  =  1.367 

41  =  1.383 


Deg.  Sp.  Gr. 

42  =  1.400 

43  =  1.416 
45  =  1.435 


There  are  a  variety  of  hydrometers 
used  for  determining  the  strength  of  ar- 
dent spirit.  See  an  essay  of  the  Editor, 
on  specific  gravity,  8vo. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  Mr. 
G.  Atkins's  hydrometer  for  determining 
the  specific  gravity  of  both  solids  and  li- 
quids, wliich  we  insert  from  a  belief  that 
it  will  be  exti-emely  useful. 


The  hydrometer  consists  of  the  bulb 
b,  a  small  stem  a  c,  with  a  cup  d  on  its 
top  to  receive  weights,  and  a  shank  ej^ 


beneath  the  bulb  with  a  pointed  screw,  to 
wliich  is  affixed  a  cup  g,  to  receive 
weigjits  or  soUds  when  their  specific  gra- 
vities are  required  to  be  taken. 

The  instrument  is  accompanied  wi||^  an 
accurate  set  of  grain  weights. 

Tlie  weight  of  the  hydrometer  itself  is 
seven  hundred  grains,  and  on  addin.g 
three  hundred  grains  in  tlie  upper  cup, 
and  immersing  it  in  distilled  water,  at  the 
temperature  of  60  de.grees  of  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer,  it  will  subside  to  the 
middle  mark  on  the  stem,  and  will  then 
consequently  displace  one  thousand  grains 
of  water. 

It  follows,  therefore,  from  this  adjust- 
ment of  the  bulk  of  the  instrument,  that 
each  grain  in  the  upper  cup  will  repre- 
sent one  thousandth  part  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  water,  or  one  unit  in  spe- 
cific gravity,  if  that  of  water  be  taken  to 
be  one  thousand ;  and  one-tenth  of  a  grain 
one-tenth  of  a  unit,  which  is  also  the  value 
of  each  of  the  small  divisions  on  the  stem ; 
and  accordingly,  when  the  hydrometer  is 
immersed  in  any  liquid  until  it  sinks  to 
the  middle  point  on  ihe  stem,  the  specific 
gravity,  of  such  fluid  will  be  indicated  by 
the  sum  of  the  weight  of  the  instrument 
(which  is,  as  before  stated,  seven  hun- 
dred grains)  and  the  grains  added  in  the 
upper  cup. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that,  on  im- 
mersing the  instrument  in  ether,  it  re- 
quires thirty-four  grains  in  the  top  cup  to 
make  it  subside  to  the  middle  mark  on 
the  stem.  The  specific  gravity  of  such 
ether  will  in  this  case  be  700  +  34  =  .734. 
And  on  puttin.g  the  instrument  into  al- 
cohol or  wort,  if  it  requires  in  the  former 
case  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  gi-ains, 
and  in  the  latter  three  hundred  and  fifly- 
five,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  spirit  will 
be  .825,  and  that  of  the  wort  1.055. 

To  ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  a  soli  J, 
-ive  have  to  take  any  frugment  less  than 
^iree  hundred  grains  ;  find  its  weight  in  air, 
and  its  iveight  in  ivater,  and  take  their  dif- 
ference ;  and  on  dividing  its  iveight  in  air 
by  this  difference  the  quotient  luill  be  its  spe- 
cific gravity. 
Tlie  weight  of  a  body  in  air  is  found  by 


IIYD 


IIYD 


pnUiiijT  it  ill  the  upper  cup^  and  adilinn- 
grains  luitil  the  hydrometer  sinks  in  water 
to  the  mark  on  the  stem.  Now,  as  the 
substance  ;nul  the  addition;il  weiglits  in 
the  cup  will  !je  altogether  three  hundred 
g-rains,  the  weight  of  the  body  wilLof 
course  be  so  many  grains  as  tlie  weiglits 
put  in  fell  short  of  tlu-ee  hundred.  Its 
weight  in  water  will  be  found  by  putting 
it  into  the  loxver  cup,  and  adding  grains 
in  tile  upper  cup  until  the  instrument  sinks 
as  before:  the  complement  of  the  weights 
in  the  to|)  cup  to  three  hundred  being  in 
like  manner  its  weight  in  water. 

Ex.jinplf. — If  a  body  'Cveiglis  in  air  one 
)iundi-ed  and  twenty  grains,  and  in  water 
one^vmdied  and  four,  the  difference  is 
sixteen.  On  dividing  one  hundred  and 
twerity  by  sixteen,  we  have  for  the  quo- 
tient .75,  or  (taking,  as  before,  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  water  at  one  thousand) 
7.500  f()r  tile  specific  gravity  of  the  body. 

This  instrument  affords  us  consequent- 
ly a  very  ready  mode  of  determining  the  pu- 
rity or  value  of  any  alloy  or  metallic ,ore, 
and  is  therefore  particularly  adapted  to  the 
mineralogist.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
weight  of  a  guinea,  or  its  weight  in  air,  is 
one  hundi'ed  and  twenty-eight  grains ;  and 
if  the  gold  is  of  its  proper  standard,  it 
will  weigh  about  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-one grains  in  water,  or  will  lose  one- 
eighteenth  part  only  of  its  weight  in  air. 
If  it  loses  more,  therefore,  it  is  not  of  its 
proper  specific  gravit)',  and  consequently 
not  of  standard  gold 

To  find  the  specific  gravity  of  any  of 
the  different  species  of  wood  or  other  bo- 
dies ligliter  than  water ; — after  taking  its 
weight  in  air  as  before,  fix  it  on  the  small  i 
screw  of  the  shank,  and  see  iiow  many 
grains  it  will  then  be  necessary  to  add  in 
the  top  cup,  to  sink  the  instrument  to 
the  mark,  with  tiie  body  on  the  screw ; 
whicli  will  in  this  case  be  more  than  tiiree 
liimdrtd,  on  account  of  its  buoyancy; 
:uid  dividing  its  weight  in  air  by  the  dif- 
ference between  the  weights  |)ut  in  the 
top  cup  in  each  case,  the  quotient  will  be 
its  specific  gravity. 

Thus,  if  on  putting  a  piece  of  wtV/owin 
the  upper  cup,  it  re<|uires  two  hundred 
and  hfty-eight  grains  to  sink  the  hydro- 
meter ill  water,  tlie  weight  of  the  wood 
in  air  will  be  fbrt3-two  grains  :  and  if 
on  fixing  it  to  the  screw  beneath,  tlie  in- 
strument requires  three  hundred  and 
twenty -eight  grains  to  sink  it  to  the  mark 
in  water,  (being  twenty-eight  grains  mor% 
than  would  be  necessary  to  sink  the  in- 
strument itself,)  we  have  only  to  find  the 
difference  between  the  weights  put  into 
the  top  cup,  which  in  this  case  is  seventy 
grains ;  and  dividing  fortj'-tvvo  by  seventy, 


we  have  .6  or  .600  for  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  wood. 

For  the  man  of  science,  the  instrument 
with  its  set  of  weights  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary, and  it  is  packed  into  a  very  small 
compass ;  but  to  accommodate  it  to  those 
who  are  concerned  with  spirituous  li- 
quors, and  to  breVvers,  the  inventor  at- 
taches a  scale,  showing  the  relation  be- 
tween specific  gravities  and  the  commer- 
cial or  technical  denominations  oY per  ctn. 
tage  with  the  former,  and  pounds  per  bar- 
rel with  the  latter. 

It  is  needless  to  enumerate  the  various 
dcjiartmcnts  in  which  an  attention  to  the 
specific  gravities  of  bodies  is  now  become 
of  the  first  consequence,  and  wherein  tliis 
instrument  might  be  applied  with  advan- 
tage ;  and  although  many  may  be  satis- 
fied if  they  have  any  arbitrary  standard 
to  regulate  their  process  by,  yet  it  must 
be  acknowledged  that  the  universal  stan- 
dard of  specific  gravity  is  by  far  the  best ; 
for,  by  its  currency  all  over  Europe,  it 
enables  a  person  to  know  what  relation 
their  practice  may  bear  to  that  of  others 
in  the  same  pursuit ;  and  it  would,  by 
the  universal  adoption  of  it,  prevent  the 
many  differences  which  exist  among  mer- 
cantile men,  especially  those  who  deal  in, 
or  pay  duty  on,  spirituous  liquors. 

Indeed  the  wide  field  which  opens,  on 
considering  the  importance  of  paying  at- 
tention to  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies, 
convinces  us  that  we  are  yet  in  infancy 
on  the  subject. 

UYDUOS  I  ATICS,  a  branch  of  natural 
philosoph),  which  treats  of  the  motion, 
jiiessure,  and  equilibrium  of  fluids,  and 
also,  of  the  art  of  weighing  solids  in 
them,  to  determine  the  different  specific 
gravities  or  relations  of  bodies  to  one 
another. 

IIYDUOSTATICS,  abstract  of  1.  lly- 
ch'ostatics  treats  of  the  inechanical  pro- 
perties of  non-elastic  ffuids,  such  us 
water. 

2.  The  cat^se  of  fluidity  is  not  perfectly 
known ;  but  ii  caiiiioi  be  owing  to  any 
particular  configuration  of  particles,  since 
fluids  and  solids  are  convertible  into  each 
other  by  adding  or  subtracting  heat. 

3.  A  portion  of  fiuid  giavitates  in  ano- 
ther, when  surrounded  by  a  larger  por- 
tion, in  the  same  way  as  if  it  were  in 
the  air. 

4.  Fluids  pi'ess  in  all  directions  equally. 

5.  A  fluid  presses  in  proportion  to  its 
perpendicular  height,  and  the  base  of  the 
vessel  containing  it,  without  aii*vegard 
to  tlie  quantity. 

6.  l>y  specijic  gravities,  is  meant  the  re- 
lative weights  of  equal  bulks  of  different 
substances. 


HYD 


HYD 


r.  This  relative  weight  is  gienerally 
compared  with  an  equal  bulk  of  -water,  as 
Ji  standard. 

8.  The  instrument  for  comparing  these 
weights  of  solids,  is  called  the  hydrostatic- 
balance, 

9.  That  for  comparing  the  specific  gra- 
vities of  liquids,  is  called  the  hjUrometer. 

10.  Air-balloons  rise  in  the  atoiosphere, 


because  they  are  specifically  lighter,  or 
lighter  than  an  equal  bulk  of  air. 

11.  They  are  of  two  kinds— ^re-6a/- 
loons,  and  inflammable-air  balloons. 

12.  The  diving-bell  is  an  empty  vessel 
inverted,  and  made  so  heavy  as  to  sink 
in  water. 

Hydrostatic  Balance.  See  Specific  ca- 
vity. 


I. 


ICE 

ICE.     See  Freezing. 

ICF^  CREAM.  This  preparation,  which 
is  only  a  delicacy,  is  usually  made  by 
confectioners,  by  mixing  about  three  parts 
of  cream  with  onepart  of  the  juice  orjam 
of  raspberries,  currants,  &c.  and  is  frozen 
in  the  following  manner  :  Strain  the  mix- 
ture through  a  cloth,  and  introduce  it  in- 
to a  pewter  mould  or  vessel,  and  intro- 
duce the  mould  or  ice  pot,  with  its  con- 
tents into  ice  and  salt.  Agitate  the  mould 
in  this  mixture  for  a  few  minutes,  and  the 
cream  will  be  frozen.  The  principle  on 
which  tlie  freezing  of  cream  takes  place, 
is  the  same  as  the  freezing  of  water ;  the 
use  of  salt  with  the  ice,  is  intended  to  form 
an  artificial  cold,  or  freezing  mixture,  in 
order  to  expedite  the  process.  The  ice 
absorbs  the  caloric  of  fluidity  from  the 
cream,  and  becomes  liquefied,  by  which 
the  cream  is  rendered  solid. 

ICE-HOUSE,  a  receptacle  for  ice,  in 
order  to  preserve  it  in  the  summer 
months.  There  have  been  several  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  ice  hou- 
ses, but  generally  they  are  notliing  more 
than  deep  cellars,  sometimes  furnished 
with  a  drain,  and  covered  either  with 
tliatch  or  otherwise.  On  the  best  means 
of  preserving  ice,  -see  the  article  Freez- 
ing Dr.  Mease  considers  the  ice  house 
at  Gloucester-Point  Tavern,  in  tlie  neigh- 
bourhood of  Philadelphia,  as  constructed 
in  the  best  and  most  economical  manner, 
and  therefore  recommends  it  as  a  pattern. 
A  description  of  it  may  be  seen  in  his  edi- 
tion of  the  Domestic  Encyclopsedia. 

IMPRESSIONS  from  leaves,  how  ta- 
ken.  Take  green  leaves  of  trees  or  flow- 
ers, and  lay  them  between  the  leaves  of  a 
book  till  they  are  dry.  Then  mix  up 
some  lamp-black  with  drying  oil,  and 
make  a  small  dabber  of  some  cotton 
wrapped  up  in  a  piece  of  soft  leather.  Put 
your  colour  upon  a  tile,  and  take  some 
VOL.    I, 


ICE 

on  your  dabber.  Laying  the  dried  leaf 
flat  upon  a  table,  dab  it  very  gently  with 
the  oil  colour,  till  the  veins  of  the  leaf  are 
covered ;  but  you  must  be  careful  not  to 
dab  it  so  hard  as  to  force  the  colour  be- 
tween the  veins.  Moisten  a  piece  of  pa- 
per, or  rather  have  a  piece  laying  between 
several  sheets  of  moistened  paper  for  se- 
veral hours,  and  lay  this  over  the  leaf 
which  has  been  blackened.  Press  it  gently- 
down,  and  then  subject  it  to  the  action  of 
a  press,  or  lay  a  heavy  weight  on  it,  and 
press  it  down  very  hard.  By  this  means 
you  obtain  a  very  beautiful  impression  of 
the  leaf  and  all  the  veins ;  even  the  minu- 
test will  be  represented  in  a  more  perfect 
manner  than  they  could  be  drawn  with 
the  greatest  cai'e.  These  impressions 
may  also  be  coloured  in  the  same  manner 
as  prints. 

IMPRESSIONS  from  insects,  how  ta- 
ken. 

The  fallowing  mode  of  taking  an  im- 
pression from  butter-flies,  may  be  used 
for  other  insects. 

Having  taken  a  butterfly,  kill  it  with- 
out spoiling  its  wings,  which  contrive  to 
spread  out  as  regularly  as  possible  in  a 
flying  position  ;  then,  with  a  small  brush 
or  pencil,  take  a  piece  of  white  paper  -. 
wash  part  of  it  with  gum  water,  a  little 
thicker  than  ordinary,  so  that  it  may  easi- 
ly dry ;  afterwards,  laying  your  butterfly 
on  the  paper,  cut  off  the  body  close  to 
the  w  ings,  and  throwing  it  away,  lay  the 
paper  on  a  smooth  board,  with  the  fly  up- 
wards; and  laying  anoUier  paper  over 
that,  pi;t  the  whole  preparation  into  a' 
screw  press,  and  screw  it  down  very 
hard.  The  bill,  legs,  and  teet,  must  be 
drawn  and  coloured  from  Nature.  When 
it  is  finislied  and  adjusted  to  your  mind, 
lay  a  sheet  of  paper  upon  it,  and  upon 
that  a  heavy  weight  to  press  it;  which 
must  remain  till  the  whole  is  quite  dry. 
3  H 


IND 


IND 


INniAN    YELLOW.      See   CotouR- 

LNULVN  RUBBER,  gum  elastic,  or 
caoutchouc. 

Tins  singular  vegetable  substance  was 
first  broui;tu  to  Europe  from  South  Ame- 
rica, iihdut  the  beginning'  of  llie  last  cen- 
tury. But  nothing  was  known  concerning 
its  Natural  history,  till,  in  1756,  a  memoir 
was  presented  to  the  French  Academy 
by  Condainiiie,  in  which  it  is  stated,  that 
there  grows  in  the  province  of  Esmeral- 
das,  in  Brasil,  a  tree,  called  by  the  natives 
Hheve,  from  the  bark  of  wiucli  there 
flows,  on  its  being  wounded,  a  milky 
juice,  wiiich  by  exposure  to  the  au",  is 
convened  into  paoutchouc.  M.  Freneau 
discovered  the  same  tree  in  Cayenne,  and 
transmitted  an  account  of  it  to  the  Acade- 
my fifteen  years  after  the  first  notice  of  it 
by  Coiulamine  Later  researches  have 
proved  that  ihere  are  at  least  two  trees 
natives  of  South  America,  from  which  ca- 
(Hi'cchouc  is  obtained,  namely,  the  Havea 
caoutchouc  and  Jatropha  elastica,  and  it  is 
not  improbable  thai  it  is  yielded  by  other 
species  of  these  genera.  The  American 
caoutcliouc,  is  generally  broui^lit  to  Eu- 
rope- in  the  form  of  giobtdar  narrow  neck- 
ed bottles  hke  receivers,  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  capable  of  holding 
from  Ur.lf  a  pint  to  a  quart  or  more,  la 
its  native  country  it  is  fabricated  by  the 
inhabitants  into  vessels  for  containing  wa- 
ter and  other  liquids  ;  and  on  account  of 
its  ready  inflammability  is  used  in  Cay- 
enne, as  the  chief  material  for  torches. 

A  substance  possessing  all  the  prt^per- 
ties  of  the  American  caoutchouc,  has  also 
lately  been  procured  by  Mr.  Howison,  sur- 
geon in  Prince  of  Wales's  Island,  in  the 
East  Indies,  from  the  juice  of  a  climbing 
plant,  the  Urceola  elastica,  a  native  of  that 
small  island,  and  of  the  coast  of  Sumatra. 
The  thickest  and  oldest  stems  of  the  ur- 
ceola yield  by  far  the  largest  proportion  of 
caoutchouc.  If  one  of  these  is  cut  into,  a 
white  juice  0U7.es  out,  of  the  consistence 
of  cream,  and  slightly  pungent  to  the 
taste.  When  exposed  for  a  time  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air,  or  more  expeditiously  by 
the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  any  acid,  a 
decomposition  takes  place ;  the  uniform 
thick  cream  like  juice,  separatts  into  a 
thin,  whitish  li([Uor,rescmbhng  whey,  and 
the  caoutchouc  concretes  into  a  clot  or 
curd,  covered  superficially  with  a  thin 
coating  of  a  butyraceous  mattci-.  If  the 
juice  as  soon  as  collected,  is  carefully  ex- 
cluded from  the  air,  it  may  be  preserved 
for  some  weeks  without  any  material 
change,  but  at  length  the  caoutchouc  se- 
parates from  the  watery  part  in  the  same 


manner,  though  not  so  perfectly  as  it  does 
by  free  exposure  to  the  air.  Tiie  propor- 
tion of  caoutchouc  contained  in  the  juice 
of  the  oldest  stems  is  nearly  equal  to  two- 
thirds  of  its  weight ;  the  juice  f:  om  the 
younger  trees  is  more  fluid,  and  contains  a 
considerably  smaller  proportion  of  this 
substance. 

Dr.  Barton  has  discovered  a  plant,  in- 
digenous to  our  soil,  which  affords  a 
juice  which,  when  inspisated,  forms 
caoutchouc. 

According  to  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Howison,  cloth  of  all  kinds  may  be  made 
impenetrable  to  water  by  impregnating  it 
with  the  fresh  juice  of  the  L'rceola;  and 
the  pieces  thus  prepared,  are  expeditious- 
ly and  most  ehectually  joined  together 
by  moistening  the  edges  with  either  tlie 
entire  juice,  or  even  the  more  watery 
part,  and  then  bringing  them  in  contact 
with  each  other.  Boots,  gloves,  &c.  made 
of  this  impervious  cloth,  are  preferable 
even  to  those  formed  of  pure  caoutchouc, 
as  they  are  more  durable  and  retain  their 
sl)a]3e  belter.  If  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
this  juice  could  be  obtained,  the  iniport- 
ani  purposes  to  which  it  might  be  ajipUed 
are  almost  iimumerable. 

The  colour  of  fresh  caoutchouc  is  yel- 
lowish wliite,  but  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
it  becomes  of  a  smoke-grey:  .^me:ican 
caoutchouc  in  the  state  m  wi  ich  it  is 
b)-ought  to  Kuro])e,  being  formed  of  a 
multitude  of  extremel\  thin  layers,  each 
of  which  is  exposed  .o  ilie  air  for  some 
time,  in  order  to  dry  before  the  tiexi  is 
laid  on,  is  of  a  yellowish  smoke-grey 
colour  throughout ;  but  nuissL-s  of  East- 
hidian  csoutchouc  being  fori.iedjr.i.'re  ex- 
peditiously, are  dark-coloured  only  on 
the  outside  :  when  cut  into  they  arc  of  a 
very  light'  brown,  whicli,  however,  soon 
deepens  by  the  action  of  the  air.  Caout- 
chouc is  perfectly  taslek  ss,  and  lias  little 
or  no  smell,  exce])t  when  it  is  warmed,  it 
then  gives  out  a  faint  peculiar  odour. 
The  elasticity  of  this  substance  is  very  re- 
markable, and  indeed,  is  one  of  its  most 
chai'acleristic  properties.  Slips  of  caout- 
chouc, when  softened  by  inmiersion  for  a 
few  minutes  in  boiling  water,  may  be 
drawn  out  to  seven  or  eight  times  their 
original  length,  and  will  afterwards  re- 
sume very  nearly  ihcir  original  dimen- 
sions. Diu'ing  its  extension  a  considera- 
ble quantity  of  caloric  is  given  out,  which 
is  very  jjerceivable  when  the  piece  is  h^d. 
between  the  hps  ;  and  when  it  is  allowed 
to  contract,  u  decreiise  of  lcmi)erature 
will  immediately  take  place.  By  sucees- 
sive  extensions  and  contractions  in  the 
open  air,  and  especially  in  cold  water,  its 


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elasticity  is  much  impaired,  and  it  refuses  |  of  ihis  Iat\er  fluid  The  washed  ether  is 
to  return  to  its  former  dimensions;  but  I  readily  separated  from  the  residual  water 
uhenin  this  state  it  is  put  iiUo  not  water,  j  by  decantation  on  account  of  its  superior 
it  imbibes  again  the  heat  wliich  it  had  lost,  |  lightness,  and  is  now  capable  of  effecting 


and  by  degrees  resumes  iis  oiiginal  size. 
At  the  temperature  of  abo'..f  40*^,  caout- 
chouc begins  to  grow  rigid,  its  colour  be- 


a  compleat  and  speedy  solution  of  caout- 
chouc. The  solution  is  of  a  light  brov^Ti 
colour,  and  when  saturated  is  considera- 


comes  much  lightei",  and  it  is  neai'ly  '  bly  viscid.  A  drop  of  it  let  tall  into  a  cup 
opake  i  as  the  cold  increases  it  becomes  I  of  water  immediately  e^^tends  itself  over 
more  stiff,  and  harder,  and  in  all  probabili- j  the  wlio!e  surface,  and  the  ether  being 
ty,  by  a  ])retty  powerful  freezing  mixture,  i  partly  absorbed  by  the  water  and  partly 


M'ould  be  made  brittle  These  changes 
however,  depend  merely  on  temperature, 
for  a  piece  of  hard  frozen  caoutchouc  per 


evaporated,  the«water  is  found  covered 
with  an  extremely  thin  film  of  caoutchouc, 
possessing  its  elasticity  and  all  its  other 


fectly  recovers  its  elasticity  by  being  j  cnaracteristic  properties.  A  similar  ef- 
warmed.  The  fresh  cut  surfaces  of  this  feet  takes  place  when  cloth  of  any  kind  is 
substance  will  unite  together  by  simple  .  soaked  in  the  solution,  or  any  hard  sur- 
contacl,  and  by  a  proper  degree  of  pres-  j  face  is  smeared  over  with  it;  on  exposure 
sure,  may  be  brought  so  compleatly  in  I  to  the  air  the  ether  is  rapidly  evaporated, 
union  as  to  be  no  more  liable  to  separate  |  and  the  caoutchouc  which  it  was  com- 
in  this  part  than  in  any  other.  Its  speci-  j  bhied  with  is  left  behind.  The  affinity  of 
fie  g:-  .vity,  according  to  Brisson,  is  0.933  |  this  solution  for  caoutchouc  is  very  great : 
It  undergoes  no  alteration  by  the  action  j  if  the  edges  of  two  pieces  of  caoutchouc 
of  tlie  air  at  the  common  temperature. !  are  dipped  in  it  and  immediately  brought 

in  close  contact  with  each  other,  as  soon 


When  boiled  for  a  long  time  m  water,  it 
communicates"  to  this  fluid  a  pecuhar 
smell  and  flavour,  and  is  so  far  softened  by 
it  that  two  pieces  thus  treated  and  after- 
wards strongly  pressed  together,  will 
form  a  permanent  adhesion  to  each  other. 

Caoutchouc  is  soluble  wltli  ease  at  a 
boiling  heat  in  the  expressed  vegetable 
oils,  in  wax,  butter,  and  animal  oil,  form- 
ing viscid  unelastic  compounds. 

Rectified  oil  of  turpentine  at  the  com- 
mon temperature  acts  wiiliout  difticulty 
on  caoutchouc,  first  rendering  it  trans])a 


as  the  ether  is  evaporated  they  will  be 
found  to  be  perfectly  united. 

There  are  two  circumstances  which 
must  always  prevent  the  extensive  use  of 
the  etheric  solution  of  caoutchouc,  admi- 
rably qualified  as  it  is  in  other  respects 
for  many  useful  purposes;  these  are,  fii-st, 
its  expensiveness,  and  secondly,  the  ex- 
traordinai'v  rapidity  whis  which  the  ether 
evaporates,  thus  rendering  it  impossible 
to  lay  an  even  coating  of#iis  varnibh  on 
any  surface,  and  clogging  up  the  brushes 


rent  and  enlarging  its  bulk  considerably,  by  which  it  is  applied.  In  order  to  form 
and  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days  ef- :  tubes  or  catheters  of  this  substance,  the 
fecting  a  complete  solution.  The  liquor  best  metliod  is  to  cut  a  bottle  of  caout- 
is  of  the  consistence  of  drying  oil,  and  chouc  into  a  long  sing-le  slip,  and  soak  it 
when  spread  thin  upon  wood  it  forms  a  i  for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  in  ether :  by 
varnish,  which  however  is  a  long  time  in  |  this  means  it  will  become  soft  and  tena- 
becoming  dry.     When  mixed  with  wax  1  cious,  and  if  wound  dexterously  in  a  spi. 


and  boiled  linseed  oil,  it  composes  an  elas 
tic  varnish,  which  is  used  in  coating  bal- 
loons. 

Tiie  onlv  menstrua  for  this  substance 


ral  form  on  a  mould,  bringing  the  edges 
in  contact  with  each  other  at  every  turn, 
and  giving  the  whole  a  moderate  and  equal 
pressure  by  binding  it  with  a  tape  wound 


from  which  it  can  be  again  sepai'ated  un-|  in  the  same  direction  as  the  caoutchouc, 
altered  are,  ether,  peU'oleum,  and  cajeput-  a  very  effectual  union  will  be  produced. 

After  a  day  or  two  let  the  tape  be  taken 
ofl^,  and  the  cylinder  of  caoutchouc  may 
be  rendered  still  more  perfect  by  pouring 


oil. 

The  solubility  of  caoutchouc  in  ether 
was  first  discovered  by  Macquer,  a  cir 


cunistance  which,  from  its  frequent  fiiiU'  a  little  of  the  etheric  solution  into  a  glass 
lire  in  the  hands  of  other  chemists,  was  i  tube  closed  at  one  end,  the  diameter  of 
very  generally  called  in  question  till  Ca- .  which  is  a  little  larger  than  that  ofthecy- 
vallo  cleared  up  the  difficulty,  by  showing  Under  of  caoutchouc ;  which  being  intro- 
the  necessity  of  employing  ivaslied  ether  duced  into  the  tube  will  force  the  solution 
for  this  purpose.  If  fresh  made  sulphuric  ;  to  the  top  of  the  vessel.  Let  the  whole  of 
etlier  is  shaken  in  a  vial  witlx  an  equal '  the  appai-atus  be  then  placed  in  boiling 
quantity  of  pure  water,  the  small  portiQn  !  water,  the  ether  will  be  evaporated,  and  a 
of  acid  which  it  generally  cont:iins  is  dis- ,  smooth  and  uniform  coating  of  newly  de= 
solved  out  by  the  water,  and  the  etiicr  \  posited  caoutchouc  w  ill  remain  upon  the 
combines  with  about  a  tenth  of  its  weight  {cylinder. 


IND 


iXD 


Fetroleum  when  rectified  I)y  gentle  dis- 
tillation afibrds  a  colourless  liquid  not  to 
be  distinguished  tiom  the  purest  naphtha ; 
and  this,  accoiding  to  Fabroni,  has  the 
property  of  dissolving-  one-seventieth  of 
its  weight  of  caoutchouc,  and  of  deposit- 
ing it  again  unaltered,  by  spontaneous 
evaporation.  Il  does  not  appear  however 
that  tiiis  menstruum  has  been  much  em 
ployed. 

The  solubility  of  caoutchouc  in  cajeput 
oil  was  first  noticed  by  Dr.  Roxburgh, 
This  is  an  essential  oil  procured  in  India 
from  the  leaves  of  the  JMtialeuca  Ltuca- 
dendron,  and  promises  to  be  the  most  use- 
ful menstruum  of  this  substance  that  has 
hitherto  been  discovered.  The  solution 
IS  thick  and  very  glutinous.  When  alco- 
hol is  added,  this  latter  unites  with  the  es- 
sential oil,  and  leaves  the  caoutchouc  float- 
ing on  the  liquor  in  a  soft  semifluid  state, 
which  on  being  washed  with  the  same  li- 
quor and  exposed  to  the  air,  became  as 
firm  as  before  it  was  dissolved,  and  re- 
tained its  elastic  powers  perfectly,  while 
in  the  intermediate  state  between  semi- 
fluid and  firm,  it  could  be  drawn  out  into 
long  transparent  threads,  resembling  in 
the  polish  of  their  surface  tiie  fibres  of  the 
tendons  of  animals;  w!ien  they  broke  the 
elasticity  was  so  great  that  each  end  in- 
stantaneously I'eturned  to  its  respective 
mass.  Through  all  these  stages  the  least 
pressure  with  the  finger  and  thumb  united 
different  portions  as  perfectly  as  if  they 
had  never  beSh  separated,  and  without 
any  clamminess  or  sticking  to  the  fin- 
gers. 

Alcohol  has  no  action  whatever  on  ca- 
outchouc. 

Although  caoutchouc  is  procured  in 
quantity  only  from  the  vegetable  juices 
mentioned  in  the  former  part  of  this  arti- 
cle, yet  it  appears  to  be  contained  in  seve- 
ral other  plants.  It  is  contained  in  the 
milky  juices  of  the  Indian  fig,  (Flcus  In. 
(fica,J  and  of  the  bread -fruil  tree  CArto. 
carpus  incisaj;  the  berries  of  the  misletoe, 
and  probably  all  tlie  vegetable  barks  that 
yield  bird-lime,  abound  v.ith  it.  The  ca- 
outchouc however  obtained  from  these 
sources  differs  i>om  that  which  we  have 
been  descrii)ing  in  retaining  a  greater  or 
less  degree  of  viscidity,  and  perhaps  in 
other  respects,  for  no  accurate  compai-a- 
tive  experiments  have  yet  been  made  to 
decide  this  point.  An  investigation  into 
the  properties  and  composition  of  the 
birdlime  from  misletoe  and  holly-bark 
woidd  in  all  probability  lead  to  very  in- 
teresting results. 

The  uses  to  which  caoutchouc  has  hi- 
therto been  applied  are  the  following.  It 
is  employed  ve^-y  extensively  for  rubbing 


out  black-lead  pencil  ntaiks  from  paper, 
hence  its  usual  name  of  Indiaii  rubber :  it 
is  of  value  to  the  cliemist  as  a  material  for 
flexible  tubes  to  gazometers  and  other 
apparatus:  the  surgeon  is  indebkd  to  it 
for  flexible  catheters  and  syringes;  and 
finally  it  enters  as  an  essential  ingredient 
into  the  composition  of  the  best  varnish 
for  balloons.     See  Varnish. 

IXDIGO,  or  Anil.  This  most  valua- 
ble  pigment,  whicli  forms  so  important  a 
pai't  of  West  and  East  Indian  commerce, 
is  usually  brought  over  in  square  or  ob- 
long  cakes  of  an  intense  blue  colour,  al- 
most black  in  the  mass,  brittle  and  friable, 
fight  when  of  a  good  quality,  and  of  a  very 
peculiar  and  disagreeable  smell. 

Indigo  is  usually  reckoned  by  chemists 
as  a  kind  of  fccula,  but  of  a  veiy  peculiar 
nature,  not  exactly  resembUng  any  other 
known  substance.  It  is  prepared  by  fer- 
mentation of  the  leaves  of  the  indigo-plant, 
of  which  the  method,  in  a  short  way,  is  as 
follows. 

There  are  three  principal  varieties  of 
the  indigo-plant  known  and  used  in  the 
West  Indies,  in  Carolina,  and  the  rest  of 
the  American  continent,  from  each  of 
which  mucli  indigo  is  obtained:  one  va- 
riety, which  is  tile  smallest,  is  the  Indigo- 
fera  Tinctoria,  Linn,  (called  by  the  French 
Indigo-franc, J  which  is  a  delicate  ])lant, 
rather  difficult  of  cultivation,  but  which 
yields  indigo  in  abundance  and  with  ease: 
a  second  variety  is  the  Indigofera  ^irgen- 
tea,  Linn.  (Indigo  batard,J  which  is  hardy 
and  easily  cultivated,  and  gives  a  very 
fine  indigo:  and  a  third  variet\  is  the  In. 
dtgcferci  JJisperma,  Linn,  f  Indigo  Guati. 
viala,J  which  much  resembles  the  last 
mentioned. 

The  seed  of  the  plant  is  sown  in  about 
.March  or  April,  at  Saint  Domingo,  and 
the  plant  comes  into  flower  about  three 
months  afterwards,  at  which  time  it  is  in 
full  maturity  ami  is  then  cut  If  it  is  ga- 
thered before  flowering",  the  indigo  which 
it  yields  is  of  a,  finer  colour,  but  much 
less  in  quantity. 

'I'he  chief  apparatus  of  an  indigo-house 
consists  of  three  wooden  vats,  of  difle^ent 
sizes,  and  arranged  on  ilifl'erent  levels,  so 
that  the  contents  of  the  first  may  flow  into 
the  second,  and  of  the  second  into  the 
third.  The  first  is  the  steeping  vat,  in 
which  the  phmt  ferments  with  water;  the 
second  is  ;i,vat  in  which  tiie  thick  fer- 
mented mass  is  beaten  violently  by  ma- 
ciiineiv;  and  tlie  third  is  tliat'in  which 
the  indigo  settles  when  fully  formed. 

The  plant  being  cut,  is  first  laid  into 
the  steeping  vat  so  as  to  fill  it  entirely 
but  without  pressing,  and  is  covereil 
about  thrc^  iuphcs  with  water.     A  fiain© 


IND 


IXD 


<^f  heavy  wooden  bars  is  then  laid  on  the 
vat  to  keep  the  plant  down  when  work- 
ing. Fermentation  soon  begins  in  these 
hot  climates,  and  the  whoie  contents  of 
tlie  vat  swell  and  foam  prcdigiouslr  like 
a  wine  vat  in  full  action,  and  with  disen- 
gagement of  iurg'e  bubbles  of  gas,  which, 
as  they  burs:,  appear  lA'  a  livelj'  green, 
and  tinge  the  whole  vat  of  the  same  co- 
lour. When  tills  process  is  at  the  highest 
T(  the  fcrnienting  mass  is  also  covered  witli 
a  brilliant  copper-coloured  scum,  which 
passes  into  violet  towards  the  end,  but 
the  pulp  and  liquor  beneath  remain  green. 

The  gas  given  off  during  the  process  is 
inflammable  and  readily  takes  fire  by  ap- 
plying a  lighted  candle,  and  the  heaving 
of  tlic  scum  is  so  powerful  as  often  to  lift 
tip  the  heavy  wooden  frame  above  men- 
tioned. 

The  fermetitation  is  known  to  be  car- 
ried on  long  enough  by  taking  samples  of 
the  fennenting  mass  at  different  times, 
which  when  perfect  appears  as  a  liquor 
holding  suspended  a  distinct  green  pulp, 
that  by  a  little  agitation  speedily  and 
completely  separates  and  falls  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cup,  leaving  a  clear  superna- 
tant gold  coloured  liquor-  Much  practi- 
cal skill  is  required  to  seize  the  exact 
point  when  to  stop  the  fermentation, 
which  requires  in  general  from  twelve  to 
si.Yteen  iiours. 

The  wliole  turbid  green  liquor  is  then 
let  cut  of  the  tl-rmeiuing  or  steeping  vat 
and  passes  into  another  vessel  wliere  it  is 
violently  beaten  either  by  the  repeated 
fall  of  buckets,  or  by  a  more  complicated 
mechanical  contrivance  This  has  the  ef- 
iect  of  checking  the  further  fermentation, 
of  preventing  puti'idity,  and  especially  of 
promoting  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  se- 
paration of  the  grain  as  it  is  called,  or  the 
dark-coloured  granular  pulp  which  is  the 
indigo.  The  whole  liquor  and  pulp  dur- 
ing the  process  change  from  green  to  deep 
blue  by  tiie  agitation.  It  is  also  the  cus- 
tom in  many  places  to  add  lime-water  to 
the  pulp  at  this  time,  which  is  thought  to 
hasten  the  graining.  A  large  quantity  of 
air-bubbles  is  also  expelled  by  the  beat- 
ing. 

When  the  grain  separates  readily  and 
completely  by  a  little  rest  fi-om  the  liquor 
that  holds  it  suspended,  the  beating  is 
stopped,  and  the  grain  slowly  subsides 
The  supernatant  liqvior  is  then  drawn  off 
by  cocks  and  suffered  to  run  to  waste, 
carefully  avoiding  to  mix  it  with  any 
brook  or  drinking  pond,  which  it  would 
poison  and  render  dangerous  for  animals 
to  use.  The  thick  dark-blue  pulp  is  then 
let  off  into  tlie  lowest  vat,  out  of  which  it 
;s  laded  into  common  sacks,  which  when 


full  are  htmg  up  that  the  water  may  drsua 
off,  the  indigo  itself  being  too  thick  to  pass 
through.  The  indigo  is  then  transferred 
to  small  wooden  boxes  w'lere  it  is  furtiier 
dried  by  alternate  exposure  to  sun  and 
shade,  and  as  it  becomes  solid  is  cut  into 
square  cakes.  It  is  not  yet  perfect  how- 
ever, for  if  exported  in  this  state  it  would 
mould  and  spoil,  so  that  a  second  fermen- 
tation is  necessary.  For  this,  the  cake.s 
are  heaped  in  a  cask,  and  simply  suffered 
to  remain  for  about  three  weeks.  Dur- 
ing this  time  it  undergoes  a  kind  of  fer- 
mentation, heats,  sweats  at  the  surface, 
gives  out  a  disagreeable  smell,  and  is 
covered  with  a  fine  white  meal.  It  Is 
then  taken  out  and  dried  in  the  shade 
for  five  or  six  days  when  it  is  quite  com- 
plete. 

This,  with  some  slight  variations  in  dif- 
ferent plantations,  is  the  general  way  of 
preparing  indigo,  which  therefore  maybe 
defined  to  be  a  fecula  or  pulverulent  pulp 
separated  from  the  fibre  and  juices  of  the 
entire  plant  by  fermentation,  and  niateiial- 
iv  changed,  by  the  process,  and  doubtless 
bv  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  so  as  to 
pass  from  green  to  a  deep  blue,  and  from 
a  soluble  to  an  insoluble  stale. 

Indigo  is  generally  packed  in  che<;t.s  of 
about  two  hundred  pounds  weight  each. 
The  very  fine  kind  tiiat  comes  frcm  Gua- 
timala  is  usually  wrapped  up  in  goats' 
skins. 

As  indigo  is  an  important  article  in 
coiTimerce  and  tiie  arts,  it  may  not  be  im- 
proper to  describe  some  of  its  prominent 
characters. 

Very  singular  chemical  properties  have 
been  discovered  in  indigo  by  diflerent  ex- 
perimenters, among  whom  nia\'  be  parti- 
cularly mentioned  Bergman,  Huussman, 
and  Bancroft.  The  most  singular  cir- 
cumstance concerning  indigo,  is  tlie  inso- 
lubility of  the  blue  colouring  part  in  every 
simple  menstruum  hitherto  known  (ex- 
cept the  sulphuric  acid)  without  such  an 
alteration  as  entirely  destroys  the  colour 
for  which  it  is  so  much  valued. 

Water  boiled  long  upon  indigo  (the 
finest  and  purest  kind  being  alwuys  sup- 
posed,  as  the  ordinal y  sorts  ai-e  largely 
adulterated)  dissolves  about  a  ninth  ac- 
cording to  Bergman,  or  a  twelfih  accord- 
ing to  Quaticmere,  of  the  weight.  The 
solution  Is  of  a  reddish  brown  colour,  and 
contains  what  may  be  culled  the  extrac- 
tive part,  but  tlie  colouring  portion  re- 
mains absolutely  unaltered,  and  some- 
what of  a  brighter  hue.  The  watery  so- 
lution is  astringent  and  mucilaginous. 

Alcohol  dissolves  a  still  smaller  portion 
than  water,  and  the  colouring  part  re- 
mains   equally    untouched.     Ether  has 


IND 


IND 


nearly  the  same  eflect.  Neillier  the  fised 
nor  the  volatile  oils  have  any  cflect  on  in- 
digo. 

Tlie  sulphuric  acid  is  the  only  single 
agent  tliat  dissolves  indigo  without  de- 
stroying its  colour;  audits  application  as  a 
dye,  in  which  state  it  is  called  Hitxon  blue, 
has  been  mentioned  under  the  article 
Dyeing, 

The  acid  shoidd  be  tolerably  concen- 
trated to  dissolve  tiie  indigo,  and  it  may 
be  used  quite  concentrated  witiiout  detri- 
ment, at  least  in  small  quantities.  A  mo- 
derate heat  much  assists  its  action,  but  it' 
too  high,  tiie  indigo  becomes  partially 
burnt  or  charred,  sidphuric  acid  gas  is 
given  out,  and  all  the  )>ortion  thus  altered 
Temains  insoluble  and  is  spoiled.  'I'iie 
following  recipe  for  the  sulphat  of  indigo, 
or  Saxon  blue,  is  given  by  Mr.  Woulfe. 
Mix  one  ounce  of  the  best  powdered  in- 
digo with  four  ounces  of  oil  of  vitriol,  in  a 
glass  matrass,  and  digest  it  fir  one  hour 
in  tiie  heat  of  boiling  water,  shaking  the 
mixture  several  times,  then  add  twelve 
ounces  of  water  1o  it,  stir  the  whole  well, 
and  when  cold  liller  it.  T'.iis  produces  a 
very  rich  deep  blue  colour,  of  a  much 
brigliter  hue  than  any  of  the  otlier  solu- 
tions of  this  pigment,  but  not  a  fast  colour 
upon  animal  or  vegetable  hbres.  The  co- 
louring power  is  very  great,  a  few  drops 
of  this  solution  giving  a  very  sensible  blue- 
ness  to  a  considerable  bulk  of  water. 

The  nitric  acid  acts  upon  indigo  with 
great  vehemence,  and  in  a  very  singular 
manner.  If  on  a  drachm  or  two  of  tiiiely 
powdered  indigo  be  poured  about  an 
ounce  of  finning  nitrous  acid,  in  a  shoit 
time  the  mixture  heats  violently,  sends 
ibrth  a  coj)ious  flow  of  nitrous  gas,  with 
a  stream  of  sparks,  and  the  whole  ends 
with  bursting  into  tiame.  When  diluted, 
the  acid  acts  much  more  mildly,  but  al- 
ways with  the  entire  destiuction  of  the 
blue  colour,  and  in  its  slcad  produces  a 
yellow  astringent  liqum*,  which  is  pretty 
fast  upon  cotton  or  cloth  dipped  in  it. 
This  scilution  however  is  useless  in  manu- 
facture. iNlr.  Ilaussnian  has  examined 
with  some  minuteness  the  action  of  nitric 
acid  on  indigo.  On  adding  at  intervals 
lour  ounces  of  powdered  indigo  to  16 
oimces  of  common  aquaff)rtis  heated  a  lit- 
tle, ti  great  swelling  and  disengagement 
of  nitr4)us  gas  took  pl'ce,  and  a  co.igu- 
lun>  w:ts  left,  which,  when  washed  with 
cold  v/ater,  formed  a  brown,  viscous,  and 
very  brittle  mass,  in  appearance  like  a 
giun-resin,  dissolving  in  alcohol  with  ease, 
but  not  (-asily  in  water,  e.vccpt  i.i  a  large 
dose,  and  ln)t.  The  acid  tiiiuor  in  which 
the  coagulum  was  foimed,  when  evapo- 
xattd  and  cooled,  let   fall  more;   of  the 


same  bitter  resinous  matter,  after  which 
it  deposited  a  large  quantity  of  crystals 
resembling  oxalic  acid  in  appearance,  but 
bitter  to  the  taste,  and  totally  difl'ering 
from  it  in  chemitral  properties.  The  na- 
ture of  these  crystals  is  not  well  known. 
An  anonymous  writer  in  Nicholson's  Jour- 
nal, on  repeating  the  above  experiments, 
and  using  a  very  large  quantity  of  acid, 
by  repeated  distillations  nearly  destroyed 
the  resinous  matter,  and  obtained  in  the  S 
receiver  a  clear  yellow  liquor,  strongly 
smelling  of  bitter  almonds,  which  sug- 
gested the  idea  of  its  benig  jjrussic  acid  ; 
liowcvcr  after  adding  alkali  to  it  and  sul- 
pliat  of  iron,  no  blue  precipitate  was  pro- 
duced. 

The  osymuriatic  acid  acts  bnt  feebly 
on  indigo  in  decomposing  or  disorganiz- 
ing it,  but  destroys  the  blue  colour  to- 
tally and  speedily.  Hence  the  sulphat 
of  indigo  has  ingeniously  been  applied  as 
a  measure  of  the  intensity  of  the  bleach- 
ing power  of  the  oxymuriatic  acid. 

None  of  the  other  acids  exert  any  ap- 
parent action  on  the  colouring  matter  of 
indigo. 

None  of  the  alkalies,  nor  alkaline 
earths,  cither  mild  or  carbonated,  when 
used  alone,  have  any  action  whatever  on 
indigo  in  its  blue  or  perfect  state.  But  to 
effect  a  solution  of  it,  in  alkalies,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  use  some  addition,  which  ap- 
jiears  first  to  chatige  the  indigo,  and 
bring  it  back  to  a  state  resembling  the  re- 
cent pulp  during  the  jjrocess  of  manufac- 
ture. This  at  least  is  made  probable  by 
the  change  of  colour  that  precedes  tiie  so- 
lution in  alkalies,  and  appears  an  essen- 
tial circumst:mce,  and  this  change  isfi-om 
blue  to  green  of  various  shades,  with  a 
brilliant  pellicle  on  the  surface,  of  the 
colour  and  gloss  of  reguline  co])per,  or 
rather  brighter.  This  same  change, 
but  in  a  reverse  order,  takes  place  in  the 
fc'rmentationr  of  the  plant,  and  process  of 
manufacture;  that  is,  the  coloiu"  is  at 
firstgreen,  with  a copper-coloiu-ed pellicle, 
and  finally  blue. 

liullgo  not  only  requires  to  be  changed 
from  tiie  blue  to  the  green  state,  before 
it  will  dissolve  in  alkalies,  bnt  when  the 
solution  is  made,  it  only  remains  dissolv- 
ed, as  long  as  it  continues  green,  or 
greenish  yellow;  for  wiien  by  any  means 
it  resumes  its  blue  state,  it  immediately 
bec(nnes  insoluble,  and  separates  from 
the  alkaline  liquor  in  form  of  a  dark 
blue  mud,  or  sediment.  l'l\posure  to  the 
atniosplu-re  regenerates  blue  indigo  in  a 
remarkable  manner,  so  that  if  a  drop  of 
the  solution  be  poured  on  paper,  the  sur- 
face turns  from  green  and  yellow  to  blue 
in  a  very  few  seconds,  which  last  colour 


INK 


INK 


iTiav  be  again  removed  (but  hrecovera- 
bly  so)  by  the  oxymuriatic  acid.  Fiom 
these  and  othei*  ciixumstanccs,  Dr.  Ban- 
croft infers,  that  the  cause  of  ihe  change 
arises  from  t'.ie  difierent  degree  of  ox}  - 
genation,  the  green  being  in  the  lowest 
state  of  oxy^ci.ation,  and  the'  blue  in  the 
highest,  ihe  substances  tiiat  form  pio- 
per  additions  to  enable  alkalies  to  dis- 
solve indigo  are  very  i.umerous,  andvei) 
r  discordant  hi  their  natui-e,  for  not  only 
have  the  nietaUic  sub-oxyds  this  power, 
(as  might  be  expected)  but  even  almost 
every  soluble  vegetable  matter  has  the 
same,  such  as  sugar,  raisins,  bran.  Sec. 
&c.  A  very  simple,  and  efficacious  way 
of  dissolvuig  indigo,  is  by  mtans  of  tlie 
oxyd  of  tin;  for  which,  let  some  well  sa- 
turated muriat  of  tin  be  super-saturated 
witli  potash,  so  tliat  the  precipitate  at  first 
formed,  may  be  redlssolved,  and  tlie  solu- 
tion con\ Cited  into  an  alkaline  one,  after 
which,  indigo  will  dissolve  m  it  reacUiy, 
and  assume  almost  instantly  a  deep  green 
colour. 

'liie  particular  methods  of  preparing 
these  solutions  in  the  indigo  vats,  for 
the  use  of  the  dyer,  aie  described  suffi- 
ciently under  the  article  Dyeixg. 

The  analjsis  of  indigo  by  fii'e  onlv,  af- 
fords but  little  insight  into  its  composi- 
tion. M'hen  distilled />fr  se,  some  ammo- 
nia and  a  peculiar  oil  rise,  and  if  after- 
wards burnt  away,  notliing  remains  but 
a  very  small  portion  of  a  very  light  brown 
powder  or  ash.  This  is  a  tolerable  test 
of  its  goodness,  as  tliere  is  hardly  anj-  ve- 
getable tliat  leaves  so  small  a  portion  of 
allies. 

INFUSION,  is  the  maceration  of  any 
substance  in  water,  or  any  other  liquid, 
hot  or  cold,  with  a  view  of  extracting  its 
soluble  parts.  The  liquid  tlius  impreg- 
nated ia  called  an  Infusion. 

INGOT. — An  ingot  is  a  small  bar  of 
metal  n;ade  of  a  pai-ticular  tbrni  and 
size,  (generally  a  very  long  parallello- 
pepid)  by  casting  it  in  hollowed  iron  or 
brass  plates,  called  ingot  nnouldn.  It  is 
chiefly  to  the  small  bai-s  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver that  the  term  ingot  is  applied. 

INK.  Common  v:riting. — The  prepa- 
ration of  common  \mting  ink,  is  a  sub- 
ject of  great  importance  in  technical  che- 
mistry. A  good  ink  is  of  a  proper  con- 
sistence to  tiow  freely  from  the  pen,  of 
a  full  deep  black,  so  permanent  as  to  re- 
main for  a  number  of  years  without  ma- 
terially fading  or  becoming  illegible, 
dries  very  soon  after  writing  with  it,  and 
does  not  considerably  coiTode,  or  soften 
the  pen.  The  basis  of  all  the  common 
writing  inks  is  the  fine  black,  or  dark 
blue  precipitate,  fonned  by  the  addition 


of  vegetable  astringents,  and  particularly  ot" 
the  soluble  part  of  tlie  gall-nut,  to  a  so- 
lution of  iron,  gentratiy  the  suiphat.  But 
as  this,  if  dihused  m  water  alone,  woiUd 
subside  in  a  short  lime,  and  leave  the 
supen.atant  liquor  nearly  without  colour, 
the  precipitate  is  kept  suspended,  by 
thickening  the  water  with  gum  arable, 
or  any  other  gum  mucilage,  which  also 
gives  the  ink  the  due  consistence,  and 
enables  it  to  trace  a  fine  snoke  on  the 
paper  without  running.  These  materials 
therefore,  that  is,  gall-nuts,  green  vitriol, 
(suiphat  of  iron)  gum  ai-abic,  and  water, 
are  all  that  are  necessary  for  the  compo- 
sition of  ink,  and  if  they  are  of  good  qua- 
lity, and  properly  proportioned  to  each 
odier,  every  other  addition  usualiv  made, 
adds  very  little  to  its  perfection. ' 

It  is  not  well  ascertained  how  soon  the 
present  kind  of  writing  ink  came  into 
use.  It  has  certainly  been  employed  for 
m.any  centuries  in  most  European  coun- 
tiies,  but  the  ancient  Roman  inks  were  for 
the  most  part  of  a  totally  different  com- 
position, being  made  of  some  vegetable 
carbonaceous  matter  like  lamp-black, 
diffused  in  a  liquor.  The  Chinese  and 
many  of  the  other  inks  used  by  the  Ori- 
ental nations,  are  still  of  this  kind. 

On  the  subject  of  the  common  writing 
ink,  Dr  Lewis  has  given  so  full  and  so  ac- 
curate an  investigation,  and  hrs  experi- 
ments are  so  simple  and  well  devised,  that 
little  else  can  be  added  to  the  subject  in 
a  technical  point  of  view. 

Dr.  Lewis  first  endeavoured  to  ascer- 
tain the  best  proportion  between  the 
galls  and  the  suiphat  of  iron,  to  render 
the  ink  permanent;  for  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  \»«ith  almost  any  proporUons, 
if  the  entire  qaantity  be  sufficient,  the 
ink  will  be  fine  and  black  at  first,  but 
many  of  these  inks  if  kept  for  some  time, 
especially  exposed  to  light  and  air,  will 
grow  brown  and  fade,  and  the  letters 
made  with  it  will  become  nearly  illegible. 

By  trying  difierent  proportions  of  galls 
and  suiphat  of  iron,  it  was  found,  that 
when  about  in  equal  quantities  (the  galls 
being  powdered  and  boiled  fiilly  to  ex- 
tract tlieir  soluble  parts)  diey  appeared  to 
be  mutually  saturated,  so  that  the  mixed 
liquors  would  receive  no  additional  black- 
ness from  a  further  dose  of  one  or  the 
other.  This  however  was  only  a  rough 
approximation  to  accuracy,  for  the  same 
effect  was  produced  wlien  either  sub- 
stance was  also  in  a  small  degiee  supe- 
rior in  quantity  to  the  other.  But  Dr. 
Lewis  found  that  an  ink  with  equal  parts 
of  the  two,  though  very  black  at  first, 
changed  to  a  yellowish  brown  upon  ex- 
posure to  the  sun  and  air  ciily  for  a  few 


INK 


INK 


days.  This  was  again  blackened  b_v 
washing  with  fresli  gall-iiifiision,  and 
hence  it  appears  a  fair  inference  ihuttlie 
galls  are  in  some  degree  a  perislKiblc 
sub-slance,  so  that  to  ensure  diirabilit}',  a 
much  greater  proportion  must  enter  into 
the  ink  than  is  required  for  mere  satura- 
tion in  the  first  instance.  Thus  it  was 
found  tliat  two  parts  of  galls  and  one  of 
vitriol,  make  a  much  more  duraljle  ink 
than  witli  equal  parts,  and  three  of  galls 
with  one  of  vitriol  was  still  more  durable- 
When  the  galls  were  encreased  beyond 
this  point  the  colour  was  indeed  quite 
permanent,  but  it  was  not  of  so  full  a 
black. 

The  proportion  of  water  or  other  liquid 
to  the  solid  ingredients  will  admit  of  great 
variation.  One  part  of  vitriol  three  of 
galls,  and  fifty  parts  of  water,  gave  an 
ink  black  enough  for  common  use,  but 
tlie  finest  and  blackest  was  made  when 
only  ten  of  water  were  cm])lo}  ed  ;  nor 
was  any  deficiency  in  the  gallic  acid  ob- 
served after  fil'tecn  years,  though  the  wa- 
ter was  scarcely  more  than  sufficient  to 
cover  the  galls,  and  therefore  could  hard- 
ly be  su imposed  capable  of  extracting  all 
the  soluble  part  of  them,  and  though  the 
vitriol,  from  its  greater  solubility,  would 
probably  be  dissolved  entirely,  and  thus 
be  in  greater  proportion  than  usual. 
Other  liquors  besides  water  were  tried 
Of  these  while  wine  and  vinegar  appeared 
to  answer  somewhat  better,  but  any  con- 
siderable proportion  of  sjiirit  of  v.'ine,  or 
brandy,  obviously  did  harm,  owing  to  tlie 
insolubility  of  the  sulphat  of  iron  (as  of 
all  the  other  sulphats)  in  alcoliol,  and 
therefore  its  diminished  solubility  in  any 
liquor  is  in  ])roportion  to  tlie  alcohol  it 
contains.  A  decoction  of  logwood  used 
instead  of  water,  sensibly  improved  the 
beauty  of  the  colour. 

Instead  of  galls  other  astringents  were 
employed,  such  as  sloes<,  oak-baik,  tor- 
niei:lil  root,  &.C.  but  though  they  all  gave 
a  good  blue-black  with  the  salt  of  iron, 
none  of  them  was  equal  to  the  gall-nut  in 
this  respect. 

Other  salts  of  iron  were  also  substitut- 
ed to  the  sulphat.  The  muriat  and  ni- 
tr.at  of  iron  nearly  equalled  the  sulphat 
in  colour,  but  jiroved  too  corrosive  to  the 
paper,  and  a;;  they  were  in  no  respect 
preferable  to  the  sulphat,  there  is  no  rea- 
son for  abandoning  it. 

Imagining  that  there  must  be  some 
excess  of  sulphuric  acid  in  common  iik, 
to  which  the  fading  miglit  be  imputed, 
Dr.  L.  tried  to  neutralize  it  by  lime  and 
alkalies,  but  with  manifest  injury,  the 
colour  being  rendered  thereby  extremely 
fiigi'dve.     Another    ingenious    idea    for 


avoiding  the  supposed  excess  ol  .icid^ 
wiis  to  separate  the  black  atramentous 
precipitate,  wash  it,  and  again  difiuse  it 
with  water  thickened  with  gum.  This, 
did  indeed  make  a  very  good  ink,  but 
with  the  capital  defect  of  not  i-emaining 
so  long  suspended  in  the  liquor,  and  es- 
pecially of  not  fixing  itself  to  the  paper 
like  common  ink,  but  rather  only  slight- 
ly  adhering  like  a  weak  gum  varnish,  an'!, 
was  readily  >vashed  off  by  water.  Hence  M 
it  appeals  that  the  acid  of  the  salt  of  iron 
acts  as  a  kind  of  mordant  or  intermede, 
between  the  atramentous  precipitate  and 
the  paper,  and  causes  a  degree  of  chemi- 
cal union  between  them  :  a  real  advan- 
tage which  this  species  of  ink  possesses 
over  all  the  lan)p-black  or  China  hiks, 
which  indeed  arc  rather  black  varnishes. 

With  regard  to  the  gummy  ingredient, 
the  effect  of  which  is  chiefly  mechanical, 
it  was  found  that  any  other  gum-mucilage 
would  answer  as  well,  but  not  glue,  isin- 
glass, nor  animal  jelly  of  any  kind.  Be- 
sides as  these  latter  putrify  by  keeping, 
this  alone  would  be  a  strong  objection. 

Sugar  is  sometimes  added  to  ink.  It 
makes  it  flow  somewhat  easier  from  the 
pen,  and  gives  it  when  dry  a  gloss  which 
is  admired  by  some. "  It  has  this  quality 
however  of  making  it  very  slow  in  drj- 
ing,  which  in  most  cases  is  an  incon- 
venience. 

On  account  of  the  great  improvement 
to  the  black  atramentous  dye  produced 
by  adding  sulphat  of  copper;  some  have 
recommended  this  addiuon  to  common 
ink,  which  is  composed  of  the  same  ma- 
terials ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
same  advantage  is  hei'e  obtained,  and  Dr. 
Lewis  thinks  it  an  useless  addition. 

From  the  aljove  observations  Dr.  Lewis 
gives  (he  following  receipt  for  the  com- 
position of  ink :  Put  into  a  stone  or  glass 
bottle,  or  any  otiier  vessel,  three  ounces 
of  finely  powdered  galls,  one  ounce  of 
green  vitriol,  one  ounce  of  log-wood  finely 
rasped  or  bruised,  one  ounce  of  gum  ara- 
ble, and  a  quart  of  soft  water.  Shake  the 
bottle  well,  ?.nd  let  the  ingredients  stand 
in  a  modei-ately  warm  place  for  a  week 
or  ten  days,  shaking  it  frequently  in  the 
day.  It  is  then  fit  for  use,  but  a  little  be- 
Ibre  it  is  put  into  the  ink-stand,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  shake  the  bottle  that  the  colour 
may  be  more  uniformly  difl'uscd. 

'i'o  prevent  the  ink  from  moulding, 
Hoffman  recommends  half  a  dozen  cloves 
to  be  brui.sed  with  the  gum  arable  and 
put  into  the  bottle.  This  appears  an  use- 
iul  addition.  Instead  of  water  alone, 
where  a  very  fine  ink  is  wanted,  white  wine 
or  vinegar  and  water  may  be  used. 

If  the  ink  be  wanted  for  use  in  a  verv" 


INK 


INK 


short  time,  the  galls  and  logwood  may 
be  boiled  for  half  an  hour  in  the  water, 
adding  a  little  more  to  supply  the  waste, 
and  the  decoction,  while  hot,  strained  oft" 
through  a  cloth,  and  tlie  gum  r.rabic  and 
cloves,  and  the  sulphat  of  iron,  both  in 
line  powder,  added  to  the  decoction  when 
in  tlie  hottle  and  shaken.  The  ink  will 
then  be  fit  for  use  almost  immediately 
after  tlie  latter  ingredients  are  dissolved. 
It  will  be  improved  by  adding  to  U\e 
bottle  some  pieces  of  gall-nut  coarsely 
bruised. 

Ink  kept  in  a  close  bottle  is  always 
rather  paJe,  but  it  blackens  by  exposure 
to  air  in  a  few  hours,  and  probably  in  this 
way  tiie  colour  is  somewhat  more  durable 
than  if  it  were  brought  by  previous  ex- 
posure to  its  full  colour  at  once. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  sugar  ren- 
ders ink  slow  in  drying.  Advantage  is 
ingeniously  taken  of  this  property  in  en- 
abling it  to  give  one,  and  sometimes  two 
impressions  on  soft  paf)er  when  strongly 
pressed.  In  this  simple  way  letters  are 
copied  in  merchants  counting-houses,  and 
offices  of  business.  A  little  sugar  is  mix- 
ed with  the  ink,  the  written  sheet  is  laid 
on  the  copying  press,  a  blank  sheet  of  po- 
rous and  damped  paper  is  put  over  it,  and 
by  tlie  pressure  of  the  machine  a  pfcrfcct 
fac-simile  of  the  writing  is  sti-uck  oft',  suf- 
ficiently legible  for  all  ptuposes. 

This  ingenious  method  saves  a  vast 
quantity  of  labour  usually  bestowed  in  co- 
pying letters,  and  besides  prevents  all 
possibility  of  mistake. 

As  common  writing  ink  is  susceptible 
of  being  eftaced  by  oxygenated  muriatic 
acid,  and  as  the  knowledge  of  this  fact 
may  be  abused  to  very  fraudulent  pur- 
poses, chymists  have  judged  it  an  object 
of  importance  to  try,  whether  a  writing 
ink  might  not  be  prepared,  which  should 
entirely  resist  the  action  of  that  acid, 
ritet,  with  this  view,  added  to  the  ink 
commonly  in  use,  a  portion  of  indigo.  But 
this  addition  is  of  no  service  if  the  ink  be 
not  carefully  shaken  every  time  it  is  em- 
ployed. ^Vestrumb  recommends  the  fol- 
lowing composition  of  ink,  as  absolutely 
indestructible.  Boil  one  ounce  of  fer- 
nambuco,  and  three  ounces  ofnutgp.il.*, 
in  forty-six  ounces  of  water,  till  thev  shall 
be  reduced  to  thirty -two  ounces  in  all.  Pour 
this  decoction,  while  it  is  yet  Jiot,  upon 
half  an  ounce  of  sulphate  of  iron,  or  mar- 
tial vitriol,  one  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
gum  arabic,  and  one  quarter  of  an  ounce 
uf  white  sugar.  After  these  substances 
are  dissolved,  add  to  the  solution  one 
ounce  and  a  quarter  of  indigo,  finely  pul- 
veri2.ed,  with  three  quai-ters  of  an  ounce 
A'  lampblack,  very  pure,  or  of  smoke 
VOL.  I. 


black,  previously  diluted  In  one  ounce  of 
the  best  brandy,  M.Bosse  g^ves  a  receipt, 
which  is  still  more  simple.  He  directs  to 
boil  one  ounce  of  fernambuca  with  twelve 
oimces  of  w.ater,  and  half  an  ounce  of 
alum ;  to  continue  the  ebullition  till  the 
liquid  mixture  shall  have  been  reduced 
to  eight  ounces ;  then  to  add  an  ounce  of 
oxyd  of  manganese,  which  you  liave  re- 
duced by  decantation  to  extreme  fineness, 
and,  in  mixture  witli  it,  half  an  ounce  of 
gum  arabic. 

Sometimes  the  ink  of  very  old  writings 
is  so  much  faded  by  time  as  to  be  illegi- 
ble Dr.  Blagden  in  his  experiments  on 
this  subject  foimd,  that  in  most  of  these 
the  colour  might  be  restored,  or  rather  a 
new  body  of  colour  given,  by  pencilling 
them  over  first  with  a  solution  of  prussiat 
of  potash,  and  then  \nth  a  dilute  acid 
either  sulphuric  or  raiu-iatic ;  or  else  vice- 
versa,  first  with  the  acid  and  then  with 
the  prussiat.  The  acid  dissolves  the  oxyd 
of  iron  of  the  faded  ink,  and  die  prussiat 
precipitates  it  again  of  a  blue,  which  re- 
stores the  legibility  of  the  writing.  If  this 
be  done  neatly  and  blotting  paper  laid 
over  the  letters  as  fast  as  they  become 
visible,  their  form  will  be  retained  very 
d  stinctly.  Pencilling  over  the  letters 
with  an  infusion  of  galls  also  restores  the 
blackness  to  a  certain  degree,  but  not  so 
speedily  nor  so  completely. 

The  blackness  of  common  ink  is  almost 
instantly  an.d  irrevocably  desti'oyed  by  the 
oxjmuriatic  acid,  and  hence  an}-  writing 
may  be  effaced  by  this  method  complete- 
ly. To  prevent  this  mischief,  which 
might  often  be  a  serious  one,  several  ad- 
ditions have  been  proposed  to  common 
ink,  of  which  by  far  the  best  is  lamp-black 
or  charcoal,  in  impalpable  powder,  on 
which  the  acid  h.is  no  efl^ect.  The  lamp- 
black sliould  be  of  the  least  oily  kind,  as 
it  does  not  reaciiiy  mix  with  the  ink,  and 
some  pains  must  be  taken  to  incorporate 
them.  On  this  account  perhaps  common 
charcoal  is  preferable.  About  a  quarter 
of  the  weight  of  the  vitriol  used  will  be 
amply  sufficient.  This  will  not  fade  by 
age. 

Indelible  Ink. — Receipt.  Lunar  caustic, 
one  ounce :  weak  solution  of  galls,  two 
ounces.  The  cloth  to  be  first  wetted 
with  a  solution  of  one  ounce  of  salt  of  tar- 
tar dissolved  in  one  ounce  of  water,  .and 
must  be  quite  dry  before  using  the  ink. 

^>lnother. — Dissolve  4  drachms  of  lunar 
caustic  in  4  ounces  of  rain  or  river  water. 
To  the  clear  solution  add  60  drops  of  an 
infusion  of  2  drachms  of  powdered  gails 
in  a  gill  of  boiling  water. 

The  cloth  is  to  be  previously  wetted 
with  a  solution  of  1  ounce  of  pearl  ash  in 
3  R 


IXK 


INK 


4  ounces  of  water,  and  suffered  to  dry 
thoroughly. 

Ini,  China  or  Indian. — The  well  known 
and  much  admired  Indian  or  China  ink, 
is  brought  over  in  small  oblon;j;  cukes, 
which  readily  become  difluscd  in  water 
by  rubbing,  and  the  blackness  i-emains 
suspended  in  it  for  a  considerable  time, 
owing  to  the  extreme  sublety  of  division 
of  the  substance  that  gives  the  colour,  and 
the  intimacy  with  which  it  is  united  to 
the  mucilaginous  matter  that  keeps  it 
suspended. 

Indian  ink  does  however  deposit  the 
whole  of  its  colour  by  standing-,  wlien  it 
is  difiused  in  a  considerable  quantity  of 
water,  Dr  Lewis  on  examining  this  sub- 
stance found  that  the  ink  consisted  of  a 
black  sediment  totally  insoluble  in  \*ater, 
which  appeared  to  be  of  the  nature  of  the 
finest  lamp-black,  and  of  another  sub- 
stance soluble  in  water,  and  which  pu- 
trefied by  keeping;  and  when  evaporated 
left  a  tenacious  jelly  exactly  like  glue  or 
isinglass.  It  appears  probable  therefore 
that  ii  consists  of  nothing  more  tliaii  these 
two  ingredients,  and  probably  may  be 
imitated  with  perfect  accuracy  by  using 
a  very  fine  jelly,  like  isinglass  or  size, 
and  the  finest  lamp-black,  and  incorporat- 
ing them  thoroughly.  The  finest  lamp- 
black known  is  made  from  ivory  shavings, 
and  thence  called  ivory-black. 

Ink,  Printers. — Tliis  is  a  very  singular 
composition,  paitaking  much  of  the  na- 
ture of  an  oil  varnish,  but  difl'ering  from 
it  in  the  quahty  of  adhering  firmly  to 
moistened  paper,  aird  in  being  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  soluble  in  soap  water. 

It  Jb,  when  used  by  the  printers,  of  the 
consistence  of  rather  thin  jelly,  so  tliat  it 
may  be  sineared  over  the  types  readily 
and  thiidy,  when  applied  by  leather  cush- 
ions, and  it  dries  very  speedily  on  the 
paper  without  running  through  to  the 
other  side,  or  passing  the  limits  of  the 
letter. 

Tne  method  of-making  printer's  ink  is 
thus  described  by  Dr.  Lewis. 

Ten  or  twelve  gillons  of  mit  oil  are  set 
over  the  fire  in  a  large  iron  pot,  and 
brought  to  boil.  It  is  then  stirred  with 
an  iron  ladle,  and  v/hilst  boiling-,  the  in- 
flammable vapour  rising  fiom  it  either 
takes  fire  of  itself,  or  is  kindled,  and  suf- 
fered to  burn  in  this  way  for  about  half 
an  hour,  the  pot  being  partially  covered 
so  as  to  regulate  tlie  body  of  the  Hame, 
and  consequently  tlie  heat  communicated 
to  the  oil.  It  is  frequently  stirred  during 
this  time,  that  the  wIkjIc  may  be  heated 
equally,  otherwise  a  part  Mould  be  char- 
red and  the  rest  left  imperfect.  Tlie 
iJanne  is  then  extinguished  by  entirely  co- 


vering the  pot.  The  oil  by  this  process 
has  much  of  its  unctuous  quality  destroy- 
ed, and  when  cold,  is  of  the  coiwistence  of 
soft  turpentine,  and  is  then  called  varnish. 
After  this  it  is  made  into  ink  by  mixture 
with  the  requisite  quantity  of  lamp-black, 
of  which  about  2i  ounces  are  sufficient 
for  16  ounces  of  the  prepared  oil.  The 
oil  loses  by  the  boihng  about  an  eighth  of 
its  weight,  and  emits  very  offensive  fumes. 
Several  other  additions  are  made  to  the 
oil  during  the  boiling,  such  as  crusts  of 
bread,  onions,  and  sometimes  turpentine. 
These  are  kept  secret  by  the  preparers. 
The  intention  of  them  is  more  efTectually 
to  destroy  part  of  the  unc1:uous  quality  of 
the  oil,  to  give  it  more  body,  to  enable  it 
to  adhere  better  to  the  wetted  paper,  and 
to  spread  on  the  types  neatly  and  uni- 
formly. 

Besides  these  additions,  others  are 
made  by  tlie  printers,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  generally  understood  to  be  u 
little  fine  indigo  in  powder,  to  improve 
the  beauty  of  the  colour. 

For  further  observations  on  the  nature 
of  fixed  oils,  and  the  alteration  they  un- 
dergo by  heat,  see  0 1 1,. 

lied  printers  ink  is  made  by  adding 
to  the  vainish  aboiit  half  its  weight  of  Ver- 
million. A  little  carmine  also  improves 
the  colour. 

Inks,  coloured.  Fewof  these  are  used 
except  red  ink.  The  preparation  oft  esc 
is  very  simple,  consisting  either  of  decoc- 
tions of  the  different  colouring  or  dyeing 
materials  in  water,  and  thickened  will* 
gum  arable,  or  of  coloured  metallic  oxyds 
or  insoluble  powders  merely  difl'used  in 
gum  wat^r.  The  proportion  of  gum  ara- 
ble to  be  used  m;iy  be  the  same  as  for 
black  writing  ink.  All  that  applies  to  the 
fixed  or  fugitive  nature  of  the  several  ar- 
ticles used  in  dyeing,  may  be  applied  in 
general  to  the  use  of  the  same  substances 
as  inks. 

Hed  Ink,  is  usually  made  by  boiling 
about  two  ounces  of  IJrazil  wood  in  a  pint 
of  water  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  ad- 
ding to  tne  decoction  the  requisite  quanli- 
tyof  gum,  and  about  half  as  much  alum. 
The  alum  both  heightens  the  colovir  and 
makes  it  less  fugitive.  I'robably  a  little 
madder  would  nuike  it  more  durable. 

To  make  lied  Ink  that  wilt  not  change  iti 
ctdour — 'late  four  grains  of  the  best  car- 
mine, and  jjour  thcicon  two  ounces  of 
caustic  ammonia,  adding  twenty  grains  of 
the  cleiirest  gum  arable;  let  them  remain 
until  the  gum  is  dissolved.  This  ink, 
however  it  may  be  something  dearer  than 
in  the  ordinary  way  of  its  |)reparation,  is 
of  nmch  finer  colour  and  more  durable  : 
for  by  experience  it  is  known  thatcharac- 


IRO 


mo 


tei'fe  which  have  been  traced  with  this  ink, 
have  remained  perfectly  fresh  for  forty 
years  afterward. 

Blue  Ink,  may  be  made  by  diffusing 
Prussian  blue  or  indigo  through  strong 
gum-water. 

Yellow  Lit,  may  be  made  by  a  solution 
of  gamboge  in  gum-water. 

Most  oftlie  common  water-colour  cakes 
diffused  in  water,  will  make  sufficiently 
good  coloured  inks  for  most  purposes. 

IxKS,  Sympathetic  or  Secret. 

Tliese  are  all  liquids  which  have 
scarcely  any  coloi;r  in  their  common  state, 
and  therefore  when  cbaraclers  aie  traced 
with  them  on  paper  they  are  invisible,  or 
nearly  so,  at  first,  but  a  colour  is  given  to 
them  eiiher  by  applying  some  cliemical 
reagent,  or  by  more  heat.  A  considera- 
ble number  of  these  have  been  ip.vented, 
some  of  which  may  be  just  enumerated. 

The  sympathetic  ink  of  cobalt  is  the 
best  known  and  the  most  singular.  Any 
solution  oftiiis  metal  that  contains  muria- 
tic acid  in  any  form  becomes  green  when 
heated,  but  returns  to  a  state  nearly  co- 
lourless when  cold.  This  also  will  appear 
and  vanish  alternately  by  heating  or  cool- 
ing. When  the  cobalt  is  pure  the  colour 
approaches  strongly  to  blue.  See  Co- 
balt. 

Charactei-s  written  with  lemon-jnlce 
are  invisible  at  first,  but  on  strongly  heat- 
ing the  paper, llie  extractive  matter  of  the 
lemons  tuins  brown,  and  thus  becomes 
visible. 

Sulphuric  acid  motlerately  diluted,  an- 
swers in  the  same  way.  On  heating  the 
paper  the  water  of  the  acid  files  off,  the 
latter  becomes  thereby  concentrated,  and 
acts  on  the  paper,  making  it  brown. 

Of  the  secret  inks  formed  by  the  action 
of  reagents,  the  metallic  solutions  that  are 
blackened  by  a  liquid  svdphuret,  or  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  gas,  are  the  best 
known.  These  metallic  solutions  are 
those  of  lead,  silver,  bismuth,  and  mer- 
cury. 

The  acetite  of  lead  is  one  of  the  most 
convenient.  Letters  written  by  any  of 
these  solutions,  are  at  once  blackened  and 
rendered  visible,  by  being  wttted  with 
the  sulphuretted  solution,  or  more  slowly 
by  exposure  to  the  gas.  The  solutions 
may  be  very  dilute,  as  the  deepening  of 
colour  is  very  powerful. 

A  weak  solution  of  gallic  acid  diluted 
so  as  to  be  colourless,  will  also  be  blacken- 
ed by  any  salt  of  iron. 

Prussiat  of  potash  will  likewise  become 
blue  b}'  any  solution  of  iron. 

IRON,  b'on  is  a  metal,  of  a  blueish 
grey  colour,  hard,  ductile  and  malleable  ; 
capable  of  acijniring  magnetic   poL-irily. 


and  of  being  welded  ;  soluble  in  the  muri- 
atic and  most  other  acids  ;  precipitablein 
the  state  of  Prussian  blue  by  a  prussi.  ted 
alkali,  and  assuming  a  deep  bluish-black 
colour,  with  infusion  of  gall-nut. 

Ores  of  Iron. 

Natiiie  Iron.  Its  colour  is  light  steel- 
grey,  resembling  white  cast  iron  or  plati- 
na ;  but  it  is  generally  covered  by  a  thin 
superficial  cru.st  of  brown  oxyd.  It  occurs 
branched  or  cellular.  Its  lustre  is  mode- 
rately shining  and  metallic.  Its  fracture 
is  hackly ;  it  gives  a  bright  streak,  may 
be  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  and  is  perfect- 
ly malleable  when  cold,  and  in  a  moderate 
heat,  but  at  a  high  temperature  it  becomes 
brittle  and  granular ;  it  is  flexible  and 
difficultly  frangible.  Sp.  gr.  not  exceed- 
ing 6.48. 

A  mass  of  native  iron,  reported  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  to  have  fallen 
from  t!ie  sk}-,  was  found  by  Professor  Pal- 
las in  Siberia.  Between  the  rivulets  Ubei 
and  Sissim,  that  run  into  the  Jenisei  on 
the  eastern  side,  is  a  mountain  containing 
a  rich  piine  of"  magnetic  iron  ore  ;  on  the 
same  side  of  the  mountain  where  this 
mine  is  situated,  was  found  lying  loose  on 
the  rock  the  mass  of  native  iron  alluded 
to,  weighing  1680  Russ.  lbs.  This  mass 
is  cellular,  and  the  cells  are  either  empty 
or  occupied  by  a  transparent  greenish 
yellow  substance,  at  first  taken  for  fiuor 
spar,  but  which  on  subsequent  examina- 
tion gi'eatly  resembles  the  chrysolite. 

A  still  larger  mass  of  native  iron  was 
seen  and  described  by  Don  Rubin  de  Ce- 
lis.  It  is  situated-  in  the  district  of  Otum- 
pa,  in  the  Vice-royalty  cf  Peru  ;  its  weight 
is  about  15  ton  ;  it  is  compact  externally, 
and  is  marked  with  impressions  as  if  of 
hands  and  feet,  but  much  larger,  and  of 
claws  of  birds  ;  internally  it  is  full  of  ca- 
vities. It  is  almost  imbedded  in  white 
clay,  and  the  country  round  it  quite  flat 
and  destitute  of  water.  Another  mass  of 
iron  likened  in  shape  to  a  fallen  tree,  has 
also  been  seen  in  the  same  territory. 

Native  iron,  in  detached  masses,  and  of 
a  cellular  texture,  has  also  been  foimd 
near  Tabor  in  Bohemia,  and  m  Senegal  in 
Africa. 

Native  iron  has  also  been  found  imbed- 
ded in  brown  ironstone,  spathose  iron- 
stone, and  hea\y  spar,  at  Kamsdorf  in  Sax- ' 
ony,  and  is  said  to  have  occurred  stalacti- 
tical  with  brown  ironstone  and  quartz, 
forming  a  vein  in  the  mountain  of  Oulle, 
near  Grenoble. 

Uninagnetkal  Iron  Pyrites. 

Ofthistliere  ai-e  the  five  following  sub- 
species. 

l.Subsp.  Common  Pyrites. 

Its     colour    is    perfect   brass-yellow. 


sometimes  by  tarnishing  it  is  supeificially 
redilish  or  brownish. 

It  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  invest- 
ing, and  crystallized  Its  primitive  crys- 
taUine  form  is  the  cube,  which  passes  in- 
to a  number  of  varieties 

When  exposed  to  the  blowpipe  on  cliar- 
coal,  it  emits  a  strong  sulpluireous  odour, 
and  burns  with  a  bluish  Hame  It  then 
becomes  a  brownish  globule,  attractable 
by  the  magnet,  and  by  a  further  continu- 
ance of  tl>e  heat  passes  inloabiiackish  slag. 

According  to  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Hatchett,  the  pyrites  with  smootli  cubes, 
consists  of 

Sulphur        52.-0 
Iron  47.30 


100.0 


Pyrites  with  striated  cubes  contains 
Sulphur  52.5 

L-on  47.5 


lOO.O 


and  dodccabedral  pyrites  contains 
Sulphur         5215 
Iron  47.85 


K'  00 


The  striated  cubes  and  dodecaliedrons 
.<?omi-times  contain  gold,  and  henct  are  na- 
in<.d  avr.iferous  pyrites. 

Common  pyrites  is  in  almost  every  mine- 
ral formation,  and  almost  ever.y  species;  of 
rock.  It  abounds  in  granite,  and  particu- 
larly In  primitive  and  transition  argillace- 
ous schlstus. 

h  is  never  wrought  as  an  ore  of  Iron, 
but  is  largely  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  green  vitriol,  aiid  sulphur  is  often 
procui-ed  from  it  by  sublimation,  while 
the  residual  red  oxyd  is  valuable  as  a 
coarsi  k.ind  of  pahit. 

Rydiated  Pyrites. 

Its  colour  is  brass-yellow,  but  jjalcr 
thai',  common  pyrites  ;  its  surface  is  gene- 
rally tarnished.  It  occurs  in  mass,  but 
most  us'ially  in  particidai'  forms,  such  as 
kidney -sh:ipcd,  tuberous,  globular,  botrv- 
oidal,  scaly,  stalactitic,  Ike  Also  In  mi- 
nute crystals  between  the  cube  and  octo- 
liedron  When  the  crystals  are  very  much 
flattened  and  united  in  ihverging  groups, 
they  form  the  cock^s-comb  pyrites.  The 
surface  of  the  crystals  is  eitlicr  smooth  or 
drusy,  and  therefore  their  external  lustre 
is  subject  to  corres|A)nding  v.iriations. 
The  fracture  is  for  the  most  part  diverg- 
iiigly  radiated  In  stars  or  bundles,  with 
short  strait  fibres.  It  sometimes  passes  In- 
to parallel-fibrous,  and  even  into  compact. 


Us  fragments  are  wedge-shaped.     It  oc- 
curs in  coarse  and  large  granular  distinct 
concretions,  also  in  thin  curved  lamellar, 
and  in  thin  columnar  distinct  concretions. 
It  is  hard,  brittle,  and  very  easily  frangi- 
ble.    Sp  gr.  4.69  to  4.77. 
It  is  composed  according  to  Hatchett  of 
Sulphur      53.6     —     54.34 
Iron  46.4     —     45.66 


100. 


100. 


It  is  rarer  than  common  pyrites,  and  oc- 
curs principally  in  sm  U  masses,  and  in 
veins  with  ores  of  lead  or  silver. 

Capillary  pyrites. 

Its  colutu"  is  bronze  yellow,  passing  in- 
to steel-grey.  It  occurs  in  delicate  capil- 
lary crystals  aggregated  into  divergent 
bundles  or  promiscuously.  In  other  par- 
ticulars it  agrees  with  the  preceding,  of 
whicli  it  is  little  else  than  a  variety. 

It  Is  the  least  frequently  met  with  of 
any  of  the  kinds  of  pyrites.  It  (iccurs  In 
veins  with  silver  ores,  accompanied  by 
quartz,  calcareous  and  fluor  spars,  iu 
Saxony  and  the  Hartz. 

4.  Suhsp.    Cellular  pyrites. 

Its  colour  Is  bronze  yellow  Inclining  to 
greenish  and  steel-grey.  It  becomes  of  a 
grey  colour  by  tarnishing.  It  occurs  cel- 
lular ;  its  fracture  is  even  and  flat  con- 
choidul  passing  into  fine-grained  uneven. 
In  other  respects  it  resembles  common 
pyrites,  into  which  it  occasionally  passes. 
It  is  the  least  subject  to  decomposition  of 
the  whole  species.  It  occurs  'u\  metallic 
veins  in  Saxony. 

5.  Subsp.     Liver  pyrites. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  between  pale 
brass-yellow  and  steel-grey ;  its  external 
sui'face  is  usually  brownish  or  iridescent. 
It  occurs  in  mass,  disseuiinated,  globular, 
tuberous,  reniform,  stalactitic  and  cellu- 
lar ;  also  crystallized  in  six-sided  prisms 
or  pyramids.  Internally  it  is  usually  glim- 
mering, with  a  metallic  lustre.  Its  fiac- 
ture  is  even,  passing  into  fine  granular  or 
flat  conchoidal.  It  occurs  in  distinct  con- 
cretions. It  IS  met  with  only  in  metallic 
veins  and  Is  very  subject  to  decomposi- 
tion. 

^)f:g>ietical  Pyrites. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  between 
brass-jellow  and  co])per-red,  and  some- 
times inclines  to  tombac  brown  :  by  expo- 
sure to  thea:^  it  acquires  a  brownish  tar- 
nish. It  occurs  only  in  mass  and  disscnii- 
nattd.  Jnlernally  it  is  shining  or  glisten- 
ing, with  a  metallic  lustre.  Us  fracture  is 
line  or  coarse  grained  uneven,  sometimes 
passing  into  nnperfect  conchoidal.  It 
breaks  into  indeterminate  blunt  edged 
fragnients.     It  affoi'ds  a   few  occasional 


IRO 


IRO 


sparks  with  steel ;  is  brittle  and  easily 
frangible.     Sp.gr.  4.518. 

It  is  especially  ilistinguishable  from  the 
preceding  species  in  being  attracted  by 
the  magnet  and  giving  out  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  by  digestion  in  muriatic  acid. 
Its  component  parts,  according  to  Mr. 
Hatchett,  are 

Sulphur  36.5 

■^  Iron  63.5 

100. 

It  is  said  to  be  foimd  only  in  beds  in 
primitive  mountains,  in  gneiss,  micaceous 
schistus,  primitive  greenstone  and  lime- 
stone, where  it  occurs  with  common  mar- 
tial pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  arsenical  py- 
rites, galena,  blende,  magnetic  iron-stone, 
garnet,  hornblende,  and  act\  nolite.  It  is 
met  with  in  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  and  Silesia, 
also  in  Norway,  and  has  recently  been 
found  by  Mr.  Greville,  near  the  base  of 
Moel  Eliun  in  Caernarvonshire,  where  it 
forms  a  thick  vein  or  more  properly  a  bed, 
as  Jameson  conjectures.  Besides  the 
above  localities,  it  occnrs  disseminated  in 
transition  greenstone,  a  little  to  the  south 
of  Pont  Abei-glaslyn,  in  Caernarvonshire ; 
and  forming  a  large  bed  with  black  calca- 
reous spar  in  transition  slate,  not  fur  from 
T;-etView  in  the  vale  of  Conway,  in  the 
same  county.  At  this  lust  place  it  is  pro- 
cured in  considerable  quantity  for  the  sul- 
phur which  it  yields  by  sublimation  and 
the  red  ochre  wiiich  remains  after  the  se- 
paration of  the  sulphur. 

Sp.  4.     J\I.ignetical  Iron  Stone. 

Of  this  there  arc  the  two  following  subr 
species. 

1.  Subsp.  Common  Magnetic  Iron 
stone. 

Its  colour  is  iron -black,  often  super- 
ficially tarnished.  It  occurs  massive,  dis- 
seminated and  crystallized.  The  forms 
of  its  cr\  stals  are, 

1.  The  ociohedron. 

2.  The  garnet  dodecahedron. 

3.  A  rectangular  four-sided  prism,  ter- 
jiiinated  four-sitled  pyramid.s. 

it  is  not  only  attractable  by  the  magnet, 
but  itself  possesses  polarity,  hence  it 
takes  up  iron  filings.  Before  the  blow- 
pipe it  becomes  brown  and  tinge.'i  glass 
of  borax  of  a  dark  green  colour.  It  bus 
not  been  regularly  analyzed,  but  is  sup- 
posed to  be  nearly  a  pure  oxydofiron. 
Wlien  smelted  in  the  large  way  it  is  said 
to  yield  from  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  metal, 
but  this  is  manifestly  impossible ;  a  more 
probable  estimate  is  from  60  to  70  per 
cent.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in  primi- 
tive mountains  and  chlcHy  in  gneiss,  mica- 
ceous schistus,  chlorite  sl.Ue,  iuid  priiiii- 


tive  limestone  :  also  in  serpentine,  and  in 
die  floetz-ti-ap  formation.  When  in  mass 
it  forms  beds  and  somethnes  considerable 
rock-masses.  It  is  usually  accompanied 
by  horn-blende,  granular  limestone,  and 
garnet;  also,  though  more  rai'el)',  by 
amianth,  actynolite,  fluorspar,  coccolite, 
sahhte,  augite,  all  the  varieties  ofpjTites, 
blende,  tinstone  and  galena. 

The  Mountain  Taberg  in  Swedish  Lap- 
land, and  Fumachanche  in  Chili,  are  said 
to  consist  almost  entirely  of  tliis  mineral. 
It  exists  in  great  abundance  and  purity 
in  Koslagia  in  Sweden,  where  it  is  manu- 
flictured  into  the  best  bai"  iron,  so  much 
songht  after  by  the  English  manufacturers 
of  steel.  It  also  occurs  in  sufficient  plen- 
ty to  be  smelted  in  the  islands  of  Corsica 
and  Elba ;  Arendahl  in  Norway ;  in  Sax- 
ony, Bohemia,  Silesia,  and  tlie  Hartz  ia 
Gtrrmuny;  in  many  places  among  the 
UraUan  mountains  in  Russia  ;  and  ia  Siara 
in  the  East  Indies. 

When  pure  it  affords  the  best  bar  iron, 
but  only  middling  cast  u'on :  it  is  easily 
fusible  and  requires  but  little  flux. 

2.  Snl>sp.     Magnetic  iron  sand. 

Its  colour  is  deep  iron  black.  It  occurs 
in  angidar  and  roundish  grains  from  the 
smallest  dimensions  to  the  magnitude  of 
a  hazfl-nut ;  also  in  octohedral  crystals. 
Both  the  grams  and  crystals  are  external- 
ly somev.hat  rough  and  glimmering  In- 
ternally it  exhibits  a  bright-shining  metal- 
lic liisire.  Its  fracture  is  perfectly  con- 
choidal  and  rarely  imperfectly  foliated. 
Its  fi-agments  are  indeterminate  and  sharp- 
edged.  It  gives  a  greyish-black  powder. 
It  is  moderately  hard,  brittle  and  easily 
frangible      Sp.  gr.  4.6. 

it  Is  pov.-erfully  attracted  by  the  mag- 
net, but  is  scai'cely  at  all  acted  on  by  the 
muriatic  or  nitric  acids. 

It  seems  to  belong  almost  entirely  to 
the  fioetz-ti'up  fcn-mation,  and  is  found 
imbedded  in  basalt  and  wakke,  or  loose  u» 
the  beds  of  livers.  It  does  not  often  oc- 
cur in  sufficient  abundance  to  be  smelted, 
yet  it  is  employed  for  diis  purpose  in  the 
Tyrol,  near  Naples,  and  in  "Virginia,  and 
produces  about  60  per  cent,  of  excellent 
bar  iron. 

Sp.  5.     SpEct'LAu  Iron  Ore. 

Of  this  there  are  the  two  following  sub- 
species. 

Subs.  I.  Common  Specular  L-on  oi^. 
GetJiehier  Eismglanz,  VV'ern.  Ftr  sptcu- 
Uiire  commun,  Broch. 

Its  usual  colour  is  deep  steel-gre}-,  pas- 
sing sometimes  in  the  crystallized  varie- 
ties to  iron  Uack,  and  in  the  massive  va- 
rieUes  to  brownish  red.  It  is  often  tar- 
nished externally,  'and  then  presents  the 
blue  and  }  e How  tints  of  tempered  steel. 


IRO 


lliO 


It  occurs  in  mass,  disseminated  and  crys- 
tallized. The  colour  of  its  streak  is 
cherry -red.  It  is  hard,  brittle,  not  very 
easily  frangible.     Sp.  gr.  4.7.  to  5.2. 

When  pulverized  it  is  slightly  mag- 
netic. It  is  infusible  per  se,  before  the 
blowpipe;  with  borax  it  gives  a  dirty 
yellow  slag.  According  to  Kirwan  it  con 
sists  of  iron  and  oxygen  in  the  proportion 
of  from  60  to  80  of  the  former  and  from 
20  to  30  of  the  latter. 

It  occurs  in  beds  and  veins  in  primitive 
and  transition  mountains,  and  is  general- 
ly accompanied  by  magnetic  iron-stone 
and  compact  red  iron-stone,  iron  pyrites 
and  quartz.  The  greater  part  of  the  iron 
ore  of  Elba  is  of  this  species ;  it  also 
abounds  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  in  Bo- 
hemia, Saxony,  Silesia,  Switzerland, 
France,  Russia,  and  Siberia.  It  aliords 
an  excellent  malleable  iron,  but  somewliat 
hard,  and  also  a  good  but  not  the  very 
best  cast  iron. 

2.  Subsp.  Micaceous  iron  ore. 

Its  colour  is  iron-black  passing  into 
steel-grey ;  and  the  thin  plates  of  which 
it  consists  when  iield  between  the  eye 
and  the  light  appear  blood-red.  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  or  superficial,  or 
crystallized  in  thin  hexahedral  tables, 
which  sometimes  intersect  one  another  so 
as  to  form  cells.  The  surface  of  the  crys- 
tals is  smooth  and  almost  specular.  In- 
ternally it  is  more  or  less  shining,  with  a 
metallic  lustre.  Its  fracture  is  perfectly 
foliated ;  the  lamellje  are  curved  and  di- 
visible only  in  one  direction.  Its  frag- 
ments are  cither  indeterminate  or  in  the 
form  of  plates.  When  in  mass  it  occurs 
in  thin  and  curved  lamellar  or  granular 
distinct  concretions.  The  thin  plates  are 
sometimes  faintly  translucent.  Tiie  co- 
lour of  its  streak  is  cherry  red.  It  is  mo- 
derately hard,  but  becomes  soft  in  i)ro- 
portion  as  it  passes  into  the  red  scaly  iron 
ore:  it  is  brittle  and  easily  frangible.  Sp. 
gr.  4,5  to  6.0. 

It  occurs  only  in  primitive  mountains, 
but  chiefly  abounds  in  the  most  recent  of 
tliese.  It  lies  in  beds  and  veins  accom- 
panied by  red  and  brown  iron-stone  and 
iron  pyrites. 

It  affords  on  analysis  upwards  of  70  per 
cent,  of  iron.  In  the  great  way  it  is  found 
to  melt  more  easily  than  the  i)receding 
subspecies,  provided  a  sufllcient  quantity 
of  limestone  is  added  to  it  by  way  of  flux. 
The  iron  that  it  affords  is  sometimes  cold- 
short but  is  well  fitted  for  cast  ware. 

It  is  met  with  in  Norway,  Sweden,  va- 
rious parts  of  (iermany,  Dauphinc  in 
France,  Piedmont,  and  tiie  island  of  Elba 
in  Italy,  the  forest  of -IJai'tmour  in  De- 
vonshire,   near  Dunkeld  in   I'crthshire, 


and  in  Mainland,  one  of  tlie  Shetland 
islands. 

Sp.  6.  Red  Ironstone. 

Of  this  there  are  four  subspecies. 

1.  Sul>sp.  Red  scaly  iron  ore. 

Its  proper  colour  is  cherry  red,  but  it 
also  passes  into  blood-red,  brownish-red, 
steel-grey  and  iron-black.  It  occurs  some  • 
times  in  mass,  but  more  frequently  as  a 
superficial  covering  to  other  ores  of  iron. 
It  is  glistening,  with  a  semi-metallic  lus- 
tre. It  is  composed  of  friable  scaly  par- 
ticles more  or  less  cohering  together.  It 
stains  the  fingers,  is  unctuous  to  the 
touch,  and  moclcrately  heavy. 

When  exposed  to  the  blowpipe  without 
addition  it  blackens  but  does  not  melt.  It 
commiuiicates  to  glass  of  borax  an  olive 
gi'cen  colour. 

Its  component  parts,  according  to  Mr. 
W.  llein-y,  are 

Iron  66 

Oxvgen  28.5 

Silex  4  25 

Alumine  1.25 


100.00 


It  occurs  usually  in  veins  in  primitive    ' 
mountains,  also  in  transition  mountains.     > 
It  is  commonly  accompanied  by  tlie  other 
subspecies  of  red  ironstone  and  spathose 
iron.     It  passes  into  micaceous  iron  ore. 

It  is  found  at  Ulverstone  and  other  pla- 
ces in  the  North  of  Lancashire.  At  Salil 
in  the  Dutchy  of  Ilenneberg,  it  is  smelted 
and  produces  very  good  iron. 

2.  iSuUp.  Red  Ochre. 

Its  colour  is  blood-red  passing  into 
brownish  red.  It  is  found  in  mass,  disse- 
minated and  superficial.  It  has  little  or 
no  lustre.  Its  fracture  is  earthy.  It  stains 
the  fingers  ;  is  usually  friable  and  very 
tender,  but  in  some  varieties  passes  into 
solid  :  to  the  tovich  it  is  smooth  and  some- 
what meagre.     Sp.  gr.  2  95. 

It  is  found  accompanying  the  other 
subspecies  of  red  iron-stone,  but  rarely  in 
any  considerable  quantity.  It  is  smelted 
in  the  Irrgange  near  Platte  in  Bohemia,  is 
very  fusible,  and  affords  excellent  mallea- 
ble iron. 

3.  Sul>sp.  Compact  red  Iron-stone. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  between 
brownish  red  nnd<lark  steel-grey,  it  pass- 
es sometimes  to  b!ood-red.  It  occurs  in 
mass  or  disseminated,  or  in  particular 
shapes,  such  a.s  globular  reniform,  sjjecu- 
lar,  cellular,  in  pseudomorphous  ])yrami- 
dal  cry.stals,  or  rarely  in  real  cubic  crys- 
tals, either  solitary  or  in  groups.  The 
s(u-face  of  the  true  crystals  is  smooth,  of 
the  others  rough.  The  external  lustre  i.s 
subject  to  sc\eral  variations  :  internally  it. 


IRO 


is  rarely  more  than  glimmering-,  semi-me- 
tallic Its  fracture  is  commonly  even, 
whence  it  occasionally  passes  into  coarse 
grained,  uneven,  and  larg^e  conchoidal : 
sonielinies  also  it  is  found  slaty.  Its  fi'ag- 
mentsare  indeterminate  bluni-edijed.  It 
exhibits  rarely  testaceous  or  prismatic 
distinct  concretions.  It  is  commonly  of 
moderate  hardness  and  easily  fiangible. 
Jt  gives  a  blood-red  streak  and  is  apt  to 
stain  tlie  fingers.     Sp.  gr.  3.42  to  3.76. 

It  acquires    a  dark   tinge    before  the 

blowpipe,  but  is  infusible  either  by  itself 

or  with  borax,  to  which  liowever  it  gives 

an   olive-green   colour.      Its   constituent 

parts,  according  to  Lampadius,  :u-e 

O.'syd  of  ii-on  63  4 

Silex  20.7 

Alumina  93 

Oxyd  of  manganese        2.7 

98.1 

It  occurs  in  beds  and  veins  usually  with 
red  hxmatite  and  red  ochre,  also  with 
cjuartz,  horn-stone  and  red  jasper.  It  is 
met  wllh  in  various  pai'ts  of  Germany  (the 
crystallized  varieties  come  from  Oberhals 
in  Bohemia)  m  Norway,  Siberia,  and  in 
considerable  quantities  in  Lancashire.  It 
affords  good  cast  iron,  and  pretty  mallea- 
ble tliough  somewhat  soft  bar  iron. 

4.  Subsp.  Red  Hsematite. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  between 
brownish  red  and  steel-gre\,  sometimes 
it  passes  into  blood-red  and  bluish -grey. 
It  occurs  in  mass,  also  of  particular 
shapes,  such  as  renlform,  botryoidal,  sta- 
lactical  and  globular.  Its  external  lus- 
tre is  casual ;  internally,  it  is  usually  glist- 
ening, with  a  semi-metallic  lustre,  lis 
fracture  is  strait  fibrous,  either  delicate  or 
coarse ;  parallel,  radiating  or  in  bundles 
Its  fragments  are  wedgeshaped,  some- 
times in  the  coarse  fibrous  variety,  sphn- 
tery.  It  occurs  almost  always  in  distinct 
concretions  either  large  or  small  _gi-anular 
or  curved  lamellar.  It  gives  a  blood-i-ed 
streak ;  is  hard,  brittle,  and  generally 
stains  the  fingers.     Sp.gr.  4.84  to  6.0. 

It  has  not  yet  been  analysed  with  any 
accuracy,  but  from  the  results  in  tlie 
large  way  it  contains  about  60  per  cent,  of 
iron,  and  is  the  richest  of  the  wliole  spe- 
cies. It  occurs  in  the  same  situations 
with  the  preceding  subspecies  in  veins, 
beds  and  rock  masses  in  primitive  tran#- 
tion  and  floetz  mountains.  It  affords  ex- 
cellent iron  both  cast  and  malleable :  most 
of  the  plate-iron  and  iron  wu'e  of  England 
is  made  from  it.  ^Vhen  ground  to  a  fine 
powder  it  is  largely  employed  as  a  polish- 
ing material  by  most  workers  in  metal. 

It  is  particularly  abundant  in  Lanca- 


IRO 

shire,  in  theForest  of  Dean  in  Gloucester- 
shire, in  Devonshu'e  and  in  Saxony,  but  is 
scarcely  at  all  to  be  met  with  in  Norway, 
Sweden,  Poland,  Hungary  and  Russia. 

Sp.  7.  Browx  Iroxstoxe. 

This  like  the  Ibrmer  is  to  be  divided  in- 
to four  subspecies. 

1.  Subsp.  Brown  scaly  iron  ore. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  between  steel- 
grey  and  clove -brown.  It  occui*s  seldom 
in  mass,  disseminated  or  globular,  but 
more  frequently  superficial  and  frotliy, 
sometimes  also  irregularly  dendriticaL  It 
has  a  considerable  metallic  lustre.  Its 
fracture  is  small  lamellar  passing  into 
compact.  It  is  very  soft  and  almost  fria- 
ble ;  stains  the  fingers,  is  somewhat  unc- 
tuous to  the  touch  ;  is  light,  so  as  some- 
times to  float  on  water. 

It  blackens  before  the  blowpipe  but 
does  not  melt,  it  tinges  glass  of  borax  of 
a  yellowish-green  colour.  It  has  not  been 
analysed. 

It  occurs  lining  cavities  in  browTi  hx- 
matite. 

2.  Subsp.    Brown  Iron  ochre. 

Its  colour  is  light  yellowish  brown,  in- 
dining  to  ochre-yellow  and  clove-brown. 
It  occurs  in  mass  and  dissemiriated.  It  is 
destitute  of  lustre ;  has  an  earthy  frac- 
ture ;  its  fi-agments  are  indeterminate 
blunt  edged.  It  is  tender,  passing  into 
friable ;  soils  the  fingers,  and  is  heav)'. 

It  has  not  been  analysed.  It  becomes 
black  by  ignition,  whence  it  is  distin- 
guished from  yellow  earth  which  burns 
red.     It  accompanies  brown  haematite. 

3.  Subsp.  Compact  browm  Ironstone. 
Its  colour  is  clove-brown.     It  occurs 

massive  and  disseminated,  also  of  particu- 
lar shapes,  such  as  cylindrical,  stalactitic, 
reniform,  ccUiilar,  with  pp-amidal impres- 
sions, and  rarely  in  pseudomorphous 
cubes,  rhombs,  and  lenses.  It  also  forms 
the  substance  of  several  petrefactions,  es- 
pecially of  madreporites,  corralites  and 
iungites.  Internally  it  Is  dull  or  faintly 
glimmering.  Its  fracture  is  usually  even, 
sometimes  large  and  flat  conchoidal,  also 
fine  grained,  uneven,  and  earthy.  Its  frag- 
ments are  indeterminate  blunt  edged.  Its 
streak  is  yellowish-brown  passing  into 
ochre-yellow.  It  is  moderately  hai'd,  and 
easily  frangible.     Sp.  gr  3.5  to  o-75. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  becomes  black 
and  magnetic.  It  accompanies  brown 
hsematite. 

4.  Subsp.  Brown  Haematite. 

Tlie  colour  of  the  recent  fracture  is 
clove  brown  passing  into  steel-grey, 
blackisli  brown  and  bi-owiiish-black,  or 
rarely  into  yellowish  brown  and  ochre 
yellow.  The  external  sm-face  tarnishes 
to    black,  bluish   black,  tombac  brown. 


IRO 


IRO 


brojizc  and  gold-yellow :  it  also  often 
presents  bright  iridescent  metallic  co- 
lours. It  occurs  sometimes  in  mnss,  but 
more  commonly  stalactitic,  coralliform, 
botrj'oidiil,  reniform,  tuberous,  cylindric, 
cellular,  dendritic,  and  in  pseudomor- 
phous  six  sided  pyramids.  Its  surface  is 
smooth  or  granular,  and  is  siiinint:;-. — 
Internally  it  is  only  };listening  with 
a  lustre  between  ])early  and  resin- 
ous. The  fracture  of  the  clove-brown 
varieties  is  long  and  delicately  fibrous  ;  of 
those  that  incline  to  blue,  sliort  and  coarse 
iibrous ;  of  the  black,  very  delicately 
fibrous  passing  into  conchoidal ;  of  the 
blackish  brown,  radiated ;  the  fibres  aie 
generally  more  or  less  diverging.  The 
fragments  are  splintery  or  wedgeshaped, 
sometimes  indeterminately  angular.  It 
occurs  in  lamellar  and  granular  distinct 
concretions,  sometimes  each  concretion  is 
granular  externally  and  lamellar  in  its 
cross-fracture.  It  is  commonly  opake ; 
the  brownish  black  is  slightly  translucent 
on  the  edges.  Its  streak  is  yellowish- 
brown  ;  it  is  moderately  hard,  brittle,  and 
easily  frangible      Sp-  gr.  3.95. 

It  blackens  before  the  blowpipe  and 
gives  an  olive-green  colour  to  borax.  It 
has  not  been  analysed;  but  in  tlie  smelt- 
ing furnace  affords  from  40  to  60  per  cent, 
of  iron. 

Brown  ironstone  occurs  in  the  newer  of 
the  primitive  mountains,  but  moi-e  fre- 
quently in  transition  and  floetz  moun- 
tains :  it  is  found  in  veins,  beds  and  rock 
masses,  and  is  accompanied  by  black  iron- 
stone, spathose  ironstone,  brown  spar, cal- 
careous and  heavy  spars.  It  passes  on 
one  hand  into  red  ironstone,  and  on  the 
other  into  spathose  ironstone. 

It  melts  easily  and  for  the  most  part 
without  a  flux;  when  one  is  required  ar- 
^llaceous  schistus  is  generally  made  use 
of.  The  cast  iron  winch  it  attbrds  is  not 
equal  to  that  from  red  ironstone  ;  but  the 
bar  iron  is  both  very  malleable  and  liard, 
probably  from  the  manganese  which  it 
contains  :  hence  it  yields  excellent  steel. 
Jt  occurs  in  great  abundance  in  Saxony, 
Bohemia,  and  other  parts  of  Germany  ; 
also  in  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  Stiria,  Pieilmont, 
and  the  Soutli  of  Trance.  It  is  scarcely 
at  all  to  be  met  with  in  Norway,  Sweden 
or  Russia  ;  it  is  found  in  Cornwall,  and  oc- 
casionally in  other  parts  of  Britain,  but 
not  in  sufficient  abundar.ce  to  be  wrought. 
Spathose  Ironsione. 
Its  colour  is  greyish  yellow,  passing  in- 
to Isabella  yellow  and  greenish- grey;  it  is 
also  found  hair  and  clf)V(.'-brovvn,  and 
brownish-black.  It  occurs  in  mass,  dis- 
seminated, with  pyramidal  impressions, 
and  very  often  crystallized.      lis    frag- 


ments arc  rliomboidal.  It  generally  pre- 
sents gi'anular  distinct  concretions.  The 
light  coloured  varieties  are  translucent, 
either  entirely,  or  at  least  at  the  edges, 
those  of  a  deep  colour  are  opake  ;  the  for- 
mer give  a  greyish-white  streak,  the  lat- 
ter a  }ellowish-brown  one.  It  is  harder 
than  calcareous  spar,  and  easily  frangible. 
Sp  gr.3.6  to  3.8. 

Refore  the  blowpipe  it  becomes  black 
and  magnetic,  but  does  not  melt ;  with 
borax  it  forms  a  spungy  dirty  yellow" 
mass  :  it  effervesces  slowly  with  acids. 
Specimens  fnnn  .Sweden  and  Stiria  have 
been  analysed  by  Bergman,  with  the  tbl- 
lowing  results. 

Stirian.        Swedi.sh. 
Oxyd  of  iron  38         —         22 

Oxyd  of  manganese  24        —        28 
Carbonat  of  lime        38         —         50 


100 


100 


100  parts  of  the  Stirian  afforded  by 
fusion  with  borax  in  a  lined  crucible  42 
parts  of  a  silvery  white  regulus. 

It  occurs  in  veins  in  primitive  moun- 
tains acconi])anying  lead,  silver,  and  cop- 
per ores.  In  floetz  mountains  it  forms 
beds,  and  is  accompanied  by  brown 
iron  ore,  brown  spar,  and  calcareous  spar. 

It  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  Bri- 
tain and  the  North  of  Kurope,  and  is  sufti- 
ciently  abundant  to  be  manufactured 
chiefly  in  the  following  places.  At  Schnial- 
kaldcn  in  Hesse  is  a  bed  of  the  black  va- 
riety 25  fathoms  thick,  which  has  been 
worked  for  several  centuries.  In  West- 
piialia  the  light  coloured  is  prodigiously 
abundant.  AtEisenerzin  Suria,  lliitten- 
berg  in  Carinthia,  Jauberling  in  Carniola, 
and  Schwatz  in  the  'I'yrol,  are  large 
foundcrics  supplied  by  this  ore.  At  So- 
mororstro  in  Biscay  is  an  entire  hill  com- 
posed of  this  species. 

The  iron  obtained  from  this  ore  is  par- 
ticularly valuable,  as  it  m.iy  be  convert- 
ed into  excellent  steel  immediately  from 
the  state  of  cast  i'on  ;  the  b.ir  iron  form- 
ed from  it  is  both  hard  and  tough^ 

Black  Iuo.ns  roNE,  uf  this  there  arc 
two  sub.s])eties. 

1.  Su/>ip.  Compact  black  ironstone. 
Its  colour  is  between  bluish-black  and 
steel-grey.  It  occurs  in  niass,  tuberous, 
reniform,  bolryoidal,  &c.  Its  intenud 
Iffstre  is  glimmering,  semimetallic.  Its 
fracture  is  conchoidal  jj.assing  into  fine- 
grained iMievcn.  Its  fragments  are  inde- 
terminately angular.  It  forms  thin  and 
concentric  curved  huneliar  concretions. 
It  is  moderately  hard,  brittle,  and  easily 
frangible.     Sp.  gr.  4.07. 

It  occurs  in  primllive  and  floetz  motui- 


IRO 


mo 


lajns  accompanied  by  bi-own  ironstone, 
spathose-iron  stone  and  quartz.  It  is  a 
rare  mineral,  and  appears  to  have  been 
found  only  in  Saxony,  the  upper  palati- 
nate, Hessia,  and  some  other  parts  of 
Gemiany. 

It  is  easily  fusible  and  yields  a  good  iron, 
but  corrodes  the  sides  of  the  furnace.  It 
was  long;  confounded  with  the  compact 
grey  manganese. 

2.  Suhfi.  Biack  Hsematite. 

Thij  differs  from  the  preceding  in  the 
following  particulars.  Its  colour  inclines 
more  to  a  steel-grey.  Its  fracture  is  very 
delicately  fibrous,  passing  into  even  :  the 
fibres  are  either  curved  or  straight,  bun- 
dled or  diverging  round  a  centre.  The 
fragments  jire  wedge-shaped.  It  occurs 
in  coarse-grained  distinct  concretions. 
It  has  hitherto  been  found  only  at  Schmal- 
kalden  in  Hessia. 

Argillaceous  Ironstone. 

In  this  are  comprehended  Uie  seven  fol- 
lowing subspecies. 

1.  Subsp.  Reddle  or  Red  chalk. 

Its  colour  is  light-brownish  red  passing 
into  cherry  red.  It  occurs  only  in  mass. 
Its  principal  fracture  is  fine-slaty  and 
glimmering;  its  cross  iracture  is  fine 
earthy  and  dull.  Its  fragments  are  com- 
monly tabular,  also  splintei'y  or  indeter- 
minate. The  colour  of  its  streak  is  si- 
milar to  that  of  tlie  mineral  in  mass,  but 
is  somewhat  lighter  and  more  shining. 
It  soils  the  fingers,  and  may  be  used  to 
write  with.  It  may  readily  be  cut  with 
a  knife,  is  easily  frangible,  adheres  strong- 
ly to  the  tongue,  and  is  soft  but  meagre 
to  the  feel.     Sp.  gr.  3.1  to  39. 

When  exposed  to  a  red  heat  it  decri- 
pitates  and  becomes  black :  at  a  high  heat 
it  melts  into  a  greenish-grey  frothy 
enamel. 

It  occurs  generally  in  the  newer  ar- 
gillite,  forming  entire  beds  or  large  im- 
bedded masses. 

In  Silesia  it  is  said  to  be  found  in  com- 
pact  limestone. 

It  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Ger- 
many, but  is  principally  wrought  atTha- 
litter  in  Hessia.  It  is  never  smelted  for 
the  iron  that  it  contains,  but  is  largely 
used  for  drawing  and  marking :  the 
coarser  varieties  are  employed  by  the 
carpenter,  and  the  finer  by  the  painter. 
Wliat  are  vulgarly  called  Red-lead  pen- 
cils, ai'e  composed  of  thin  slips  of  the  finer 
kinds  of  reddle  inclosed  in  a  wooden  case. 

2.  Subsp.  Columnar  argillaceous  Iron- 
stone. 

Its  colour  vai-ies  between  liver-brown 
and  cherry -red.     It  occurs  in  mass  and  in 
globular  and  angular  pieces.    It  is  dull, 
vol.  I. 


and  has  a  fine  earthy  fracture.  It  forms 
columnar  distinct  concretions  either  thick 
or  tliin,  strait  or  curved,  parallel  or  diver- 
>ring ;  sometimes  they  are  articulated, 
riie  surface  of  the  concretions  is  rough 
and  dull.  Its  streak  is  blood-red  or  jel- 
lo wish  brown  It  is  soft,  brittle,  very  ea- 
sily frangible;  adheres  to  the  tongue,  is 
meagi-e  and  somewhat  rough  to  tlie  touch, 
and  modera»ely  heavy. 

It  blackens  before  the  blowpipe,  efFer- 
vesces  with  borax,  and  communicates  to 
it  an  olive-green  colour, 
i  It  is  found  in  beds  of  shale,  and  seems 
in  many  cases  to  be  a  pseudo-volcanic 
'  product,  being  accompanied  by  porcella- 
nite  and  burnt  cl;ty. 

It  occurs  in  the  Upper  Palatinate,  in  Bo- 
hemia and  other  parts  of  Ciermany,  and 
.  has  been  found  by  Jameson  in  the  Isle  of 
!  Arraii.     It  is  by  no  means  a  common  mi- 
i  neral,  and  is  scarcely  ever  employed  as  an 

•  ore  of  iron . 

j      3.  Subsp.  Lenticular  argillaceous  Iron- 

I  stone. 

!  Its  colour  is  reddish,  or  yellowish. 
brown,  brown,  brownish-red, and  greyish- 
black.  It  occurs  in  mass.  Its  lustre  is 
glistening,    strongly   semi-metallic.      Its 

I  fracture  is  uneven,  passing  into  thin  slaty. 

^  Ivs  fragments  are  indeterminately  angular 

':  blunt-edged.     It    occurs    in    small    and 

)  round  granular,  or  in  compressed  lenticu- 

•  lar  distinct  concretions ;  these  last  are 
considered  by  many  authors  as  actual  pe- 
trefiictions.  It  gives  a  slightly-shining 
streak,  not  materially  differing  in  colour 

.  ii'om  the  entire  mineral.  It  is  soft,  brit- 
tle and  easily  trangible.  The  black  va- 
riety is  often  magneticaU 

Accordingto  Lampadius  it  consists  of 
Oxydofiron  64. 

Alumine  23. 

Sllex  7.5 

■\Vater  5. 

99.9 
Tiie  red  variety,  which  is  common!}-  in 
lenticular  distinct  concretions,  occurs  in 
rock  masses  in  transition  mountains.  The 
brown  and  black  varieties,  which  are  in 
granular  distinct  concretions,  occur  in 
beds  between  tlie  variegated  sandstone 
and  the  most  recent  shell-lime-stone. 

The  red  and  brown  varieties  abound  in 
various  parts  of  the  European  continent, 
the  black  has  hitherto  been  only  found 
m  tlie  canton  of  Berne. 

The  red  affords  excellent  cast  iron,  the 
brown  affords  both  bar  and  cast  iron  of  a 
good  quality ;  the  black  gives  a  large 
quantity  of  iron,  but  of  a  bad  qualitj',  and 
is  difficult  of  reduction. 
3  s 


IRO 


lUO 


4.  Subsp.  Jaspery  argillaceous  Iron- 
stone. 

Its  colour  is  brownish-red.  It  occu  rs  in 
mass  ;  it  is  internally  feebly  glininierlng-. 
Its  fiacture  is  flat-conchoidal  passinfj  into 
even.  Its  fragments  ajJiiroadi  more  or 
less  to  the  cubical  form.  It  is  moderate- 
ly hard,  brittle  and  easily  frangible.  The 
sliape  of  its  fragments,  and  the  general 
resemblance  of  its  external  appearance  to 
common  jasper,  distinguibh  it  from  the 
other  subspecies. 

It  occurs  between  Vienna  and  Hungary 
in  a  large  bed 

5.  Subsp.  Common  argillaceous  Ii-on- 
stone. 

Its  usual  colour  is  yellpwish  or  bluish- 
gi'ey,  or  steel-gi'ey ;  frequently  also  yel- 
lowish or  reddish  brown ;  these  colours 
alter  much  by  exposure  to  the  air  and  be- 
come in  general  deeper,  nor  does  thi.s 
change  take  place  at  the  surface  alone  but 
peneUMtes  frequently  through  the  whole 
mass.  It  occurs  in  mass  or  disseminated, 
sometimes  also  cellular,  and  containing 
impressions  of  shells  and  vegetables.  In- 
ternally it  is  dull.  Its  fracture  is  com- 
monly earthy,  sometimes  fine-grained  un- 
even, or  ,flat-conchoidal,  or  slaty.  Its 
fragments  are  huleterminatc-  It  has  for 
the  most  part  only  a  very  moderate  de- 
cree of  hardness'  It  is  brittle;  easily 
trangible ;  adheres  a  little  to  the  tongue ; 
is  meagre  to  the  feel.  Sp.  gr.  2.93  to  3.47. 
It  blackens  before  the  blowpipe,  and 
gives  with  borax  a  blaclcish-green  glass. 

It  appears  to  consist  essentially  of  ox\d 
of  iron,  alumine  and  a  little  sih-x ;  there  is 
also  a  small  variable  proportion  of  pyrites, 
dispersed  through  it.  The  amount  of  iron 
which  it  yields  in  the  laige  way  varies  be- 
tween 30  and  40  per  cent. 

It  occurs  in  beds  in  fioetz  motmtains ; 
especially  in  the  independent  coal-forma- 
tion and  the  newest  floetz  trap.  The  large 
establishments  at  Carron  in  Scotland, 
Coalbrookdale  in  England,  Merthyr  Tyd- 
vil  in  South  Wales,  &c.  arc  principally 
supplied  by  this  ore. 

It  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
compact  limestone  and  indurated  clay, 
but  is  distinguished  from  them  by  its  su- 
perior specific  gravity  and  perfect  opacity. 
6.  Subsp.  Nodular  Ironstone. 
Its  colour  is  yellowish-brown  of  various 
degrees  of  intensity  :  internally  the  colour 
is  lighter,  and  it  often  incloses  an  ochre- 
yellow  kernel.  It  occurs  in  roundish 
inasses  from  the  size  of  a  walnut  to  that 
of  a  man's  head.  Its  fracture  is  even  to- 
wards the  surface  and  fine  earthy  towarils 
the  centre.  The  external  layers  are  semi- 
metallic  and  glimmering,  but  towards  the 
centre  it  is  dull.  The  fragments  are  inde- 


terminate. It  occurs  in  lamellar  concen- 
tric distinct  concretions,  often  inclosing  a 
loose  kernel.  The  exterior  layers  are  sofi, 
almost  friuble.  It  is  brittle,  easily  frangi- 
ble, adheres  to  the  tongue.  Sp.  gi*.  2  57- 
It  occurs  imbedded  in  ferruginous  clay 
in  the  most  iccent  floetz  mountains,  also 
in  tht  floetz-lrap  and  coal  formations.  It 
yields  an  iron  of  fine  quality  and  is  largely 
nianufacturccl  both  in  England  and  Scot- 
land, especially  at  the  places  mentioned 
under  the  last  subspecies. 

7  Subsp.  Pea  shaped,  or  Pisifoiin,  Iron- 
stone. 

Its  external  colour  is  accidental  and  is 
yellowish,  reddish  or  grayish  :  internally 
it  is  yellowish-brown  passing  into  blackish 
brov.  n.  It  occurs  in  small  round  grains, 
sometimes  spherical,  sometimes  slightly 
com])ressed.  Its  surface  is  rough  and 
dull :  internally  it  is  ^nW  at  the  centre, 
but  acquires  gradually  a  glistening  resi- 
nous lustre  in  proportion  to  the  distance 
from  the  centre.  Its  fracture  is  fine- 
earthy  at  the  centre,  but  even  towards  the 
surface.  It  occurs  in  thin  concentric  la- 
mellar distinct  concretions;  gives  a  j'el- 
lowish-brown  streak,  is  soft,  not  very  brit- 
tle, but  easily  frangible. 

According  to  an  analysis  by  Vauquc- 
lin,  it  contains 

Iron      ...    30 

Oxygen     .    .     18 

Alumine  .     .     31 

Silex    ...     15 

AVater      .     .      6 


< 


100 

It  occurs  in  cavities  in  secondary  floetz 
limestone,  the  grains  being  concreted  to- 
gether by  calcareous  stalactite:  it  also  oc- 
curs in  beds  of  clay,  and  in  flat  beds  im- 
mediately 'beneath  the  surface. 

It  occurs  in  various  parts  of  Germany, 
Switzerland,  France,  and  Dtilmatia, 

Its  produce  of  metal  varies  from  30  to 
40  per  cent.  It  supplies  very  considera- 
ble ironworks  at  Aran  near  Berne,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  I'reneh  iron  is  said 
by  Brochant  to  be  ])roduced  from  this  ore. 

Bog  Ikon-ore. — Of  this  there  are 
three  following  sidjspecies. 

1.  S'dh,\p.  Morass  ore. 

Its  colour  is  jellowish-brown.  It  oc- 
curs sometimes  in  the  state  of  friable 
earthy  particles,  sometimes  in  mass,  or 
tuberous  or  carious.  It  is  dull  both  ex- 
ternally and  internally:  its  fracture  is 
earliiy :  it  stains  the  fingers,  is  fine-grain- 
ed but  meagre  to  the  feel ;  and  moderate- 
ly heavy. 

2.  Subsp.  Swamp  ore. 

lis    colour  is   daik  yellowish-brown. 


mo 


IRO 


passing  into  dark  yellowish -grey.  Tt  oc 
curs  in  amorplious  masses,  also  tubercu- 
lar and  carious.  Internally  it  is  dull,  but 
the  darker  varieties  are  g^limmering.  Its 
fracture  is  cartiiy,  passing  into  fine-grain- 
ed uneven.  It  gives  a  clear  yellowish- 
broNVTi  streak ;  is  vtry  soft,  brittle,  and 
easih  frangible.     Sp.  gr  2-94. 

3.  Subsf).  Meadow  ore. 

Its  colour  Is  internally  between  blackish 
and  yellowish-brown ;  in  the  clefts  it  ex- 
hibits a  bluish-black  and  steel-gray  tinge. 
It  occurs  massive,  in  rounded  lumps,  per- 
forated, and  tuberous.  It  is  internally 
shining  or  glistening,  with  a  resinous  lus- 
tre. Its  fracture  is  minute  conclioid:d  or 
earth3',  or  even,  or  fine-grained  uneven. 
It  gives  a  yellowish-brown  sti-eak;  is  soft, 
brittle,  and  easily  frangible. 

All  the  preceding  subspecies  belong  to 
the  same  formation  and  appear  to  be  the 
most  recent  of  any  of  tlie  ores  of  iron. 
They  ai*e  probably  formed  by  deposition 
from  water  which  has  becunie  charged 
with  iron  by  means  either  of  carbonic 
acid  or  the  vegetable  acid  that  is  gene- 
rated in  messes  and  marshes.  The  mea- 
dow ore  is  the  oldest  and  the  morass  ore 
the  newest. 

It  yields  from  30  to  36  per  cent  of  iron, 
well  fitted  for  the  finest  kinds  of  cast 
ware.  For  wire  or  plate  iron  it  is  not 
qualified,  on  account  of  its  being  more  or 
less  cold-short,  whicii  is  supposed  to  arise 
from  a  mixture  of  phosjihoric  acid.  The 
usual  flux  emplo3ed  in  smelling  it  is 
limestone ;  it  is  also  often  mixed  vsith  red 
or  brown  ochre  or  haematite,  by  which  the 
fusion  of  each  is  facilitated,  ajid  the  pro- 
duce improved  botli  in  quantity  and 
quality. 

Sp.  12.  Blue  Martial  Easth.— 
Its  colour  when  recently  dug  is  said  to 
be  white,  but  it  afterwards  acquires  an 
indigo-blue  or  smalt-blue,  or  various  de- 
grees of  intensity.  It  occurs  in  mass, 
disseminated  or  investing,  but  Mways  in 
dull  pulverulent  particles,  more  or  less 
cohering.  It  stains  the  fingers,  is  mea- 
gre to  the  touch,  and  moderately  heavy. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  becomes  of  a 
reddish-brown  and  then  melts  into  a  black 
shining  globule,  attractable  by  the  mag- 
net. It  tinges  glass  of  borax  brown, 
which  at  length  becomes  dark  yellow.  It 
is  readily  soluble  in  acids. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  seme  to  be  na- 
tive Prussian  blue,  and  by  otliers  to  con- 
tain •phosphoric  acid,  but  its  analysis  by 
Vauquelin  discovered  nothing  except 
u'on,  alumine,  and  lime. 

It  occurs  in  nests  in  beds  of  clay,  and 
disseminated  in  bog  bon  ore,  or  investing 
peat. 


Green  Martial  Earth. — Its  co. 
lour  is  yellowish  or  olive -green  It  oc- 
curs generally  friable  and  superficial; 
rarely  in  mass,  disseminated  or  carious. 
Internally  it  is  dull.  Its  fracture  is  fine- 
grained earthy,  sometimes  uneven.  It 
stains  the  fingers,  is  very  soft,  meagre  to 
the  touch,  easily  frangible,  and  moderate- 
ly hea^T. 

Beiore  the  blov^'pipe  it  becomes  first 
red,  then  of  a  deep  brown,  but  does  not 
melt  per  se.  It  tinges  borax  of  a  greenish- 
yellow  colour.  It  has  been  mistaken  for 
bismuth  or  nickel  ochre,  but  appears  to 
contain  no  other  metallic  substance  ex- 
cept iron. 

It  occurs  at  Braimsdorf  and  Schnee- 
berg  in  Saxony,  in  veins. 

Arsexiat  of  Irox — Its  colour  is 
dai-k  brownish  green,  or  brownish  yellow. 
It  occurs  in  mass  and  crjstallized  in 
cubes,  either  perfect  or  with  the  solid  an- 
gles replaced  by  equilateral  triangular 
planes.  The  planes  of  the  crystals  are 
smooth  and  shining.  Internally  it  is  glis- 
tening, with  a  vitreous  lustre. 

Its  fracture  is  imperfectly  foliated ;  its 
fragments  are  indeterminate.  It  is  trans- 
lucent; is  a  little  harder  than  calcareous 
spar,  and  brittle,  Sp.  gr.  3.  By  decom- 
position it  acquires  a  deep  brownish-red 
colom-,  and  at  length  becomes  pulveru- 
lent. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  melts  and  gives 
out  arsenical  fumes.  Its  component  part?, 
according  to  Chenevix,  are 

Arsenic  acid  31. 

Oxydofiron  45.5 

Oxyd  of  copper         9. 

Silex  4. 

Water  10.5 


100.0 


Reduction  of  the  Ores  of  Iron. — The  an 
cient  and  modern  methods  of  extracting 
iron  from  its  ores  dift'ering  very  materially 
from  each  other,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
treat  of  them  separately. 

Iron  as  it  exists  in  the  ore,  whether  in  a 
state  of  greater  or  less  oxydation,  is  capa^ 
ble  of  being  brougiit  to  the  metallic  state 
when  heated  in  contact  with  charcoal,  by 
a  much  lower  temperatui'e  than  is  requir- 
red  for  its  actual  fusion,  and  tlie  ii-on  be- 
ing brought  to  this  state,  the  earthy  mat- 
ter  witli  which  it  is  mixed,  may  be  vilre- 
fied  by  the  addition  of  a  proper  flux,  so  as 
to  allow  the  particles  of  metallic  iron  to 
subside  in  consequence  of  theii"  superior 
specific  gravity  to"  the  bottom  of  the  massj 
aldiough  ihej"  are  only  in  tliat  soft  pasty 
state  which  common  bar  iron  exbibitr, 
when  it  is  at  a  white  heat.  Xow  tlte  blo\'  - 


IRO 


ma 


ing  machines  of  the  ancient  metallurgists 
being  greatly  inferior  to  those  whicli  are 
employed  at  present,  they  were  obliged 
to  make  use  only  of  the  richest  and  most 
easily  reducible  ores,  and  even  these  they 
were  never  able  properly  speaking,  to  fuse 
in  quantity ;  so  that  cast  iron  was  a  modi- 
fication of  this  metal  wliolly  unknown  to 
tbem. 

That  iron  which  was  esteemed  the  best 
was  prepared  in  the  following  manner.  A 
mass  of  brickwork  was  raised  5  feet  in 
length  and  breadth,  and  3  J  feet  high,  re- 
sembling a  smith's  hearth,  except  that  in 
the  middle  of  this  was  sunk  a  cupshaped 
cavity  or  crucible,  one  foot  in  depth  and 
half  a   foot  wide,  in  the  upper  part   of 
whlcl)  was  made  a  hole  opening  into  a 
channel  through  the  brick  work.     This 
hole  being  closed  with  clay,  the  crucible 
was  filled  with  lighted  charcoal   heaped 
up  so  as  to   be  above  the  level  of  the 
hearth ;  a  blast  of  air  was  then  admitted 
through  a  pipe  let  into  the  wall  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  smith?s  forge,  and  so  contriv- 
ed that  the  focus  of  the  blast  should  be 
juBt    above  the   centre  of  the  crucible. 
Charcoal  alone  was    added  from  time  to 
time,  till  the  heap  became  thoroughly  hot, 
and  then  at  the  discretion  of  the  work- 
men the  ore,  in  very  small  pieces,  un roast- 
ed but  mixed  with  unslacked  quick-lime, 
was  laid  on  alternately  with  tlie  charcoal. 
As  soon  as  it  had  descended  low  enough 
to  be  witiiin  the  immediate  influence  of 
the  blast  (which  in  a  furnace  of  this  con- 
struction would  be  in  a  few  minutes)  the 
lime  and  eailliy  jiart  of  the  ore  became 
fused  into  a  slag,  and  inveloping  tlie  iron 
now  in  a  metallic  state,  sunk  down   into 
the  crucible,  displacing  the  charcoal  with 
which  it  had  been  at  first  charged.     The 
matter  remaining  at  rest  in  the  crucible 
gave  an  opportunity  to  the  particles  of 
iron  to  sink  to  the  bottom,  which  they 
did   in    greater    or  less   proportion   ac- 
cording to  the    fluidity  of  the  slag  and 
the    compleatly   metallic    state    of    the 
iron.     After  this  process  had  been  going 
on  for  the  space  of  from  eight  to  twelve 
hours,   the  crucible  became  lilled  with 
melted   matter :    at   this    time  the   hole 
which  had  been  at  first  stopped  up  with 
clay  was  opened  by  means  of  an  iron  bar 
introduced  through  the  channel  in   the 
brick-work,  and  the  .scorije  immediately 
flowed  out  leaving  the  iron  behind  cover- 
ed with  hot   charcoal.     The  blast  then 
being  stopped,  the  furnace  soon  gotsuffi- 
ciently  cool  to  allow  the  workmen  to  ta"ke 
out  the  iron,  which  was  found  imperfect- 
ly concreted  together  into  a  mass  nearly 
of  the  shape  of  a  wooden  bowl :  this  being 
1  rangferred  to  an  anvil  was  first  carefully 


hammered  with  wooden  mallets  to  break 
off  the  encrusting  scorix  and  render  it  suf- 
ficiently compact  to  bear  the  tilt  hammer, 
to  which  it  was  next  subjected :  being 
then  divided  into  five  or  six  pieces,  eacli 
was  separately  forged  into  a  bar,  and  thus 
tlie  operation  was  finished.  The  iron  thus 
obtained  was  extremely  tough  and  liard 
but  difficult  to  work,  and  was  in  great  re- 
])ute  for  helmets  and  other  articles  of  de- 
fensive armour,  and  in  general  for  all  pur- 
poses where  toughness  and  hardness  unit- 
ed were  particularly  required.  I'he  rich 
quality  of  the  ore  and  the  circumstances 
in  which  it  was  reduced,  were  probably 
the  chief  causes  of  tlie  excellence  of  this 
kind  of  iron  ;  a  jjeculiurity  however  in  the 
method  of  forging  it  may  also  have  some- 
what contributed  to  this ;  for  while  it 
was  under  the  tilt-hammer,  an  assistant 
stood  by  with  a  ladle  of  water,  with  which 
he  sprinkled  the  bar  as  often  as  it  was 
struck  by  the  hammer. 

The  poorer  ores  which  were  incapable 

of  being  smelted  in  the  above  method, 

first  picked,   washed  and  roasted. 


then  reduced  to  pieces  no  larger  than  ha- 
zle-nuts,  and  reduced  (no  doubt  with  the 
addition  of  lime)  in  blast  furnaces  from  se- 
ven to  eight  feet  high  and  shaped  like  a 
chimney.  In  these  a  considerably  greater 
heat  could  be  produced  than  in  the  for- 
mer, but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  me- 
tal when  taken  out  of  the  furnace  was  in 
the  state  of  cast  iron  ;  certain  it  is  that  it 
was  always  allowed  to  cool  there  and  was 
never  run  into  pigs  as  is  the  modern  prac- 
tice. 

Some  ores  that  are  very  rich  and  yield 
a  soft  iron,  liave  been  occasionally  wrought 
in  a  manner  still  more  simple  than  either 
of  the  preceding.  The  rich  specular  ore 
of  the  island  of  Elba  in  particular,  appears 
formerly  to  have  been  worked  to  a  consi- 
derable extent  in  this,  whicli  if  not  the 
earliest  is  certainly  the  rudest  method 
that  has  Mthcrto  been  devised.  The  ore 
being  broKcn  into  small  pieces  is  heaped 
upon  a  bed  of  charcoal  in  a  very  simple  re- 
verberatory  furnace.  AVhen  the  whole 
has  been  glowing  hot  for  some  time,  the 
pieces  being-  now  soft  and  at  a  welding 
licat,  are  by  the  dexterous  management  of 
the  workmen  brought  in  close  contact 
with  each  other  by  means  of  an  iron  bar ; 
they  are  then  lightly  hammered  while 
still  in  tlie  furnace,  and  thus  the  whole 
mass  acquires  suflicient  compactness  to 
be  removed  to  the  anvil  without  falling  to 
pieces  ;  it  is  now  h.aramered  will)  a  gradu- 
ally increasing  force,  the  earthy  impurities 
are  thrown  offtogether  with  the  scales  of 
black  oxyd;  the  lump  is  divided  into  pie- 
ces of  a  convenient  size,  which  by  repeat- 


mo 


IRO 


ed  heating  and  hammering,  are  dravm  in- 
to bars.  The  rich  red  haematite,  as  ap- 
peal's from  an  experiment  of  Mr.  Musbet, 
is  capable  of  being  manufactured  in  the 
same  way. 

These  ancient  methods  have  gone  into 
disuse,  not  because  the  quality  of  the  iron 
thus  produced  was  to  be  objected  to,  but 
because  the  time  and  fuel  consumed  were  ' 
enormous,  and  the  iron  that  remuined  in  | 
the  scorix  amounted  at  least  to  one  half 
of  the  original  metallic  contents  of  the  ore.  j 

The  modern  methods  of  reducing  the 
ores  of  iron  are  principally  two ;  de- 
pending on  the  nature  of  the  fuel  made 
use  of.  In  England  and  Scotland  the 
fuel  is  for  the  most  part  coak ;  but  in 
the  rest  of  Europe, chaicoal :  and  the  pro- 
cesses in  tlie  founderies  v.'here  tlie  latter 
is  employed  being  the  most  simple,  we 
shall  commence  with  this  method. 

The  best  Swedish  bar  iron,  named  in 
the  mai'kfct  Oregrund  iron,  from  the  port 
whence  it  is  shipped  for  the  niaiket, 
is  entu-ely  prepared  from  the  magne- 
tic ironstone  of  Dannemora.  The  forges 
and  founderies  where  it  is  manulactured, 
are  those  of  Soderfors  and  other  places  in 
the  province  of  Uoslagia,  and  the  most  ap- 
proved processes  tljat  it  undergoes  ibr 
this  purpose  are  the  following. 

The  ore  in  moderately  large  pieces,, 
such  as  it  comes  from  the  mine,  is  first 
roasted.  For  this  purpose  an  oblong  cof- 
fer of  masonry,  eighteen  ieet  long,  fifseen 
wide  and  about  six  in  depth,  open  at  top, 
and  furnisned  with  a  door  at  one  of  its 
smaller  extremities,  is  entirely  filled  with 
logs  of  w'>od,  over  this  tlie  ore  is  piled  to 
the  heighth  of  from  five  to  seven  feet,  and 
iscovci-ed  with  a  coatir.g  of smidl  charcoal 
almost  a  foot  and  a  half  in  thickness.  Fire 
Is  then  comnnmiciited  lo  tlie  bottom  of  the 
pileijy  means  of  the  door  just  raenticined, 
and  iii  a  s)iort  time  the  combustion  spreads 
thr.iugh  the  whole  mass  :  t!ie  small  quan- 
tity of  the  pyrites  that  the  ore  contains  is 
decomposed  by  the  voiauiization  of  tlie 
sulphur,  tlie  mGisiir.e  is  also  driven  otf, 
and  the  ore  from  being  verv  hard  ajid  re- 
fractory, becomes  pretty  easily  pulveriza- 
ble.  In  the  space  of  twenty-four  hours 
the  roasting  is  completed,  and  tlie  ore 
wlicn  sufficientl}^  cool, is  transferred  to  a 
slamping-mill,  where  it  is  pounded  dty, 
and  afterwards  sifted  through  a  nelwoik 
of  iron,  which  will  not  admit  any  piece 
larger  tlian  u  haile  nut  to  pass.  It  is  now 
ready  to  be  smelted 

The  smelting-furnace  is  a  strong  quad- 
rangular pile  of  masonry,  the  internal  ca- 
vity of  wliich,  though  simple  in  form,  is 
not  very  easily  described  :  it  may  be  con 
sldered  however  in  general,  as  represent- 


ing two  irregular  trimcated  cones  joined 
base  to  base  :  of  these  the  lower  is  scarce- 
ly more  than  one-tlm-d  of  the  length  of 
the  upper,  and  is  pierced  by  two  open- 
ings, tlirough  tlie  upper  of  which  the 
blast  of  wind  from  the  blowing  machine  is 
admitted  into  tlie  furnace,  and  from  the 
lower  the  melted  matter,  both  scoriae  and 
metal,  is  discharged  from  time  to  time,  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  workmen.  The  fur- 
nace is  first  filled  with  charcoal  alone  and 
well  heated,  after  which  alternate  char- 
ges are  added  of  ore,  either  alone,  or 
mixed  with  lime-stone  if  it  requires  any 
flux,  and  charcoal :  the  blast  is  let  on  ani 
the  metal  in  the  ore  being  highly  carbo- 
nized in  its  passage  through  the  upper 
pai't  of  the  furnace  is  readily  melted  as 
soon  as  it  aiTives  in  the  focus  of  the  blast, 
whence  it  subsides  in  a  fluid  state  to  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  covered  with  a  mel- 
ted flag.  Part  of  the  clay  that  closes  the 
lower  aperture  of  the  furnace  is  occasion- 
ally removed  to  allow  the  scorize  to  flow 
out,  and  at  the  end  of  eveiy  ninth  hour 
the  ij'on  itself  is  discharged  into  a  bed  o£ 
sand,  where  it  forms  from  ten  to  twelve 
small  pigs.  As -soon  as  the  iron  has 
flowed  out,  the  aperture  is  closed  again, 
and  thus  the  furnace  is  kept  in  incessant 
acti^  ity  during  the  first  six  months  in  the: 
year  ;  the  other  six  months  are  employed 
in  repairing  the  furnaces,  making  char- 
coal, and  collecting  the  requisite  provi» 
sicn  c>f  wood  and  ore. 

The  next  process  lowaids  the  conver- 
sion of  pig  hito  bar  iron  is  refining.  For 
this  pui-pose  a  furnace  is  m.ade  use  of  re- 
sembling a  smith's  hearth,  witli  a  sloping 
cavit}'  sunk  fiom  ten  to  twelve  inches  be- 
low the  level  of  the  blast-pipe.  This  ca- 
\-itv  is  filled  with  charcoal  :<jid  scoriae,  and 
on  tlie  side  opposite  to  the  blast-pipe  is 
laid  a  pig  of  cast  iron  well  covered  with 
hot  fuel.  The  blast  is  then  let  in,  and  the 
pig  of  uon  behig  placed  in  the  very  focus 
oT  die  heat,  soon  begins  to  melt,  and  as  it 
liquefies  runs  down  into  the  cavity  be- 
low ;  here  being  out  of  the  direct  influ- 
ence of  the  blast  it  becomes  solid,  and  is 
then  taken  out  and  replaced  in  its  former 
position,  the  cavity  being  again  filled 
with  charcoal ;  it  is  thus  fused  a  second 
time,  and  after  that  a  third  time,  the 
whole  of  these  three  processes  being  usu- 
ally efi'ected  in  between  three  and  four 
hours.  As  soon  as  the  iron  has  become 
solid  it  is.  taken  out  and  very  slightly 
hammered  to  free  it  from  the  adhering 
scorise ;  it  is  then  returned  to  the  furnace, 
and  is  placed  in  a  corner  out  of  the  way 
of  the  blast,  and  well  covered  with  chai-- 
coal,  where  it  remains,  till  by  farther  gra- 
dual coollriijit  bcromts  suflicientlv  com- 


IllO 


mo 


pact  to  bear  the  tilt-hammer.  Here  it  is 
well  beaten  till  the  scoria:  are  forced  out, 
and  is  then  divided  into  several  pieces, 
■which,  by  a  repetition  of  heating'  and  ham- 
mering are  drawn  into  bars,  and  in  tliis 
state  it  is  ready  for  sale.  'Die  proportion 
of  pig  iron  obtained  from  a  given  quantity 
e)f  ore  is  subject  to  considerable  variation 
from  a  difference  in  the  metallic  contents 
of  different  parcels  of  ore  and  other  cir- 
cumstances ;  but  the  amount  of  bar  iron 
that  a  given  weight  of  pig-metal  is  ex- 
pected to  yield  is  regulated  very  strictly, 
the  workmen  being  expected  to  furnisli  4 
parts  of  the  former  for  5  of  the  latter,  so 
iliat  the  loss  does  not  exceed  20  percent 

The  method  of  preparing  bar  iron  in  all 
ihe  other  countries  of  Europe,  where 
charcoal  is  the  fuel  made  use  of,  is  upon 
Ihe  whole  very  similar  to  that  which  we 
have  just  detailed,  allowing  for  a  t'cw  va- 
riations according  to  the  different  species 
of  ore  that  are  employed.  But  in  Great 
Britain  the  number  of  charcoal  furnaces  is 
trifling  compared  witli  those  wliere  coak  is 
used,  and  the  adoption  of  this  kind  of  fuel 
has  led  by  necessity  to  a  method  of  manu- 
facturing iron,  it  is  said,  peculiar  to  that 
country,  and  wholly  inapplicable  to  those 
establishments  tliat  are  carried  on  by 
means  of  charcoal.  Each  method  has  its 
peculiar  advantages  and  disadvantages ; 
for  if  in  quantity  of  produce  fiom  each 
forge  they  may  claim  the  superiorit)', 
yet  this  is  probably  more  than  counterba 
lanced  by  the  inferior  quality  of  the  metal, 
the  greater  multiplicity  of  apparatus,  and 
consequently  tlie  larger  capital  laid  out, 
and  the  smaller  proportion  of  iron  procur- 
ed from  a  given  weight  oforc.  Tlie  me- 
thod, however,  pursued  by  the  British  ma- 
nufacturers is  not  a  matter  of  choice,  but 
has  been  forced  upon  tliem  by  the  defi- 
ciency of  wood.  They  must  either  almost 
entirely  abandon  this  impoitant  branch  of 
metallurgy,  or  substitute  coak  with  all  itj 
inconveniences  to  ciiurcoal.  Thus  circum- 
stanced, much  skill  and  ingenuity  has 
been  employed  by  tl^cm  in  overcoming  the 
peculiar  difbculties  with  which  they  have 
had  to  contend,  and  in  making  the  most  of 
the  peculiar  advantages  connected  with 
this  mode  of  working,  and  upon  the  whole  j 
with  so  much  success  as  to  enable  the  i 
British  manufactured  iron  to  enter  into 
competition  with  eveiy  otlier  kind  except 
the  very  best  American,  Norwegian  and 
Swedish. 

The  common  and  nodular  argillaceous 
iron-stone  are  the  prevailing  kinds  of  ore  • 
made  use  of  in  the  coak  smelting  works, ' 
partly  because  these  are  really  better  fit- 
ted, with  this  fuel,  to  produce  iron  of  a 
good  quality  than  'hf  ricli  hx-matites  of 


Lancashire,  Cumberland  and  Devonshire, 
and  ])artly  because  this  kind  of  ore  being 
usually  found  to  accompany  the  seams  of 
coal,  it  may  be  procured  at  little  expence, 
and  the  same  situation  that  is  well  adapt- 
ed lor  a  supply  of  fuel  is  equally  conve- 
nient for  abundance  of  ore. 

The  first  process  that  the  ironstone  un- 
dergoes after  it'  has  been  broken  into  pie- 
ces not  larger  tiian  an  egg,  is  roasting. 
This  is  sometimes  performed  in  cup-shap- 
ed kilns,  tlie  bottom  being  occupied  by^ 
lighted  coals  and  the  kiln  then  filled  up 
with  ore,  wliicli  by  the  time  that  the  fuel 
is  consumed  is  found  to  be  sufficiently  ter- 
rified. The  most  usual  way  however,  of 
burning  ironstones,  is  the  following.  Upon 
an  oblong  piece  of  firm  and  level  ground 
is  laid  abed  of  small  coal  from  four  to 
eight  inches  in  thickness  ;  upon  this  is 
placed  a  stratum  of  ironstone  composed  of 
pieces  as  nearly  as  possible  of  tiie  same 
size,  and  from  18  incheslo  two  feet  thick : 
the  upper  surface  of  this  is  then  rendered 
more  compact  by  filling  up  the  interstices 
with  smaller  pieces  of  ore.  Upon  this 
rests  a  layer  of  small  coal  not  more  than 
two  inches  thick,  and  on  this  as  a  base,  is 
reared  a  gradually  diminishing  pile  of  ore 
so  as  to  resemble  the  ridge  of  a  house  ; 
finally,  the  whole  external  surface  receives 
a  conipleat  covering  of  small  coals  and 
coal  dust.  Tiie  pile  is  kindled  by  apply- 
ing burning  coals  to  tlie  lower  sti-atum, 
wiiich  by  degrees  ignite  the  whole  mass. 
The  breadth  of  the  pile  at  the  bottom,  va- 
ries from  10  to  16  feet,  the  usual  height  is 
about  five  feet,  and  the  length  varies  from 
30  feet  to  GO  yards.  When  the  coals  are 
consumed  the  pile  gradually  cools,  and  in 
eight  or  ten  days  may  be  wheeled  away 
to  the  furnace. 

Tlie  ore,  if  well  roasted,  will  now  be  of 
a  re<l<lish  brown  colour,  of  diminished 
specific  giavity,  and  will  have  become 
magnetical,  the  sulphur,  water,  inflamma- 
ble matter,  and  carbonic  acid  that  it  origi- 
nally contained,  will  have  been  dissipated, 
and  it  is  now  ready  to  be  smelted. 

The  furnace  resembles  externally,  a 
tnuicated  quadrilateral  pyramid  of  consi 
deiable  height  in  proportion  to  its  thick- 
ness, it  is  built  of  the  strongest  masonry, 
with  contrivances  to  obviate  the  danger  of 
its  cracking  by  the  expansion  that  takes 
place  when  it  is  heated.  The  interior  of 
the  furnace  consists  of  the  five  following 
parts,  reckoning  from  the  bottom  upwards. 

First,  the  hearth,  composed  of  a  single 
block  of  quartz,  grit  about  two  feetsquare  : 
upon  this  is  erected  what  in  France  and 
Germunyis  called  the  cruci6lc,  wUicU  is  a 
f()ur-sided  cavity  six  feet  six  inches  high, 
slightly  enlarging  upwards.,  so  as  to  be 


mo 


IRO 


tyro  feet  six  inches  square  at  tlie  top : 
the  part  above,  called  the  boshes  is 
in  the  shape  of  a  funnel  or  inverted 
cone,  eight  feet  in  perpendicular  height, 
and  twelve  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top ; 
this  terminates  in  tlie  cavity  of  the  fur- 
nace which  is  of  a  conical  figure,  thirty 
feet  iiigli,  and  three  feet  diameter  at  the 
top ;  from  this  part  it  enlarges  into  a  fun- 
nel shaped  chimney  about  eight  I'eet  high, 
and  sixteen  in  diameter  at  its  mouth.  The 
lining  from  the  hearlh  to  ti»e  top  of  the 
hoshes,  is  composed  of  large  blocks  of 
<|uartz  grit,  and  that  of  the  cavity  of  the 
furnace  is  formed  of  fire  bricks  lo  inches 
long,  and  three  inches  thick.  About  two 
feet  above  the  hearth  is  a  round  aperture 
called  the  Tuyere,  made  in  one  of  the  sides 
of  the  crucible  to  admit  the  extremity  of 
the  blast  pipe,  through  wliich  the  air  in  a 
high  state  of  compression  is  forced  into 
the  furnace ;  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  cru- 
cible is  an  aperture  through  which  the 
scoriae  and  melted  metal  are  from  time  to 
time  discharged.  A  furnace  of  tliis  con- 
struction, if  it  meets  with  no  accident, 
may  be  kept  in  constant  work  for  three 
years  or  more,  without  requiring  aii}'  re- 
pairs. 

The  furnace  is  charged  at  the  cliimney 
hy  regular  intervals  with  coak,  iron  ore, 
and  limestone,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
4  of  the  first,  3  1-3  of  the  second,  and  1  of 
the  third,  by  weight,  care  being  taken  so 
to  regulate  the  frequency"  of  the  charges, 
as  tliat  the  furnace  shall  be  always  full 
nearly  to  tlie  top  of  the  great  cavity.  The 
density  of  the  blast  and  the  form  of  the 
discharging  pipe  are  ordered  so  that  the 
chief  focus  of  heat  is  about  the  bottom  of 
the  bosb.es ;  hence  the  ore  has  to  descend 
about  38  feet  perpendicular,  before  it  ar- 
rives at  the  place  where  the  fusion  is  ef- 
fected. This  does  not  happen  in  less  tlian 
48  hours,  so  that  the  ore  is  all  this  time  in 
a  state  ofcementation  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture in  contact  with  the  burning  fuel,  and 
in  consequence  is  almost  saturated  with 
carbon  when  it  reaches  the  hottest  part  of 
the  furnace.  Bt- ing  arrived  at  this  place, 
the  lime-stone  flux,  and  the  earthy  parti- 
cles of  the  coaks  and  ore  run  down  into  a 
slag,  the  iron  is  also  melted  and  more  or 
less  decarbonized,  and  in  part  oxydated 
by  the  blast  inversely  according  to  the 
proportion  oT  fuel  with  which  it  is  mixed 
(for  the  oxygen  of  the  air  by  preference 
unites  with  the  loose  carbon  of  the 
coak,  rather  than  with  that  which  has 
combined  with  tlie  iron  )  The  fluid  mass 
soon  sinks  down  below  the  influence  of 
the  blast,  and  while  it  remains  in  quiet  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  the  globules  of 
iron  are  precipitated  from  the  slag  in 


which  they  were  inveloped,  and  occupy 
the  lowest  place,  while  the  covering  of 
scoris  thus  interposed  between  the  metal 
and  that  portion  of  the  blast  which  is  re- 
flected downwards,  prevents  it  from  suf. 
fering  any  further  loss  of  carbon.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  melted  matter  accumulates, 
the  slag  being  the  uppermost,  flows  out  at 
the  aperture  made  for  this  purpose,  and 
the  iron  is  let  out  at  regtilar  intervals  into 
furrows  made  in  sand,  where  it  forms 
what  is  called  pig  iron,  or  into  a  large  re- 
servoir whence  it  is  poured  by  means  of  la- 
dles into  moulds,  forming  all  the  various 
aiticles  of  cast  iron  wai-e,  from  cannons 
and  steam  engine  cylinders,  to  fire  grates 
and  common  iron  pots. 

The  great  object  of  the  manufacturer  is, 
with  a  given  quantity  of  fuel  to  obtain  as 
large  an  amount  as  possible  of  highly  car- 
buretted  cast  iron,  as  this  is  the  kind 
which  bears  the  highest  price  in  tiie  mar- 
ket :  but  as  fi-om  various  causes  the  iron 
is  generally  found  to  be  more  or  less  de- 
carburetted,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  consi- 
derable  importance  to  ascertain  by  exter- 
nal characters  the  principal  changes  in- 
duced by  a  progressive  diminution  of  car-  ^ 
bon  in  oider  that  the  value  of  any  particu- 
lar  sample  may  be  correctly  and  expedi- 
tiously ascertained.  By  long  and  careful 
observation  it  has  been  found  sufficient  for 
all  practical  purposes  to  arrange  tlie  seve- 
ral kinds  of  cast  iron  under  one  or  other  of 
the  four  following  subspecies. 

1.  Smnoth  faced  Iron,  or  Ao.  1.  of  the 
manufacturers.  This  seems  to  be  com- 
posed  of  iron  nearly  saturated  with  carbon, 
and  mixed  with  a  comparatively  small 
proportion  of  oxyd  and  eartliy  impurities. 
Its  upper  surface  is  smooth  and  convex, 
entiiely  free  from  oxyd,  and  often  covered 
with  a  tliin  crust  of  plumbago  :  it  presents 
a  coarse  granular  fracture  with  a  brilliant 
metallic  lustre  and  a  dark  blue  colour. 

2.  GorJ  inelting  pig  Iron,  or  No.  2  of 
the  manufacturers.  This  differs  from  the 
preceding  in  containing  probably  a  smal- 
ler portion  of  carbon  and  a  large  admix- 
tureofoxyd  of  iron.  Its  upper  surface 
is  slightly  convex  and  full  of  small  cavi- 
ties :  its  fracture  is  coarse  granular 
towards  the  centre  of  the  pig,  \.ut  the 
concretions  manifestly  diminish  in  size  as 
they  ai-e  situated  nearer  the  surface  ;  its 
colour  is  dark-grey  inclining  to  blue. 

3.  Grey  Iron,  or  No.  3  of  tlie  manufac- 
turers. In  this  the  amount  of  cai-bon  is 
still  further  diminished.  Its  upper  sur- 
face  is  level,  sometimes  slightly  concave, 
and  presents  more  and  larger  cavities 
than  the  preceding,  it  is  slightly  oxydated 
superficially  ;  its  fracture  is  fine  granular 
and  its  colour  is  light  grey. 


mo 


mo 


4.  Wiute  Iron,  forge  pigs,  ballast  Iron. 
In  this  the  quantity  of  combined  cai-bon 
is  smaller,  and  the  admixed  oxyd  larger 
than  in  any  of  tlie  preceding.  Its  upjjer 
surface  is  concave,  rougli,  and  covered 
with  a  plate  of  oxyd  ;  its  fracture  is  com- 
pact sometimes  tending  to  striated,  its 
colour  is  tin-white,  occasioiuUy  mottled 
with  grey. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  state  in  a 
general  way,  the  circumstances  in  the 
cmelting  which  principally  influence  the 
quality  of  the  produce.  Much  depends  on 
the  fuel :  if  the  coaks  are  not  peHectly 
made  but  retain  a  part  of  their  bitumeJi, 
the  whole  mass  cakes  together  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  furnace,  and  insti?ad  ot 
descending  regularly  to  the  focus  of  heat, 
falls  down  by  pieces,  and  at  irregular  in- 
tervals, so  that  part  of  the  metal  is  de- 
tained too  long  before  the  blast,  and  in 
consequence  is  decarbonized  and  oxyda- 
ted,  while  other  portions  pass  so  rapidly 
through  the  furnace  as  never  to  .  be 
thoroughly  reduced,  hence  the  amount  ot 
the  produce  is  diminished  and  its  quahty 
jgreatly  deteriorated.  Nor  is  it  of  less 
importance  that  the  coak  should  be  per- 
fectly dry  when  put  into  the  furnace, 
otherwise  the  water  which  it  contains  will 
be  decomposed,  the  hjdrogen  and  part 
of  the  oxygen  will  dissolve  their  respec- 
tive portions  of  carbon,  and  escape  in  a 
gaseous  state,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
oxygen  will  combine  with  the  iron  ;  which 
will  thus  be  injured,  not  merely  by  the 
privation  of  carbon,  but  the  ]J0sitive  ad- 
dition of  oxygen.  It  is  further  requisite 
that  the  proportion  of  fuel  be  adapted  to 
the  richness  of  the  ore,  so  that  there  may 
be  sufficient  both  to  keep  up  the  neces- 
sary degree  of  beat  as  well  as  to  carbonize 
the  metal :  hence  as  the  charges  of  ore 
and  fuel  are  always  proportioned  by  mea- 
sure, if  an  ore  somewhat  richer  tiian  usual 
happens  accidentally  to  be  employed  witli- 
out  a  corresponding  addition  of  fuel,  tlic 
produce  though  somewhat  increased  in 
quantity,  will  be  more  than  equivalently 
reduced  in  quality.  Another  circum- 
stance  that  the  manvifacturer  must  care- 
fully attend  to,  is  the  proper  choice  of 
ore  with  regard  to  fvisibi'iity,  for  as  it  is 
Eot  only  requisite  that  the  iron  should  be 
cielted,  but  also  highly  carbonized,  and 
us  coak  gives  off  its  carbi)n  with  nuich 
more  difficulty  than  charcoal  does,  it  is 
manifest  tluit  a  very  fusible  ore  would 
welt  long  before  it  arrive  at  the  focus  of 
tlie  furnace,  and  passing  rapidly  through, 
would  reach  the  hearth  without  having 
had  time  to  imbibe  the  ]iro])er  quantity  of 
carbon.  Hence  it  is  that  the  rich  li:cma. 
tites,  although  they  afford  an  excellent! 
quality  of  iron  when  smelted  with  cliar- 


coaJ,  produce  nothing  but  white  iron  when 
treated  in  the  coak  furnace  ;  while  on  the 
other  hand  argillaceous  ironstone  being 
much  more  refractory,  does  not  melt  till 
it  comes  into  the  very  hottest  part  of  the 
fui'nace,  and  therefore  has  had  full  time 
to  absorb  the  desirable  quantity  of  car- 
bon. Another  thing  to  be  attended  to  is 
the  proper  regulation  of  the  blast,  and 
this  depends  u])on  its  dryness,  its  tem- 
perature, its  compression,  and  its  direc- 
tion. The  dryness  and  temperature  ap- 
pear to  be  principally  governed  by  the 
season  of  the  year,  and  therefore  are  but 
little  capable  of  being  modified  by  the 
manufacturer.  It  is  plain  that  the  dryer 
and  colder  the  air  is,  the  greater  will  be 
its  elTect  on  the  combustion,  and  it  is 
found  by  constant  experience,  that  the 
produce  of  iron  during  tlie  summer 
months  is  greatly  inferior  in  quantity, 
and  materially  so  in  quality  to  that  which 
is  manufactured  in  the  winter:  a  clear 
dry  and  severe  frost  is  the  most  favoura- 
ble period  in  every  respect  for  the  work- 
ing  of  the  furnace,  and  a  change  to  snow 
or  rain  is  infallibly  followed  by  a  corres- 
ponding deterioration.  The  higher  the 
temperature  of  the  blast  is  when  it  is 
delivered  into  the  furnace,  the  smaller 
(the  degree  of  compression  and  other  cir- 
cumstances being  equal)  will  be  the 
quantity  of  oxygen  contained  in  every 
cubic  foot,  and  of  course  tlie  vigour  of 
the  combustion.  Nor  is  the  force  of  the 
blast  and  its  direction  a  subject  of  less 
imiKjrtance  ;  it  is  obvious  that  in  propor- 
tion as  the  charge  descends,  tlie  carbona- 
ceous matter  is  continually  diminishing  ; 
hence  the  proper  situatitm  for  the  focus 
of  the  blast  is  that  part  of  the  furnace, 
where,  when  the  ore  shall  have  arrived  it 
will  be  fully  carbonized  and  surrounded 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fuel  to  ex- 
cite an  intense  heat,  and  absorb  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  oxy.geu  of  the  air,  and 
thus  i)revent  it  from  either  oxydating  the 
iron,  or  carrying  ofi"  the  carbon  with  which 
it  may  be  coiubined  This  precise  situa- 
tion, in  a  furnace  properly  constructed, 
will  be  found  to  be  just  within  the  expan- 
sion of  the  boshes ;  but  as  this  is  more 
than  four  feet  above  the  tuyere  hole,  the 
blast  must  be  delivered  with  great  velo- 
city and  in  a  direction  somewhat  slanting 
ujnvards,  in  order  that  it  may  be  reflec- 
ted by  the  opposite  wall  of  the  crucible, 
and  lu-rive  at  its  proper  place  without 
undergoing  any  material  decomposition. 
^Vhen  the  blast  enters  too  rajjidly,  and 
in  too  concentrated  a  state,  it  renders  the 
line  of  its  passage  before  it  is  reflected  so 
cool,  that  the  descending  slag  which 
comes  witliin  its  influence  is  suddenly  so- 
lidified, and  blown  into  a  tube,  reaching 


mo 


IRO 


perhaps,  half  way  across  the  crucible 
throug'h  which  the  bhist  continues  to 
rush,  and  in  consequence  of  this  protec- 
tion, is  conveyed  with  greater  precision, 
and  in  a  less  decomposed  state  into  tlie 
upper  part  of  the  furnace.  If  after  this 
the  compression  of  the  air  ii  somcwl.at 
diminished,  tlie  tube  still  remains  firm, 
often  for  days  together,  and  the  furnace 
works  in  the  best  manner.  But  on  the 
other  hand,  when  too  loose  and  soft  a 
blast  is  admitted,  and  more  especially  if 
it  is  cliarged  with  moisture,  it  is  unable  to 
reacli  the  top  of  the  crucible  without  be- 
ing decomposed,  and  the  reflection  which 
it  undergoes  from  the  wall  of  the  crucible, 
weakens  and  disperses  it  to  such  degree, 
that  the  combustion  which  ought  to  take 
place  within  the  boshes,  now  occupies  tlie 
whole  upper  part  of  the  crucible :  in  con- 
sequence of  this,  the  tube  of  scoriae  is 
presently  burnt  away,  tlie  iron  almost  as 
fast  as  it  is  melted  is  ignited  and  oxydized, 
the  tuyere  hole  glows  Uke  the  sun  with 
an  intensely  vivid  white  light ;  the  scoria 
from  being  yellowish  white,  streaked  with 
blue,  becomes  green,  brown,  and  finally 
black,  nearly  the  wiiole  ol  the  iron  in  the 
state  of  oxyd  being  taken  up  by  it ;  the 
blocks  of  refractory  gritstone  with  which 
the  lower  part  of  the  furnace  is  lined  are 
worn  into  great  holes,  and  in  the  space 
of  a  few  hoiu's  prodigious  damage  is  sus- 
tained. 

There  has  been  no  regular  analysis  of 
cast  iron,  but  from  the  phenomena  that 
take  place  during  its  conversion  into  bar 
iron,  which  we  shall  proceed  to  describe, 
it  will  be  sufBcientl)'  apparent  what  are 
its  principal  constituent  paj  ts. 

One  of  the  most  obvious  differences  be- 
tween cast  and  bar  iron,  is  the  britileness 
of  the  former  and  the  malleability  of  the 
latter :  this  malleability  has  accordingly 
been  adopted  by  the  manufacturer  as  the 
essential  character  of  bar  ii-on,  and  as  af- 
fording him  a  mode  by  which  to  judge  of 
the  efficacy  of  the  means  employed  by 
him  in  i-edvicing  crude  to  malleable  iron. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  is  refining. 
For  this  purpose  the  pigs  are  smelted  in 
a  refinery,  (the  construction  of  whicli  we 
have  already  noticed)  by  means  of  cliar- 
coal  ;  and  as  soon  as  the  metal  is  in  fusion 
it  is  let  oufinto  a  mould  of  sand  to  sepa- 
rate the  scoria  that  rise  to  its  surface,  and 
in  this  state  is  called  a  half  bloom.  As 
soon  as  it  has  become  solid,  it  is  again 
transfeiTed  to  the  furnace  and  treated  as 
before.  Sometimes  even  a  third  fusion  is 
required  before  the  iron  shows  sufficient 
malleability  to  clot  into  lumps  when  bro- 
ken down  almost  at  a  fusing  heat,  by  an 
iron.    When  it  has  acqub-ed  this  consist- 

VOL.    T. 


ency,  it  is  taken  out  in  moderate  sized 
pieces,  which  being  placed  under  the 
great  forge  or  shingling  hammer,  are 
speedily  stamped  iuto  cakes  about  an  inch 
in  thickness.  Several  piles  of  these  cakes 
about  a  foot  high,  are  then  laid  on  flatcir- 
culai-  stones,  and  placed  in  the  balling  or 
i"e\erberatoi'y  furnace,  where  they  are 
strongly  heatetl.  As  soon  as  the  whole 
acquires  a  pasty  state,  one  of  the  piles  is 
taken  out  by  a  workman  and  drawn  luider 
the  hammer  into  asliort  bar :  which  being 
finished,  is  applied  to  another  of  the  piles, 
to  which  it  presently  adheres :  being  then 
withdrawn,  the  new  portion  is  welded  firm- 
ly to  the  first  by  means  of  the  hammer, 
and  thus  the  bar  is  doubled  in  length  ;  by 
rejjeating  the  same  simple  and  ingenious 
operation  the  bar  is  made  as  long  as  its 
weight  will  conveniently  allow.  The 
cracks  in  the  bar  are  then  closed,  and  its 
tenacity  is  improved  by  heating  it  afresh 
in  afire  made  of  coal,  called  the  chaflTery, 
(chaufferie  Fr.)  and  again  subjecting  it  to 
the  action  of  the  forge -hammer.  It  is  now 
in  the  state  of  common  bar  ii-on,  and  ought 
to  be  entireh'  free  from  all  earthy  particles. 
After  this,  according  to  the  use  for  which 
it  is  intended,  it  is  transferred  to  the  slit- 
ting mill ;  wliere  it  is  laminated  and  cut  up 
into  bars  and  rods  of  various  dimensions, 
by  which  its  toughness  and  compactness 
is  much  improved,  and  is  then  ready  for 
the  smith. 

The  above  method  is  called  stampiri^ ; 
but  besides  this,  there  is  another  knowai 
by  the  name  of  floiu-ishing,  which  requires 
a  short  notice.  In  this  the  pigs  of  cast 
iron  when  jjut  into  the  refinery  are  kept 
for  about  two  hours  and  a  lialf  in  a  pasty 
state  witiiout  actually  melting,  and  at  the 
end  of  this  period  tlie  metal  is  taken  out 
by  shovels  and  laid  on  the  open  floor  on 
a  plate  of  cast  iron  where  it  is  beaten  with 
hand-hammers  in  order  to  knock  ofl"  the 
cinders  and  oJier  adhering  impurities. 
It  is  afterwards  placed  under  the  forge 
hammer  and  beaten,  at  first  gently,  till 
the  whole  mass  has  acquired  some  ten- 
acity, and  then  the  middle  part  is  dra\nt 
into  a  bar  four  feet  long,  terminated  at 
each  extremity  by  a  cubical  lump  of  rough 
iron  :  in  this  state  it  is  called  an  Ancony. 
It  is  now  taken  to  the  Chatiery,  hamme;"- 
ed  afresh,  and  the  ends  being  also  drawn 
down  to  the  same  dimensions  as  the  other 
part,  the  bar  is  compleated. 

A  third  method  of  working  iron,  called 
pudding,  was  invented  by  Mr.  Cort,  (as 
appears  fi-om  the  speciii cations  of  his 
two  patents)  and  is,  we  understand,  com- 
ing into  general  use  at  Shetlield  and  other 
places.  It  is  particulai-ly  characterised 
by  combining  the  reverberatory  with  the 
3  T 


IRO 


IRO 


finery  furnace,  and  the  whole  process  is  j tenacious  than  at  first;  the  fennentati<sn 
managed  in  the  tbllowing  manner.     1  he    then  by  degrees,  subsides,  the  emission  of 

blue  flame  nearly  ceases,  the  iron  is  ga- 
thered into  lumps  and  beaten  with  a 
heavylieaded  tool.  Finally,  tlie  tools  are 
withdrawn,  the  apertures  tlirough  which 
they  were  worked  are  closed,  and  the 
Hame  is  turned  on  in  full  force  for  six  or 
eight  minutes.  The  pieces  being  thus 
brought  to  a  high  welding  heat  are  with- 
drawn and  shingled ;  after  this  they  are 
again  heated  and  passed  tlirough  grooved 
rollers,  by  which  the  scoriae aie  sepai-ated 
and  the  bars  thus  forcibly  compressed 
accjuire  a  high  degree  of  tenacity. 

'i'he  more  welding  and  hammering  that 
bar  iron  is  subject  to,  the  tougher  it  be- 
comes and  the  more  fibrous,  or  nervous 
as  the  French  term  it,  is  the  fracture. 
Hence  arises  the  superiority  of  Stub  iron 
to  all  the  oilier  varieties  for  barrels  of 
fowling  pieces  and  other  uses  where  ex- 
treme toughness  is  required.  It  is  pre- 
pared in  the  following  method.  A  moder- 
ately broad  ring  of  the  best  Swedish  iron 
is  placed  horizontally  and  filled  with  old 
iiorseshoe  nails  (called  stubs)  set  per- 
pendicularl)-,  till  it  can  hold  no  more  :  a 
pointed  bar  of  iron  is  then  driven  into 
the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  thus  locks 
the  wliole  fast  together.  A  weldmg  heat 
is  then  applied,  and  the  mass  is  hammered 
very  gently  at  first,  till  the  nails  and  ring 
become  compleatly  united :  it  is  then 
drawn  down  into  bars  and  affords  an  iron 
of  peculiar  closeness,  toughness,  and  mal- 
leability. 

JManufacture  and  properties  of  Steel.-^ 
Steel  combines  the  fusibility  of  cast  iron 
with  the  malleability  of  bar  iron,  and  fur- 
ther possesses  this  very  valuable  property, 
that  when  heated  and  suddenly  cooled, 
it  becomes  intensely  hard,  and  is  there- 
fore much  superior  to  simple  iron  for  all 
kinds  of  cuttmg  instruments,  files  and 
various  otlicr  tools.  In  the  present  sec- 
tion we  shall  describe  the  different 
methods  of  j)reparing  and  tempering  steel, 
reserving  for  the  next  section  an  enquiiy 
into  the  chemical  composition  of  this  use- 
ful substance. 

The  most  ancient  way  of  making  steel 
is  probably  that  related  by  Agricola. 
Take  some  highly  carburelted  bar  iron, 
cut  it  into  small  pieces  and  mix  it  with 
pidvcrlzed  scorise,  put  the  mixture  into  a 
crucible  lined  with  cliarcoal,  and  bring 
it  to  a  state  of  fusion  in  a  blast  furnace. 
When  both  the  iron  and  scorisc  are 
thorougldy  fluid,  intnierse  in  this  metallic 
bath  four'  lumps  of  bar  iron,  weigiiing 
abt)ut  thirty  pounds  each,  and  let  tliem 
remain  in  tills  situation  during  five  or  six 
hours,  stirring  the  batlt  occasionally  with 


pigs  of  cast  iron  produced  by  tlie  smelt- 
ing furnace  are  broken  into  pieces,  and 
are  mixed  in  sucii  proportions  according 
to  their  degree  of  carbonization,  that  the 
result  of  the  whole  shall  be  a  grey  metal. 
This  mixture  is  then  speedily  run  down 
in  a  blast  furnace,  where  it  remains  a  suf- 
ficient time  to  allow  the  greater  part  of 
the  scorix  to  rise  to  the  surface.  The 
furnace  is  now  tapped,  and  the  metal  runs 
into  moulds  of  sand,  by  which  it  is  formed 
into  pigs  about  half  the  size  of  those 
which  are  made  at  the  smelting  furnace  : 
and  these  pigs  when  cold  are  broken  into 
pieces. 

A  common  reverberatory  furnace  hea- 
ted by   coal,  is  now  charged  with  about 
S^cw't.  of  this  half  refined  grey  iron.     In 
aliltle  more  than  half  an  hour,  the  metal 
will  be  found  to  be  nearly  melted  ;  at  this 
period  the  flame  is  turned  off',   a  little 
water  is  sprinkled  over  it,  and  a  work- 
man by  introducing   an  iron  bar,  or  an 
instrument  shaped  like  a  hoe,  tln-ough  a 
hole  in  the  side  of  the  furnace,  begins  to 
stir  the  half  fluid  mass  and  divide  it  into 
small   pieces.      In   the   course    of  about 
fifty  minutes  from  the  commencement  of 
the  process,  the  iron  will  have  been  redu- 
ced by  constant  stirring  to  the  consistence 
of  small  gravel,  and  will  be  considerably 
C(M)led.     The    flame    is   then   turned  on 
again,  the  workman   continuing  to    stir 
tiie  metal,  and  in  three  minutes  time  the 
whole  mass  becomes  soft  and  semifluid, 
upon  which  the  flame  is  again  turned  off" 
The  hottest  part  of  the  iron  now  begins 
to  heave  and  swell,  and  emit  a  deep-blue 
lambent  flame,  which  ajjpearance  is  cal- 
led lermentation  :  the  heaving  motion  and 
accompanying  flame  soon  spreads  over 
the  whole,  and   the    heat  of  the    metal 
seems  to  be  rather  increased  than  dimi- 
nished ior  the  next  quarter  of  an  hour : 
after  tins  period  the  temperature  again 
falls,  the  blue  flume  is  less  vigorous,  and 
in  a  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
t^ie  metal  is  cooled  to  a  dull  red,  and  the 
jets  of  flame  are  rare  and  faint.     During 
the   whole  of  the  IcrnKntation,  the  stir- 
ring is  continued,  by  which  the  iron  is  at 
length   brought    to  the    consistency    of 
sand,  it  also  appioaches  nearer   to  the 
malleable  state,  and  in  consequence  ad- 
heres less  than  at  first  to  the   tool  wiili 
which  it  is  stirred.     During  the  next  half 
hour  the  flam^"  is  turned  ott  and  on  several 
tinies.  a  stronger  lermentation  takes  place, 
.  and  a  loud  hissing  noise  is  perceived,  the 
lambent  flame  also  becomes  of  a  clearer 
and  iigiiter  biue  ;  the  metal  begins  to  clot 
and  becomes  much  less  fusible  and  more 


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IRO 


an  iron  rod  ;  by  this  time  they  will  hare 
become  soft  and  spungy,  upon  which  they 
are  to  be  taken  out  and  drawn  down  into 
bars  by  tlie  forge  hammer.  As  soon  as 
this  is  performed,  the  bars  still  hot,  are 
to  be  plunged  into  cold  water,  by  which 
they  will  be  rendeied  brittle,  and  are 
then  to  be  broken  under  tlie  hmnnier  into 
short  pit'ces.  The  crucible  in  the  mean 
time  is  to  be  replenished  with  the  same 
mixture  as  before,  and  when  its  contents 
are  become  quite  fluid,  the  pieces  into 
which  the  bars  have  been  broken  are  to 
be  again  immersed  till  they  become  sofi  : 
each  piece  being  then  taken  out  and 
forged  separately  into  a  slender  bar,  is  to 
be  cooled  while  yet  glowiner  hot,  in  cold 
Water,  and  the  process  is  finished.  The 
above  method  is  we  believe  entirely  ob- 
solete, though  with  a  few  modifications 
that  are  sufficiently  obWous,  it  would  in 
all  probability  be  found  highly  advan- 
tageous. 

The  native  steel  of  Eisenliartz  in  Stiria 
has  always  been  in  high  estimation  since 
the  eightli  century,  and  is  prepared  di- 
rectly from  the  ore  nearly  in  the  same 
manner  as  common  bai*  iron.  The  ore 
made  use  of  is  the  Spathose  Ironstone, 
consisting  of  the  carbonats  of  iron, 
manganese  and  hme,  together  ^^ith  a  mix- 
ture of  clay  :  it  is  procured  in  vast  abun- 
dance from  the  neighbouring  hill  of  Arz- 
berg,  and  care  is  taken  not  to  use  any 
that  has  not  been  exposed  for  several 
years  to  the  action  of  the  air.  No  flux  of 
any  kind  is  necessar\',  and  the  fuel,  which 
is  charcoal,  does  not  on  an  average  ex- 
ceed in  weight  one  filth  of  the  ore  When 
a  sufticient  quantity  of  melted  ma'te:  is 
collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  it 
is  let  out  into  a  deep  mould,  wliere  it 
remains  quiet  a  few  minutes  to  allow  the 
scoriae  to  rise  to  the  surface ;  this  being 
done,  a  little  water  is  sprinkled  over  it, 
which  hardens  the  scoriae  and  renders 
them  easily  removable :  a  second  but 
much  thinner  crust  of  scorise  generally 
succeeds,  which  is  got  rid  of  in  the  same 
manner.  A  little  water  is  now  thrown  on 
the  melted  nietid  itself,  by  wiiich  its  sur- 
face is  suddenly  covered  with  a  congealed 
crust  about  an  inch  thick  ;  this  is  remov- 
ed, and  by  repetitions  of  the  same  process 
the  greater  part  of  the  mass  is  thus  con- 
verted  into  these  irregular  plates  ;  what 
remains  is  a  mass  in  tlie  state  of  half  mal- 
leable iron  These  plates  are  transfer]  ed 
to  the  crusible  of  a  refinery  which  has 
been  previously  lined  with  charcoal,  and 
are  covered  wi^h  scorije  and  brought  to 
a  state  of  fu.sion,  carefully  obsci-ving  how 
ever  not  to  direct  the  blast  from  the  bel- 
low? into  the  crucible,  lest  the  iron  should 


be  decarbonized.  After  the  whole  has 
been  in  quiet  fusion  for  some  time,  the 
fire  is  slackened,  and  as  soon  as  the  metal 
has  congealed  the  scoriae  still  fluid  are  let 
ofl".  The  mass  is  then  subjected  to  a 
second  fusion  in  the  refinery  with  the 
same  precautions  as  at  first,  and  is  now 
sufficiently  purified  to  be  forged :  it  is  ac- 
cordingly extended  under  the  hammer 
and  cut  into  bars  which  are  examined  by 
theu-  fracture,  and  separated  according  to 
theu-  qualities,  into  liard  steel,  soft  steel, 
and  steely  u-on  :  the  latter  is  reserved  by 
itself  and  used  for  pointing  plowshares 
and  other  coarse  work ;  but  the  others 
are  made  up  into  packets,  observing  to 
place  the  liardest  steel  on  the  inside, 
which  are  then  drawn  into  bars  at  a 
lower  heat  than  that  required  for  iron, 
and  tlien  the  process  is  compleat.  Thus 
the  whole  art  consists  in  purifying  the 
case  iron,  taking  at  the  same  time  par- 
ticular care  that  the  carbon  which  it  con- 
tains is  not  burnt  away.  If  the  original 
cast  iron  is  veiy  highly  carbonized  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  steel  retains 
too  large  a  proportion  of  carbon,  which 
is  evinced  in  tlie  refinery  by  its  being 
more  easily  fusible,  and  requiring  a  lon- 
ger time  to  become  solid  again  than 
usual :  this  defect  however  is  speedily 
remedied  by  adding  iron  filings  or  scraps 
of  bar  iron,  the  quantity  of  which  is  regu- 
lated by  ttie  degree  of  fusibility  to  be  cor- 
rected. 

If  the  manufacturer  wishes  to  procure 
iron  from  this  ore  instead  of  steel,  the 
only  d.fierence  required  in  the  treatment 
is  to  get  rid  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
combined  carbon  by  roasting  the  plates  in 
a  reverberator}'  furnace  before  they  are 
brought  to  the  refinery,  and  by  avoiding 
to  line  the  crucible  of  the  refinery  with 
pounded  charcoal.  The  iron  thus  produ- 
ced is  of  an  excellent  quality. 

The  best  of  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian 
ores  are  occasionally  wrought  into  steel 
of  a  very  good  quality  by  nearly  the  same 
process  of  manufacture,  provided  in  the 
smelting  a  larger  proportion  than  usual 
of  charcoal  has  bec-n  emploved  to  ensure 
a  highly  carbonized  metal. 

The  usual  method  of  converting  iron 
into  steel  is  by  cementation.  For  the 
purposes  of  manufacture,  this  is  perfor- 
iiied  on  large  quantities  at  a  time  in  the 
following  manner.  Cementation  or  con- 
verting furnace  consists  of  two  parallel 
troughs,  constructed  of  fire-brick,  suffi- 
cienth  long  to  admit  with  convenience  a 
common  bar  of  iron  ,-  these  troughs  rest 
upon  a  long  grate  from  which  flues  pro- 
ceed so  as  to  distribute  the  heat  as  evenly 
as  possible   to   every  part :  aii   arched 


mo 


mo 


vault  is  thrown  over  the  top,  and  the 
whole  is  inclosed  within  a  cone  of  ma- 
sonry as  the  glass  house  furnaces  are. 
The  bars  of  iron  intended  for  cementation 
are  of  the  very  best  quality,  (in  England 
none  but  the  Swedisli  Oregrund  iron  is 
employed  for  this  purpose)  and  are  care- 
fully examined  to  ascerUiin  that  tlicy  are 
quite  fi-ee  from  cracks,  flaws,  and  every 
appearance  indicative  of  their  not  being 
compleally  malleable.  The  requisite 
selection  being  made,  a  stratum  of 
coarsely  bruisetl  charcoal  is  laid  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cementing  trough,  upon 
which  is  arranged  a  layer  of  iron  bars  : 
to  this  succeeds  another  of  charcoal,  and 
60  on  till  the  trough  is  nearly  filled,  ob- 
serving tliat  the  upper  as  well  as  the 
lowest  layer  is  charcoal :  it  is  then  covered 
with  a  mixture  of  hard  rammed  clay  and 
sand  in  order  to  exclude  the  air.  A 
trough  thus  charged  will  conlair.  from 
seven  to  ten  tons  of  iron.  The  fire  being- 
lighted,  the  heat  passes  into  the  flues  and 
raises  the  temperature  of  the  troughs  to 
a  glowing  red  which  is  maintained  for  the 
space  of  from  seven  to  eleven  days,  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  iron.  At  the 
extremity  cf  each  trough  is  a  small  hole, 
through  which  two  or  three  bars  pro- 
ject a  few  inches  in  order  that  they 
may  be  occasionally  withdrawn  to  as- 
certain the  progress  of  cementation : 
when  by  the  trial  bars,  it  appears  to 
be  complcat,  the  fire  is  put  out,  and 
after  the  troughs  are  sufficiently  cool  they 
are  emptied  of  their  contents.  The  form 
of  the  bars  thus  converted,  remains  unal- 
tered, but  their  surface  is  covered  over 
with  bubbles  or  blisters,  whence  the  steel 
in  this  state  is  called  blister  steel :  it  is 
lieavier  than  the  iron  from  which  it  was 
made  on  account  of  its  having  absorbed  a 
portion  of  carbon  from  the  charcoal  with 
which  it  was  in  contact,  though  this  is  by 
no  means  the  only  action  that  takes  place 
in  the  process  of  steel-making,  as  we 
shall  show  in  the  next  section.  Blister 
steel  is  employed  only  for  the  coarsest 
purposes,  such  as  pointing  horses  shoes, 
ploughs,  and  othei-  agricultural  instru- 
ments, Sec.  By  being  drawn  down  into 
smaller  bars  under  the  tilt-hammer,  its 
texture  is  considerably  improved,  and  it 
is  known  in  the  markets  by  the  name  of 
tilted  steel.  As  repeated  hammering  im- 
proves iron,  so  it  does  steel :  hence  if  a 
bar  of  highly  carbonized  blister  steel  is 
broken  into  very  short  pieces,  and  these 
being  formed  into  small  packets,  are 
again  welded  together  and  drawn  down 
into  bai-s,  which  being  again  doubled 
together  are  welded  and  tilted,  repeating 
the  process  two  or  three  times,  the  result 


will  be  a  very  material  improvement  in 
compactness  and  toughness,  and  the 
metal  will  be  found  well  qualified  for 
swords  and  the  larger  articles  of  cutlery  : 
this  steel  has  long  been  prepared  in  high 
perfection  in  Germany,  whence  it  is  called 
German  steel ;  it  is  also  known  by  the 
name  oi'  shear  steel. 

This  is  the  proper  place  to  mention  the 
process  of  case-hardening,  which  in  fact 
is  only  an  imperfect  kind  of  cementation, 
converting  little  else  than  the  immediate 
surfiicc  of  the  metal  into  steel,  and  there- 
fore being  performed  not  on  the  rough 
bar  but  the  inannfactured  aiticle  The 
cements  or  carbonaceous  substances  used 
on  this  occasion  are  bone  shavings  or 
turnings,  horn  cuttings,  and  old  leather 
shoes.  The  work  intended  to  be  cased 
having  been  previously  filed  to  the 
requisite  shape,  that  there  may  he  as  lit- 
tle occasion  a«  possible  to  apply  the  file 
afterwards,  Is  laid  together  with  the  ce- 
ment in  a  pan  of  plate-u-on.  A  forge  fire 
is  then  made  of  considerable  size,  and 
when  the  tipper  part  has  caked  together 
it  is  carefully  lifted  oft"  without  breaking, 
tlie  pan  is  laid  upon  the  red  coals  and 
covered  with  the  caked  mass,  hi  this 
state  it  remains  for  nearly  two  hours, 
without  urging,  the  fire.  Small  pieces  of 
iron  wire  that  have  been  ))reviously  in- 
troduced into  the  pan  being  withrawn 
from  time  to  time,  are  dipped  while  hot 
in  cold  water,  and  by  the  file  and  the 
character  oT  the  fracture,  the  progress  of 
the  cementation  is  determined.  When 
the  intended  degree  of  carburation  is 
obtained,  the  fire  is  increased  and  tlie 
articles  as  soon  as  sufiiciently  heated  are 
taken  out  of  the  pan  and  plunged  in  cold 
water.  The  inferior  kinds  of  table-knives 
and  some  surgical  instruments,  where  a 
considerable  degree  both  of  to\igliness 
and  hardness  is  required,  are  prepared  in 
this  way. 

The  finest  kind  of  steel  however,  called 
Eng-lish  cast  steel,  yet  remains  to  be  men- 
tioned. It  is  commonly  prepared  by 
breaking  to  pieces  the  blister  steel  and 
then  melting  it  in  a  crucible  with  a  flux 
composed  of  carbonaceous  and  vitrefiable 
ingredients  When  thoroughly  fused  it 
is  cast  into  ingots,  which  by  gentle  heat- 
ing and  careful  hammering  are  tilted  into 
bars.  By  this  process  the  steel  becomes 
more  highly  carbonized  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  flux,  and  in  consequence 
is  more  brittle  and  fusible  than  before ; 
it  is  inferior  to  the  other  kinds  of  steel 
in  being  incajiablc  of  welding  either  with 
iron  or  steel,  but  on  the  other  hand  sur- 
passes them  all  in  uniformity  of  texture, 
hardness,  and  closeness  of  grain,  hence  it 


IRO 


IRO 


is  tlie  material  of  all  the  finest  articles  of 
English  cutlery.  Tlie  composition  of  the 
flux  used  in  preparing  this  steel  is  kept  a 
secret  among  a  few  manufacturers,  and 
in  consequence  various  experiments  have 
been  instituted  both  here-and  elsewhere 
to  discover  either  the  same  or  an  equally 
successful  method  of  making  this  beauti- 
ful substance.  In  1795,  Clouet  published 
the  residtsof  some  valuable  experiments, 
from  whicli  it  appears  that  by  sinnply 
fusing  bar  u'on  with  charcoal  a  cast  steel 
may  be  obtained  more  or  less  carburetted, 
according  to  the  proportion  of  chai-coal 
employed,  and  therefore  possessing  at 
pleasure  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  the 
qualities  of  fusibility,  brittleness  and  hard- 
ness :  he  also  showed  that  the  same 
effects  may  be  produced  by  fusing  bar 
iron  with  glass  and  charcoal,  or  the  black 
oxyd  of  iron  with  the  requisite  proportion 
of  charcoal  alone,  or  by  keeping"  in  fusion 
for  about  the  space  of  an  hour  a  mixture 
of  small  bits  of  iron  and  equal  parts  of 
clay  and  marble  or  any  other  calcareous 
carbonat.  In  1800  Mr.  Mushet  took  out 
a  patent  for  preparing  cast  steel  of  various 
qualities  by  fusing  bar  iron  with  different 
proportions  of  chaixoal,  coinciding  tor 
the  most  part  with  the  facts  and  princi- 
ples before  laid  down  by  Clouet,  and  con- 
lirmed  by  his  own  experiments  -,  but  whe- 
ther the  steel  thus  prepared  is  equal  to 
the  fii\est  cast  steel  of  Huntsman,  has  not 
we  believe  been  as  yet  compleatly  ascer- 
tained. 

Steel  is  rendered  hard  by  heating  and 
then  suddenly  cooling  it.  The  degree  of 
hardness  which  it  is  capable  of  acquiring 
is  in  direct  proportion  to  its  fusibility,  or 
in  other  words  to  the  quantity  of  carbon 
with  which  it  is  combined ;  and  the 
degree  of  hardness  which  in  any  parti- 
cular instance  is  actually  given  to  it  is 
in  proportion  to  the  difference  of  tempera- 
ture between  the  medium  in  which  it  is 
heated  and  that  m  which  it  is  cooled  ; 
modified  however  by  the  capacity  for 
heat  and  the  conducting  power  of  the 
cooling  medium.  Thus  if  steel  is  heated 
somewhat  below  the  degree  at  which  it 
melts  and  then  transferred  into  oil  at  the 
tempei-ature  of  200°,  the  hardness  thus 
acquired  will  be  infei-ior  to  that  which 
would  have  been  obtained  if  water,  or 
still  more  so  if  mercury,  at  the  same  tem- 
perature had  been  made  use  of.  Again, 
if  instead  of  oil  at  200°  the  same  fluid  at 
40"^  had  been  employed,  a  greatly  superior 
degi'ee  of  hardness  would  have  been  pro- 
duduced. 

The  hardness  acquired  by  this  method 
lias  generally  been  thus  accoimted  for. 
The  particles  of  the  metal  by  being  heat- 


ed are  placed  at  a  gi-eater  distance  from 
each  other  than  before,  and  in  proportion 
as  this  heat  is  again  abstracted,  the  at- 
traction subsisting  between  them  will  be- 
come efficacious,  and  they  will  approach 
nearer  to  actual  contact ;  but  the  impetus 
with  which  this  takes  place  will  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  difterence  of  temperature, 
and  therefore  when  red  hot  steel  is  plung- 
ed in  ice-cold  mercury,  the  force  or  resi- 
lieiit  spring  of  its  particles  will  be  gi-eater 
than  if  mercury  at  200°  had  been  made 
use  of,  and  consequently  its  hardness  will 
also  be  greater.  But  this  theory  however 
ingenious,  is  opposed  by  certain  facts 
which  perhaps  may  be  found  more  conso- 
nant with  the  following  explanation  of 
them. 

If  we  take  the  specific  gravity  of  a  piece 
of  steel,  both  when  hardened  and  after  it 
has  been  softened,  by  heating  again  and 
gradually  cooling,  we  shall  find  that  its 
bulk  in  the  former  case  is  greater  than  in 
the  latter,  whereas  if  the  hardness  of  steel 
was  owing  to  the  rapidity  and  energy  witli 
which  its  particles  collapsed  on  cooling, 
directly  the  reverse  of  this  ought  to  take 
place,  the  state  of  greatest  hardness 
should  be  that  of  the  greatest  specific 
gravity.  So  in  like  manner  we  find  to  be 
the  case  with  glass ;  if  a  little  of  this  in  a 
melted  state  is  dropped  into  cold  water  it 
will  prove  very  hard  and  brittle ;  but  if 
the  same  piece  is  again  heated  red  (with- 
out however  in  any  degree  softening  it) 
and  afterwards  allowed  to  cool  gradually, 
its  specific  gravity  will  have  very  notably 
increased,  and  it  will  have  liecome  tough 
and  elastic.  We  may  therefore  consider 
the  hardening  of  steel  to  be  caused  by  the 
contemporaneous  expulsion  of  part  of  its 
heat  and  the  fixation  of  its  particles  be- 
fore they  have  had  time  to  arrange  them- 
selves and  r-'v.itract  upon  each  other. 
Ileivce  on  the  impression  of  any  external 
force,  the  particles  that  are  struck  are  not 
able  to  slide  on  each  others  surfaces,  and 
thus  distribute  the  impetus  which  they 
have  received  over  the  contiguous  ones ; 
or  in  other  words  the  mass  becomes  hard- 
er  than  it  was  before,  hence  also  the  whole 
force  of  a  blow  is  borne  by  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  insulated  particles,  and 
these  entirely  giving  way  before  a  degree 
of  percussion' that  might  easily  be  sus- 
tained by  the  whole  when  combined,  thus 
produce  the  quality  of  brittleness. 

If  highly  carburetted  steel  is  made 
nearly  as  hot  as  it  can  bear  without  melt- 
ing,  and  is  then  plunged  in  very  cold  wa- 
ter, it  is  apt  to  fiy  to  pieces,  and  even  if 
this  does  not  take'  place,  the  metal  is  not 
applicable  to  any  use  in  this  state  of  ex- 
treme hardness, 'for  the  particles  are  plac- 


IRQ 


mo 


fcl  so  far  asunder  that  the  whole  has  a 
strong-  tendency  to  become  crumbly,  und 
will  not  bear  a  fine  even  sharp  td.t-.  In 
the  practice  of  the  best  manufacturers 
tlie  hardening  heat  even  for  files,  wi-ich 
are  the  hardest  of  all  steel  instruments,  is 
not  greater  than  a  red  visible  by  day -light ; 
and  all  cutvingand  elastic  instruments  re- 
quire to  be  much  softer.  The  various  de- 
grees of  hardness  necessary  for  difterenl 
articles  are  not  however  given,  as  might 
at  first  be  supposed,  by  the  simple  process 
of  hardening  at  the  lequlsite  temperature, 
but  by  the  compound  method  of  first 
giving  to  every  aitiele  nearly  a  file  hard- 
ness, and  then,  by  the  subsequent  pro- 
cess of  tempering,  reducing  the  hardness 
to  the  particular  degree  necessary  for 
each  article. 

Tempering  consis,ts  in  softening  harden- 
ed steel  by  the  application  of  a  heat  not 
greater  than  that  which  was  employed  in 
hardening  it ;  for  this  purpose  it  is  gra- 
dually heated  more  or  less  according  to 
the  temper  required,  and  cooled  again 
either  gradually  or  rapidly,  this  making 
no  difference,  after  which  the  steel  is 
found  to  be  softened  or  tempered  exactly 
in  proportion  to  the  heat  wliich  it  has  un- 
dergone While  the  steel  is  tempering 
its  surtace  displays  a  succession  of  colours 
(supposed  to  arise  from  a  commencmg 
oxydation)  in  proportion  as  it  becomes 
more  and  more  heated,  which  the  work- 
men in  this  metal  have  ingeniously  taken 
advantage  of,  as  indicathig  and  serving  to 
denominate  the  degree  of  temper  required 
for  different  articles.  The  first  percepti- 
ble coloTU',  is  a  light  straw  yellow,  and 
this  being  produced  by  a  small  degree  of 
heat,  indicates  the  highest  or  hardest  tem- 
per ;  to  this  succeeds  a  full  yellow,  then 
a  brown,  afterwards  a  reddish  blue,  theii 
a  light  blue,  and  lastly  a  full  deep  blue 


passing  into  black,  which  being  the  other 
extremity  of  the  series  denotes  the  lowest 
degree  of  temper  and  a  hardness  only  a 
little  superior  to  what  the  piece  of  steel 
would  have  acquired  if  when  heated  for 
the  puri)ose  of  being  hardened  it  had  been 
allowed  to  cool  gradually  instead  of  being 
plunged  into  a  cold  liquid.  The  old  me- 
thod of  tempering,  and,  which  indeed  is 
.still  ])ractised  by  most  manufacturers,  is 
to  lay  the  articles  on  a  clear  coal  fire,  or 
on  a  iiot  bar,  till  they  exhibit  the  requisite 
colour;  but  small  articles  which  were  to 
be  reduced  to  a  blue  temper  were  com- 
mcmiy  blazed,  that  is  they  were  first  dip- 
ped in  oil  or  melted  grease,  and  then  held 
over  a  fire  till  the  oil  became  inflamed, 
and  thus  evaporated. 

Some  particular  articles  require  a  nice- 
ty of  tem])er  that  is  not  very  easily  attained 
by  trusting  merely  to  the  change  of  co- 
loiu",  a  circumstance  that  induced  Mr. 
Hartley,  in  the  year  1789,  to  take  out  a 
jiatent  for  a  new  and  more  accurate  me- 
thod. For  this  purpose  a  merciu-ial  ther- 
mometer graduated  as  high  as  600°  is  to 
be  immersed  in  an  iron  ti'uugh  heated  by 
a  furnace  or  lamp  placed  below  it  and  fill- 
ed with  fusible  metal,  upon  the  surface 
of  which  the  steel  is  to  be  laid,  which  may 
thus  he  tempered  with  great  accuracy  at 
any  degree  of  the  thermometer  that  the 
artist  chuses.  Oil  may  be  substituted  to 
the  fusible  metal,  and  the  effect  will  be 
the  !^ame,  except  that  the  steel  being  in 
this  case  tempered  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  liquid,  and  of  course  out  of  the  con» 
tact  of  aimosjiherical  air,  will  not  exhibit 
those  changes  of  colour  which  lake  place 
wlien  the  oilier  methods  are  employed. 
The  following  table  shews  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  various  colours  make 
I  heir  appearance. 


430°  to  450"indir;iles  the  several  tints  of  straw  colour,  and  is  the  temper  for  razors 
and  those  instruments  which  have  a  stout  back  supporting  a  keen 
and  delicate  edge. 

470°  corresponds  with  the  full  yellow,  and  is  the  proper  temper  for  scalpels, 
pen-knives,  and  other  fine-edged  nislruments. 

490°  indicates  the  brown  yellow,  and  is  the  pioper  temper  for  scissars  aud 
small  shears. 

510°  indicates  the  first  tinge  of  purple,  and  is  the  temper  for  pocket  and  pru- 
ning knives. 

.530"  indiciUes  purple,  and  is  the  temper  fijr  table  and  carving-knives. 
650°  to  560°  indicates  the  different  shades  of  blue,  and  is  the  temper  for  watch- 
springs,  swords,  and  all  those  instruinenls  in  which  great  elasticity 
is  required. 

600^  corresponds  with  black,  and  is  the  lowest  degree  of  temper. 


IRQ 


mo 


One  great  advantage  attending  the  use 
ot"  cast  steel  is  its  uniform  quality  :  tlie 
carbon  which  it  contains  appears  to  be 
equally  distributed  through  every  part  of 
the  same  mass  in  consequence  of  the  fu- 
sion that  it  hL\s  undergone  :  wliereas  both 
the  natiu-al  steel  and  the  steel  of  cementa- 
tion are  apt  to  contain  veins  of  iron,  either 
quite  soft  or  at  most  very  slightly  cai-bu- 1 
retted,  and  tiius  a  degree  of  imperfection 
and  uncertainty  is  introduced  extremely 
mortifving  to  the  artist,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  the  occasion  of  much  laboiu*  in 
vain.  It  is  therefore  no  small  benefit 
wliicli  Mr  Nicholson  has  conferred  on 
the  workers  in  iron  and  steel  by  publish- 
ing a  simple  and  effectual  method  of  as- 
certaining whetlier  any  particular  bar  is 
pure  iron  or  steel,  or  a  mixture  of  both- 
The  surface  of  tiie  metal  being  cleaned 
with  a  file  or  with  emery  paper,  is  to  be 
spread  over  with  very  dilute  nitrous  acid, 
by  which  the  iron  will  be  dissolved,  but 
the  carbon  will  remain  behind  untouclied ; 
after  therefore  the  acid  has  been  allowed 
to  act  for  a  few  minutes,  the  bar  is  to  be 
put  into  clean  water  and  moved  about  in 
it  gently,  that  both  the  residual  acid  and 
the  nitrat  of  iron  may  be  washed  away, 
care  being  taken  not  to  touch  the  surface 
with  the  hand  or  any  thing  else  that  may 
rub  oft"  the  carbon.  The  bar  tii us  washed, 
if  pure  iron,  will  exhibit  an  uniform  iion- 
grey  colour;  if  it  is  pure  steel,.tlie  colour 
of  the  surface  will  be  black,  the  iron  having 
been  taken  up  by  the  acid  and  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  carbon  remaining  ;  but  if  it  is  a 
nuxtui'e  of  iron  and  steel  the  surface  will 
be  dotted  or  streaked,  those  parts  which 
are  steel  being  of  a  dull  black,  and  those 
which  are  iron  exhibiting  the  usual  co- 
lour and  lustre  of  this  metal. 

Steel  being  considerably  more  expen- 
sive than  iron,  it  is  customary  in  making 
the  larger  and  coarser  kinds  of  cutting  in- 
struments to  form  only  the  edge  of  steel. 
The  two  bars  of  iron  and  steel  are  first 
v/elded  together  and  afcerwards  forged  iit- 
to  the  requisite  shape  in  tjie  usnal  manner. 
Higlily  carbonized  steel  is  however  inca- 
pable of  being  thus  united  to  iron,  be- 
cause the  same  temperature  at  which  iron 
welds  freely  is  that  ?.t  which  this  kind  of 
steel  enters  into  fusion,  and  therefore  tlie 
first  stroke  of  the  hammer  will  entirely 
shatter  the  steel  and  disperse  it  about  in 
small  fragments.  This  however  is  a  diffi- 
culty which  it  is  well  worth  while  taking- 
some  pains  to  overcome,  as  the  efficacy 
and  dui-ability  of  instruments  thus  compo- 
sed materially  depends  upon  the  goodness 
of  the  steel.  '1  he  most  efiectual  way 
hitherto  discovered  of  uniting  together 
iron  and  highly  carbonized  steel,  is  that 


pablished  by  Su-  Thos.  Frankland.  The 
iron  is  to  be  raised  to  a  welding  heat,  in 
one  forge,  and  tlie  steel  is  to  be  mude  as 
hot  as  it  can  bear  without  becoming  very 
brittle  in  another  ;  both  pieces  are  then  to 
be  quickly  brought  to  the  anvil  and  made 
to  adhere  together  by  gentle  hammer- 
ing. 

Several  curious  pieces  of  work  are 
made  of  iron  and  steel  welded  together, 
especially  the  real  Damascus  sword 
blades,  which  are  believed  to  be  composed 
of  slips  or  thin  rods  of  iron  and  steel 
bound  together  with  iron  wire,  and  the 
wiiole  firmly  cemented  together  by  weld- 
ing. Tlie  properties  and  external  appear- 
ance of  such  a  blade  correspond  very  ex- 
actly with  the  supposed  mode  in  which  it 
is  manufictured.  Its  colour  is  a  dull 
bluish  grey  ;  it  is  scarcely  harder  than 
common  steel  from  the  forge ;  it  is  not 
easily  bent,  and  when  bent  has  no  elasti- 
city to  recover  its  original  figure  ;  but  the 
circumstance  which  principally  charac- 
tej-izes  it  is  the  appearance  of  narrow  wav- 
ing lines,  not  crossing  each  other,  and 
chiefly  running  from  heel  to  point ;  they 
are  ill-defined  and  about  the  thickness  of 
a  haipsichord  wire.  This  wavy  appear- 
ance is  not  produced  by  any  perceptible 
indentation  of  the  surface,  but  merely  by 
a  slight  difference  in  the  degree  of  polish 
or  brightness,  and  therefore  may  be  at 
once  distinguished  from  the  false  damask- 
ing or  etching,  by  which  other  sword- 
bUides  are  made  to  resemble  the  gentune 
Damascus  ones.  In  the  false  Damascus 
blades  the  waving  lines,  called  the  -water, 
are  obliterated  by  grinding ;  but  in  the 
real  ones,  although  the  water  is  at  first 
imperceptible  after  grinding,  yet  it  may 
at  any  time  be  made  to  reappear  by  rub- 
bing the  blade  with  lemon  juice,  no  doubt 
on  account  of  the  unequal  action  of  this 
weak  acid  on  a  surface  compobcd  both  of 
steel  and  iron. 

Besides  the  varieties  of  steel  that  we 
have  already  described,  there  yet  remains 
one  more,  concerning  v.hich  a  few  words 
will  be  necessary :  this  is  Wootz  The 
substance  known  by  this  name  in  India,  is 
imported  into  this  country  in  the  form  of 
round  flat  cakes  about  five  inches  in  dia- 
meter and  one  inch  in  thickness.  When 
cold  it  is  uncommonly  refractory,  neither 
breaking  nor  be'ding  under  the  hammer. 
It  is  not  nearly  so  easy  to  be  filed  as  eith- 
er bar  or  cast  steel  before  these  have  been 
h.irdened  :  it  takes  an  extremely  high  bril- 
liant polish  ;  its  fi-acluie  is  moderately 
close,  resembling  that  of  blister  steel  tliat 
has  been  heated  and  liammered  a  little. 
Whett  nearly  white  hot  it  is  malleable, 
but  is  much  more  likelv  to  crack  under 


IRO 


IRO 


this  treatment  than  even  cast  steel :  it  re- 
quires, therefore,  much  care,  labour,  and 
time,  to  fashion  it  into  any  required  shape. 
When  made  wliite  hot,  it  exhibits  tlie 
glassy  smooth  surface  of  wcldinij  iron; 
but,  when  struck  very  gently  with  tiljam- 
mer,  it  cracks  in  many  places,  and  by  a 
harder  blow  is  shivered  to  pieces.  AVhen 
brougiit  to  a  high  heat  and  quenched  sud- 
denly in  cold  water,  it  becomes  harder 
than  at  first,  though  not  equally  so  with 
the  finest  cast  steel  in  similar  circumstan- 
ces ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  ca- 
pable of  being  sensibly  softened  by  an- 
nealing as  the  other  varieties  of  stetel  are. 
At  a  high  heat  it  is  fusible,  and  after  be- 
ing melted,  exhibits  a  close  compact 
grain,  is  considerably  brittle,  and  bears  a 
very  near  resemblance  to  cast  steel.  From 
its  aniUysis  and  other  circumstances,  it  is 
considered  by  Dr.  Pearson  as  diliering 
fi-om  steel  only  in  containing  a  little  bxyd 
of  iron. 

Comparison  and  analysis,  of  Cast  Iron, 
Bar  Iron,  and  Steel. 

Notwithstanding  the  close  attention  of 
various  eminent  chemists  to  this  import- 
ant subject,  much  yet  remains  to  be  done 
before  an  entirely  satisfactory  theor)'  can 
be  formed,  to  account  for  the  difterent 
properties  possessed  by  the  various  kinds 
of  iron  and  steel.  We  shall  endeavour  to 
show  in  the  present  section  the  progress 
that  has  already  been  made  in  this  inter- 
esting analysis,  and  shall  then  point  out 
some  of  the  chief  diflicuUies  that  yet  re- 
main to  be  overcome. 

In  alltiie  varieties,  of  iron  and  steel,  the 
principal  ingredient  is  metaUic  iron,  and 
as  ti)is  metal  in  the  reguline  state  alone, 
has  tiie  property  of  giving  out  hydrogen 
gas  while  dissolving  in  dilute  sulphuric  or 
muriatic  acids,  tiie  amount  of  inHamma- 
ble  gas  thus  produced,  has  been  adopted 
by  Bergman,  by  Berthollet  and  Pearson, 
as  upon  the  wl)ole  the  most  satisfactory 
and  compendious  exponent  of  the  quanti- 
ty of  reguline  iron  contained  in  any  of  the 
known  varieties  and  forms  of  this  metal. 
Thus  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  reguline 

Grs. 

100  of  grey  cast  iron  yield  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid  104.8  oz  measures  of  inflam 

mable  gas. 

100  of  bar  iron  made  from  the  preceding     .     .     .     .  111.5  do. 

100  of  Steel  from  the  preceding 1U8.3  do. 

100  of  Swedish  bar  iron 114.  do. 

100  of  Steel  from  the  preceding 106.7  do. 

100  of  white  cast  iron  from  Eisenerz       .  97 A  do. 


and  oxydized  iron,  by  treatment  with  di- 
lute sulphuric  acid,  will  produce  only  half 
the  quantity  of  hydrogen  gas,  that  an 
equal  weight  of  pure  iron  would.  But 
this  can  be  admitted  to  be  a  perfectly  ac- 
curate mode  of  proceeding  only  wiiere 
the  mixture  thus  analyzed,  contains  noth- 
ing that  is  soluble  in  liydrogen  gas  at  the 
temperature,  and  in  the  other  circumstan- 
ces under  which  the  experiment  is  per- 
formed. None  of  the  kinds  of  manufactur- 
ed iron  is  entirely  free  from  carbon ;  and 
tills,  according  to  Berthollet,  is  taken  up 
by  the  nascent  hydrogen  as  the  metal  dis- 
solves  in  tiie  acid ;  wiience  originates  a 
material  source  of  error,  the  quantity  of 
gas  produced  depending  not  merely  on 
tlie  proportion  of  iron,  but  also  of  carbon 
in  the  mixture.  It  appears  from  Berthol- 
let's  experiments,  that  when  cast  iron  or 
steel  is  treated  by  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
at  a  boiling  temiierature,  in  proportion  as 
the  metal  dissolves,  a  black  spungy  matter 
is  observed  floating  in  the  solution  :  the 
quantity  of  this  increases  till  the  process 
is  about  half  over,  then  it  begins  to  dimi- 
nish,  and  will  be  found  to  have  entirely 
disappeared  by  the  time  tliat  the  last  por- 
tions of  iron  have  dissolved.  This  black 
matter  is  carbon,  whicli  being  insoluble  in 
sulphuric  acid  or  sulpliat  of  iron,  must  ne- 
cessarily have  been  taken  up  by  the  hy- 
drogen. Tills,  accordingly,  is  found  to  be 
the  case  ;  for  tlie'gas  produced,  requires 
a  greater  projiorlion  of  oxygen  for  its 
combustion,  and  llie  result  of  Uie  process 
is  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid.  Tiiis  is 
further  confirmed  by  an  observation  of 
Rinman's,  tliat  the  inflammable  gas  aris- 
ing from  the  solution  of  steel,  aflbrds  by 
combustion  more  fixed  air,  than  that 
which  is  produced  from  the  solution  of 
bar  iron  From  the  numerous  experi- 
ments of  BertiioUet  on  this  subject,  we 
have  lelected  the  six  following  as  sufl^- 
cient  tor  our  purpose,  and  having  convert- 
ed the  weights  and  measures  into  Eng- 
lish, it  ajipears  that  at  29.8-1  Bar.  and  59" 
Fahr. 


IRO 


IRO 


It  might  at  first  be  supposed  that  a  giv- 
en quantity  of  hydrogen  would  increase  in 
bulk  ill  proportion  to  the  carbon  taken  up 
by  it ;  the  reverse  of  this,  however,  is  in 
fact,  the  case  :  therefore,  if  Swedish  bar 
iron  be  considered  as  the  pure  state  of 
this  metal,  represented  by  the  number 
114,  the  proportion  of  iron  contained  in  an 
equal  weight  of  steel  made  from  tlie  same, 
will  be  more  than  106.7,  because  the  for- 
mer number  indicates  pure  hydrogen,  but 
the  latter  carburetted  hydrogen. 

Dr  Pearson  on  the  other  hand,  in  his 
experiments  on  wootz,  assures  us,  that 
when  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  acting  on 
steel  at  the  common  temperature,  a  quan- 
tity of  black  carbonaceous  matter  is  sepa- 
rated, which  continues  to  augment  so  as 
to  impede  the  effect  of  the  acid;  if  at  this 
period  a  lamp  is  applied,  the  increased 
temperature  brings  on  a  more  rapid  ac- 
tion, and  the  black  sediment  appears  ra- 
ther to  diminish  in  quantity.  I'his  dimi- 
nution however.  Dr.  P.  attributes  only  to 
the  solution  of  the  iron  with  which  the 
carbon  was  combined,  and  not  to  the  solu- 
tion of  the  carbon  itself  in  the  hydrogen  : 
for,  says  he,  the  gas  when  burnt  with  oxy- 
gen procured  from  manganese,  inflamed 
like  common  hydrogen,  and  wiiether  pro- 
cured by  means  of  iron,  or  steel,  or  wootz, 
produced  only  a  very  slight  turbidness 
with  limewater ;  whereas,  carburetted  hy- 
drogen,  prepared  by  passing  steam 
through  hot  charcoal,  being  treated  in 
the  same  manner,  rendered  the  limewa- 
ter quite  milky.  The  proportions  of  gas 
from  iron  and  steel,  were  also  remarkabl}- 
less  than  those  mentioned  by  Berthollet. 
100  grains  of  wootz,  by  several  experi- 
ments, yielded  from  78  to  84  ounce  mea- 
sures of  gas.  100  grains  of  steel  wire,  al- 
so by  various  experiments,  yielded  from 
83  to  86  ounce  measures  of  gas.  100 
grains  of  iron  wire  yielded  from  86  to  88 
ounce  measures. 

How  much  soever  the  experiments  of 
Berthollet  and  Dr.  Pearson  differ  in  other 
respects,  yet  we  may  infer  that  Swedish 
bar  iron  contains  a  larger  proportion  of 
reguline  iron  than  the  other  varieties  of 
bar  iron ;  that  steel  contains  a  smaller  pro- 
portion than  bar  iron,  that  wootz  contains 
a  still  smaller  proportion,  that  grey  cast 
iron  is  inferior  in  this  respect  to  steely  and 
that  white  cast  iron  is  the  least  piu-e  of 
any. 

We  also  learn,  that  the  lower  the  tem- 
perature is,  at  which  the  solution  of  the 
iron  is  made,  the  purer  is  the  hydrogen 
that  is  produced  ;  and  with  proper  care, 
that  the  objections  raised  by  Berthollet, 
to  the  accuracy  of  this  mode  of  proceed- 
ing, may  be  compleatly  done  away. 
VOL.  I. 


We  have  already  mentioned  that  almcst 
all  the  known  varieties  of  iron  and  steel 
contain  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of 
carbon.  The  quantity  of  this  in  any  par- 
ticular sample  of  metal  may  best  be  as- 
certained b}  dige.sting  the  metal  in  dilute 
nitro-mui'iatic  acid,  which  will  leave  un- 
touched the  carbon  united  with  a  little 
iron.  This  black  insoluble  residue  being 
washed  in  warm  water,  and  finally  digest- 
ed for  a  minute  in  weak  ammonia,  should 
be  heated  in  a  flask  almost  to  redness,  to 
expel  the  water  and  any  muriat  of  ammo- 
nia that  it  may  contain ;  being  then  weigh- 
ed it  is  to  be  ignited  in  a  silver  or  platina 
crucible  till  the  whole  of  the  carbon  Is 
burnt  off,  and  the  residual  iron  is  oxv- 
dized  :  from  the  weight  of  this  oxyd  is  to 
be  deducted  48  per  cent,  on  account  of 
the  oxygen,  and  the  difference  between 
the  weight  of  the  remainder  and  tliat  of 
the  black  powder  before  ignition  indicates 
the  amount  of  carbon. 

Tlie  aflSnity  of  iron  for  carbon  is  pretty 
considei-able,  though  it  is  by  no  mean's 
capable  of  decomposing  carbonic  acid  by 
combining  with  its  base,  as  Mushet  has 
clearly  shewn  in  opposition  to  the  asser- 
tion of  Clouet. 

The  effects  produced  upon  iron  by  car- 
bon are  very  remarkable.  First  with  re- 
gard to  colour  :  the  bluish  grey  tint  of 
u-on  becomes  more  and  more  white  in 
proportion  as  it  combines  with  carbon,  till 
it  possesses  almost  a  silvery  colour  and 
lustre,  as  is  the  case  with  the  white  cast 
iron,  in  whicli  state  the  metal  seems  to  be 
saturated  with  carbon.  At  tlie  same  time 
that  these  changes  of  colour  are  going 
on,  the  tendency  to  crystallization  is  ra- 
pidly increasing  ;  hence  the  fracture  from 
being  fibrous  and  hackly,  becomes  first 
compact,  then  granular,  and  at  length  ex- 
hibits facets  like  antimony.  With  these 
changes  the  fusibility  increases,  and  the 
faculty  of  welding  diminishes,  and  soon 
entirely  ceases  :  the  ductility  and  mallea- 
bility also  undergo  an  analogous  change, 
though  not  quite  to  so  great  an  extent : 
the  hardness  increases,  as  also  does  the 
property  of  induration  by  sudden  cooling, 
and  the  capability  of  being  tempered. 

Iron  however  may  not  only  be  saturated 
but  supersaturated  with  carbon :  that  is 
to  say,  when  at  a  very  high  temperature 
it  will  dissolve  more  carbon  than  it  can 
hold  in  solution  at  a  lower  temperature ; 
and  in  consequence,  by  slow  cooling  while 
it  is  still  fluid,  a  part  of  this  excess  of  car- 
bon v/ill  separate  from  the  I'est  of  the 
mass  and  rise  to  the  surface,  forming  a. 
flaky  crust  of  plumbago  or  carburet  of 
iron.  Some  however  of  the  plumbago 
will  still  remain  inveloped  by,  and  disp er. 
3  u 


IRO 


IRO 


sed  through  the  iron,  giving  it  an  uniform 
dark  gre}'  or  black  colour  if  the  projior- 
tion  is  ccinsidtrable,  or  only  mottling  it  if 
the  excess  of  this  substance  is  very  sliglit. 

The  actual  proportions  of  carbon  con- 
tained in  the  different  kinds  of  iron  have 
not  yet  been  ascertained  with  any  accura- 
cy eitlier  by  analysis  or  synthesis  ;  but 
thus  much  appears  certain,  that  bar  iron 
in  general  contains  a  smaller  quantity 
than  the  softer  varieties  of  steel,  and 
these  again  always  contain  less  carbon 
tlian  the  common  and  finer  cast  steel ; 
that  in  the  white,  the  mottled,  the  grey, 
and  the  black  varieties  of  cast  iron,  the 
dose  of  carbon  is  constantly  augmenting, 
in  the  last  of  which  the  proportion  of  car- 
bon is  probably  about  one-twentieth  of  the 
whole. 

Oxygen  is  also  contained  in  most  of  the 
varieties  of  iron,  and  the  effects  occasion- 
ed by  it  in  the  different  processes  to  which 
this  metal  is  subjected,  require  more  at- 
tention than  has  hitherto  been  paid  to 
them.  Cast  iron  appears  to  be  highly 
charged  with  oxygen,  and  on  this  account 
requires  to  be  supersaturated  with  carbon 
in  order  to  be  converted  with  any  economy 
into  bar  iron.  It  may  seem  at  first  a  para- 
dox to  maintain  the  coexistence  of  oxygen 
and  carbon  in  the  same  metallic  mass, 
especially  considering  the  great  heat  to 
which  it  is  exposed  in  the  process  of  re- 
duction, since  it  is  an  universal  and  un- 
controvertod  fact  that  metallic  oxyds  are 
decomposed  by  carbon  at  a  high  tempera 
ture,  the  oxygen  and  carbon  uniting  to- 
gether and  being  dissipated  in  the  form 
of  gas,  the  metallic  regulus  remaining 
behind.  But  when  the  roughness  of  the 
smelting  process  in  blast  furnaces,  and 
the  large  quantity  of  materials  operated 
on  at  once,  as  well  as  the  great  pressure 
of  the  superincumbent  scoriae  are  taken 
into  consideration,  we  shall  cease  to  be 
surprized  at  the  apparent  anomaly.  Tiie 
existence  of  oxygen  in  cast  iron,  is  mani- 
fest from  the  phenomena  that  accompany 
the  operation  of  puddling,  as  already  de- 
scribed in  a  preceding  section.  The  crude 
iron  being  subjected  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture, under  a  pressure  no  greater  than 
that  of  the  atmosphere,  the  oxygen  and 
carbon  that  it  contains  react  upon  each 
other  and  produce  carbonic  acid  and 
gaseous  oxyd  of  carbon,  which  having 
escaped,  the  metal  is  found  reduced  to  a 
state  of  malleability.  The  same  efiects 
take  place  in  close  vessels,  as  Dr.  Beddoes 
has  well  shewn.  If  crude  cast  iron  is  put 
into  a  retort,  as  soon  as  the  vessel  and  its 
contents  have  acquired  a  low  red  heat,  an 
inflammable  gas  mixed  with  carbonic  acid 
Ts  given  out  with  considerable  rapidity 


(this  inflammable  gas  must  from  the  cir- 
cumstances be  the  oxyd  of  carbon)  when 
the  production  of  gas  ceases,  the  iron 
upon  examination  will  be  found  to  have 
lost  somewhat  of  its  weight,  and  to  be 
nearly  in  the  state  of  bar  iron.  But  though 
this  combhiation  of  the  oxygen  and  car- 
bon of  the  crude  metal,  and  the  conse- 
quent generation  of  air  takes  place  with 
great  ease  when  the  beak  of  the  retort  is 
but  just  dipped  under  water,  yet  if  the 
pressui'e  amounts  to  five  inches  of  water, 
in  addition  to  the  atmosphere,  the  disen- 
gagement of  air  proceeds  very  slowly,  and 
entirely  ceases  if  instead  of  the  water  a 
single  half  inch  of  mercury  is  employed ; 
although  upon  removing  this  obstacle 
the  bubbles  of  air  pass  through  as  before. 

By  the  treatment  tliat  cast  iron  under- 
goes during  its  convprsion  into  malleable 
bar  iron,  the  greater  part  of  the  oxygen 
and  carbon  is  got  rid  of;  still  however  a 
small  quantity  of  oxygen,  the  smaller  in 
proportion  to  the  goodness  of  the  iron, 
remains.  This  is  inferred  with  much 
probability  from  the  blistered  appearance 
that  the  bars  of  iron  exhibit  after  having 
been  converted  into  steel  by  cementation. 
'I'hese  blisters  are  manifestly  occasioned 
by  the  exudation  of  a  gas  from  tlie  bar, 
and  this  gas  in  all  probability  is  oxyd  of 
carbon.  A  further  proof  of  the  existence 
both  of  oxygen  and  carbon  even  in  Swe- 
dish bar  iron  may  be  deduced  from  some 
interesting  experiments  by  Mr.  Mushet- 
Having  put  some  pieces  of  Swedish  bar 
iron  into  an  earthen  crucible,  with  a  flux 
composed  of  marble  and  calcined  clay,  he 
observed  first,  that  the  earths  melted  to- 
gether before  the  iron  showed  signs  of 
fusion,  and  that  while  this  latter  was 
melting,  bubbles  of  au-  were  continually 
rising  from  it  and  passing  through  the 
vitrified  flux :  this  gas  burnt  with  a  lam- 
bent blue  flame,  and  probably  was  gas- 
eous oxyd  of  carbon  :  the  iron  sustained 
a  notable  loss  of  weight,  and  had  become 
considerably  softer  than  at  fii'St. 

Steel,  probably,  is  entirely  free  from 
oxygen. 

The  action  of  vitrescent  earthy  mix- 
tiu'es  comes  next  to  be  considered.  It  is 
certain  that  cast  iron  contains  a  very  con- 
siderable pioportion  of  scoriae  diflused 
through  its  substance,  which  are  partly 
got  rid  of  by  subsequent  fusion,  as  tiiey 
rise  to  the  surface  of  the  metal,  being  con- 
siderably lighter  than  it,  while  such  por- 
tions as  still  remain  are  got  rid  of  for  the 
most  part,  by  hammering  and  laminating 
during  the  conversion  of  the  cast  iron  into 
bar.  A  very  small  proportion  of  scoriae 
however  is  not  unfrequently  left  in  the 
iron,  us  is  obvious  from  tlie  eai'thy  residue 


mo 


IRO 


Uiat  some  of  the  varieties  of  this  metal 
leave  behind  them  when  dissolved  in 
acids.  It  is  not  yet  clearly  made  out  what 
is  the  precise  effect  of  a  little  earth  on  the 
malleability  of  iron.  Clouet  has  endea- 
voured  to  show  that  it  renders  the  iron 
softer  and  more  malleable,  but  inclined 
to  be  hot  short,  and  the  experiment  by 
which  he  demonstrates  it  is  the  fusing 
tosfether  of  iron  and  glass,  by  which  the 
effects  just  mentioned  are  produced  upon 
the  metal.  But  this  is  precisely  the  same 
experiment  as  that  of  Mr.  Mushet's  rela- 
ted in  th?  preceding  paragraph,  and  M. 
Clouet  having  entirely  overlooked  tiie  ex- 
ti'ication  of  gas  from  the  metal,  has  gra- 
tuitously attributed  the  change  produced 
to  a  combination  of  the  iron  with  a  little  of 
the  glass,  without,  as  appears,  taking  the 
trouble  to  substantiate  his  hypothesis  by 
actual  analysis. 

Cast  iron  made  with  coak  instead  of 
charcoal  must  necessarily  contain  a  varia- 
ble proportion  of  sulphur,  nor  is  this  sub- 
stance very  likely  to  be  entirely  dissipated 
by  the  subsequent  refining  that  the  metal 
goes  through ;  and  it  appears  from  a  di 
rect  experiment  by  Dr.Beddoes,  that  iron, 
after  being  puddled  and  stamped,  if  treat- 
ed with  muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid,  will 
give  out  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Berg- 
man has  shewn  that  certain  varieties  of 
iron  contain  manganese,  and  others  phos- 
phoric acid  Clouet  has  detected  arsenic 
in  some ,-  and  other  chemists  have  some- 
what obscurely  intimated  the  presence  of 
lead,  copper,  and  zinc ;  which  is  far  fiom 
improbable,  as  several  of  the  ores  of  iron 
are  occasionally  mixed  with  galena,  cop- 
per pyrites  and  blende.  But  the  effect  of 
these  substances  in  small  quantity  on  iron 
has  not  yet  been  ascertained  by  any  expe- 
riments that  can  be  depended  on  ;  it  is 
therefore  obvious  how  much  remains  to  be 
done  before  we  acquire  a  thorough  know- 
ledge, even  on  practical  points,  of  this 
most  important  of  all  metals. 

The  following,  in  the  present  state  of 
our  researches  on  this  subject,  may  be  laid 
down  as  the  essential  chai-acters  of  the 
principal  forms  under  which  iron  exhibits 
itself.  Crude  cast  iron  besides  casual 
impurities  contains  carbon,  oxydofiron, 
and  vitrified  earth.  The  difference  be- 
tween white,  mottled,  grey  and  black  cast 
iron  depends  on  the  proportion  of  carbon, 
which  IS  smallest  in  the  white  and  great- 
est in  the  black  By  the  process  of  refin- 
ing or  resmelting,  most  of  the  earth  and 
oxyd  of  iron  rises  to  the  surface  of  the 
metal  in  the  form  of  a  dense  slag;  hence 
the  residual  iron  differs  from  the  crude 
pig-metal  in  containing  less  earth  and 
oxyd.    By  the  subsequent  operations  the 


carburet  and  oxyd  of  iron  mutually  de- 
compose each  other,  forming  carbonic 
acid  and  carbonous  oxyd,  by  which  the 
metal  is  freed  both  fi-om  its  oxygen  and 
carbon.  In  this  state  it  forms  bar  iron, 
which  may  or  may  not  retain  a  small  pro- 
portion of  vitrified  earth,  but  which 
seems  even  when  purest  to  hold  a  liitle 
both  of  carbon  and  oxyd.  If  this  bar  iron 
is  exposed  in  a  close  vessel  to  a  high  heat, 
the  carbon  and  oxj'gen  that  it  contains  (if 
they  are  in  due  proportion  to  each  other) 
will  be  entirely  got  rid  of,  the  metal  will 
become  very  soft,  and  will  be  at  the  same 
time  malleable  and  fusible.  If  the  bar 
iron  instead  of  being  heated  by  itself  has 
access  to  carbon  either  in  the  state  of 
charcoal  or  plumbago,  its  ox3"gen  will  be 
expelled  and  carbon  will  at  the  same  time 
be  absorbed :  if  the  portion  of  this  latter 
is  small,  the  mixture  will  partake  of  the 
properties  both  of  iron  and  steel,  hence  it 
will  be  very  malleable  and  capable  of  be- 
ing welded,  but  also  will  be  hai-der  than 
pure  iron,  somewhat  more  fusible  and  sus- 
ceptible of  being  tempered.  By  being 
united  with  a  fresh  portion  of  carbon  it 
will  become  still  more  fusible  and  will 
lose  its  welding  property  ;  it  will  become 
harder,  more  compact,  and  will  form  the 
fine  cast  steel.  A  further  portion  of  car- 
bon increases  the  brittleness  and  hard- 
ness, so  as  to  render  it  uicapable  of  being 
wz'ought,  and  its  colour  and  texture  will 
approach  to  that  of  white  cast  ii-on :  ia 
this  state  it  may  be  regarded  as  saturated 
with  carbon.  It  is  however  capable  of 
uniting  to  this  substance  even  to  supersa- 
turation,  by  which  its  colour  and  texture 
resembles  that  of  grey  or  black  cast  iron ; 
its  fusibility  is  somewhat  increased,  but 
its  hardness  is  so  much  lowered  by  this 
excess  of  carbon  as  to  allow  it  to  be 
wrought  with  ease  by  a  common  file,  nor 
can  it  be  materially  hardened  by  sudden 
cooling  or  be  tempered,  so  that  it  is  no 
longer  in  the  state  of  steel.  By  a  still  fur- 
ther cementation  with  charcoal  it  would 
in  all  probability  be  converted  into  plum- 
bago. 

Many  chemists  have  supposed  that 
supercarbonized  steel  is  the  same  thing  as 
crude  iron,  because  they  resemble  each 
other  in  their  fracture  and  colour,  and  con- 
tain carbon  ;  and  upon  this  reasoning  have 
been  founded  several  imperfect  and  in- 
effectual methods  of  applying  the  finer 
kinds  of  cast  iron  to  some  of  the  uses  of 
common  cast  steel ;  but  we  have  shewn 
that  however  great  may  be  the  i^esem- 
blance  in  some  points,  yet  cast  iron  essen- 
tially differs  from  steel'in  containing  both 
earth  and  oxyd  of  iron,  and  therefore  can- 
not  be  substituted  for  it  with  any  success 


IRO 


IRO 


It  only  remains  to  say  a  few  words  con- 
cerning two  states  of  bar  iron  called  hot- 
short  air.l  cold-short. 

Iron  that  is  hot-short  or  red -short  is 
very  soft  and  ductile  when  cold,  on  whicli 
account  it  is  generally  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  wire ;  it  may  also  be 
hammered  and  welded  if  treated  skilfully 
at  a  full  white  heat,  but  when  it  has  cool- 
ed down  to  a  cherry  red.  it  breaks  away 
before  the  hammer  and  is  dissipated  al- 
most like  sand. 

Cold-short  iron  on  the  contrary  is  hard- 
er not  only  than  hot-short  but  also  than 
pure  Swedish  bar  iron ;  it  may  be  wrought 
in  the  usual  w.iy  when  red  or  white  hot, 
but  possesses  no  toughness  wlien  cold ; 
so  that  a  large  bar  may  with  ease  be  bro- 
ken across  by  a  common  hand  hammer. 

Hot-short  iron  is  imagined,  rather  than 

g roved,  to  contain  arsenic,  to  which  its 
rittleness  at  a  red  heat  is  supposed  to  be 
owing. 

Cold-short  iron  is  supposed  by  Bergman 
to  derive  its  characteristic  qualities  from 
a  portion  of  pltosphoric  acid ;  and  it  is 
certain  tiiat  phosphat  of  iron  luis  been 
found  in  iron  of  thi;;  description,  both  by 
the  illustrious  Swedish  chemist  just  nam- 
ed and  Meyer  and  Clouet. 

If  however  it  be  granted  that  hot-short 
and  cold-short  iron  respectively  contain 
arsenic  and  phosphoric  acid,  yet  it  must 
in  return  be  allowed  that  tlsese  qualities 
appear  in  ver}'  many  cases  where  there  is 
no  reason  to  suspect  eitiier  the  one  or  the 
other,  and  that  the  methods  by  whicli 
these  defects  may  be  produced  or  reme- 
died are  in  many  cases  at  least  not  veiy 
reconcileable  with  their  supposed  origin. 

If  white  cast  iron,  that  is,  such  as  is 
deficient  in  carbon,  be  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  a  current  of  flame  after  it  has  ex- 
hibited its  proper  degree  of  malleability, 
it  will  pass  into  the  state  of  cold-short 
iron,  and  its  brittleness  will  increase  in 
proportion  to  the  length  of  time  that  it  is 
thus  exposed.  Does  it  not  therefore  seem 
probable  that  in  many  cases  at  least  the 
defects  of  cold-short  iron  are  occasioned 
by  an  absorption  of  oxygen  ?  This  how- 
ever the  advocates  for  the  universality  of 
Bergman's  theory  on  this  subject  may 
allow  with  perfect  consistency.  They 
would  say  that  the  phosphat  ot  iron  origi- 
nally contained  in  the  ore  is  converted  by 
the  process  of  smelting  into  phosphuret 
of  iron,  which  being  capable  of  uniting 
perfectly  with  bar  iron  and  forming  only 
a  very  small  proportion  of  the  whole,  may 
render  the  iron  hard  without  materially 
impairing  its  toughness  while  cold :  but 
when  this  iron  deprived  of  carbon  is  ex- 
posed at  a  high  temperature  to  the  action 


of  the  wr,  the  phosphorus  become*  acidi- 
fied, and  the  phosphat  of  iron  that  hence 
results  being  incapable  of  combining  with 
malleable  iron  is  merely  dispersed  through 
it,  and  must  therefore  tend  to  render  it 
brittle.  Nor  is  the  explanation  of  the  fact 
contradicted  by  the  methods  made  use  of 
to  correct  this  quality.  Kinman  says  that 
cast  iron,  which  by  the  common  treatment 
would  yield  cold  short  bar,  may  be  made 
to  afford  soft  malleable  iron  by  fusing  it 
with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  lime  and 
scorix.  Mr.  Mushet  says  that  875  grains 
of  cold  short  iion  when  melted  by  itself 
in  a  covered  crucible  formed  a  perfect 
button  covered  by  a  thin  film  of  brown 
glass.  The  metal  weighed  only  805  grains, 
and  instead  of  being  cold-short,  was  now 
found  to  have  acquired  the  opposite  fault 
of  being  hot-short,  it  was  extremely  soft 
and  ductile.  In  these  experiments  it  may 
be  said  that  the  metal  being  brought  to  a 
state  of  quiet  fusion,  the  phosphat  of  iron 
either  entirely  or  at  least  for  the  most  part 
separated  in  the  form  of  glass  from  the 
reguline  portion.  But  as  all  the  above 
phenomena  may  be  acfoiinted  for  equally 
well  upon  tlie  supposition  that  the  cold- 
short quality  i  owing  simply  to  the  mix- 
tui-e  of  oxyd  of  iron  with  the  metal,  it 
would  be  useless  to  speculate  further  on 
the  subject  till  a  sufficient  number  of  ac- 
curate analyses  have  been  performed  to 
direct  our  investigations.  The  hot-short 
quality  appears  to  be  occasioned  by  the 
admixtuie  of  some  substance  whicii  en- 
ters into  fusion  at  a  low  red  heat,  and 
thus  destroys  the  tenacity  of  the  iron 
through  which  it  is  diffused:  hence  this 
variety  of  iron  cannot  bear  the  hammer  at 
a  red  heat,  though  when  the  temperature 
is  raised  to  the  full  welding  point,  the 
effect  of  this  unknown  substance  is  coun- 
teracted by  the  tenacity  which  the  pai*ti- 
cles  of  iron  then  acquire.  This  substance 
has  been  by  some  su])posed  to  be  carbon, 
but  this  is  inconsistent  with  the  extreme 
softness  which  always  characterises  hot- 
short  iron  :  for  the  same  reason  it  cannot 
be  phosphorus.  The  effects  are  more 
like  those  of  a  metallic  body  ;  and  lead, 
arsenic,  copper,  and  zinc  may  be  each  sus- 
pected with  almost  equal  probability.  In 
some  varieties  of  hot-short  iron,  especially 
those  made  with  coak,  the  fragility  in- 
creases with  the  increase  of  temperature, 
and  they  are  wholly  incapable  of  welding: 
this  probably  arises  from  a  large  admix- 
ture of  the  same  substance,  whatever  it 
be,  to  which  the  more  usual  characters  of 
hot-short  iron  are  owing,  with  perhaps  a 
little  sulphur. 

JMamtfacttire  of  copperas. — The  sulphuric 
acid  dissolves  iron,  and  forms  the  well 


mo 


IRQ 


known  salt  Sulphat  of  iron.  Green  vitriol, 
Green  copperas,  or  Sal  martis.  The 
greater  quantity  of  tliis  salt  which  is  used 
in  manufactures  of  various  kinds,  particu- 
larly in  dyeing  black,  is  not  prepared 
from  the  direct  combination  of  its  ingre- 
dients, but  from  various  kinds  of  native 
sulphurets  of  iron  or  pyrites  (already  des- 
cribed in  this  article)  after  they  have  under- 
gone spontaneous  oxygenation  by  long 
exposure  to  air.  Green  vitriol  is  prepared 
in  many  counties  in  England ;  the  first 
manufacture  of  the  kind  was  undertaken 
in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  at  Dept- 
ford,  where  it  is  still  cari-ied  on.  It  is 
likewise  made  largely  in  Northumberland 
and  Durham.  The  method  of  manufac- 
ture  is  simple,  and  scarcely  differs  now 
from  what  it  was  more  than  a  century 
ago  as  described  by  Colwall. 

The  following  is  the  process  actually 
in  use. 

"The  usual  mode  of  manufacturing 
copperas  on  the  rivers  Tyre  and  Wear,  is 
by  exposing  iron  pyrites  (there  called 
brasses)  which  are  found  in  the  collieries, 
to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  For 
this  purpose  a  situation  is  chosen  inclin- 
ing towards  the  river,  of  a  natural  strong 
clay.  After  the  soil  is  taken  off,  gutters 
are  cut  in  diflerent  directions,  and  wells 
of  about  5  or  6  feet  deep,  and  2  or  3  in 
diameter,  are  sunk  where  the  gutters  ter- 
minate. Upon  this  surface  the  brasses 
are  laid  to  the  thickness  of  4  or  5  feet. 
The  viti'iolization  shews  itself  in  a  white 
efflorescence,  which  is  washed  off  by  the 
rain  into  the  gutters  and  conveyed  by 
pipes  from  the  wells  to  a  reservoir,  from 
which  there  is  a  pipe  of  communication 
to  the  boiler.  This  is  a  leaden  vessel 
generally  about  7  feet  deep,  12  to  14  long, 
and  6  or  7  wide,  where  the  liquor  is  eva- 
porated for  6  days,  during  which  time  a 
quantity  of  old  iron  is  added  to  it,  as  much 
as  it  will  dissolve.  It  is  then  run  into  a 
crystallizing  vessel,  and  remains  there  for 
five  weeks,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
mother  liquor  is  run  into  a  reservoir,  and 
pumped  back  into  the  boiler,  and  the 
crystals  are  removed,  and  ai"ter  being  well 
drained  are  packed  in  hogsheads  for  sale. 
A  single  boiling  from  a  boiler  of  the  above 
dimensions  yields  from  5  to  8  tons  of  cop- 
peras, according  to  the  strength  of  the 
liquor." 

Vitriol  is  made  near  Haguenau  on  the 
Rhine  nearly  in  the  same  manner,  accord- 
ing to  the  description  given  by  Cavillier. 
The  pyrites  is  disposed  on  an  inclined  soil 
in  beds  about  two  feet  thick,  beneath 
which  are  gutters  going  to  a  common  re- 
servoir. The  vitriolization  of  pyrites  is 
always   seen  by  whitish  efflorescences 


tasting  strongly  of  vitriol,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  surface  of  the  pyrites  cracks 
in  every  direction.  When  the  season  is 
dry  it  is  occasionally  watered  to  carry  off 
the  vitriol  already  formed,  and  to  promote 
a  fresh  vitriolization  in  the  remaining  ore. 
The  heaps  are  found  to  be  exhausted 
when  these  saline  effloi'escences  are  but 
scanty,  and  when  the  lump  (when  broken) 
appears  changed  throughout  into  the 
liver  pyrites. 

The  vitriolic  liquor  is  evaporated  as 
usual  in  lead  boilers,  but  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  old  iron  is  regularly  added  to  sa- 
turate the  liquor  as  in  England,  but  only 
occasionally  when  it  appears  too  acid. 
Some  of  the  mother  liquor  of  the  former 
operation  is  always  added. 

The  evaporated  liquor  before  it  passes 
into  the  crystallizing  pools  is  sent  to 
another  bason,  where  it  remains  for  twen- 
ty-four hours  to  deposit  a  large  quantity 
of  ochre.  The  crystallizing  pools  are 
made  of  fir  planks  surrounded  with  beat- 
en clay.  It  requires  ten  days  for  the  so- 
lution to  depo.'sit  all  its  crystals,  part  of 
which  is  collected  on  sticks  put  into  the 
vessel,  but  the  purest  vitriol  is  deposited 
the  last.  The  liquor  that  remains  after 
the  deposition  of  the  crystals  (or  the  mo- 
ther water  as  such  liquors  are  always 
termed)  is  reserved,  and  a  portion  is  al- 
ways added  to  the  boiler  in  the  next  eva- 
poration. 

The  vitriolization  of  the  common  pyi'ites 
used  in  these  manufactures  is  a  work  of 
considerable  time,  more  or  less  according 
to  circumstances,  but  it  is  generally  sev- 
eral months  before  a  bed  is  entirely  ex- 
hausted. Vitriol  is  however  also  made 
in  several  places  from  vitriolic  peat,  and 
in  this  the  process  is  much  shorter.  A 
large  manufactory  of  vitriol  from  this 
source  is  carried  on  near  Beauvais  in 
France,  and  thus  described  by  M.  Brisson. 
The  peat  in  the  neighbourhood  is  of 
two  kinds,  the  common  combustible  peat 
and  the  vitriolic.  The  former  is,  as  in 
other  countries,  light,  spongy,  and  full  of 
visible  remains  of  leaves,  stalks,  and  vege- 
table fibres.  The  vitriolic  on  the  other 
hand  is  easily  distinguished  by  being  hea- 
vier, harsher,  and  crumbly.  The  waters 
that  run  from  it  also  deposit  much  ochre 
which  readily  detects  the  situation.  The 
vitriolic  peat  is  not  found  uniformly  in  any 
relative  situation  with  the  other  species, 
but  at  different  depths  from  the  surface, 
to  about  ten  feet. 

This  peat  is  haj-dly  exposed  to  the  air 
before  it  opens  of  itself,  and  becomes  very 
dry  and  harsh,  and  soon  heats  even  in 
small  masses.  To  render  the  vitiioliia- 
tion  more  uniform,  and  prevent  the  too 


mo 


mo 


drying  effect  of  the  sun,  the  peat  is  laid 
in  heaps,  only  tliree  or  four  inclies  in 
thickness,  under  sheds  thatclied  with 
straw,  where  Uiey  remain  for  a  few  days, 
after  which  they  are  ready  for  lixiviation. 
This  is  done  by  tin-owing  tl>e  peat  into 
large  vats  of  masonry,  and  covering  it 
with  rain  water,  which  flows  through  the 
heaps  and  is  collected  for  the  purpose, 
and  also  with  some  of  the  mother  water  of 
the  former  crystallization.  It  is  then  eva- 
porated and  crystallized  inthemetliod  al- 
ready described. 

In  some  places,  the  pyrites  requires 
roasting,  before  it  can  be 'decomposed  by 
the  action  of  the  air.  Thus,  at  Geyer,  in 
Saxony,  the  pyrites,  after  being  exposed 
for  some  time  to  the  air,  is  soaked  in  wa- 
ter for  twelve  Iiours,  then  roasted  as  in 
the  ordinary  method  of  roasting  ores,  in  a 
large  bed  upon  faggots,  on  wiiich  about 
seventy  or  eighty  quintals  at  a  time,  are 
heated  red-hot,  and  in  this  state  plunged 
again  into  water.  This  is  repeated  six 
times  successively,  with  the  same  pyrites, 
by  which  the  water  becomes  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  vitriol,  and  is  afterwards 
evaporated  and  crystallized  as  usual. 

A  quantity  of  heat  is  always  generated 
during  the  process  of  vitriolization,  both 
in  the  first  combination  of  iron  with  sul- 
phur, and  the  subsequent  oxygenation  of 
the  sulphur,  and  consequent  conversion 
into  sulplmric  acid,  which  enables  it  to 
dissolve  the  iron,  and  form  the  sulphat  re- 
quired. 

The  degree  of  the  heat  produced,  and 
the  quantity  of  moisture  which  the  pyrites 
receives  (by  rain  or  other  sources)  are 
the  circumstances  that  principally  regu- 
late the  production  of  vitriol,  both  as  to  the 
quantity  and  time  of  its  production.  Too 
much  heat  actually  kindles  the  mass  ;  the 
remaining  sulphur  takes  fire,  and  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  sulphureous  acid  va- 
pour is  given  off  to  a  great  distance 
around.  Where  this  takes  place,  little  or 
no  vitriol  is  produced ;  for  most  of  the  sul- 
phur and  acid  already  formed  is  dissipat- 
ed, and  also  the  iron  becomes  too  much 
oxydated  to  yield  the  crystallizable  salt. 
Hence,  it  is  dangerous  and  prejudicial  to 
iqake  too  large  heaps  of  pyrites,  or  to  put 
it  up  into  stacks,  however  preserved  from 
the  weather.  Some  moisture  is  also  ne- 
cessary to  vitriolization  ;  but  too  much  of 
it  keeps  the  pyrites  too  cold,  and  the  pro- 
cess is  languid.  The  iron  added  during 
the  boiling  is  certainly  useful,  both  as  sa- 
turating the  acid  and  increasing  thereby 
the  yield  of  the  salt,  and  also  as  precipi- 
tating  by  its  superior  affinity,  any  copper 
which  may  arise  from  the  admixture  of 
copper  pyrites,  and  also  undergo  vitrioli- 


j  zation.  In  some  manufactures,  however, 
the  admixture  of  a  small  portion  of  sulphat 
of  copper,  is  even  an  advantage,  as  in  the 
dyeing  of  hats. 

Since  the  method  of  preparing  the  sul- 
pliuric  acid,  from  sulphur  and  nitre,  has 
been  universally  adopted,  apart  of  the  use 
oi'  vitriol  of  iron  (namely  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid)  has  passed  away; 
but  it  is  still  employed  largely  in  the  pre- 
paration of  nitric  acid  in  many  places,  be- 
sides its  extensive  use  in  dyeing. 

Sulphat  of  iron  is  also  made  even  in  Uie 
laige  way,  by  tiie  direct  combination  of 
iron  and  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  found  to 
answer  on  the  whole  in  point  of  cheap- 
ness, as  a  purer  salt  is  obtained,  and  at  an 
incomparably  shorter  time.  Most  of  the 
salt  of  this  kind  used  in  medicine,  is  pre- 
pared in  this  way. 

Copperas  has  been  manufactured  in 
this  country  from  iron  pyrites ;  and,  dur- 
ing th«  war  of  '76,  it  was  made  in  abun- 
dance near  Lancaster,  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  green  suipiiat  of  iron,  according* 
to  Kirwan,  contains  in  100  parts,  28  of 
black  or  sub-oxyd  of  iron  (at  27  in  100  of 
oxygenation)  26  of  real  sulphuric  acid, 
and  46  of  water,  of  which  he  estimates  38 
to  be  water  of  crystallization,  and  the  re- 
maining 8  to  be  water  of  composition. 

Green  vitriol  when  heated,  melts  in  its 
own  water  of  crystallization.  When  all 
this  is  driven  off  by  a  boiling  heat,  there 
remains  a  grey  mass,  commonly  calcined 
vitriol.  The  salt  has  lost  only  water  by 
this  first  process,  as  is  proved  by  perform- 
ing it  in  a  retort,  and  collecting  the  liquor 
driven  off  by  the  heat.  It  was  formerly 
called  detu  of  vitriol,  and  several  fanciful 
alchemical  propeities  were  ascribed  to  it. 
If  the  calcined  vitriol  be  urged  in  astrong 
heat,  and  confined  in  a  porcelain  or  luted 
glass  retort,  sulphureous  acid  gas,  mixed 
with  sulphuric  acid,  comes  over  and  con- 
tinues to  do  so  for  a  considerable  time,  till 
the  salt  has  been  for  some  time,  fully  red- 
hot.  What  remains  is  a  blood-red  mass, 
consisting  of  a  perfect  oxyd  of  iron,  with 
a  small  portion  of  still  undecomposed  sul- 
pliat  of  iron,  which  being  now  in  the  state 
of  the  red  sulphat  is  deliquescent,  and 
causes  the  mass  to  grow  damp  by  expo- 
sure to  air.  This  red  mass  is  called  col- 
cothar,  and  is  much  used  for  polishing  me- 
tals, glass,  SiC.  but  is  previously  washed 
in  warm  water,  to  extract  every  thing  sa- 
line that  remains.  If  colcothar  is  further 
urged  with  a  very  intense  white  heat,  a 
large  quantity  of  oxygen  gas  is  given  out, 
and  an  oxyd  of  iron  is  left,  which  is  slight- 
ly magnetic,  and  therefore  in  the  state  of  a 
sub-oxyd.  Therefore,  the  decomposition 
of  the  sulphuric  acid  firet  affords  a  quan- 


mo 


IRO 


tity  of  oxygen  to  unite  with  the  iron  natu- 
rally in  the  state  of  sub-oxyd  in  the  salt, 
and  a  very  intense  heat  again  drives  oflT 
this  additional  oxygen,  and  leaves  the 
iron  nearly  as  at  first.  Along  with  the 
sulphureous  gas  that  is  given  out  so  abun 
dantly  in  distilling  green  vitriol,  a  quanti 
ty  of  a  very  strong  smoking  and  peculiar 
sulphuric  acid  comes  over,  which  con- 
cretes in  the  receiver  in  long  striated  rays 
or  crystals.  This  acid  from  the  place  of 
its  first  production  was  called  smoking  vi- 
trioUc  acid  of  Nordhausen.  It  is  now 
found  to  be  sulphuric  acid  saturated  with 
sulphureous  acid  gas,  to  which  it  owes  its 
concretibility. 

The  few  observations  to  be  made  on  the 
different  alloys  of  iron,  will  all  be  describ- 
ed under  the  other  metals  respectively, 
except  the  manufacture  of  Tin-Plate, 
which  may  be  here  mentioned. 

Tin-Plate  or  Tinned  Iron  (/^er  Blanc  of 
the  French)  holds  an  intermediate  place 
between  an  alloy  and  a  coating.  It  is 
made  simply  by  immersing  plates  of  iron 
into  melted  tin,  whereby  they  not  only  be- 
come covered  with  a  perfect  coating  ot 
this  metal,  but  a  very  intimate  union  of 
the  two  metals  takes  place,  to  a  certain 
depth  in  the  substance  of  the  iron,  which 
is  seen  by  cutting  it  transversely,  and 
when  the  tinning  has  been  repeated  two  or 
three  times,  the  whole  plate  is  more  or 
less  alloyed,  or  as  it  were,  soaked  with  the 
tin. 

Tin-plate  is  manufactured  in  several 
countries,  but  no  where  to  such  perfec- 
tion as  in  England,  to  judge  by  the  quan- 
tity exported.  The  finest  kind  when 
highly  polished,  has  a  lustre  and  white- 
ness scarcely  inferior  to  silver,  and  the  pe- 
culiar excellence  of  the  English  plate,  ap- 
pears to  be  chiefly  owing  to  the  perfect 
smoothness  given  to  the  plate  before  tin- 
ning, and  the  great  uniformity  in  the  ap- 
plication of  the  metallic  coating. 

The  general  process  is  extremely  sim- 
ple, and  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Dono- 
van, 

It  is  carried  on  near  Caermarthen  in 
South  Wales,  the  centre  of  an  immense 
and  increasing  manufacturing  district,  of 
many  of  the  most  important  metals. 

The  iron  ore  employed  in  this  manu- 
factory, is  the  common  kind  of  the  coun- 
try, intermixed  with  a  large  portion  of  die 
fine  hajmatite  from  Ulverstone,  in-  Lanca- 
shire, which  gives  a  very  fine  metal.  This 
too  is  smelted  with  charcoal,  instead  of 
coke,  to  produce  a  metal  of  the  greatest 
purity  and  extensibility,  and  closeness  of 
texture,  which  qualities  are  particularly 
required  in  this  manufacture.  The  redu- 
ced ore  is  smelted  in  the  usual  manner, 


and  cast  into  pigs,  which  are  then  wrought 
by  the  hammer  into  long  flat  bars,  that  are 
afterwards  cut  into  pieces  of  about  ten  in- 
ches  in  length.  These  are  then  wrought 
into  plates  by  being  heated  red-hot,  and 
passed  through  a  flatting-mill,  which  con- 
sists of  two  lai'ge  cylinders  of  steel,  case- 
hardened,  and  secured  in  a  frame  of  iron. 
These  are  placed  contiguous  to  each 
other,  but  with  a  certain  interval  of  space, 
and  revolve  in  a  contrary  direction  ;  so 
that  when  one  end  of  the  bar  is  thrust  in 
the  space  between  the  cylinders,  the  whole 
is  drawn  througli  and  proportionably  ex- 
tended and  flattened  in  the  passage  The 
distance  between  the  cylinders,  which  of 
course  determines  the  thickness  of  the 
plate,,  is  maintained  and  regulated  by 
screws,  which  can  be  altered  at  pleasure. 
When  the  bar  is  thus  made  into  a  plate  of 
twice  the  thickness  oftlie  ordinary  plates, 
it  is  heated  red-hot,  cut  in  two  by  a  pair 
of  shears,  and  one  piece  folded  exactly 
over  the  other,  and  both  repassed  repeat- 
edly through  the  cylinders,  till  the  folded 
plate  has  extended  to  the  same  length 
and  bieadth  as  the  plate  was  before  cut- 
ting. It  is  then  clipped  round  the  edges, 
and  the  two  pl^ites  torn  asunder  (which 
requii-es  some  little  force)  after  which 
they  are  each  finished  by  passing  through 
a  finer  roUlng.press,  so  as  to  take  away 
every  crease  or  inequality  in  the  plate, 
and  those  that  are  too  rough  to  pass 
through  this  finer  press,  are  thrown  aside. 

The  plates  are  then  steeped  in  a  very- 
weak  acid  liquor,  and  when  taken  out  are 
scoured  thoroughly  with  bran  so  as  to  be 
quite  bright  and  polished  to  enable  the 
tin  to  adhere.  The  tin  is  melted  in  deep 
rectangular  crucibles,  and  kept  fluid  by  a 
moderate  charcoal  fire  beneath.  To  pre- 
vent its  calcination  a  quantity  of  grease 
prepared  from  linseed-oil  and  suet  is  con- 
stantly kept  floating  on  the  surface  of  the 
tin  and  renewed  as  it  evaporates  oft",  which 
gives  an  excessively  nauseous  stench. 
The  plate  is  then  taken  up  by  one  corner 
by  a  pair  of  pincers  and  dipped  vertically 
into  the  tin,  and  when  withdrawn  is  found 
beautifully  white  and  resplendent  with  the 
coating  of  this  metal  that  adheres  to  it. 
This  dipping  is  repeated  three  times  for 
what  is  called  single  tin  plate,  and  six 
times  for  the  double  plate.  The  plates 
are  then  only  cleansed  and  sorted,  and  are 
fit  for  use. 

Some  further  particulars  may  be  added 
from  other  authorities. 

In  many  manufactories  the  iron  plates 
before  tinning  are  cleansed  by  being  im- 
mersed in  large  barrels  full  of  a  mixture 
of  rye-flour  and  water,  sometimes  with 
verjuice  which  by  fermentation  has  be- 


IRO 


IRQ 


come  very  acid.  In  Bohemia  the  plates 
remain  three  times  twenty-four  hours  in 
tubs  filled  with  this  acestient  mixture,  in 
three  different  states,  after  wliicli  they 
are  washed,  scoured  with  sand  and  water, 
and  kept  under  water  till  just  before  they 
are  used,  to  avoid  rusting  again. 

Attention  is  to  be  paid  to  tlie  heat  of  the 
melted  tin ;  if  too  hot,  tlie  plate  comes 
out  yellow.  The  plates  are  immersed 
quite  wet  into  the  melted  tin,  passing  in 
their  way  tlirough  the  melted  suet  which 
covers  it.  Justbefore  dipping,  some  wa- 
ter is  thrown  on  the  melted  suet,  which 
causes  a  violent  ebullition  and  makes  the 
surface  of  the  metal  quite  clean  and 
bright.  The  plates  when  tinned  are  set 
up  to  drain,  by  which  a  number  of.  drops 
of  tin  collect  in  small  knobs  at  the  lower 
part.  These  are  taken  off  by  a  second 
immersion  into  a  separate  cauldron  of  tin, 
but  only  to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches,  by 
which  the  drops  of  tin  melt  down  and  the 
whole  tinning  is  made  more  uniform  in 
thickness.  They  are  then  cleansed  with  a 
rag  and  saw-dust  or  bran.  About  19^ 
povuids  of  tin  are  required  for  300  plates, 
measuring  1  foot  by  y  inches. 

The  manufacture  of  tin-plate  in  France 
appears  to  be  conducted  so  nearly  in  the 
same  manner  as  not  to  require  a  separate 
description. 

In  the  manufactures  of  tin-plate  on  the 
continent  a  quantity  of  copper  is  always 
added  to  the  tin,  but  in  very  smallpropor- 
tion.  The  exact  quantity  is  regulated  by 
slight  circumstances,  which  only  expe- 
rience can  teach.  It  appears  to  be  in 
general  from  one-eightieth  to  one  hundred 
and  twentieth  of  the  tin.  The  copper 
prevents  the  tin  from  adhering  in  too  great 
a  quantity  to  the  iron,  and  causes  the 
superfluous  part  to  drain  off  more  freely. 
Too  much  copper  gives  a  dull  yellow  tint. 

It  appears  that  the  method  of  flattening 
the  bar  into  plate  by  cylinders  is  only 
adopted  in  this  country,  but  in  other  pla- 
ces is  done  by  the  hammer. 

The  aflfinities  of  the  oxyd  of  iron  for  the 
respective  acids  are  in  tlie  following  or- 
der :  the  gallic,  oxalic,  tartareous,  sul- 
phuric, muriatic,  nitric,  phosphoric,  arse- 
nic, fluoric,  succinic,  citric,  acetic,  bora- 
cic,  prussic,  and  carbonic  acids. 
JUttliod  of  connecting  iron  ban,  and  coating 

the*n  viitli  lead,  so  as  to  form  solid  pillars 

for  light  houses,  on  rocks  covered  nt  high 

water,  ivithout  being  subject  to  corrosion 

from  the  action  of  sea  luater.     Bv  Cap. 

Jos.  Jirodie,ofthe  British  JVavy. — Trans. 

Soc.  nf.itts,  vol.  xxii. 

In  tliis  method,  four  square  rods  of  cast 
iron  are  composed  of  a  number  of  pieces 
two  feet  long,  and  so  rivetted  together. 


thattlie  ends  of  the  component  pieces  are 
uniformly  distributed,  producing  the  ef- 
fect of  one  bar  of  double  the  breadth  and 
thickness  of  the  smaller  ones ;  a  hollow 
tube  of  cast  iron  formed  from  a  numberof 
separate  pieces,  each  about  10  inches 
long,  which,  when  placed  round  the  con- 
nected iron  bars  and  screwed  together, 
form  a  mould,  into  which  melted  lead  is 
to  be  poured,  to  coat  the  rods  or  bars. 
By  these  means,  the  rods  may,  by  small 
portions  at  a  time,  be  completely  covered 
with  melted  lead,  soas  to  form  a  cylindri- 
cal pillar  apparently  of  lead.  Tlie  hollow 
cylinder  is  readily  formed  to  any  length 
required,  by  the  junction  of  a  number  of 
semi-cylinders,  fitting  each  otlier  and 
rivetted  together. 

After  a  certain  portion  of  the  iron  rods 
is  coated  with  lead,  the  lower  parts  of  the 
tube  are  taken  off  and  placed  higher  up, 
so  that  a  few  tubes  may  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  coating  any  length  of  the  iron 
rods. 

IRON,  ores  of  American.    See  Iron. 

IRON,  sulphate  of.     See  Iron. 

Iron,  gallate  of.  See  Ink  and  Dye- 
ing. 

IRON,  prussiate  of.  See  Colour 
Making. 

IRON,  cast,  crude,  pig,  &c.  See  Iron. 

IRON,  cold-short,  hot-short,  &c.  See 
Iron. 

IRON  and  carbon  (steel.)     See  Iron. 

IRON,  hardening  of.     See  Iron. 

IRON  and  carbon  (steel)  blueing  of. — 
The  blueing  of  steel  appears  to  affect  its 
elasticity  in  a  manner  not  easily  explained. 
This  operation  consists  in  exposing  steel, 
the  surface  of  which  has  been  first  bright- 
ened, to  the  regulated  heat  of  a  plate  of 
metal,  or  a  charcoal  fire,  or  the  flame  of 
a  lamp,  till  the  surface  has  acquired  a 
blue  colour.  Now,  if  this  blue  colour  be 
removed  by  grinding,  the  elasticity  is 
completely  destroyed,  and  may  be  restored 
by  blueing  the  steel  again.  Rubbing  witli 
sand  or  emery-paper,  glazing,  or  burnish- 
ing, equally  impairs  the  elasticity  in  pro- 
p()rtion  as  it  destroys  the  blue  coat.  Saw- 
makers  first  harden  their  plates  in  the 
usual  way,  in  which  state  they  are  brittle 
and  warped  :  they  then  soften  them  by 
blazing,  which  consists  in  smearing  the 
plate  with  oil  or  grease,  and  heating  it  till 
thick  vapours  are  emitted,  and  burn  off 
with  a  blaze  ;  and  after  this  they  may  be 
hammered  flat :  lastly,  they  blue  them  on 
a  hot  iron  ;  which  renders  them  stiff  and 
elastic  without  altering  their  flatness. 

The  Damascus  sword  blades  have  long 
been  celebrated  for  their  excellence,  but 
it  is  not  known  how  they  are  made.  Mr. 
Stoddart  took  six  small  bars  of  good  mal- 


mo 


IRO 


ieable  iron,  and  the  same  number  of  sheer 
steel ;  laid  them  alternately  on  each  other ; 
welded  them  together  ;  forged  them  into 
a  stout  flat  plate,  which  was  twisted  spi- 
rally into  a  cylindei",  hammered  flat,  and 
ag-ain  welded ;  hammered  this  flat,  dou- 
bled it  throughout  its  length,  inserted  in 
the  fold  a  slip  of  good  steel  to  form  tlie 
edge,  and  by  another  welding  heat  con 
solidated  the  whole  into  one  mass.  This 
being  forged  to  a  proper  shape,  cracked 
in  different  places  on  being  cooled  in  wa- 
ter after  heating :  but  Mr.  Stoddart  con- 
ceives, that  by  using  more  pieces,  repeat- 
ing the  twisting,  and  not  quenching  in 
water,  the  process  would  succeed. 

IROX,  uses  of,  in  dyeing. — Iron  is  one 
of  the  principal  ingredients  for  dyeing 
black.  The  stuff  is  first  prepared  with  a 
bath  of  galls  and  logwood,  then  with  a 
similar  bath  to  which  verdegris  is  added, 
and  lastly  dyed  in  a  similar  bath  with  the 
addition  of  sulphat  of  iron.  If  it  be  wish- 
ed, that  the  colour  should  be  particularly 
fine,  the  stuft"  should  previously  be  dyed 
of  a  deep  blue  :  otherwise  a  brown  may 
be  first  given  with  the  green  husks  of 
walnuts.  Silk  however  must  not  be  pre- 
viously blued  with  indigo,  and  sumach 
may  be  substituted  instead  of  galls.  Lea- 
ther, prepared  by  tanning  with  oak  bark, 
is  blackened  by  a  solution  of  sulphat  of 
iron. 

Cotton  has  a  very  strong  afiinity  for 
oxide  of  iron,  so  that,  if  it  be  immersed  in 
a  solution  of  any  salt  of  iron,  it  assumes  a 
chamois  colour,  more  or  less  deep  ac- 
cording to  the  strength  of  the  solution. 
The  action  of  ^he  air  on  the  oxide  of  iron 
deepens  the  colour ;  and  if  the  shade 
were  at  first  deep,  the  texture  of  the  stuff' 
is  liable  to  be  corroded  by  it.  To  prevent 
this,  the  cotton  should  be  immersed  in 
the  solution  cold,  carefully  wrung,  and 
immediately  plunged  into  a  ley  of  potash 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  alum.  After 
having  lain  in  this  four  or  five  hours,  it  is 
to  be  wrung,  washed,  and  dried. 

Mr.  Brewer,  to  give  a  nankin  colour, 
prepares  his  cotton  yarn  by  boihng  it  five 
hours  in  a  mixture  of  water  made  grass 
green  with  sheep's  dung  and  a  solution  of 
Avhite  soap ;  twice  more,  an  hour  each 
time,  witli  half  the  quantity  of  soap  ;  and 
a  fourth  time  in  a  ley  of  pot  or  pearl 
ashes,  one  pound  to  twenty  of  yarn,  ano- 
ther hour.  He  then  passes  it  through  iron 
liquor,  to  every  gallon  of  which  half  a 
pound  of  red  chalk,  or  ruddle,  in  pow- 
der is  added  ;  the  liquor  being  poured  off 
clear,  after  it  has  stood  four  hours  to  set- 
tle, and  immerses  it  in  an  alkaline  lixi- 
vium. When  of  the  proper  colour,  for 
which  this  operation  may  be  repeated  if 
VOL.  I. 


necessary,  he  dries  it,  as  after  each  of  th« 
former  processes  ;  and  then  puts  it  into  a 
warm  lixivium,  in  which  it  is  brought  to  a 
scald,  It  is  afterward  to  be  soaked  an 
hour  in  water  made  almost  as  sour  as 
lemon  juice  witli  sulphuric  acid  and  then 
washed  and  wrung  twice.  Lastly,  it  is 
to  be  boiled  slowly  an  hour  in  a  solution 
of  white  soap,  one  poimd  to  ten  of  yarn. 
See  Dyeing. 

IRON",  ores  of,  American — We  have 
noticed  the  ores  of  this  metal  under  the 
article  iron.  The  American  iron  ores  are 
the  same  as  the  European,  if  we  except 
however  some  few  species.  The  magnetic 
iron  ores  abound  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Some  specimens  are  con- 
siderably magnetic,  and  the  ore  generally 
yields  a  large  per  centum  of  iron.  Mag- 
netic iron  ore  is  called  also  native  magnet, 
or  loadstone.  The  black  ore,  or  steel 
grained  iron  ore,  occurs  in  abundance  in 
Pennsylvania,  from  which  the  Pennsylva- 
nia iron  is  obtained.  The  ochres  are  com- 
mon, but  are  seldom  used  with  a  view  of 
affording  this  metal.  The  yellow  ochre 
is  sometimes  made  into  red  ochre  by  cal- 
cination     See  Colour  Making. 

Earthy,  argillaceous,  or  bog  ores  of 
ii'on,  occur  in  abundance  in  New  Jersey, 
from  which  the  Jersey  iron  is  obtained. 
The  colour  of  these  ores  is  various,  some- 
times reddish,  yellowish  brown,  and  some- 
times grey.  The  iridescent  or  crystallized 
iron  ore,  such  as  is  obtained  from  the 
island  of  Elba,  is  not  met  with  in  this 
country.  Hsmatites,  an  oxyd  of  iron, 
of  different  colours,  is  found  in  the  United 
States,  so  is  also  the  specular  iron  ore. 
Emery,  which  was  formerly  considered  aa 
iron  ore,  but  now  classed  with  corun- 
dom,  is  said  to  be  found  in  Pennyslvania. 
Tlie  white  or  sparry  iron  ore,  as  well  as 
iron  pyrites,  or  sulphuret  of  iron,  the  grey 
iron,  and  plumbago,  occur  more  or  less 
in  abundance  in  this  country. 

Tlie  blue  combination  of  iron  is  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  bogs,  principally  iu 
New  Jersey.  Bergman  calls  it  native 
Prussian  blue.  Different  opinions  are  en- 
tertained as  to  its  formation,  and  chemical 
composition.  See  an  Essay  of  the  editor 
in  Bruce's  Mineralogical  Journal.  We 
intend,  under  the  article  Oke,  to  give  u. 
lengthy  account  of  the  different  ores,  and 
the  modes  of  working  them.  It  may  be 
said  with  truth,  that  from  all  the  ores  of 
iron  found  in  the  United  States,  excellent 
iron  is  obtained. 

Much  interesting  information  on  the 
subject  of  iron  manufactiu-es,  as  well  as 
on  the  ores  of  this  metal,  may  be  found 
in  the  numbers  of  Cooper's  Emporium. 
See  also  Bruce's  Mineralogical  Journal , 
3  X 


JAP 


JAP 


Seybert's  Catalogue  of  some  American 
Minerals  in  Coxe's  Medical  Museum ; 
the  papers  of  Maclure  and  Godon,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophi- 
cal Society,  &c. 

Important  improvement  in  the  ix'orking 
nf  iron. — In  No.  1  of  the  new  series  of  the 
Emporium  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  edited 
by  the  learned  Professor  Cooper,  it  is  an- 
nounced from  the  Annales  de  Chemie, 
that  cast  iron,  previously  heated  to  a 
cheri"y  red,  may  be  cut  like  a  piece  of 
wood  with  a  common  saw. 

As  the  truth  of  this  discovei^  is  of  con- 
siderable  moment  to  iron  founders,  and 
to  all  those  who  employ  iron  castings, 
Professor  M'Neven  tried  this  experiment 
a  few  days  ago,  and  completely  succeed- 
ed. 

At  the  iron  foundery  of  Messrs.  AVard 
and  Talman,  the  ingenious  foreman  of 
that  establishment,  Mr.  Keenan,  was  di- 


rected to  heat  a  cast  iron  bar,  seven- 
eighths  of  an  inch  square,  to  a  cherry 
red,  in  which  state  it  was  cut  through 
with  a  common  handsaw  in  one  minute 
and  a  half  The  saw  was  not  the  least 
injured  by  the  process.  The  workmen 
who  witnessed  it,  observed  that  it  must 
succeed  with  still  more  facility,  when  a 
saw  is  used  that  is  better  adapted  to  the 
purpose ;  one  having  finer  and  closer 
teeth,  and  a  perfectly  straight  edge  Dur- 
ing the  operation,  very  numerous  and  ^ 
brilliant  scintillations  issued  from  the  iron, 
as  when  it  burns  in  oxygen  gas. 

New  York  Amer.  Med.  and  Philos.  Re- 
gister for  Julv  1813. 

IRRIGATION.     See  Agriculture. 

ISINGLASS     See  Gelatin. 

IVORY  BLACK.    See  Colour  Mak- 

INC. 

IVORY,  silvering  of.    See  Silver. 
IVORY,  gilding  of     See  Gilding. 


J. 


JACK,  in  mechanics,  a  well  known  in- 
strument for  raising  great  weights  of  any 
kind,  Sec      See  Mechanics. 

JAPANNING,  is  properly  the  art  of 
varnishing  and  painting  ornaments  on 
wood,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  by 
the  natives  of  Japan  in  the  East  Indies. 

The  substances  which  admit  of  being 
japanned  are  almost  every  kind  that  arc 
dry  and  rigid,  or  not  too  flexible  ;  as  wood, 
metals,  leather,  and  paper  prepared. 

Wood  and  metals  do  not  require  any 
other  preparation,  but  to  have  their  sur- 
faces perfectly  even  and  clean  ;  but  leather 
should  be  securely  strained,  either  on 
frames  or  on  boards ;  as  its  bending,  or 
forming  folds,  would  otherwise  crack  and 
force  of!"  the  coats  of  varnish.  Paper 
should  be  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
and  have  a  previous  strong  coat  of  some 
kind  of  size  ;  but  it  is  rai-ely  made  the 
subject  of  japanning  till  it  is  converted  in- 
to papier  mache,  or  wrought  by  other 
means  into  such  form,  tliat  its  original 
state,  ])articularly  with  respect  to  flexibi- 
lity is  changed.  One  principal  variation 
from  the  method  formerly  used  in  japan- 
ning is,  the  omitting  any  priming  or  under- 
coat, on  the  work  to  be  japanned.  In  the 
older  practice  such  a  priming  was  always 
used  ;  the  use  of  which  \v:is  to  save  in  the 
quantity  of  varnish,  by  filling  uji  the  ine- 
qualities in  the  surface  of  the  substance  to 


be  varnished.  But  there  is  a  great  inconr 
venicncc  arising  from  the  use  of  it,  that 
the  japan  coats  are  constantly  liable  to  be 
cracked,  and  peeled  oflf,  by  any  violence, 
and  will  not  endure  near  so  long  as  the 
articles  which  are  japanned  without  any 
such  priming. 

The  French  still  retain  the  use  of  this 
undercoat,  and  their  japanned  goods  are 
upon  that  account  less  durable  than  those 
manufactured  at  Birmingham,  where  it  is 
not  used. 

Of  the  nature  of  Japan  Grounds — When 
a  priming  is  used,  the  work  should  first  be 
prepared  by  being  well  smoothed  with 
fish-skin  or  glass-papei',  and  being  made 
thoroughly  clean,  should  be  brushed  over 
once  or  twice  with  hot  size,  diluted  with 
two-thirds  watei',  if  it  is  ot  the  common 
strength.  The  priming  should  then  be 
laid  on  as  even  as  possible,  and  should  be 
formed  of  a  size,  of  a  consistency  between 
the  common  kind  and  glue,  mixed  with  aj 
much  whiting  as  will  give  it  a  sufficient 
body  of  cohxn-  to  hide  the  surface  of  what- 
ever it  is  laid  upon,  but  not  more.  This 
must  be  repeated  till  the  inequalities  are 
completely  filled  up,  and  then  the  v  ork 
nuist  be  cleaned  oft"  with  Butch  rushes, 
and  polished  with  a  wet  rag. 

When  wood  or  leather  is  to  be  japan- 
ned, and  no  priming  is  used,  the  best  pre- 
pai'ation  is  to  lay  two  or  three  coats  of 


JAP 


JAP 


coarse  vaniLil),  composed  in  the  following 
manner. 

Take  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine  one 
pint,  and  of  coarse  seed-lac  and  resin, 
each  two  ounces  ;  dissolve  the  seed-lac 
and  resin  in  the  spirit,  and  then  strain  off 
the  varnish. 

This  varnish,  as  well  as  all  otliers  form- 
ed of  spirit  of  wine,  must  be  laid  on  in  a 
warm  place;  and  if  it  can  be  conveniently 
managed,  the  piece  of  work  to  be  var- 
nished should  be  made  warm  likewise ; 
and  for  tlie  same  reason,  all  dampness 
should  be  avoided ;  for  either  cold  or 
moisture  chills  this  kuid  of  varnish,  and 
prevents  its  taking  proper  hold  of  tlie 
substance  on  wliich  it  is  laid. 

When  the  work  is  so  prepared,  or  bv 
the  priming  with  the  compositon  of  size 
and  whiting  above  described,  the  proper 
japan  ground  must  be  laid  on,  which  is 
much  the  best  formed  of  shell- lac  vai-nish, 
and  the  colour  desu-ed,  except  white, 
which  requires  a  peculiai"  treatment ;  and 
if  brightness  be  wanted,  then  also  other 
means  must  be  pursued. 

The  colours  used  with  the  shell-lac  var- 
nish may  be  anj'  pigments  whatever, 
which  give  tlietint  of  the  ground  desired. 

As  metals  never  require  to  be  under- 
coated  with  whiting,  they  may  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner  as  wood  or  leatlier. 

White  Japan  Grounds. — The  forming  a 
ground  perfectly  white,  and  of  thg  iirst 
degree  of  hardness,  remains  hltlierto  a 
desideratum  in  the  art  of  japaniung,  as 
there  ai"e  no  substances  which  form  a  ve- 
ry hard  varnish,  but  which  have  too  much 
colom"  not  to  injure  tlie  whiteness,  when 
laid  on  of  a  due  tliickness  over  the  work. 

The  nearest  approach,  however,  to  a 
perfect  white  varnish,  already  known,  is 
made  by  the  following  composition. 

Take  flake-white,  or  white  lead,  wash  - 
ed  over  and  ground  up  with  one-sixth  of 
its  weight  of  starch,  and  then  dried;  and 
temper  it  properly  for  spreading  with  mas- 
tich  varnish. 

Lay  tliese  on  the  body  to  be  japanned, 
prepared  either  with  or  without  the  under- 
coat of  whiting,  in  the  manner  as  above 
f>rdered;  and  then  varnish  it  over  with 
five  or  six  coats  of  the  following  var- 
nish. 

Provide  any  quantity  of  the  best  seed- 
lac,  and  pick  out  of  it  all  the  clearest  and  i 
whitest  grains,  reserving  the  more  coloui-  ' 
ed  and  fouler  paits  for  the  coarse  varnish- 
es, such  as  that  used  for  priming  or  prepa-  \ 
ring  wood  or  leather.  Take  of  this  picked  ; 
lac  two  ounces,  and  of  gum  animi  three  i 
ounces ;  and  dissolve  tliem,  be'uig  pre-  \ 
-i  iously  reduced  to  a  gross  powder,  in 


about  a  quart  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  strain 
off  the  clear  varnish. 

The  seed-lac  will  give  a  slight  tinge  to 
this  composition  ;  but  it  cannot  be  omitted, 
where  the  varnish  is  wanted  to  be  hard  ; 
though,  when  a  softer  will  answer  the  end, 
the  proportion  may  be  diminished,  and  a 
little  crude  tui-pentine  added  to  the  gum 
animi  to  take  off  the  brittleness 

A  very  good  varnish,  entireh  free  from 
all  brittleness,  may  be  formed  bv  dissolv- 
ing as  much  gum  animi  as  the  oil  will 
take,  in  old  nut  or  poppy  oil ;  which  must 
be  made  to  boil  gentlj  when  the  gum  is 
put  into  it.  The  ground  of  white  colour 
itself  may  be  laid  on  in  tliis  varnish,  and 
then'  a  coat  or  two  of  it  may  be  put  over 
the  giound ;  but  it  must  be  v.ell  diluted 
with  oil  of  turpentine  when  it  is  used. 
Tills,  though  free  from  biittleness,  is 
nevertlieless  liable  to  suffer  by  being  in- 
dented or  bruised  by  any  slight  strokes ; 
and  it  will  not  well  bear  any  polish,  but 
may  be  brought  to  a  very  sniootli  surface 
without,  if  it  be  judiciously  managed  in 
the  laying  it  on.  It  is  likewise  somewhat 
tedious  in  drying,  and  will  require  some 
time  where  several  coats  are  laid  on  ;  as 
the  last  ought  not  to  contain  much  oil  of 
turpentine. 

Blue  Japan  Gro««rfj .-Blue  japan  grounds 
may  be  formed  of  bright  prussian-blue : 
or  of  verditer,  glazed  over  by  prussian- 
blue,  or  smalt.  The  colour  may  be  best 
mixed  with  shell-lac  varnish,  and  brought 
to  a  poUshing  state  by  five  or  six  coats  of 
varnish  of  seed-lac  ;  but  the  varnish,  never- 
theless, will  somewhat  injure  the  coloiu-, 
by  giving  to  a  U'ue  blue  a  cast  of  green, 
and  fouluig  in  some  degree  a  warm  blue 
by  the  yellow  it  contains ;  where,  tliere- 
fore,  a  bright  blue  is  requii-ed,  and  a  less 
degree  of  hardness  can  J)e  dispensed  with, 
the  method  before  directed  in  the  case  of 
white  grounds,  must  be  pursued. 

Red  Japan  Grounds. — For  a  scarlet  japan 
gTound,  vermilion  may  be  used ;  but  the 
vermilion  has  a  glaring  effect,  that  ren- 
ders it  much  less  beautiful  than  the  crim- 
son  produced  by  glazing  it  over  witJi  car- 
mine  or  fine  lake,  or  even  with  rose  pink, 
which  has  a  very  good  effect,  used  for 
this  purpose.  For  a  \ei-y  bright  crimson, 
nevertheless,  instead  of  glazing  with  car- 
mine, the  Indian  lake  should  be  used,  dis- 
solved  in  the  spirit  of  which  the  varnish 
is  compounded,  which  it  readily  admits  of 
when  good ;  and  in  this  case,  instead  of 
glazing  with  the  shell-lac  varnish,  the  up- 
per or  polisliing  coats  need  only  be  used, 
as  tliey  will  equally  receive  and  convey 
the  tinge  of  the  Indian  lake,  which  may  be 
actually  dissolved  by  spirits  of  wine,  and 


JAP 


JAP 


this  win  be  found  a  much  cheaper  method 
than  the  using  carmine  If,  however,  the 
highest  degree  of  brightness  is  required, 
the  white  varnish  must  be  used. 

Yellovi  J.ipan  Grounds.  —For  bright  yel- 
low grounds,  king's  yellow,  or  turpeth 
mineral,  sliouldbe  employed,  either  alone, 
or  mixed  wiih  fine  Dutch  pink,  and  the 
effect  may  be  still  more  heightened,  by 
dissolving  powdered  turmeric  root  in  the 
spirits  of  wine,  of  which  the  upper  or 
polishing  coast  is  made,  which  spirits  of 
wine  must  be  strained  from  off  the  dregs 
before  the  seed-lac  be  added  to  it,  to  form 
the  varnish. 

The  seed-lac  varnish  is  not  equally  in- 
jurious here,  and  with  greens,  as  is  the 
case  of  other  colours ;  because,  being 
only  tinged  with  a  reddish  yellow,  it  is 
little  more  than  an  iiddiUon  to  the  foi-ce  of 
the  colours. 

Yellow  grounds  may  by  likewise  for- 
med of  Initch  pink  only,  which,  when 
gcc^d,  will  not  be  wanting  in  brightness, 
thoutch  -extremely  cheap. 

Green  Japan  Grounds — Green  grounds 
may  be  produced  by  mixing  king's  yel- 
low, and  b:igl)t  piussian-blue,  or  rather 
turpeth  mineral  and  prussian-blue  And 
a  cl:eap,  but  foulei'  kind  by  verdigris, 
with  1  little  of  die  above  mentioned  yel- 
lo'.v  .,  or  Dutch  pink.  But  where  a  very 
bright  green  is  wanted,  the  crystals  of 
Vf  idigris, called  distilled  verdigris, should 
be  ernployed  ;  and  to  heighten  the  effect, 
they  should  by  laid  on  a  ground  of  leaf- 
golcl,  which  renders  the  colour  extremely 
brilliant  and  pleasing. 

Orange  Japan  Grounds. — Orange  colour- 
ed japan  grounds  may  be  formed  by  mix- 
ing vermilion,  or  red  lead  with  king's  yel- 
low, or  Dutch  pink,  or  the  orange  lake, 
which  will  make  a  brighter  orange  ground 
than  can  be  produced  by  any  mixture. 

Purple  Japan  Grounds. — Purple  japan 
grounds  may  be  produced  by  the  mix- 
ture of  lake  and  prussian-blue  ;  of  a  fouler 
kind,  by  vermilion  and  prussian-blue. 
They  may  be  treated  as  the  rest,  with 
respect  to  the  varnish 

JBlaek  Japan  Grounds  ivithout  Heat. — 
Black  grounds  may  be  formed  by  either 
ivory  black,  or  lamp  black  ;  but  the  for- 
mer is  preferable  where  it  is  perfectly 
good.  These  may  always  be  laid  on  with 
shell-lac  varnish  ;  and  have  their  upper 
or  polishing  coasts  of  common  seed-lac 
varnish,  as  tlie  tinge  or  foulness  of  the 
varnish  can  here  be  no  injury. 

Coinvion  lihck  Japan  Grounds  on  Iron 
or  Copper,  produced  by  tiicans  of  Heat  — 
For  forming  the  black  japan  grounds  by 
means  of  heat,  the  piece  of  work  to  be 
japanned  must  be  painted  over  with  drj-- 


ing  oil,  and  a  little  lamp  black  ;  and  wlieff 
it  is  of  a  moderate  dryness,  must  be  ex- 
posed to  such  a  degree  of  heat,  as  will 
change  the  oil  to  black,  without  burning 
so  as  to  destroy  or  weaken  its  tenacity. 
The  stove  should  not  be  too  hot  when  the 
work  is  put  into  it,  nor  the  heat  increased 
too  fast,  either  of  which  errors  would 
make  it  blister  ;  but  the  slower  the  heat 
is  augmented,  and  the  longer  it  is  con- 
tinued, provided  it  be  restrained  within 
the  due  degree,  the  harder  will  be  the 
coat  of  japan.  This  kind  of  varnish 
requires  no  polish,  having  received,  when 
properly  managed,  a  sufficient  one  from 
the  heat. 

The  fine  Tortoise-shell  Japan  Ground, 
produced  by  iruans  of  Heat. — The  best  kind 
of  tortoise-shell  ground  produced  by 
heat,  is  not  less  valuable  for  its  great 
hardness,  and  enduring  to  be  made  hot- 
ter than  boiling  water  without  damage, 
than  for  its  beautiful  appeai-ance.  It  is 
to  be  made  by  means  of  a  varnish  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner. 

Take  of  good  linseed-oil  one  gallon, 
and  of  umbel  half  a  pound ;  boil  them 
together  till  the  oil  become  very  brown 
and  thick ;  strain  it  through  a  coarse 
cloth,  and  set  it  again  to  boil ;  in  which 
state  it  must  be  continued  till  it  acquire 
a  pitchy  consistence,  when  it  will  be  fit 
for  use. 

Having  thus  prepared  the  varnish,  clean' 
well  the  iron  or  copper  plate,  or  other 
pieces  which  are  to  be  japanned,  and  then 
lay  vermilion  tempered  with  shell-lac 
varnish,  or  with  drying  oil  diluted  with 
oil  of  turpentine,  veiy  thinly,  on  the 
places  intended  to  imitate  the  more  tran- 
sparent parts  of  the  tortoise-shell.  When 
tiie  vermilion  is  dry,  brush  over  the  whole 
with  the  black  varnish,  tempered  to  a 
due  consistence  with  oil  of  turpentine ; 
and  when  it  is  set  and  firm,  put  the  work 
into  a  stove,  where  it  may  undergo  a 
very  strong  lieat,  and  must  be  continued 
a  considerable  time ;  if  even  three  weeks 
or  a  month,  it  will  be  the  better. 

This  was  given  amongst  other  receipts 
by  KuNCKr.1, ;  but  appears  to  have  been 
neglected  till  it  was  revived  with  great 
success  in  the  liirmingham  manufactures, 
where  it  was  not  only  the  groimd  of  snufl- 
boxes,  dressing-boxes,  and  other  such  les- 
ser pieces  ;  but  of  those  beautiful  tea  wai- 
ters which  have  been  so  justly  esteemed  and 
admired  in  several  parts  of  Europe,  where 
they  have  been  sent.  This  ground  may 
be  decorated  with  painting  and  gilding, 
in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  varnished 
surface,  which  had  best  be  done  after  the 
ground  has  been  duly  hardened  by  the 
hot  stove ;  but  it  will  be  best  to  give  a 


JAP 


JAP 


second  annealing    vrith  a   more  gentle 
heat,  after  it  is  finished. 

^iethod  of  painting  Japan  Work. — Japan 
worl;  ought  properly  to  be  painted  witli 
colours  in  vamish ;  though,  for  the  great- 
er dispatch,  and  in  some  very  nice 
work  in  small,  for  the  freer  use  of  the 
pencil,  tlie  colours  are  sometimes  temper- 
ed in  oil ;  which  should  previously  have 
a  fourth  part  of  its  weight  of  gum  animi 
dissolved  in  it ;  or  in  default  of  that,  gum 
sandarach,  or  gum  mastich.  When  tlie 
oil  is  thus  used,  it  should  be  well  diluted 
with  oil  of  turpentine,  that  the  colours 
may  lay  more  evenly  and  thin  ;  by  wliich 
means,  fewer  of  tlie  polishing  or  upper 
coasts  of  varnish  become  necessary-. 

In  some  instances,  water  colours  are 
laid  on  grounds  of  gold,  in  the  manner  of 
other  paintings ;  and  are  best,  when  so 
used  in  their  proper  appearance,  without 
any  vamish  over  them ;  and  they  are  also 
sometimes  so  managed  as  to  have  the 
effect  of  embossed  work.  The  colours 
employed  in  this  way,  for  painting,  are 
best  prepared  by  means  of  isinglass  siie, 
corrected  by  honey  or  sugar -candy.  The 
body  of  which  tie  embossed  work  is 
raised,  need  not,  however,  be  tinged  witji 
the  exterior  colour,  but  may  be  best  for- 
med of  very  strong  gum  water,  thickened 
to  a  proper  consistence  by  bole  armenian 
and  whiting  in  equal  parts  ;  which  being 
laid  on  the  proper  figure,  and  repaired 
when  dr}-,  may  be  then  painted  with  the 
proper  colours,  tempered  with  the  ising- 
lass size,  or,  in  tlie  usual  maiuier,  with 
shell-lac  vamish. 

^lannrr  of  Varnishing  Japan-ITork. — 
The  finislung  of  japan-work  lies  in  the 
laying  on,  and  polishing,  the  outer  coats 
of  varnish  which  are  necessan. ,  as  well  in 
the  pieces  that  have  only  one  sinple 
ground  of  colour,  as  with  those  that  are 
painted.  This  is  in  general  done  best 
with  common  seed-lac  vamish,  except  in 
the  instances,  and  on  those  occasions, 
where  we  have^  already  shewn  other 
methods  to  be  more  expedient ;  and  tiie 
same  reasons  which  decide  as  to  tlie  fit- 
ness or  impropriety  of  the  varnislies,  with 
respect  to  the  colours  of  tlie  ground,  hold 
equally  with  regard  to  those  of  the  paint- 
ing. For  where  brightness  is  the  most 
material  point,  and  a  tinge  of  yellow  will 
injore  it,  seed-lac  must  give  way  to  the 
whiter  gums  ;  but  where  hardness,  and  a 
greater  tenacity,  are  most  essential,  it 
must  be  adhered  to  -,  and  where  both  are 
so  necessary,  that  it  is  proper  one  should 
give  way  to  the  other  in  a  ceilain  degree 
reciprocally,  a  mixed  vamish  must  be 
adopted. 

This  mixed  vamish,  as  we  have  already 


observed,  should  be  made  of  the  picked 
seed-lac.  The  common  seed-lac  vamish, 
which  is  the  most  useful  preparation  of  the 
kind  hitherto  invented,  may  be  thus  made- 
Take  of  seed-lac  three  ounces,  and  put 
it  into  water,  to  free  it  fix)m  the  sticks 
and  filth  that  are  frequently  intermixed 
with  it ;  and  which  must  be  done  by 
stirring  it  about,  and  then  pouring  oiFthe 
water,  and  adding  fresh  quantities,  in 
order  to  repeat  the  operation,  till  it  be 
fi-eed  from  all  impurities,  as  it  is  very 
effectually  done  by  this  means.  Dry  it 
then,  and  powder  it  grossly,  and  put  it, 
witli  a  pint  of  rectified  spirit  of  wine,  into 
a  bottle,  of  which  it  will  not  fill  above 
two  thirds.  Shake  the  mixture  well  toge- 
ther, and  place  the  bottle  in  a  gentle  heat, 
till  the  seed-lac  appears  to  be  dissolved ; 
the  shaking  being  in  the  mean  time 
repeated  as  often  as  may  be  convenient ; 
and  then  pour  off  all  that  can  be  obtained 
clear  by  this  method,  and  strain  the  re- 
mainder through  a  coarse  cloth.  The 
vamish  thus  prepared,  must  be  kept  for 
use  in  a  bottle  well  stopjied. 

Wlien  the  spuitof  wine  is  very  strong, 
it  will  dissolve  a  greater  proportion  of  the 
seed-lac  ;  but  this  quantity  will  saturate 
the  common,  which  is  seldom  of  a 
strength  sufficient  to  make  varnishes  in 
perfection.  As  the  chilling,  which  is  the 
most  inconvenient  accident  attending 
varnishes  of  this  kind,  is  prevented,  or 
produced  more  fi-equently,  according  to 
tlie  strength  of  the  spirit ;  we  shall  there- 
fore take  this  opportunity  of  shewing  a 
method  by  which  weaker  rectified  spirits 
may  with  great  ease  at  any  ti*e  be  freed 
from  the  phlegm,  and  rendered  of  the 
first  degree  of  strength. 

Take  a  pint  of  the  common  rectified 
spirit  of  wine,  and  put  it  into  a  bottle,  of 
wliich  it  uill  not  fill  above  three  parts  ; 
add  to  it  half  an  oviiice  of  pearl-ashes,  salt 
of  tartar,  or  any  other  alkaline  salt,  heat- 
ed red  hot,  and  powdered  as  well  as  it 
can  be  without  much  loss  of  its  heat. 
Shake  the  mixture  fi-equentlv  for  the 
space  of  half  an  hour;  before  which  time, 
a  great  part  of  tlie  phlegm  will  be  separa- 
ted from  the  spirit,  and  will  appear,  toge- 
ther with  tiie  undissolved  part  of  tlie  salts, 
in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  Let  the 
spirit  be  poured  off,  or  freed  from  the 
phlegm  and  the  salts,  bv  means  of  a 
tritorium,  or  separating  funnel ;  and  let 
half  an  ounce  of  the  pearl-ashes,  heated 
and  powdered  as  before,  be  added  to  it, 
and  the  same  treatment  repeated.  This 
may  be  done  a  third  time,  if  the  quantity 
of  phlegm  separated  by  the  addition  of" 
the  peailashes  apjiears considerable.  An 
ounce  of  alum  reduced  to  powder,  and 


At. 


KAR 


kEF 


made  hot,  but  not  burnt,  must  then  be 
put  into  the  spirit,  and  suffered  to  remain 
some  hours,  the  bottle  being  frequently 
shaken ;  after  which  the  spirit,  being 
poured  off  from  it,  will  be  fit  for  use. 

Tlie  addition  of  the  alum  is  necessary 
to  neutralize  the  remains  of  the  alkaline 
salt,  which  would  otherwise  greatly  de- 
prave the  sp'u"it,  with  respect  to  varnishes 
and  lacquer  where  vegetable  colours  are 
concerned,  and  must  consequently  ren- 
der another  distillation  necessary. 

The  manner  of  using  the  seed-lac,  or 
white  varnish,  is  the  same,  except  with 
regard  to  the  substance  used  in  polishing ; 
whicii,  where  a  pure  white  of  a  great 
clearness  of  other  colours  is  in  question, 
should  be  itself  white ;  whereas  the  brown- 
er sorts  of  polishing-dust,  as  being  cheap- 
er, and  doing  their  business  with  greater 
dispatch,  may  be  used  in  other  cases. 
The  pieces  of  work  to  be  varnished, 
should  be  placed  near  a  fire,  or  in  a  I'oom 
■where  there  is  a  stove,  and  made  perfectly 
dry  ;  and  then  the  varnish  may  be  rubbed 
over  them  by  the  proper  brushes  made 
for  that  purpose,  beginning  in  the  middle, 
and  passing  the  brush  to  one  end,  and  then 
with  another  stroke  from  the  middle,  pas- 
sing it  to  the  other.     But  no  pait  should 


be  crossed,  or  twice  passed  over  in  form. 

ing  one  coat,  where  it  can  be  possibly 
avoided.  When  one  coat  is  dry,  anotlier 
must  be  laid  over  it ;  and  this  must  be 
continued  at  least  five  or  six  times,  or 
more,  ii',  on  triah  there  be  not  thickness  of 
varnish  to  bear  the  polish,  without  laying 
ba^e  the  painting  or  ground  colour  mider- 
neath. 

"Wlieh  a  sufficient  number  of  coats  is 
thus  laid  on,  the  woik is  fit  to  be  polished ; 
which  must  be  done,  in  common  cases,  by 
rubbing  it  with  a  rag  dipped  in  tripoli,  or 
rotten-stone,  finely  powdered ;  but  to- 
wards tlie  end  of  the  rubbing,  a  little  oil 
of  any  kind  should  be  used  along  with  the 
powder  ;  and  when  the  work  appears  suf- 
ficiently bright  and  glossy,  it  should  be 
well  rubbed  with  the  oil  alone,  to  clean  it 
from  the  powder,  and  give  it  a  still  bright- 
er lustre. 

In  cases  of  white  grounds,  instead  of 
tripoli,  or  rotten  stone,  fine  putty,  or 
whiting,  must  be  used, 

JELLY.     See  Gelatijt. 

JET.     See  Coal. 

JOINERS'  GLUE.     See  Gelatin-. 

JOINING  of  broken  ware.     See  Ce- 


ment. 
JEWS'  PITCH. 


See  BiTUMEK. 


K. 


KALI.     See  Alkal*. 

KANNBL  COAL,  or,Cannel  coal.  See 
Coal 

KAOLIN,  the  Chinese  name  of  an 
earth,  used  as  one  of  the  two  ingredients 
of  the  oriental  jiorcelain.  Some  of  this 
earth  was  brought  from  China,  and  exa- 
mined by  Reaumur.  He  found  that  it  was 
infusible,  and  supposed  it  to  be  a  talky 
eartli;  but  Mucquer  supposed  it  to  con- 
tain clay,  because  it  forms  a  tenacious 
paste  with  the  other  ingredient  called  pe- 
btUDtse,  which  has  no  tenacity.  IJomare 
found,  that  it  was  a  comj)ound  of  clay,  cal- 
careous eartli,  mica,  and  small  quartz 
crystals.  He  says,  that  he  has  found  a  si- 
milar earth  upon  a  stratum  of  granite,  and 
conjectures  that  it  may  be  a  composed 
granite. 

As  porcelain  is  now  manufactured  in 
various  parts  of  Europe,  some  mineralo- 
gists have  apphed  the  term  kaolin  to  the 
porcelain  clay.     See  Clay,  Porcelain. 

K  AUAT.  '  The  fineness  of  gold  is  com- 
monly noted  by  karats.  Pure  gold  being 
considered  to  be  divided  into  twenty-tour 
ci^ual  parts,  or  karats ;  it  is  then  said  to 


be  twenty.four  karats  fine.  If  the  quan- 
tity of  pure  gold  in  any  mass  be  less  than 
tills,  that  quantity  only  is  noted  in  express- 
ing the  fineness.  Thus,  for  example,  if 
two  parts  out  of  the  twenty-four  be  cop- 
per or  other  base  metal,  the  gold  is  said  to 
be  twenty-two  karats  fine.  This  is  the 
standard  of  British  coin.     See  Assay. 

The  karat  is  a  real  weight  used  by  jew. 
ellers,  divided  by  us  into  four  grains  :  but 
these  grains  are  less  than  the  grains  of 
troy  weight ;  four  grains  troy  being  equal 
10  five  of  these  subdivisions  of  tlie  kai-at, 
according  to  David  Jefferys. 

KEDIUA  TEllUESTUIS.  Barbadoes 
tar.     See  Bi  lumen. 

KEFFEKIL.  Tiic  meerchaum  of  the 
Germans,  spuma  maris.  A  stone  of  a 
white  or  vellow  colour,  soapy  feel,  and 
moderate  hardness,  which  increases  in 
the  fire.  It  is  the  substance  of  which  the 
large  Turkey  pipes  are  made.  It  is  found 
in  Grim  Tartary,  in  Canada,  in  Flanders, 
and  elsewhere.  The  Tartars  use  it  in- 
stead of  soap,  as  do  likewise  the  country 
people  in  llic  barony  of  Hierges,  in  Aus- 
trian Flanders.    Wiegleb  found  it  to  con- 


KFR 


KIL 


aist  of  equal  parts  of  magnesia  and  silex, 
whence  it  seems  to  operate  as  a  fuUers- 
eartJi.  See  Earth  (Fullers).  What 
Wiegleb  analysed,  had  been  manufactured 
into  a  pipe.  Klaprotli  analysed  it  in  its 
crude  state  A  whitish  va.riety,  of  the 
specific  gravity  of  16,  aiforded  him  from 
300  parts,  siiex  50-5;  magrnesia  17  23; 
lime  0-5  ;  water  25  ;  carbonic  acid  5.  A 
gray  sort  gave  silex  41 ;  magnesia  1S25 ; 
lime  5 ;  water  and  carbonic  acid  39.  In  a 
third  he  found  tlie  proportion  of  silex 
much  less,  and  of  magnesia  as  much 
greater.  He  could  not  expel  the  whole 
of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  humid  way. 

KELP.     See  Soda. 

KKRMES  ('coccus  ilicis,  Lin. J  is  an 
Insect  found  in  many  parts  of  Asia,  and  the 
south  of  Europe.  It  was  known  to  the 
ancients  by  the  name  of  coccutn  tcarlati. 
^ni,  coccus  baphicus,  coccus  infectiorius, 
grar.mn  tinctorium.  Ihat  which  came 
from  Galatia  and  Armenia  was  prefencd : 
but  at  present  it  is  gathei-ed  chiefly  in 
Languedoc,  Spain,  and  Portugal. 

The  kennes  lives  on  a  small  kind  of 
oak  fcfuercus  coccifera,  Linn.^  The  fe- 
males grow  big,  and  at  lengthremain  mo- 
tionless ;  when  they  are  nearly  tlie  size 
and  shape  of  a  pea,  and  of  a  reddish  brown 
colour.  On  account  of  tlieir  figure,  tliey 
were  a  long  time  taken  for  tlie  seeds  of 
the  tree  on  which  they  live  ;  whence  they 
were  called,  grains  of  kermes.  They  also 
bore  the  name  of  vermilUon. 

If  the  living  insect  be  bruised,  it  gives 
out  a  red  colour.  Its  smell  is  somewhat 
pleasant ;  its  taste  a  little  bitter,  rough, 
and  pungent.  When  dry  it  imparts  this 
smell  and  taste  to  water,  and  also  to  alco- 
hol, 'o  both  wliich  it  gives  a  deep  red  co- 
lour. This  colour  is  retained  bv  the  ex- 
ti-acts  made  fi*om  these  infusions. 

To  dye  spun  worsted  with  kermes,  it  is 
first  boiled  half  an  hour  in  water  with 
bran  ;  then  two  hours,  in  a  fresh  bath,  with 
one  fifth  of  Roman  alum,  and  one  tenth 
of  tartar,  to  which  sour  neater  is  common- 
ly added ;  alter  wliich  it  is  taken  out,  tied 
up  in  a  linen  bag,  and  carried  to  a  cool 
place,  where  it  is  left  some  days.  To  ob- 
tain a  full  colour,  as  much  kermes  as 
equals  three  fourths,  or  even  the  wliole  of 
the  weight  of  the  wool,  is  put  into  a  warm 
bath,  and  the  wool  is  put  in  at  the  first 
boiling.  As  cloth  is  more  dense  than  wool, 
either  spun  or  in  tlie  fleece,  it  requires 
one  fourth  less  of  the  salts  in  tlie  boihng, 
and  of  kermes  in  the  bath.  Less  propor- 
tions of  kermes  will  produce  lighter  and 
paler  colours.  If  we  want  a  succession  of 
shades,  we  must,  as  usual,  begin  with  the 
deepest. 

Hellot  directs  a  small  handful  of  cot  or 


refuse  wool,  to  be  thrown  into  the  bmler 
in  which  the  kermes  is,  and  to  let  ii  boil  a 
moment  before  the  wool  to  be  dyed  is  put 
in.  This  will  absorb  a  kind  of  black  dregs, 
and  the  wool  afterwards  dipped,  will  take 
a  better  colour.  Before  the  wool  that  is 
just  dyed  is  taken  to  the  river,  it  may  be 
dipped  in  a  bath  of  water  a  little  warm,  in 
which  a  small  quantity  of  soap  h:is  beea 
dissolved.  In  t!»is  waj-  the  colour  will  ac- 
quire more  brightness,  though  it  will  be 
rendered  a  little  rosy,  that  is,  will  have  a 
crimson  cast. 

By  using  kermes  and  tartar,  without 
alum,  and  with  as  much  solution  of  tin  as 
is  required  for  a  scarlet  with  cochineal, 
Hellot  obtained  a  verj'  lively  crimson  co- 
lour in  a  single  bath.  Cloth  steeped  in  a 
solution  of  sulphat  of  potash,  took  with 
kermes  a  pretty  fine  and  permanent  agate 
gray  :  in  a  solution  of  sulphat  of  iron  and 
tartar  a  fine  gray  :  in  a  solution  of  tartar 
and  sulphat  of  copper,  an  orange  colour: 
and  the  same  with  nitrat  of  copper.  So- 
lution of  bismuth,  added  drop  by  drop  to 
a  kermes  bath,  produced  a  violet.  All 
acids  convert  it  to  a  cinnamon  colour, 
which  inclines  more  or  less  to  red,  ac- 
cording as  the  acids  are  weak,  and  their 
quantity  small.  Alkalis  render  its  colour 
dull  and  rosy.     . 

The  colour  th.at  kermes  imparts  to  wool 
has  much  less  bloom  than  the  scarlet 
made  with  cochineal ;  whence  the  latter 
has  generally  been  preferred,  since  the  art 
of  heightening  its  colour  by  means  of  so- 
lution of  tin  has  been  known. — Bcrtholiet. 

Formerly  it  was  used  in  medicine  as  a 
cordial  and  mild  astringent,  and  gave  its 
name  t^^  a  confection. 

KERSEY,  a  kind  of  coarse  cloth.  See 
manufacture  of  Cloth. 

KILKENNY  COAL.     See  Coal. 

KlLLAS.  This  stone  is  chiefly  found 
in  Cornwall  ;  its  colour  is  pale  gray,  or 
greenish  gray  ;  its  texture  eitlser  lamellar 
or  coarselj-  granular :  the  lamellar  is  soft- 
er and  less  martial  than  the  roofschistus  : 
its  specific  gravity  from  2-63  to  2"666. 

Kirwan  found  a  hundred  grains  of  the 
lamellar  sort  to  contain  about  60  of  silex. 
25  of  alumme,  9  of  magnesia,  and  6  of 
'u"on.  The  greenish  sort  contains  more 
iron,  and  gives  a  greenish  colour  to  tlie 
nitric  acids. 

KILX.  The  term  kiln  either  implies  a 
stove  used  in  various  manufactures,  or  a 
building  for  the  admission  of  heat,  in  or- 
der to  dry  or  bum  certain  substances. 
Thus  we  have  die  lime  kiln,  malt  kiln, 
&c.  which  are  too  well  known  to  require 
description  In  the  5th  volume  of  the  Re- 
pertory of  Arts,  may  be  seen  a  description 
of  a  malt  kiln,  upon  an  extensive  scale,  the 


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invention  of  Mr.  J.  Pepper,  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. 

KINGDO.MS.  Naturalists  and  chemists 
divide  all  natural  bodies  into  tliree  great 
classes,  called  kingdoms ;  namely,  the  mi- 
neral, the  vegetable,  and  llie  animal  king- 
doms. The  utility  of  these  divisions  ap- 
pears to  be,  in  a  great  measure,  confined 
to  the  natural  history  of  the  various  sub- 
jects examined  by  the  chemist.  The  dis- 
tinctive criteria  of  tlieir  respective  prin- 
ciples are  difficult,  and  perhaps  impossi- 
ble to  be  ascertained,  excepting  in  bodies 
of  no  great  simplicity ;  for  none  of  the 
principles  of  organized  bodies  exhibit 
their  pecuUar  characters  when  resolved 
by  putrefaction  or  otherwise,  into  then- 
simplest  parts. 

KING'S  YELLOW.  See  Colouh-Ma- 

KING. 

KITCHEN,  an  apartment  for  tlie  dres- 
sing of  provisions.  Considerable  pains  has 
been  taken  by  our  countryman,  count 
Rumford,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  difter- 
ent  culinary  apparatus,  in  order  to  econo- 
mize fuel  in  the  construction  of  furnaces, 
kettles,  &c.  Several  patents  have  been 
granted  for  improved  kitclien-range,  or 
stoves.  The  sliips  kitchen,  invented  by  Mr. 
Brodie,  includes  a  stove,  hearth,  smoke 
jack,  and  iron  boilers.  On  the  subject  of 
count  Rumford's  improvements,  we  would 
refer  tlie  reader  to  his  Essays,  Economical 
and  Philosophical. 

KITCHEN  GAliDEN— Under  this  head 
we  shall  treat  of  tliose  subj  ects,  which  it 
was  our  original  intention  to  have  arran- 
ged under  the  title  Horticulture. 

This  mode  we  have  been  induced  to 
adopt  from  the  nature  of  our  work,  tlie 
limits  of  which  are  too  confined  to  war- 
rant such  a  dissertation  as  would  have  em- 
braced every  branch  of  Horticulture. 
That  article,  if  fully  treated,  would  form 
a  volume,  and  consequently  occupy  too 
much  space,  particularly  when  it  is  con- 
sidered  that  so  large  a  ])artof  it  is  devoted 
to  ornamental  gardening. 

Usefulness  being  the  primary  object,  a 
concise  treatise  on  the  laying  out  of  a 
Kitchen  Garden,  with  an  arrangement  of 
the  names  and  sorts  of  plants,  and  the 
modes  of  culture,  is  believed  to  be  more 
appropriate  and  better  adapted  to  our 
general  design. 

A  kitchen  garden  should  be  laid  out  in 
dift'erent  methods,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  circumstances  of  the 
ground.  It  is  sometimes  so  managed,  as 
to  constitute  a  part  of,  or  comnuuiicate 
with  the  pleasure-ground ;  but  where 
there  is  sufficient  extent  of  land,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  be  distinct,  or  detacheil  from  it, 
and  in  every  case  as  much  concealed  from 


the  house  as  possible.  The  most  conve- 
nient  cUstribution  is  at  some  distance  be- 
hind it ;  but  on  the  sides  may  answer  very 
well,  especially  when  not  too  contiguous, 
or  so  situated  as  to  interrupt  any  particu- 
lar prospect  or  view  of  the  adjacent  coun- 
try. 

Exposure. — With  regard  to  the  nature 
of  the  situation  most  proper  for  this  pur. 
pose,  it  should,  when  convenient,  be 
where  there  is  a  gentle  declination  to- 
waids  the  south,  or  south-east,  in  order 
that  it  may  have  the  full  advantage  of  the 
morning  sun. 

The  nature  of  the  exposure  of  a  garden 
is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance, 
as  not  being  capable  of  change  like  those 
of  shelter,  soil,  &c.  It  has  been  observed, 
by  a  late  writer  on  "  Country  Residences," 
that  the  best  exposure  for  a  garden  is 
that  of  the  south-east,  but  that  in  an  ex- 
tensive and  complete  garden,  it  is  desira- 
ble that  part  of  it  should  have  a  norttiern 
aspect,  in  order  that  late  crops  may  be 
raised  with  advantage.  And  this,  it  is 
supposed,  may  often  be  attained,  either 
by  fixing  upon  both  sides  of  a  gentle  swell, 
or  eminence,  or  on  the  two  opposite  sides 
of  a  hollow  or  depression.  Should  such 
a  hollow  wind  in  any  considerable  de- 
gree, every  sort  of  exposure  would  at 
once  be  had  without  difficulty,  and  most- 
ly in  combination  with  shelter  and  proper 
soil. 

Situation. — This  should  be  relative  to 
the  nature  of  the  rest  of  the  place,  and 
the  convenience  of  water.  It  should  be 
somewhat  contiguous  to  the  necessary  of- 
fices, stables,  &c.  and  at  no  great  distance 
from  the  farm,  being  concealed  as  much 
as  possible  from  general  view,  and  so  con- 
trived, as  to  interfere  but  little  with  pic- 
turesque improvements.  It  should  be  so 
near  a  supply  of  water  as  to  have  it  in 
abundance  tor  the  common  purposes  of 
watering  during  the  whole  of  ti)e  summer 
months.  And  it  may  be  used  in  other  ways 
with  advantage,  in  particular  situations 
and  circumstances.  It  is  a  common  but 
dangerous  error  to  form  gardens  in  too 
low  situations,  in  order  that  they  may  have 
the  benefit  of  natural  shelter,  as  they  are 
very  liable  to  the  effects  of  hoar  frosts, 
blights,  and  mildews.  Mr.  Forsyth  re- 
marks, in  his  "  Treatise  on  the  Culture 
and  Management  of  I'ruit  Trees,"  that  if 
a  g;u'den  "  be  situated  in  a  bottom,  the 
wind  will  have  the  less  efl'ect  upon  it ; 
but  then  the  damps  and  fogs  will  be  very 
prejudicial  to  the  fruit  and  other  crops  ; ' 
and  tliat  when  "situated  too  high,  al- 
though it  will,  in  a  great  measure,  be  free 
from  damps  and  fo^s,  it  will  be  exposed 
to  the  lui-y  of  the  winds,  to  the  great  hurt 


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of  the  trees,  by  breaking'  tbeii-  branches, 
and  blowing  down  their  blossoms  and 
fruit." 

Shelter — A  garden  should,  in  this  wri- 
ter's opinion,  "  be  well  sheltered  tiom  the 
north  and  east  to  prevent  the  blighting 
^vinds  from  afiecting  the  trees,  and  also 
from  the  westerly  winds,  which  are  verj' 
Imrtful  in  the  spring  or  summer  months." 
Where  it  is  not  "  naturally  sheltered  with 
gentle  rising  hills,  which  are  the  best 
sheltef  of  any,  plantations  of  forest-trees 
should,"  he  thinks,  "  be  made  at  proper 
distances,  so  as  not  to  shade  it."  These, 
he  supposes,  will  be  found  the  best  sub- 


ihan  one  hundred  and  twenty,  or  thirty 
teet  of  it  J  where  however  it  is  upon  a 
rising  bank,  they  may  sometimes  be  ad- 
mitted to  come  as  near  as  fifty  or  sixty 
teet.  It  is  likewise  in  most  cases  a  good 
way  to  form  a  deep  sunk  fence  between 
such  trees  and  the  garden  ground,  espe- 
cially when  tliey  are  of  the  fur  tiibe,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  roots  from  running 
too  much  in  the  surface  moidd  of  the 
garden." 

Soil. — In  fixing  upon  ground  for  a  gar- 
den,  it  is  likewise  a  point  of  much  im- 
jjortance  to  have  the  natural  soil  of  a  good 
quality,  being   sufficiently   dry,  mellow. 


stitute,  but  at  the  same  time  the  sun  and  '  and  capable  of  being  easily  wrought  in  al 
air  should  be  freely  admitted.  On  this  |  seasons,  as  well  as  of  a  good  depth,  as 
account  it  is  supposed  that  "  a  place  sur-  \  from  a  foot  and  a  half  to  three  feet  And 
rounded  by  woods  is  a  very  improper  si-  \  if  the  surface  be  uneven,  it  will  be  the 
tuation  for  a  garden  or  orcliard,  as  a  foul  ■  better,  as  there  will  be  a  greater  variety 
stagnant  air  is  very  hurtful  to  vegetation."  ,  in  the  quality,  and  of  course  will  be  more 
It  is  likewise  adcied  that  «'  bliglits  are  1  fully  adapted  to  the  culture  of  different 
much  more  frequent  in  such  situations  ;  crops.  The  most  proper  sort  of  soil  for 
than  in  those  that  are  more  open  and  ex- 1  tliis  purpose  is  that  of  the  rich,  friable, 
posed."  In  these  sheltering  plantations,  i  loamy  kind,  and  the  worst  those  of  the 
it  is  well  advised  that  fruit-trees  should  be  !  very  light,  sandy,  and  stiff  clayey  de- 
intermixed  with  those  of  the  forest  kind,  I  scriptions.  But  the  properties  of  soils 
which,  besides  being  advantageous  in  the  may  be  much  improved  in  most  cases  by 
wav  of  affording  shelter,  ornament,  and  '.  a  judicious  apphcation  of  different  sorts 
fruit,  become  nurseries  for  raising  forest-  of  materials  in  the  way  of  manure, 
trees.  But  where  the  situations  will  not  j  Some  think  a  medium  loam  tlie  most 
admit  of  this,  he  suggests  the  propriety  j  proper,  as  being  capable  of  being  made 
of  ])lanting  som.e  cross  rows  of  fruit-trees  of  different  degrees  of  lightness  in  differ- 
in  the  garden,  at  the  distances  of  about  ent  parts,  by  the  addition  of  sand  and 
tbrty  or  seventy  yards  fix)m  each  other,  other  similar  materials,  so  as  to  suit  dif- 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  extent :  \  ferent  sorts  of  vegetables  ;  and  in  others 
where  the  lengtli  is  considerable,  one  row    of  various  decrees  of  tenacity  and  heavi- 


may  be  sufficient  on  each  side :  but  in 
short  cross  rows,  two  on  each  side  the 
walks  or  paths.  In  this  intention  the  trees 
should  be  planted  opposite  one  another, 
but  in  such  a  manner  that  tliose  in  one 
row  may  be  opiwsite  to  the  middle  jiarts 
of  the  open  spaces  in  the  others.  In  this 
method,  besides  tlie  ornamental  effect 
that  is  produced,,  the  force  of  violent 
winds  is  broken,  and  much  damage  to 
other  trees  prevented. 

In  this  view,  the  best  sort  of  trees,  ac- 
cowling  to  the  same  writer,  is  tliat  of 
dwarfs,  with  stems  about  two  feet  high, 
which  may  readily  be  provided  by  remov- 
ing the  lower  branches. 

The  autlior  of  the  Treatise  on  Country 
llesidences  advises,  "  that  the  planting 
should  be  performed  on  all  sides  of  the 
garden,  the  distance  being  proportioned 
according  to  the  particular  circumstances 
of  the  case.  But  when  the  garden  is  up- 
on the  perfect  flat,  the  nearest  forest  trees 
should  not,  in  common,  be  within  less 
than  one  hundred  feet  of  the  outer  fruit 
wall,  nor  on  th^  south  side  within  less 
VOL.    I. 


ness,  by  the  use  of  clay  or  other  cohesive 
substances. 

Where  the  under  soil  is  of  the  reten- 
tive kind,  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  it  well  drained,  as  unless  this  be  ef- 
fectually accomplished,  healthy  vegeta- 
bles or  trees  can  seldom  be  produced. 
See  Agriculture. 

In  cases  where  fi"uit-trees,  especially 
those  of  the  finer  sorts,  as  well  as  apple 
and  pear  kinds  are  to  be  planted,  a  great- 
er depth  of  good  soil,  as  well  as  a  greater 
degree  of  dryness,  is  necessary  in  general 
than  that  mentioned  above. 

Form — There  are  verj-  different  opin- 
ions in  respect  to  the  most  proper  and  ad- 
vantageous forms  for  this  sort  of  culture; 
but  though  much  must  depend  on  the  na- 
ture of  tlie  situation,  wiiere  the  spade  is 
to  be  made  use  of  in  performing  the  work, 
tlie  square  shape,  or  that  which  approach- 
es nearest  to  it,  is  probably  the  most  con- 
venient. In  other  cases,  where  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  work  i.s,  fi-om  tlie  difficul- 
ty of  procuring  labourers,  and  theincreas- 
in<r  esnence  of  them,  to  be  executed  by 


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the  plough,  the  oblong  and  circular  forms 
may  be  the  most  suitable,  as  they  may  be 
wrought  with  greater  facility  and  conve- 
nience. The  shape  of  the  garden  is  usual- 
ly decided  by  the  walls  ;  but  that  wliich 
is  most  adapted  to  the  general  purposes 
of  cultivation  is,  in  the  o|)inion  of  the 
above  writer,  that  of  a  parallelos^ram  ; 
though  were  the  chief  object  tlie  jiroduc-, 
tion  of  wall-fruit,  tlie  oval  form  witii  its 
long  diameter  from  east  to  west  would  be 
better,  as  containing  the  smallest  quanti- 
ty of  wall  hid  from  the  sun,  and  a  large 
portion  of  it  constantly  exposed  to  the 
south.  But  as  all  forms,  except  those  of 
the  square  kind,  derange  the  regulation 
of  the  quarters,  and  are  consequently 
troublesome  in  digging  and  cr-^pping ; 
tliey  are  in  general  properly  discarded,  ex- 
cept in  some  flower-gardens,  where  fruits 
are  raised  on  the  walls. 

Size — 'I'he  size  of  kitchen -gardens, 
.should  always  be  fully  sufficient  tor  the  ex- 
tent of  the  family,  varyingfi  om  half  an  acre 
ho  four,  five,  or  more,  within  the  fence. 
The  first  quantity,  where  there  are  wall 
and  espalier  trees,  will  furnish  sufficient 
employment  for  one  man,  and  afford  due 
supplies  of  vegetables  and  fruit  for  fami- 
lies, consisting  of  a  dozen  or  more  per- 
sons. But  much  in  tliese  respects  de- 
pends upon  proper  care  and  management. 
The  nature  of  the  soil  should  also  be  ta- 
ken into  the  account  in  determining  this 
point- 

Inclosing — The  methods  of  inclosing 
that  are  pursued  in  these  cases,  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  facility  of  procuring  mate- 
rials on  the  particular  spots.  Some  ad- 
vise the  boundary  fence  to  be  a  sunk  one, 
with  a  hedge  or  low  wall;  but  others 
think  the  best  mode  of  inclosing  garden- 
ground,  is  by  means  of  brick  walls,  where 
tliat  sort  of  material  can  be  easily  procur- 
ed, and  expence  is  not  an  object.  But 
oak  paling  fences  answer  the  purpose  very 
'Veil.  These  fences,  whether  made  of 
brick  or  wood,  should  be  eight,  ten,  or 
twelve  feet  in  height.  Where  the  extent 
ofwalling  is  sufiicient,  Mr.  Forsytli  thinks 
ten  feet  walls  better  than  such  as  are 
liigher,  as  being  more  convenient  for  va- 
rious purposes.  He  also  advises,  that  they 
should  have  borders  or  slips  on  the  out- 
side of  them,  of  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  or 
more  in  breadth,  where  the  ground  can 
be  spared,  which  should  likewise  be  in- 
closed by  an  oak  paling,  six  or  eight  feet 
in  height,  having  a  chevuux  tie  /rise  at  the 
top  to  strengthen  the  fence,  and  render 
the  garden  more  secure.  'I'lic  latter  may 
be  conveniently  formed,  by  jilanting  a 
piece  of  wood  four  inches  in  breadtii,  and 


an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  thickness,  into  the 
shape  of  the  roof  of  a  low  pitched  house 
on  the  upper  side,  then' drawing  a  line  on 
each  side  from  end  to  end,  at  the  distance 
of  about  an  inch  and  quarter  from  the  up- 
per edge,  driving  twelve-penny  nails 
through  them  in  regular  rows,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  four  inches  from  each  other,  so 
as  to  come  out  near  the  upper  edge  of  the 
contrary  side  :  each  behig  opposite  the 
middle  of  the  space  between  two  nails  on 
the  other  side.  The  nail  heads  shomld  be 
sunk,  and  strips  of  wood  nailed  over 
them,  tenter-hooks  being  driven  in  be- 
tween the  nail  points,  ard  the  whole  nail- 
ed fast  to  the  outside  top  of  tiie  fence ; 
continuing  pieces  in  tiiis  way  till  the 
whole  is  completed  and  rendered  secure. 
It  is  supposed  that  by  means  of  these  in- 
closed borders  or  slips  on  the  outside  of 
the  garden  walls,  there  will  be  plenty  of 
ground  for  gooseberries,  currants,  and 
strawberries,  and  both  sides  of  the  walls 
may  be  planted  with  trees,  by  which  there 
will  be  a  considerable  increase  of  wall- 
fruit.  And  where  there  are  parts  of  such 
slips  lying  near  to  the  stables,  sufficiently 
sheltered  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  tliey 
may  be  converted  to  the  purposes  of  a 
forcing-ground  for  raising  melons,  cucum- 
bers, and  other  similar  kinds  of  fruit. 

The  advantages  of  this  are,  that  there 
will  be  no  litter  carried  within  the  walls, 
to  dirty  the  walks  ;  the  beds  will  be  con- 
cealed from  the  sight,  and  much  time  and 
labour  saved  in  carting  and  wheeling  the 
dung  and  other  matters. 

Where  there  are  not  these  sorts  of 
slips,  the  forcing-grounds  for  melons,  cu- 
cumbers, &c.  should  be  made  in  situations 
that  are  warm,  and  open  to  the  influence 
of  the  sun,  being  well  inclosed,  and  as 
contiguous  to  the  stable  as  the  nature  of 
the  situation  will  admit.  It  is  added,  that 
the  great  objection  to  having  slips  or 
borders  on  the  outsides  of  the  walls  of 
gardens,  is  tliat  of  tHe  vast  expence  of 
erecting  two  fences,  where  one  is  capable 
of  answering  the  purpose,  and  by  proper 
attention  in  the  distribution  of  the  inter- 
nal i^arts,  with  perhaps  nearly  equal  ad- 
vantage. 

The  author  of  the  work  on  "  Country 
Residences,"  after  observing  that  the 
northern  side  of  such  garden-strips  should 
be  reserved  for  common  crops,  and  the 
southern  for  early  ones,  suggests  that  a 
shrubbery  ma\',  in  some  instances,  be  in- 
troduced with  propriety,  in  apart  of  the 
space  towards  the  plantation,  so  as  to 
range  in  order  with  mixed  plants,  from  the 
humblest  shrub  in  the  edge  of  the  walk, 
to  the  highest  forest  ti<es.     In  this  wa^ 


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complete  shelter  may  be  afforded,  and  at 
the  same  time  an  agreeable  effect  produ- 
ced at  most  periods  of  the  year.  But,  in 
many  cases,  its  place  may  be  supplied 
simply  by  a  single  holly  hedge,  placed  on 
tlie  top  of  the  sunk  fence,  by  which  means 
a  large  portion  of  ground  may  be  applied 
to  the  raising  of  culinary  vegetables,  and 
the  character  of  utility  be  more  fully  pre- 
sened.  It  occasionally  happens, from  the 
declination  of  the  ground  in  a  southerly 
direction,  that  the  uniformity  of  such 
"  outer  inclosure  can  be  broken,  and  a 
large  bay  or  recess  be  made  in  the  wood, 
either  to  contain  all  the  hot-houses,  hot- 
beds, &c."  or  the  latter  only  ;  which  is  al- 
wa}'s  a  great  advantage 

Subdivision — In  the  distribution  of  the 
quarters  or  parts  of  the  garden,  attention 
should  be  had  to  the  nature,  form,  and 
extent  of  the  ground,  so  as  that  they  may 
be  laid  out  in  the  best  manner,  in  respect 
to  tlie  convenience  of  managing  them, ex- 
posure, and  size  ;  but  they  should  never 
be  made  too  small,  as  there  will  be  much 
loss  of  ground  by  the  walks,  which  are 
essentially  necessary  in  their  cultivation. 
With  regard  to  their  fortn,  it  may  vary  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  or  the  taste  of 
the  proprietor ;  but  the  most  convenient 
and  economical  one,  in  respect  to  ground, 
is  the  square,  where  the  garden  has  been 
laid  out  in  that  manner.  It  is  usual  to  have 
borders  round  the  whole  of  the  inclosing 
fences,  whether  they  be  constructed  of 
brick,  stone,  or  timber;  and  where  there 
are  cross  walls,  they  are  generally  intro- 
duced on  the  sides  of  them.  The  breadths 
of  these  should  be  proportioned  to  the 
heights  of  the  walls  or  palings,  and  the 
extent  of  the  garden,  as  from  sis,  to  eight, 
ten,  and  twenty  feet,  especially  those 
which  have  a  southern  aspect,  and  are  in- 
tended for  the  reception  of  fruit-trees,  as 
their  roots  will  haVe  more  room  to  extend 
themselves  and  procure  due  nourishment. 
Besides,  wide  borders  are  the  most  advan- 
tageous and  economical  in  the  ctdture  of 
different  vegetable  crops. 

Where  the  gardens  are  large,  other 
borders  may  be  carried  along  on  the  sides 
of  the  walks,  between  them  and  tlie  espa- 
lier or  standard  fruit-trees ;  but  in  otlier 
cases  this  is  inconvenient,  as  taking  up  too 
much  of  the  quarters.  These  should  not 
exceed  six  or  eight  feet  in  breadth. 

With  some  it  is  the  practice  to  have  the 
edges  of  the  borders  made  firm  and  even, 
and  planted  with  dwarf  box,  or  some 
other  plant  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  ; 
but  as  these  sorts  of  edgings  are  very  lia- 
ble to  be  destroyed  in  different  places  by 
wheeling  over  them,  and  by  that  means 


become  unsightly,  it  is  probably  a  better 
method  to  only  have  the  edges  of  the  bor- 
der made  up  firm  and  even,  close  to  the 
gravel  of  tlie  walks. 

Walks — In  common  there  should  be  a 
walk  introduced  on  the  sides  of  the  bor- 
ders all  round,  and  likewise  in  the  mid- 
dle where  tlie  ground  is  of  considerable 
extent.  Cross  walks  are  also  necessary 
where  the  garden  has  a  great  length.  But 
as  walks  take  up  much  ground,  there 
should  be  as  few  as  possible.  Those  on 
the  sides  of  the  borders  need  not  have 
more  breadth  than  from  four  to  six  feet ; 
but  the  middle  one  should  be  seven  feet 
wide,  in  order  that  a  cart  may  be  admit' 
ted  when  necessary. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  have  walks  about 
two  feet  or  two  feet  and  a  half  wide,  and 
the  same  distance  from  the  walls,  where 
there  are  wall-trees,  for  the  convenience 
of  pruning,  training,  and  nailing,  as  well 
as  that  of  gatiiering  the  fruit,  and  admit- 
ting  a  barrow  or  garden  engine  for  water- 
ing them. 

And  besides  these  permanent  walks, 
when  the  gardens  are  of  much  extent, 
trodden  path-walks  will  be  I'equisite  ii\ 
different  parts,  for  the  convenience  of  cul- 
tivation,  and  as  divisions  between  the 
crops  of  different  kinds. 

All  the  first  sorts  of  walks  should  be 
laid  out  in  a  regular  manner,  and  be  firm- 
ly  made  up  with  brick  rubbisii,  stone-ma- 
sons' chippings,  or  some  other  coarse 
material ;  and  neatly  gravelled  over.  For 
this  last  purpose  binding  sand  answers 
extremely  well,  also  good  clean  sifted 
road  drift,  as  they  may  be  readdy  kept 
clean  by  the  hoe  and  rake ;  but  sea-coal 
ashes  are  preferred  by  some,  as  being  still 
more  dry  and  firm,  more  easily  kept  in 
order,  and  cleaner  to  walk  upon  in  thaws, 
as  well  as  useful,  while  new  and  rough, 
in  preventing  slugs  from  travelling  over 
them  from  the  different  quarters  of  the 
ground. 

The  narrow  walks  on  the  back  sides  of 
the  borders  near  the  fruit-trees,  need  not 
be  lajd  with  any  sort  of  coarse  rubbish, 
being  merely  covered  over  to  the  depth  of 
a  few  inches  with  sand  or  sea-coal  ashes, 
as  by  this  means  the  ground  may  be  oc- 
casionally dug  up,  and  the  path  relaid. 

Whatever  sort  of  material  is  made  use 
of  in  forming  the  walks,  it  should  be 
spread  in  a  neat  even  manner,  so  as  to 
leave  them  in  a  regular  moderate  convex 
or  rounded  form,  by  which  the  water  will 
be  readily  carried  off  to  the  sides,  and 
the  walks  kept  perfectly  dry.  After  the 
surface  material  has  been  thus  applied, 
and  evenlv  raked  overj  it  should  be  firm' 


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ly  rolled  clown  by  a  heavy  iron  roller,  and 
occasionally  repeated  after  beintj  well 
moistened  with  rain. 

Sometimes  walks  are  laid  with  turf  or 
sward,  but  this  is  a  very  improper  mate- 
j-ial,  as  being  troublesome  to  keep  in  or- 
der, and  soon  rendered  disag^reeable  to 
the  sip^ht,  by  being  wheeled  and  trampled 
upon  in  the  workof  the  garden. 

Jl'iiUs.—ln  building  the  walls  of  kitchen- 
gardens,  when  the  height  is  considerable, 
tiic  foundation  should  be  from  two  to  two 
bricks  and  a  half  in  thickness,  and  the 
<)(F-setnot  nu)re  than  one  brick  above  the 
height  of  tlie  level  of  the  border,  being 
then  brought  to  a  brick  and  a  half  in  thick- 
ness ;  where  they  are  extensive,  they 
should  be  strengthened  by  piers  at  the 
distance  of  from  forty  to  sixty  feet,  ac- 
cording to  their  height.  The  projection 
of  these  piers  should  not  be  more  than 
about  half  a  brick  bef()re  the  surface  of 
the  wall.  AValls  tiir  fruit-trees  should  al- 
ways, if  possible,  l)e  built  with  brick,  as 
fctonc  is  found  not  i)\'  anv  means  so  favour- 
able to  the  maturation  of  the  fruit,  and  far 
more  inconvenient  in  the  nailing  of  the 
trees. 

Where  situations  cannot  be  provided 
with  convenience  without  the  walls  of  the 
garden  f()r  the  whole  of  the  forcing  appa- 
ratus, the  pits  and  hot-beds  maybe  placed 
in  sunk  areas  in  the  quarters  of  the  gar- 
dens as  nefir  as  convenient  to  the  hot- 
houses. 

Copings  — Some  advise  projecting  cop- 
ings of  stone  or  wood  to  be  fixed  upon 
the  tops  of  the  walls,  and  tlie  author  of 
the  "  I'hilosophy  of  (hardening"  conceives 
tiiat  they  may  be  of  great  utility  in  the 
early  vernal  months  in  preventing  the  ten- 
der young  shoots  of  fiuit-trces from  being- 
destroyed  by  frost,  as,  fi'oni  their  being 
less  imbued  with  the  PiigiU-dews  in  conse- 
quence of  them,  they  will  be  less  exposed 
to  danger  from  that  cause ;  it  being  well 
ascertained  that  the  fine  shoots  of  vegeta- 
bles  are  most  exposed  to  the  destruction 
of  frost  when  in  a  nuast  state. 

But  Mr.  Forsyth  does  not  however  ap- 
prove of  such  iixed  copings,  especially 
when  they  project  so  far  as  is  usually  tlie 
ease';  moveable  wooden  ones  fastened  b}' 
iron  hooks  to  pieces  of  wood  built  into  the 
tops  of  the  walls  ben\g  in  his  oj^inion  pre- 
ferable, IJe.-;ides,  they  arc  useful  to  fix 
nettings,  &c.  to,  ii\  ihe  early  sjn-hig,  fur 
protecting  the  trees.  AVlien  fixed  copings 
are  adopted,  they  should  not,  he  thinks, 
extend  above  an  inch  on  each  slile  of  the 


ing  upon  the  upper  parts  of  the  trees,  by 
w  hich  they  are  greatly  benefited.  Cop- 
ings are  sometimes  formed  of  a  sort  o4 
brick  made  convex  on  the  side  whi<;li  is 
upwards  ;  but  these  are  expensive. 

Mr.  T'orsyth  suggests  that  common 
copings  should  have  a  little  slope  given 
them  "towards  the  north  or  east,  ac- 
coi'ding  to  the  aspect  of  the  wall,"  by 
which  the  wet  fiom  the  south  and  west 
sides  may  be  taken  away,  and  the  danger 
of  the  eai'ly  blossoms  and  li'uit  being  in- 
jured on  the  .south  and  west  walls  in  cold 
nights  be  avoided . 

Drains. — Where  the  soil  of  a  garden 
is  naturally  of  a  stifi"  quality,  and  re- 
tentive of  moisture,  proper  under-drain- 
ing will  be  essentially  necessary  in  order 
to  the  production  of  good  well  tasted  fruit, 
as  well  as  fine  culinary  vegetables.  In 
these  cases  the  main  or  leading  drains 
should  be  made  under  the  walks,  and 
those  from  the  quartei's  be  formed  to  com- 
municate with,  and  empty  themselves  in- 
to them.  Tiicy  should  be  constructed  of 
bricks,  either  common  or  such  as  are 
firmed  for  the  purpose,  and  be  laid  in  such 
directions  as  are  the  best  adapted  to  the 
removal  of  the  injurious  wetness,  and 
always  of  such  depths  as  to  prevent  their 
being  injured  by  the  .spade  in  working  the 
ground.  By  this  means  the  soil  will  be 
kept  in  a  suitable  state  for  the  growth  of 
the  plants,  and  the  walks  preserved  in  a 
fine  state  of  drjness,  so  as  to  be  sufiiclenl- 
ly  firm  tbrcartingor  wheeUng  upon,  even 
in  wet  seasons. 

Where  the  ground  destined  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  forcing  is  on  a  level  considei-ably 
lower  than  that  of  the  gai'den,  the  water 
from  the  latter  may  be  niade  to  supply  the 
fi)rmer,  by  having  the  main  leading  drain 
terminating  in  a  tank,  pond,  or  cistern 
constructed  in  it  for  the  pui-pose,  which  in 
many  situations  may  be  extremely  conve- 
nient and  useful. 

In  many  cases,  and  especially  where 
the  garden  grounds  are  ot  a  dry  quality, 
it  is  of  vast  advantage  to  have  them  situ- 
ated contiguous  to  rivers,  brooks,  or  large 
basons  of  water,  from  which  they  can  be 
supplied  by  means  of  drains,  Jiipes,  or 
other  contJ'ivances,  in  the  most  hot  and 
dry  seasons  of  the  }  car. 

But  where  no  supplies  of  water  can  be 
provided  and  brought  to  the  garden  in 
tliese  ways,  .Mr.  Forsyth  suggests  that 
where  they  lie  on  the  sides  of  public  or 
other  roads,  and  the  level  of  the  ground 
is  suitable,  hollow  chains  should  befiirm- 


wail,  us  the  slight  projccii on  will  be  siif-i  ed  in  the  mostcon\enient  ]jarts,  to  rccei\c 
ficientto  preserve  it,  and  at  the  same  time  I  the  .vater  that  washes  them  in  rainy  sea- 
i.ot  prevent  the  dews  and  raiiu>  from  ik,!!- 1  sons,  and  convej-  ii  to  large  ponds  or  othet' 


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places  made  for  its  reception  jn  tbe  highesi. 
pan  of  the  gulden  ground  that  will  ad- 
mit of  it,  from  wliich  it  mav  be  dispersed 
to  the  different  quarters  that  will  allow  of 
It  by  pipes,  v.ilh  cocks  fixed  at  different 
places  for  turning  it  on,  as  may  be  neces- 
sar)-.  Or,  by  having  suitable  channels 
cut,  it  may  be  tunied  upon  different  parts, 
as  in  the  practice  of  watering  meadow 
land;  which,  where  the  roads  are  repair- 
ed with  calcareous  materials,  or  there  is 
much  vegetable  matter  washed  down 
them,  may  be  highly  beneficial  in  the 
way  of  manure.  A  proper  readv  exit  for 
the  superabundant  water  must  always  be 
provided  in  these  cases,  to  prevent  stag- 
nation. And  where  tlie  ground  has  been 
much  enriched  by  stable  manure,  the 
practice  should  be  cautiously  adopted,  as 
ir.oie  fertility  ma}  be  conveved  away  in 
the  state  of  solution  than  is  brought  bv 
the  water.  T!ic  most  convenient  time  for 
turning  on  v.ater  is  generally  dui-ing  the 
night,  which  in  dry  seasons,  is  the  most 
advantageous  to  the  plants  or  crops  that 
are  upon  the  gi-oiind. 

The  expence  in  pipes,  drains,  channels, 
and  otiicr  apparatus  for  these  purposes, 
will  be  considerable  at  first ;  but  tiie  sav- 
ing in  labour  and  time,  in  pumping  and 
carrying  water,  it  is  conceived,  will  soon 
repay  it.  \Miere  water  is  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  being  pumped  up  from  deep 
wells,  large  basons  or  reservoirs  should 
he  provided,  in  which  it  should  remain 
some  time  exposed  to  the  influence  of 
tile  atmosphere,  before  it  is  made  use  of 
m  the  above  or  any  other  way  in  gardens. 

Where  garden  grounds  are  of  a  wet 
oozing  quality,  Mr.  Fors\-th  recommends 
basons  to  be  tbrnied  in  the  most  conveni- 
ent ]3aits  of  them,  for  the  reception  of  the 
water  that  proceeds  from  the  drains,  and 
which  falls  in  rain  on  the  walks  and  patlis, 
as  well  as  other  parts. 

Forming  ne\j  Gardens — In  forming  new 
kitchen  garden  grounds,  where  the  soil  is 
of  a  strong,  stiff,  heavy  quality,  they 
should  be  ploughed  or  trenched  over 
three  or  four  times,  being  exposed  to  the 
efiects  of  frost,  in  pretty  high  ridges,  for 
a  winter,  in  order  to  bring  them  into  a  pro- 
per condition  before  the  crops  are  put  in. 
A  crop  of  potatoes  or  beans,  also  assists 
greatly  in  bringing  them  hito  a  proper 
state  of  pulverization  for  being  planted 
upon  with  culinary  vegetables. 

When  the  land  is  become  sufficiently 
broken  down  and  reduced,  the  wall  and 
other  trees,  as  well  as  difierent  sorts  of 
vegetable  ciops,  may  be  put' in.  Some, 
however,  put  the  fruit-trees  in  before  tliis 
Las  been  accomplished;  but  it  is  not  a 


good  practice,  as  tliey  are  liable  to  be  in- 
jured bj-  the  digging  which  afterwards 
becomes  necessary  in  preparing  the  soil  in 
a  proper  manner. 

In  planting  wall-trees,  they  should  be 
set  at  different  distiinces,  according  to  the 
kinds  :  tiiose  of  the  peach,  nectarine, 
apricot,  plum,  and  cherry  descriptions,  at 
fifteen,  eighteen,  or  more  feet,  and  for  figs 
and  pears,  twenty  are  seldom  too  much, 
suitable  aspects  being  chosen  according 
to  tlie  kinds.  Between  their  wall-fi-uit- 
trees,  some  at  first  introduce  half  or  full 
standards,  tliat  the  walls  may  at  once  be 
covered,  removing  them  afterwards.  But 
this  is  a  method  that  sliould  never  be  at- 
tempted where  it  can  be  avoided,  as  be- 
ing very  disadvantageous.  Trees  of  the 
espalier  kind,  are  likewise  frequently  in- 
troduced in  ranges  round  the  main  quar- 
ters at  the  distance  of  about  six  feet  from 
tile  side  of  the  walk,  and  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  in  the  rows,  according  to  the  sorts 
tliat  ni-e  made  use  of  Within  these  ran- 
ges of  esp.alier  trees,  good  standards  of 
tall  growth  are  occasionally  introduced  at 
the  distance  of  thirty,  forty,  or  more  feet 
in  each  direction.  A\'here  tliere  are  orch- 
ards this  should,  however,  always  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

Fruit-trees  of  the  small  shrubby  kinds, 
such  as  g-oose-berries,  cun-ants,  raspber- 
ries. Sec.  where  tiiere  are  not  out-slips,  are 
frequently  introduced  on  the  sides  of  the 
quarters,  and  as  divisions  to  them  when 
large,  at  the  distance  of.  ight  or  nine  feet 
from  each  other.  A\  lien  planted  in  tliis 
way,  tliey  should  be  trained  in  tlie  fan 
form.  But  it  is  better,  where  it  can  be 
done,  to  iiave  them  in  separate  planta- 
tions, especially  the  first  sort. 

Cropping — In  respect  to  the  distribution 
of  the  vegetable  crops,  it  must  be  regu- 
lated by  tbe  nature  of  the  situation,  theii- 
particular  kinds,  as  well  as  the  taste  and 
experience  of  the  gardener.  On  the  nar- 
row  borders  under  tlie  wall-trees,  various 
sorts'of  small  crops  may  be  grown,  both 
of  the  early  and  late  kinds,  according  to 
the  difference  of  the  aspects  ;  but  all  the 
deep  rooting  sorts  should  be  avoided, 
such  as  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  beans, 
pease,  except  tliose  of  the  frame  kind,  as 
being  injurious  to  the  trees  by  the  shade 
whicli  they  cause,  as  well  as  by  depi'iving 
tliem  of  due  nourishment. 

But  the  large  parts  of  the  borders  next 
the  walks,  are  proper  for  raising  all  sorts 
of  the  more  early  crops,  such  as  those  of 
tlie  radish,  lettuce,  spinach,  carrots, 
French  beans,  sallad  herbs,  and  all  the 
dwarf  pea  kinds  that  are  cultivated  in 
wide  rows  ;  tiiose  w  hicli  have  a  southern 


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aspect  lor  the  earliest  crops  ;  .-11111  tlie 
eastern  and  western  ones,  for  succession 
crops  of  the  several  kinds  ;  and  the  north- 
ern ones,  as  beini^  more  cool,  ihv  raisinj^ 
and  pricking  out  many  sorts  of  small 
plants,  slips,  and  cuttings  in  llie  summer 

^         season,  wht.n  the  other  parts  are  apt  to  be 

it^      too  dry,   and  too  njuch  exposed  to  the 

H^-    heat  of  the  sun. 

^-  All  such  borders  as  are  next  to  tlie  ran- 
ges of  espalier  trees  are  well  suited  to  the 
different  low  growing  crops,  sucli  as  let- 
tuce, spinach,  endive,  straw-lieiries,  &c. 
and  for  bricking  out  upon,  at  different 
seasons,  many  sorts  of  plants  to  be  after- 
wards transplanted  into  different  situa- 
tions, in  order  to  complete  their  growth. 
But  the  quarters  or  large  divisions 
should  always  be  destined  for  the  recep- 

r        tion  of  the  large  principal  crops,  such  as 
those  of  the  onion,  leek,  carrot,  parsnip, 

'  turnip,  beet,  potatoe,  cabbage,  cauliflower, 

brocoli,  colewort,  kale,  pea,  bean,  scar- 
let-bean, celery,  artichoke,  asparagus, 
and  other  similar  kinds. 

In  every  department  the  greatest  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  the  keeping  of  the 
diff'^V^"t  parts  fully  cropped,  as  well  as  to 
neatness  and  regular  order  ;  and  as  the 
crops  are  removed  from  the  ground  in  the 
autumn,  it  is  often  of  great  advantage  to 
have  it  ridged  up  for  the  winter  in  a  regu- 
lar manner. 

^Vhere  the  garden  has  been  thus  laid 
out,  planted,  and  finished,  Mr.  Forsyth 
has  found  much  >dvaiitage  from  having  a 
plan  of  it,  with  the  names  of  the  different 
Trees  inirodticed  in  their  proper  places. 
By  this  means  the  nicnioi-y  is  greatly  as- 
sisted, especially  in  extensive  grounds, 
and  the  various  operations  perfoiijned  with 
more  regularity  and  exactness. 

Mr.  London  advises  that  in  complete 
residences  the  liJtchen  garden  should  be 
laid  out  at  first,  and  directed  afterwards 
solely  in  the  view  of  cultivating  and  pro- 
ducing culinary  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Little  or  nothing  of  the  ornamental -kind 
should  be  introduced,  but  utility  every 
where  predominate.  Lvcn  tlie  edgings  of 
the  walks  should  be  planted  in  most  cases 
with  useful  plants,  such  as  straw-berries, 
parsley,  &c. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil — The  proper 
performance  of  this  depends  upon  a  va- 
riety of  circumstances,  such  as  the  nature 
of  the  land,  the  kind  (jf  crop  that  is  to  be 
cultivated,  and  the  season  at  which  it  is 
put  in.  After  the  primary  operations  of 
cleaning  and  draining  iiave  been  execut- 
ed, it  is  generally  necessary  to  break 
down  and  reduce  the  earth  into  a  fine 
itate  of  mould  by  common  or  trench-dig- 


ging ;  and  th?  exposure  of  a  large  surface 
to  the  action  and  influence  of  frost,  or  the 
effects  of  heat  and  moisture  in  altema- 
titm,  as  in  ridging  and  summer-ti'encb- 
ing. 

There  are  other  modes  that  contribute 
to  the  production  of  the  same  eHect,  such 
as  the  gi'owtji  of  particular  sorts  of  crops, 
as  celery,  and  those  of  the  caiTot,  pars- 
nip, beet,  and  others  of  the  tap-rooted 
kind  :  and  the  application  of  strong  hand- 
hoes  to  the  superficial  parts  at  proper 
periods,  as  when  the  soil  lias  a  disposition  a 
to  fall  dov.n  in  a  ]>owdery  condition.  " 
This  last  method,  will  likewise,  at  the 
same  time,  extirpate  and  destroy  a  num- 
ber of  weeds  ;  but  the  necessity  of  this 
siiould  be  constantly  well  guarded 
against,  by  suflering  none  to  run  to  seed 
in  the  garden. 

Considerable  advantage  may  also  bo 
gained  in  the  view  of  rendering  garden 
ground  mellow,  by  the  projier  application 
of  suitable  manure.  In  this  view  the  ma- 
nure should  not  have  advanced  too  far  in 
the  state  of  decomposition.  Composts 
and  very  rotten  manures  produce  but  a 
trifling  efl'ect  in  this  way,  though  highly 
beneficial  in  various  other  respects.  It 
seems  not  improbable  but  that,  in  hot  sea- 
sons, where  the  soil  is  inclined  to  be  hea- 
vy and  of  course  lumpy,  benefit  might  be 
derived  from  the  use  of  a  small  roller 
upon  the  surface. 

How  far  advantage  is  capable  of  being 
derived  from  the  resting  of  ihc  soil  in  this 
sort  6f  culture,  is  perhaps  not  yet  fully 
ascertained  ;  but  certain  kinds  of  garden 
crops  are  commonly  sup])oscd  to  grow 
better  on  new  land  than  such  as  have  been 
long  under  cultivation,  as  those  of  tlie 
onion,  the  carrot,  the  turnip  and  the  pota- 
toe kinds.  Therefore,  difierent  methods 
of  effecting  this  purpose  have  been  pro- 
posed, such  as  laying  down  portions  of 
garden -ground  annually  with  grain  and 
grass  seeds,  and  breaking  others  up.  This 
c:in,  however,  be  only  practised  in  large 
gardens,  eitlicr  wilh  convenience  or  the 
prospect  of  success ;  and  in  all  cases  must 
he  employed  with  much  caution. 

Another  mode  is  by  trenching  to  dif- 
ferent depths  alteniateiy,  as  three  and 
two  spits,  so  as  to  have  new  or  fresh  sur- 
ficcs  from  the  top,  middle,  and  bottom, 
cropping  each  three  years,  and  letting  the 
futuie  surfaces  rest  six.  Tl)is  practice 
has  been  recommended  hv  .Mr.  Walter 
Nicol.  But  it  can  only  be  had  recourse  to  , 
in  particular  histances,  as  few  gardens 
admit  of  three  spits'  depth  of  good  soil. 
Hesides,  the  expence  of  performing  it  af- 
fords a  considerable  objection. 


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Succession  of  Crops — Tills  is  a  matter  of  and  most  drill-crops  ;  others  admit  of  it 
considerable  importance  in  culinary  gar- 'but  in  a  small  degree,  as  onions,  leeks, 
dening,  as  the  growth  of  good  and  heal- J  carrots,  &c.  Some  are  occasionally  and 
thy  vegetables,  and  tlie  keeping  of  the   often  materially  injured  by  it,  as  straw- 


soil  in  a  proper  state  of  heat,  in  a  great 
measure,  depends  upon  it.  The  main 
principle  on  which  it  proceeds,  is  that  of 
never  growing  what  are  termed  exhaust- 
ing crops  in  succession  ;  or  letting  two  or 
three  of  the  same  nature  or  sort,  follow 
each  other.     It  is  well  known  to  liorlicul- 


berries. 

In  relation  to  duration,  it  is  observed 
that  some  are  sown  and  removed  within 
three  months  :  as  early  crops  of  turnips, . 
radi.shes,  brassica  plants,  for  removal, 
&c.;  others  continue  double  that  time,  as 
onions    and   potatoes ;   otliers   treble,  as 


turists,  that  imder  such  circumstances,  I  frequently  broculi  and  cabbages;  some 
tliey  constantly  become  deteriorated  in  I  continue  two  seasons,  as  parsley,  fennel, 
quality,  and  greatly  lessened  in  the  quan-  ■  &c. ;  others  for  several  years,  as  straw- 
tity  of  produce.  Tiie  closeness  of  shade  ;  berries,  asparagus,  articliokes,  &c.  By 
affjrded  by  the  plants,  is  also  another  1  attentively  considering  these  and  other 
principle  tliat  should  be  carefully  attend- ,  divisions  which  tiie  subject  admits  of,  it 
edto  in  managing  this  business.  In  this  ;  is  supposed  mucli  advantage  may  be  gain- 
practice  it  has  been  suggested  by  Mr.  i  ed  by  the  culinary  gai'dener,  and  appro- 
London,  that  "  the  vegetables  cultivated  !  priate  successions  of  crops  formed: 
should  be  divided  into  classes  according  j  "thus  celerj-,  by  being  planted  in  hollow 
to  their  respective  natures,  modes  of  cul-  trendies,  pulverizes  the  soil  in  a  high 
ture,  and  duration.*'  It  is  conceived  that  degree  ;  by  requiring  a  considerable 
in  respect  to  n.ifurfjjtliey  may  be  divided  j  quantity  of  manure  it  enriches  it;  both 
into,  1st.  Such  as  have  ramose  roots,  as  |  whicli  properties  are  necessary  for  the 
the  cabbage,  cauliflower,  brocoli,  Sic.  2d.  j  production  of  plants  of  large,  ramose,  or 
Such  as  have  fusiform  roots,  as  the  carrot,  fasciculate  rnnts,  which  penetrate  deep 
beet,  parsnip,  8ic.  3d.  Such  as  are  squa-  into  the  soil,  such  as  artichokes,  scorzo- 
mose,  as  the  onion,  leek,  eschalot,  SiC.  {  nera,  asparagus.  Sec  Again,  these  crops 
4th.  Such  as  are  fibrous,  as  tlie  lettuce,  j  by  remaining  long  on  the  soil,  afford, 
endive,  &c.     5th.  Such  as  are  tuberose,  ]  when  removed,  an  excellent  situation  for 


as  tlie  potatoe,  Jerusalem  arlicliokc,  S.:c 
niey  are  supposed  capable  of  further  di- 
vision, "  into  such  as  partake  of  two  of 
tliese  divisions,  as  the  fusiform  and 
hbrous,  exemplified  in  the  bean,  pea,  kid 
uey-bean,  spinach,  &c.  he." 

Tlie  writer  adds  that  "  some  crops  re- 
quire to  be  cultivated  in  large  quantities, 
as  pease,  turnips,  onions  ;  others  in  small 
portions,  as  most  sallad  and  pot-herbs. 
Some  require  very  rich  soil,  and  general 


such  as  are  more  transitory,  as  pease,  po- 
tatoes, &c." 

After-managetncnt. — There  are  scarcely 
any  two  plants  that  require  exactly  tlie 
same  means  in  the  whole  of  tlie'u'  cultiva- 
tion, though  in  many  histances  the  differ- 
ences are  but  very  small.  In  the  annual 
and  biennial  kinds,  the  similarity  in  manv 
cases  is  very  considerable  ;  but  in  that  of 
the  perennial  sallad  and  pot-lierb  sorts  it 
mostly  differs  in  a  high  degree.     What- 


ly,  manure,  previously  to  planting  or  sow-    ever  the  nature  of  the  culture  that  is  r 
celery,    cauliflower,    and  leeks  ;  I  quisite  may  be,  in  any  sort  of  plant   or 


others  require  a  tolerably  rich  sod,  but  are 
much  injured  by  manure  immediately  pre- 
vious to  their  insertion,  as  carrot,  beet, 


and    most 
shapes." 


vegetable,  it  should  always  be  executed 
in  due  season,  and  under  proper  circum- 
stances in    respect  to   the   state   of  tiie 


esculent    roots    of   fusiform  j  ground.     There  are  several  other  matters 


In  regard  to  modes  of  culture,  it  is  sug 
gested  that  culinai-y  vegetables  may  be 
distinguished  "  into,  1st,  such  as  are  sown 
<ipon  the  surface  broadcast,  as  onions, 
turnips,  spinach,  &c.  2d.  Such  as  are 
sown  or  planted  on  the  surface  but  in 
drills,  as  pease,  beans,  and  potatoes.  Sd 


in  the  performance  of  this  business  that 
g-   require  the  attention  of  the  gardener,  as 


will  be  seen  under  their  proper  heads. 

l^seful  and  important  alterations  and 
changes  are  capable  of  being  produced 
in  vegetables,  by  diverting  their  natural 
and  usual  habits  of  growth  and  produc- 
tion. \  very  plain  and  easy  method  of 
Such  as  are  placed  in  hollow  trenches,  as  !  accomplishing  this,  hi  many  cases,  is  by 


celery,  and  sometimes  artichokes.  4lh. 
Such  as  are  sown  or  raised  on  beds  or 
ridges,  as  asparagus,  sea-kale,  and  fre- 
quently earlj'  crops  of  pease,  &c.  5tli. 
Some  I'equu'e  the  soil  to  be  often  pulver- 
ized while  growing,  as  potatoes,  j^ease, 


setting  and  sowing,  at  unusual  periods, 
as  between  those  in  which  it  is  usually 
performed.  Tiie  same  thing  is  also  caj5a- 
ble  of  being  effected  by  making  use  of 
diiTerent  sorts  of  soil  for  the  purpose,  as 
such  as  are  more  eai-lv  or  late,  hi  conse* 


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quencc  of  thcii-  natural  qualities.  As  tlie 
great  or  final  purpose  of  every  individual 
vegetable  is  that  of  tlie  prodiu,tion  of  its 
flower,  fruit,  and  seed,  it  naturally  pur- 
sues its  growth  till  these  ends  arc  fully 
efibcted  4  wiiich  is  the  case  ir.  very  difl'er- 
ent  lengths  of  time,  according  to  ihe  kind 
of  plant  or  tree,  being  short  in  ^  some, 
wiiile  in  others  it  lakes  up  a  very  conside- 
rable length  of  lime.  In  tiiis  view,  by 
cutting  the  annual  and  biennial  sorts,  so 
as  to  prevent  these  from  taking ])lacc,  tl)ey 
may  be  continued  tor  several  years.  Anil 
in  some  cases  perennials  may  be  made  to 
afford  crops  at  unusual  seasons.  The 
same  thing  luijjpens  to  some  fruit  trees 
and  shiubs  when  denudatcd  of  their  leaves 
and  flowers  in  the  late  vernal  season. 

Jn  dill'erent  fruit-trees  that  do  not  usual- 
ly aflord  any  produce  for  a  great  length  of 
time,  as  the  walnut  and  mulberry,  it  has 
been  found  by  Mr.  A.  Knight,  that  by 
grafting  them  by  approach  with  the  bear- 
ing branches  of  old  tree,  they  may  be 
brouglit  into  bearing  in  the  course  of  three 
years  ;  and  it  is  suggested  that  tliis  me- 
thod may  pi-obably  be  applied  witli  suc- 
cess in  various  other  similar  cases. 

The  practical  operations  of  this  branch 
of  gardening  divide  themselves  under  a 
variety  of  difl'erent  heads,  as  conserva- 
tory, espalier,  green-house,  hot-bed,  hot- 
house, hot-pit,  hot-wall,  mushroom-liouse, 
orchard,  planting,  pruning,  standard-trees, 
training,  vermin,  wall-fruit,  wall-tree,  wa- 
tering, watering-engine,  wee  ".ng,  &,c. 

^'r.■mei■    ami  S'/rta  of  Plants,  ivitfi  diodes 
of'  Culture  respectively. 

.•Igaricits  campestris,  the  field  agaric  or 
luusliroom.  Cultivated  by  the  spawn  of 
1  he  root,  or  invisible  seed  running  in  lumps 
ot  earth  or  dung,  in  tlie  autumn  season. 

Minnt,  garlick,  onion,  leek,  he.  of  the 
llrst  kind,  large  white  garlick  and  red 
gailiek — By  tlie  cloves  of  the  root  when 
wcparated. 

In  the  second,  or  rocambole  sort — By 
the  root  and  bulbs  from  the  stalk. 

In  the  third,  or  onion  kind,  as  the  com- 
mon  oval  Strasburg  onion,  great  oval  Por- 
tugal onion,  fiat  white  Spanish  onion, 
flatted  Spanish  onion,  silver-skinned  onion, 
bulbless  rooted  Welsh  onion — By  seeil 
annually,  which  should  be  sown  at  dif- 
ferent times  in  the  early  spring  months. 

In  the  fouith  sort,  as  chives  or  cives — 
By  dividing  the  roots,  and  planting  them 
oiftin  the  spring. 

Ill  the  fifth  kind,  the  escalot  or  shallot 
— By  offsets  of  the  root  planted  out  in 
.spring. 


In  the  si.\th  sort,  or  Canada  trec-onioii 
— By  offset  bulbs  of  the  root,  and  tha 
bulbs  at  the  top  of  tlie  stalk,  planted  oat 
in  spring. 

In  the  seventh,  or  the  leek  kind,  as  the 
broad-leaved  London  Kek,  nai-row -leave J 
ieek — By  seed  annually,  which  slioiud  be 
sown  in  the  early  spring. 

Anethum  dill,  &.c, ;  common  dill— By 
seed  annually,  sown  in  the  spring. 

Fennel,  light-green  leaved,  dark-green 
fennel,  sweetsecded  fennel — By  seed  sown 
in  spring ;  also  by  slipping  the  old  roots,  «J 
and  ijlanting  them  out  in  the  autumnal 
season. 

Italian  fennel— By  seed  annually,  sow  n 
in  the  spring. 

Atii^elicn  savita,  common  angelica — By 
seed  annually  sown  in  spring. 

Jipium,  Parsley,  celery,  &c. ;  parsley, 
common  plane-leaved  parsley,  curletl 
leaved  common  parsley,  broadleaved,  or 
large  rooted  parsley— By  seed  sown  in 
spring. 

Celerv,  common  upright  celery,  up- 
right celery  with  solid  stalks,  turnip- 
rooted  spreading  celery— By  sped  sown  in 
the  spring,  for  transplanting  in  summer 
and  autumn. 

.Jlsp  tragus  officinalis,  common  aspara- 
gus—By seed  sown  in  the  auturnn,  and. 
when  once  raised,  the  roots  abide  fi^- 
some  years. 

Atr'iplex  hortensis,  garden  orach,  white- 
leaved  garden  orach,  green  orach,  pur- 
ple orach— By  seed  annually  sown  in  the 
spring  season. 

Beta  rulgaris,  beet,  connnon  cuhnary 
beet,  greenleaved  culinary  beet,  w  hite  beet, 
chard,  or  great  white  Swiss  beet,  mangel 
wurzel  beet— By  seed  annually  sown  in 
tiie  spriiig  months. 

lied  beet,  large  long  red-rootetl  beet, 
turnip-rooted  red  beet,  red-rooted  beet 
with  green  leaves,  pale-red  betl— Uy  seed 
annually  sown  in  the  eariy  sj)ring, 

Jiorago,  borage — By  seed  annually 
sown  in  autumn  or  s])ring. 

Blassica,  ihecabhugCjCaulifiower,  broc- 
coli, turnip,  &c.  The  cabbage  sort,  small 
early  summer  cabbage,  dwarf  early  sugar' 
loaf-sJiaped  cabbage,  large  hollow  sugar- 
loaf  cabbage,  early  Russia  cabbage,  com- 
mon rountl  white  cabbage,  long-sided  hol- 
low cabbage,  oval  hollow  cabbage,  fiat-top- 
ped cabbage,  musk-scented  cabbage, 
giant  cabbage,  red  cabbage — By  seed  an- 
nually sown  at  dlfierent  times,  in  spring 
and  autumn,  for  use  all  the  year,  by 
having  the  plants  set  out  at  various 
times. 

Savoy  cabbage,  common  green  curled 
savoy,  large  green  Dutch  savoy,  \ellow 


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savoy — By  seed  annually  sown  in  spring, 
for  autumn  and  winter  use. 

Lanciniated,  and  other  openJeaved  coles, 
green  curled  borecole,  red  curled  bore- 
cole, thick-leaved  curled  borecole,  finely 
fripged  borecole,  broad  erect  curled- 
leaved  Siberian  borecole,  or  Scotcli  cole 
or  kale,  red  and  green  common  plane- 
leaved  green  colewort — By  seed  annually 
sown  in  spring  and  summer,  for  plants  for 
autumn  and  winter  use. 

Turnip  cabbage,  turnip  cabbage  with 
the  turnip  above  ground,  with  the  turnip 
under  ground — By  seed  sown  annually  in 
spring  and  summer. 

The  cauliflower  sorts,  early  cauliflower, 
late  cauliflower — By  seed  sown  annually 
in  spring  and  autumn,  for  plants  for  sum- 
mer and  autumn  use. 

Italian  brassica,  or  broccoli,  earl}-  pui'- 
ple  broccoli,  late  large  pui"ple  broccoli, 
comprehending  varieties,  with  blue, 
brown,  green,  and  yellowish  heads,  dwarf 
purple  broccoli,  white  or  cauliflower 
broccoli,  black  broccoli — By  seed  sown 
in  spring  and  beginning  of  summer,  for 
plants  for  autumn,  winter,  and  spring 
use. 

The  turnip,  early  Dutch  turnip,  white 
round  turnip,  green-topped  turnip,  red- 
topped  turnip,  yellow  turnip,  oblong  white 
turnip,  long  white -rooted  French  turnip, 
round  purple  French  turnip — By  seed 
sown  in  spring  and  summer,  for  plants 
for  use  most  part  of  the  year. 

Calendula  officinalis,  common  marigold 
— By  seed  sown  annually  in  spring,  sum- 
mer, or  autumn. 

Cichcrium  endivia,  endive,  gi-een  cur- 
led endive,  white  curled  endive,  broad- 
leaved  Batavian  endive — By  seed  sown 
annually,  in  summer,  from  May  till  July, 
for  plants  autumn  and  winter  use- 

Cochlearia  annoracia,  horse  radish — B}' 
pieces  of  the  roots  planted  out  in  spring, 
for  use  for  most  part  of  the  year. 

Crambe,  sea-cabbage  or  colewort,  the 
different  varieties — By  seed  sown  in 
spring  ;  but  when  once  raised,  the  roots 
remain  for  years,  sending  up  shoots  for 
use  in  spring  and  summer. 

Cucuniis,  cucumber  and  melon,  the 
cucumber,  early  short  prickly  cucum- 
ber, eai'ly  cluster  cucumber,  long  green 
prickly  cucumber,  long  white  prickly  cu- 
cumber, long  smooth  green  Turkey  cu- 
cumber, large  smooth  white  cucumber, 
large  smooth  green  Roman  cucumber — 
By  seed  sown  annually,  at  different  times 
on  hot-beds,  in  tiie  early  spring  and  sum- 
mer. 

The  melon,  Roroana melon,  Cantaleupe 
melon ;  varieties  of  each,  and  several  other 
VOL.    I. 


sorts — By  seed  sown  annually  at  different 
times,  on  hot-beds,  in  the  spring  months. 

Cucurbita,  the  gourd  and  water  melon — 
By  seed  sown  annually  in  the  spring  sea- 
son. 

Cynara,  artichoke  and  cardoon,  the  com- 
mon artichoke,  globular  headed  red  Dutch 
artichoke,  ovallieaded  green  French  arti- 
choke— By  suckers  from  the  sides  of 
the  old  plants,  in  spring,  of  many  years 
duration. 

The  common  cardoon. — By  seeds  sown 
annually  in  the  early  spring. 

Daucus  carota,  the  carrot,  orange- 
coloured  carrot,  red  carrot,  3'ellow  car- 
rot, wliite  carrot— By  seed  sown  annually 
in  spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  for  use 
most  part  of  the  year. 

Helianthus  tuberosus,  tuberous  sun-flow- 
er, or  Jerusalem  ai-tichoke — By  pieces  of 
the  root  planted  annually  in  the  spring 
season. 

Hyssopus  officinalis,  common  hysop,  the 
several  different  varieties. — By  seed  sown 
in  spring,  and  by  planting  slips  and  cut- 
ting of  its  branches. 

Lactuca,  lettuce,  early  green  cabbage- 
lettuce,  white  cabbage -lettuce,  brown 
Dutch  cabbage-lettuce,  great  admirable 
cabbage-lettuce,  green  and  white  ball 
cabbage-lettuce,  green  cos-lettuce,  white 
cos-lettuce,  black  cos-lettuce,  spotted 
Aleppo  cos-lettuce,  brown  Cilicia  lettuce. 
Imperial  lettuce,  red  Capuchin  lettuce, 
green  Capuchin  lettuce,  curled  lettuce 
— By  seed  sown  annually,  at  different 
times,  in  spring,  summer  and  autumn, 
for  plants  for  setting  out  for  use  most 
parts  of  the  year- 

Lavendula,  lavender,  spike-flowered 
common  lavender,  common  narrow-lea- 
ved, broad-leaved,  blue-flowered,  white- 
flowered,  and  dwarf  lavender — By  slips 
planted  out  in  spring,  which  are  of  many 
years  continuance. 

Stxchas,  or  French  lavender — By  plant- 
ing slip  or  cuttings,  and  by  seed,  which 
ai'e  of  many  years  duration. 

Ltpidium  sativum,  garden-cress,  com- 
mon small-leaved,  broad-leaved,  curled- 
leaved — By  sowing  seed  at  different  times 
of  tlie  }ear,  according  as  the  plants  are 
wanted. 

Jlelissa  officinalis,  balm,  common  balm 
— By  dividing  and  planting  the  roots  in 
spr-ng  or  autumn,  which  are  of  many 
years  dui-ation. 

Mentha,  mint,  penny-royal,  &.C-,  green 
common  spearmint,  curled-leaved  spear- 
mint, variegated  spearmint — By  dividing 
the  roots,  by  joung  plants,  and  by  cuttings 
ol'  the  stalks,  planted  out  in  spring,  and 
which  continue  many  years. 
.1    Z 


KIT 


Peppermint—By  roots  and  plants,  he 
like  the  former. 

Penny-royal— By  dividing  and  slipping 
the  plants,  as  for  the  mint,  and  plunlmg 
them  out. 

Ocjinum  basilicum,  basil,  common 
sweet  basil,  several  varieties— By  seed 
sown  in  spring  on  a  hot-bed,  the  plants 
being  afterwards  planted  out. 

Origanum  marjoram,  common,  wild, 
perennial  pot  marjoram,  winter  perennial 
sweet  marjoram,  marjorana,  or  annual 
sweet  marjoram— By  sowing  seeds  m 
spring,  and  the  two  former  also,  by  shp- 
ping  the  roots,  and  planting  them. 

Pastimca  sativa,  parsnip,  common  gar- 
den parsnip— By  seed  sown  annually  for 
winter  use. 

Phastolus  vulgaris,  common  kidney- 
bean,  dwarfs  and  runners,  dwarf  kinds, 
earlv  white,  early  yellow,  liver-coloured 
speckled  dwarf,  Canterbury  white  dwarl, 
Battersea  white  dwarf,  large  white  dwart, 
cream-coloured  dwarf,  black  dAvarf,  spar- 
row-egg dwarf,  amber-speckled  dwarf- 
By  seed  sown  annually,  at  different  times, 
from  April  tillJuly,  or  the  following  month. 
Running  kinds,  scarlet  runner,  wln'.e 
variety,  large  Dutch  rimner,  Battersea 
white  runneV,  negro  runner,  variable  run- 
ner—By sowing  the  seed  like  the  former, 
but  principally  in  tlie  summer  months. 

Pismn,  the  pea,  Charlton  pea,  golden 
Charlton,  earliest  golden  ChaT-iton,  long 
Keading  hotspur.  Master's  hotspur,  Span- 
ish morotto,  green  nonpareil,  early  dwarf- 
marrowfat,  large  marrowfat,  green  roun- 
cival,  or  union,  white  rouncivai,  Ledman's 
dwarf  pea,  small  sugar  pea,  large  sugar 
pea,  cluster  pea,  crown  pea,  eggpea,  sickle 
pea,  &,c.— By  seed  sown  annually,  at  dit- 
ferent  times,  from  October  till  June,  but 
principally  in  the  early  spring  months, 

Portulaca  olevacea,  purslane,  green 
purslane,  golden  purslane— By  seed  sown 
different  times  in  April  and  May. 

Piterium  sanguisorba,  burnet,  common 
'  garden  burnet— By  seed  sown  in  autumn 
or  spring,  and  parting  the  roots. 

liaph'anus  sativus,  the  radish,  short- 
topped  early  radish,  long-topjied  radish, 
deep-red  radish,  pale-red,  transparent, 
mild  radish,  salmon-coloured  radisli,  small 
white  turnip-rooted  radish,  small  red 
turnip  radish,  large  while  turnip-rooted 
Spanish  radisli,  large  black  turnip-rooted 
Spanish  radish— By  seed  sown  at  dif- 
ferent  times,  from  Christmas  till  July  or 
August ;  but  the  latter  sorts  sown  prin- 
cipally in  June  and  July,  for  autumn  and 
winter  use.  .    . 

Rosmarinus,  rosemary,  some  varieties 
—By  planting  layers,  slips,  and  cuttings 
in  spring.  ' 


KIT 

Rumex  acetosa,  sorrel,  comom  long- 
leave  d  sorre  ,  vouiul-leaved  French  sor- 
rel, barren  sorrel — By  parting  the  roots, 
and  the  first  sort  also  plentifully  by  seed. 

Hutu  gruveolens,  rue ;  sevei-al  varieties  . 
—By  planting  slips  and  cuttings ;  also  by 
seed. 

Salvia,  sage,  clary,  &c.  The  sorts  are, 
common  sage,  red  sage,  broad-leaved 
green  sage,  narrow -leaved  green  sage, 
broad-leaved  hoaiy  sage,  sage  of  virtue, 
wormwood  sage,  Jkc  ~  By  planting  slips 
in  April,  May,  and  June ;  also  by  sowmg 
the  seed  in  the  spring  .Teason. 

Clary— By  seed  sown  annually  in  the 
spring  . 

Satureja,  savory,  winter  perennial 
savory,  summer  aiumal  savory — Both  by 
seed  sown  in  the  siring  season,  and  the 
former  also  by  planUng  slips. 

Sccimlix  cerefolium,  chervil,  annual  gar- 
den chervil— bv  seed  annually,  in  August, 
for  winter  and  spring  use  or  sown  also  in 
spring  and  summer,  for  succession  crops. 
Scorzonera,  scorzowera,  Spanisii  scor- 
zonera— An  eatable  root,  raised  from  seed 
sown  in  spring.  ,,11. 

Sinapis,  mustard,  white  mustard,  black 
mustard,  field  or  wild  mustard;  the  for- 
mer to  use  young  in  sallad,  and  the  two 
last  for  their  seeds,  to  make  the  table 
sauce  called miislard— By  seed  in  spring; 
or,  if  for  saliads,  at  any  ime  of  tlie  year. 
Sium  sisarium,  sisariun  or  skirret — An 
eatable  root  raised  by  planting  offsets, 
commonly,  of  the  root ;  also  by  seeds. 

Smyrnium,  olusatrum,  Alisanders,  or 
common  Alexanders— By  seed  annually 
in  spring. 

Solarium,  night-shade,  furnishing  the 
potatoe  and  tomatoe,  tuberous-rooted 
solanum  or  potatoe,  the  common  sound 
red  potatoe,  early  round  red,  oblong  red, 
deep  red,  pale  red,  rough  red,  white 
kidney-shaped,  large  red-ended  kidney, 
white  round,  white  cluster,  prolific  Ameri- 
can—By planthig  pieces  of  the  roots  or 
the  roots  whole  in  spring ;  also  by  sowing 
seed  occasionally  to  obtain  new  varieties. 
Tomatoe  or  'love-api)le ;  varieties— By 
sowing  the  seed  annually,  on  a  hot-bed, 
in  the  spring. 

Spinacia,  spinach,  round  thick- leaved  or 
smoothseeded,  triangular  leaved  or  prickly 
seeded;  the  former  for  spring  and  summer 
crops,  the  latter  to  stand  the  winter— By 
sowing  annually  in  spring,  summer,  and 
autumn,  for  use  most  part  of  the  year. 

Tanacetum  vulgare,  common  tanscy— 
By  parting  tlie  roots,  and  planting  in 
spring  or  autumn. 

Thymus  vulgaris,  common  thyme,  the 
varieties  with  broad  leaves,  with  narrow 
leaves,  with  striped  leaves— By  sowing 


LAC 


LAC 


seeds  in  March  and  April ;  also  by  plant- 
ing slips  of  the  roots  and  branches,  and 
by  cuttings  ;  but  seed  is  the  only  way  to 
raise  a  quantity  of  the  common  sort ;  and 
the  other  methods  to  continue  the  varie- 
ties, or  for  a  general  supply. 

Tragopogon  porrifoUum  ;  salsafy — An 
esculent  root,  by  seeds  annually  in  spring. 

Tropteolutn,  Indian  cress,  or  nastui-tium, 
nasturtium  minus,  nasturtium  majus; 
their  flowers  tor  ganiish  and  sallads,  and 
their  seeds  to  pickle — Raised  annualh 
from  seeds  sown  at  different  times  in 
spring. 


'  Faieriana  locutta,  com  sallad  or  lamb's 
lettuce — By  seed  sown  in  spring  and 
autumn 

Vicia  faba,  the  bean,  early  Mazagan, 
earlj  Lisbon,  long-pod,  Turkey  long-pod, 
toker  bean.  Sandwich  bean,  Windsor 
bean,  white-blossomed,  red-blossomed, 
Spanish  bean,  nonpareil  bean,  dwarf  fan 
bean,  very  low — By  seed  sown  annually, 
at  different  times  from  October  until 
,lune,  but  principally  in  the  early  spring 
months. 

KOUMISS,  a  vinous  preparation  of 
milk,  which  see. 


L. 


LABORATORY.  In  the  language  of; 
chemistry  a  laboratory  is  a  place,  room, ! 
apartment,  or  house  fitted  up  with  furna- ' 
ces,  instrumeuts,  apparatus,  &c.  for  the ; 
purpose  of  conducting  experiments,  or| 
for  manufactui-e.  The  scic-itific  or  expe- 1 
rimental  ciiemist  requires,  for  conducting 
his  operations,  which  are  designed  pnnci-  i 
pally  for  discovery  or  philosophical  pur- 1 
poses,  a  number  of  instruments,  and  an  ap-  i 
paratus  ;  but  the  practical  chemist  or  ma-  i 
nufacturer  whose  object  is  different,  needs  | 
only  a  few  articles  which  are  designed  for  i 
conducting  his  processes.  Thus  the  phar- ' 
maceutical  chemist,  whose  object  is  the  i 
manufacture  of  sundry  articles  used  in  | 
medicine,  has  his  laboratoiy  arranged  or 
fitted  up  witli  a  few  furnaces,  sand  baths, 
and  stiUs.  Kvery  process,  such  as  dye- 
ing, the  fusion  and  casting  of  metal,  and 
the  like,  although  chemical  in  a  degree, 
are  conducted  wi'h  apparatus  of  a  differ- 
ent kind.  Such  establishments  receive  the 
name  of  the  dye-house,  foundery,  &c 
and  the  operator  is  called  a  dyer,  founder, 
&c.  instead  of  receiving  the  name  of  che- 
mist. AVe  have,  therefore,  in  treating  of 
sundry  processes,  given  some  account  of} 
the  apparatus  emplo\  ed,  as  well  as  the 
particular  processes.  See  Dyeing,  Co- 
lour Making,  Glass  Making,  Salt 
Making,  &c.  We  do  not  consider  it  of 
importance  to  notice  the  best  plan  and 
arrangement  of  a  chemical  laboratory  ; 
but  under  the  different  heads  we  shall  no- 
tice the  apparatus  used  in  the  arts. 

LAC,  (Gum.)  Lacrjue,  Fr — Gum-Lac, 
as  it  is  usually  termed,  is  a  substance 
properly  neither  a  gum  nor  a  resiri,  but 
a  very  singular  compoimd,  which  is  pre- 
pared by  the  female  of  a  very  minute 
~  insect,  the  Coccus  Lacca,  which  is  found 
on  a  few  species  of  trees  in  some  parts 


of  the  East  Indies,  particularly  on  the 
Banyan  Fig,  and  the  Rhamnus  Jujuba  or 
Biher.  The  insect  is  nourished  by  the 
tree,  fixing  itself  upon  the  twigs  and 
exti-emities  of  the  succulent  branches, 
where  also  it  deposits  its  eggs,  which  it 
glues  to  the  branch  by  a  red  semi- 
pellucid  liquid,  the  outside  of  which  har- 
dens in  the  air  and  also  serves  as  a  cell 
for  the  parent  insect.  This  gradually  in- 
creases, and  when  at  its  greatest  size  ap- 
pears as  an  oval  smooth  red  bag,  full  of  a 
beautiful  red  liquid.  When  the  eggs  are 
hatched,  the  young  insects  appear  first 
to  feed  upon  the  inclosed  liquid,  and 
after  this  is  expended  they  eat  through 
the  investing  coast,  leaving  a  hollow  red 
resinous  bag  which  is  the  Stick  Lac.  The 
lac  therefore  appears  in  the  economy  of 
the  insect  to  answer  the  double  purpose 
of  food  and  protection  to  the  young  ani- 
mal, and,  when  examined,  each  bag  is 
found  to  be  in  distincrcells  like  a  honey- 
comb, but  of  different  shape. 

For  the  purification,  it  is  broken  into 
small  pieces,  and  put  into  a  canvas  bag  of 
about  four  feet  long,  and  not  above  six 
inches  in  circumference  Two  of  these 
bags  are  in  constant  use,  and  each  of  them 
held  by  two  men.  The  bag  is  placed 
over  a  fire,  and  frequently  turned,  till  the 
lac  is  liquid  enough  to  pass  through  its 
pores  ;  when  it  is  taken  off'  the  fire,  and 
twisted  in  different  directions  by  the  men 
who  hold  it,  at  the  same  time  dragt^i'ig  it 
along  the  convex  part  of  a  plantain  tree 
prepared  for  this  purpose  ;  and  wiiile  this 
is  doing,  the  other  bag  is  heating,  to  be 
treated  in  the  same  way.  The  mucil- 
aginous and  smooth  surface  of  the  plan- 
tain tree  prevents  its  adhering;  and  the 
degi'ee  of  pressure  regulates  the  thickness 
of  the  coatijig  of  lac,  at  the  same  time 


LAC 

that  the  fineness  of  the  bag-  determines  its 
clearness  and  transparency. 

Lac  is  an  article  of  great  importance  in 
many  arts  and  in  commerce.  The  best 
is  procuied  from  the  province  of  Akani, 
but  it  is  fovmd  in  great  abundance  on  the 
uncidtivated  mountains  on  each  side  of 
the  Ganges. 

The  only  trouble  of  collecting  the  rough 
or  stick-lac  is  that  of  breaking  down  tlie 
branches  and  carrying  them  lo  niarket ; 
but  for  the  purpose  of  dyeing  it  is  taken 
before  the  young  insects  have  eaten  their 
way  througth  the  bag,  that  is  while  tlie 
red  liquor  remains  within  it. 

The  best  lac  is  of  a  deep-red  colour, 
and  the  liquid  witiiin  the  cells  has  a 
sweetish  taste,  which  in  India  is  used  im- 
mediately as  a  dye  being  miscible  with 
water 

There  are  four  kinds  of  lac  known  in 
commerce,  namely — 

1.  Stick  lac,  wliich  is  the  lac  in  its  na- 
tural ai     . ,  without  any  preparation. 

2.  Seed;lac,  which  is  the  former  kind 
broken  into  small  lumps,  granulated  and 
picked. 

3.  Lump-lac,  which  is  seed  lac  liquified 
by  fire. 

4.  Shell-lac,  wliich  is  the  cells  of  the 
stick  lac,  liquified  by  gentle  heat,  strain- 
ed and  formed  into  thin  transparent 
lamina:  in  tlie  following  simple  manner. 

'  It  is  biokt-p.  into  small  pieces  and  pick- 
ed from  the  oranches  &nd  slicks  and  \mi 
into  a  canvas  bag.  This  is  placed  over 
the  fire,  and  frequently  turned  till  the  lac 
is  liquid  enougli  to  pass  through  its  pores, 
when  it  is  taken  off  and  squeezed  by  two 
men  in  difierent  directions  dragging  it 
along  the  convex  part  of  a  plantain  tree 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  The  degree 
of  pressure  on  the  plantain  tree  regulates 
the  thickness  of  th#  shell. 

Of  the  above  three  sorts  of  lac  only  the 
stick,  shell,  and  seed  lac  are  known  hi 
coniuierce. 

There  is  besides  a  white  or  yellowish 
lac  brought  from  Madagascar,  highly  re- 
sembling the  pe-la  of  the  Chinese,  which 
has  Inin  very  ably  examined  by  Dr. 
Pearson. 

The  three  species  of  common  lac  have 
lately  been   analyzed   by    Mr.  Ilatchett. 

Alcohol  dissolves  a  large  portion  of 
all  the  kinds  of  lac.  When  heat  is  not 
used  the  solution  contains  a  part  of  the 
colouring  extract,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
•A  resin  which  may  be  sejiarated  from  the 
solution  by  evaporation  or  by  adding  the 
solution  to  water,  acidulated  with  muria- 
tic or  acetic  acid  and  healing,  when  the 
resin  will  form  a  curdy  coagulum.  The 
portion  soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  and  which 


LAC 

js  entirely  resin,  except  a  little  extract 
amounts  to  about  68  per  cent .  from  stick- 
lac,  88  per  cent,  from  fine  seed-lac,  and 
81  per  cent,  from  shell-lac,  but  in  the  lat- 
ter case  about  10  more  of  resin  remain 
mixed  with  the  other  ingredients.  Hot 
alcohol  dissolves  also  other  parts  of  the 
lac  which  are  not  easily  separable  again. 

Lac  is  found  by  experiment  to  consist 
of  a  colouring  extract  of  resin,  gluten, 
and  wax,  all  of  them  in  intimate  combina- 
tion, but  separable  almost  entirely  by  a 
judicious  order  and  selection  of  the  dif- 
ferent re -agents. 

Tlie  general  properties  of  each  of  these 
ingi'edients  are  the  following  : 

1.  The  extract  when  dry  is  of  a  deep 
crimson  ;  soluble  chiefly  but  not  totally  * 
in  water,  hot  or  cold  ;  less  so  in  alcohol, 
but  the  residue  after  the  action  of  alcohol 
dissolves  in  water;  insoluble  in  ether; 
partially  soluble  in  muriatic  and  acetous 
acid,  giving  a  red  liquor  which  is  changed 
to  purple  by  alkalies  ;  is  totally  soluble  in 
acetic  acid ;  and  equally  so  in  the  alkalies. 
When  pure  alumine  is  put  into  the 
aqueous  solution,  and  a  few  drops  of 
muriatic  acid  added,  a  beautiful  coloured 
lake  is  precipitated.  A  fine  precipitate 
is  also  formed  by  muriatof  tin. 

2.  The  I'csin  is  brownish  yellow,  solu- 
ble in  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  nitric 
acid,  jjotash,  and  soda,  and  is  precipitable 
by  water  from  all  these  solvents  except 
the  two  last. 

3.  The  gluten  is  obtainable  in  two 
ways:  if  the  pieces  of  lac  after  digestion 
in  alcohol  be  digested  with  dilute  acetic 
or  muriatic  acid,  most  of  the  gluten  is 
dissolved,  and  may  be  precipitated  by 
alkalies  added  in  due  proportion  ;  but  is 
redissolved  by  an  excess  of  them,  and 
then  is  separable  by  acids.  It  much  resem- 
bles the  gluten  of  wheat. 

4.  'I'lie  wax  is  found  floating  like  oil 
on  the  solution  of  lac  after  long  boiling 
in  nitric  acid,  which  takes  up  every  thing 
else,  and  congeals  when  cold  ;  or  it  may 
Ijc  more  easily  procured,  by  first  digest- 
ing the  lac  with  cold  alcohol,  and  treat- 
ing the  residuum  with  boiling  nitric  acid, 
which  will  separate  the  wax. 

Thus  obtained  it  is  white,  of  the  con- 
sistence of  bees  wax,  melts  at  a  less  heat 
than  boiling  water,  and  burns  with  a 
white  flame  and  smell  like  spermaceti.  It 
is  insoluble  in  cold  alcohol,  but  with  a 
boiling  heat  a  portion  is  dissolved,  most 
of  which  separates  by  mere  cooling,  and 
the  remainder  by  affusion  of  water. 
Potash  boiled  with  the  wax  forms  a 
milky  solution,  but  the  chief  part  of  the 
wax  floats  at  the  top,  and  seems  to  be 
converted  into  a  kind  of  soap,  hardly  solu- 


LAC 


LAC 


ble,  And  inflammable.  Acids  separate 
the  remainder  of  the  wax  from  the  alka- 
line soiuiion. 

The  three  different  species  of  lac  being 
analyzed,  gave  the  following  proportions  : 
lOO  parts  of  stick-lac  gave  68  of  resin,  10 
of  colouring  extract,  6  of  wax,  5.5  of 
gluten,  and  6_5  of  extraneous  substances :  j 
100  parts  of  seed-lac  gave  885  of  resin, 
2.5  of  extract,  45  of  wax,  and  2  of  glu- 
ten :  100  parts  of  shell  lac  gave  90.9  of 
resin,  0.5  of  extract,  4.  of  wax,  and  2.8 
of  gluten. 

Lac  is  emplo)'ed  for  a  variety  of  purpo- 
ses in  the  arts,  both  in  India  and  else- 
where. The  finer  pieces  of  shell-lac  are 
cut  into  ornaments  of  various  kinds,  such 
as  beads  and  necklaces  ;  the  shell-lac  en- 
ters largely  into  the  composition  of  seal- 
ing wax,  and  hard  japans  or  varnishes, 
hence  called  lacqtters,  and  lac  is  also  used 
for  dyeing.  For  this  last  the  stick-lac  is 
the  only  kind  employed,  as  the  colouring 
matter  chiefly  resides  in  the  extract,  of 
which  the  shell-lac  contains  a  verj-  small 
proportion,  but  on  the  other  hand  as  this 
has  much  more  resin,  it  is  greatly  prefer- 
able for  varnishes  and  lacquers.  A  com- 
position of  i-ough  angular  sand  melted 
with  lac  is  much  employed  in  India  as  the 
material  for  grindstones,  which  are  cast 
into  a  circular  shape,  and  when  well  ma- 
naged, they  cut  very  fast.  The  lapidaries 
use  corundum  powder  instead  of  sand, 
and  form  witli  lac  a  composition  for  grind- 
ing and  polishing  gems 

luAC  (JVhite.)   ">      A  white  or  yellow- 

LACCIC  ACID.  5  ish-white  waxy  mat- 
ter, the  production  of  insects,  and  called 
in  Madras  White  lac,  was  first  particulai-ly 
noticed  by  Dr.  Henderson  about  the  year 
1786,  and  supposed  by  him  to  resemble 
ver)-  closely  the  Fe-ia  of  tlie  Chinese,  or 
white  wax  used  in  varnishes,  for  candles, 
&c.  Some  of  tliis  white  lac  sent  over  to 
England  about  the  year  1793,  was  exa- 
mined by  Dr.  Pearson. 

The  wliite  lac  is  in  grey,  opake,  rough, 
roundish  pieces,  of  about  the  siz.e  of  a 
pea.  It  has  a  saltish  and  bitterish  taste, 
but  when  fresh  gathered  it  appears  from 
Dr.  Anderson's  account  to  have  a  sweetish 
and  deUcious  flavour.  On  pressing  the 
pieces  between  the  fingers,  a  saltish  liquid 
oozes  out.  White  lac  has  no  smell  unless 
when  rubbed.  After  melting  and  straining 
it  sinks  in  water. 

If  obtained  largely  it  probably  might 
prove  of  much  use  in  the  arts. 

LAC  SULPHURIS,  is  sulphur  separated 
by  acids  from  its  alkaline  solution.  It  is 
somewhat  altered  in  the  process,  and 
changes  its  lemon-yellow  colour  for  a  grey 
or  yellowish-white,  like  cream. 


It  is  thought  to  be  somewhat  milder  as 
a  medicine.     See  Sulphur. 

LACE.  When  several  threads  of  gold, 
silver,  silk,  or  thread,  are  interwoven  and 
worked  on  a  cushion  with  spindles,  ac- 
cording to  the  desired  pattern,  the  stuff 
called  lace  is  formed.  There  are  various 
kinds  of  lace,  such  as  Point,  Brussels,  or 
Fl:mders  lace,  and  bone  lace  made  in 
England.  To  restore  gold  or  silver  lace 
when  tarnished,  various  liquors  have  been 
recommended,  as  spirits  of  wine,  solution 
of  soap,  of  potash,  See.  The  gold  or  sil- 
ver may  be  separated  from  lace,  by  boiling 
the  lace  in  soap  ley.  after  which  the  stuff 
will  become  soi'iened,  and.  by  means  of  a 
mallet,  the  sepai-ation  may  be  readily  ef- 
fected. 

LACQUERING.  Lacquering  is  the  lay. 
ing  either  coloured  or  tr..nsparent  var- 
nishes on  metals,  in  order  to  produce  the 
appearance  of  a  different  colotu"  in  the 
metal,  or  to  preserve  it  from  rust,  or  the 
injuries  of  the  weather. 

Lacquering  is  used  w  here  brass  is  to  be 
made  to  have  the  appearance  of  being 
gilt ;  where  tin  is  wanted  to  have  the  re- 
semblance of  yellow  metals  ;  and  where 
brass  locks  or  nails,  or  other  such  mat- 
ters, are  to  be  defended  from  the  coiTo- 
sion  of  the  air  or  moistiu-e. 

The  principal  substance  used  for  the 
composition  of  lacquers,  is  seed-lac  ;  but, 
for  coarser  purposes,  resin  or  turpentine 
is  added,  in  order  to  make  the  lacquer 
cheaper. 

.2  Lacquer  for  Brass,  to  imitate  Gild, 
ing. — Take  of  turmeric  one  ounce,  and  of 
safli-on  and  Spanish  annotto,  each  two 
drachms.  Put  them  into  a  proper  bottle 
with  a  pint  of  highly  rectified  spirits  of 
wine,  and  place  them  in  a  moderate  heat, 
often  shaking  them  for  several  days.  A 
very  strong  yellow  tincture  will  the.i  be 
obtained,  which  must  be  strained  off' from 
the  dregs  through  a  coM'se  linen  cloth ; 
and  then,  being  put  back  into  the  bottle, 
three  ounces  of  good  seed-lac,  powdered 
grossly,  must  be  added,  and  the  mixture 
placed  again  in  a  moderate  heat,  and  sl)a- 
ken  till  the  seed-lac  be  dissolved,  or  at 
least  such  part  of  it  as  mav.  The  lacquer 
must  then  be  strained,  and  must  be  put 
mto  a  bottle  well  corked. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  have  the  lacquer 
warmer  or  redder  than  this  composition, 
the  proportion  of  the  annotto  must  be  in- 
creased ;  and  where  it  is  wanted  cooler, 
or  nearer  to  a  true  rellow,  it  must  be  di- 
minished. 

The  above,  properly  managed,  is  an 
extremely  good  lacquer,  and  of  moderate 
price ;  but  the  following,  which  is  cheaper, 
and  may  be  made  where  the  Spanish  ai.- 


LAC 


LAK 


iioUo  cannot  be  procured  good,  is  not 
greatly  inferior  to  it. 

Take  of  turmeric  root,  ground,  one 
ounce,  of  tlie  best  dragon's  blood  lialf  a 
drachm.  Put  them  to  a  p^nt  of  spirits  of 
wine,  and  proceed  as  above.  By  dimi- 
nishing tiie  proportion  of  dragon's  blood, 
the  varnish  may  be  rendered  of  a  redder 
or  truer  yellow  cast. 

Saffron  is  sometimes  used  to  form  the 
body  of  colour  in  this  kind  of  lacquer,  in- 
stead of  the  tuinieric;  but  though  it 
makes  a  warmer  yellow,  yet  the  dearncss 
of  it,  and  the  advantage  which  turmeric 
has  in  forming  a  much  stronger  tinge  in 
spirits  of  wine,  gives  it  the  preference. 
Though  being  a  true  yellow,  and  conse- 
quently not  sufficiently  warm  to-overcome 
the  greenish  cast  of  brass,  it  requires  the 
addition  of  some  orange  coloured  tinge  to 
make  it  a  perfect  lacqtier. 

Aioes  and  gamboge  are  also  sometimes 
used  in  lacquers  for  brass  ;  but  the  aloes 
is  not  necessary  wheie  turmeric  or  saffron 
is  used ;  and  tiie  gamboge,  though  a  very 
strong  milky  juice  in  water,  affords  but  a 
very  weak  tinge  in  spirit  of  wine. 

Jl  Lacquer  jor  Tin,  to  imitate  a  Yello-w 
Jtletal — Take  of  turmeric  root  one  ounce, 
of  dragon's  blood  two  drttciims,  and  of 
spii  its  of  wine  one  pint ;  add  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  seed-lac. 

.4  Lacquer  for  Locks,  Ijfc. — Seed-lac 
varnish  alone,  or  with  a  little  dragon's 
blood :  or  a  compound  varnish  of  equal 
parts  of  seed-lac  and  resin,  with  or  with- 
out the  dragon's  blood. 

A  Gold  coloured  Lacquer  for  gilding  lea- 
ther— What  is  called  gilt  leather,  and 
used  for  skreens,  borders  for  rooms,  &.c. 
is  only  leather  covered  with  silver  leaf, 
and  lacquered  with  the  following  compo- 
sition. 

Take  of  fine  white  resin  four*  pounds 
and  a  half,  of  common  resin  the  same 
quantity,  of  gum  sandarach  two  pounds 
and  a  half,  and  of  aloes  two  pounds  ; 
mix  them  together,  after  having  bruised 
those  which  are  in  great  pieces,  and  put 
them  into  an  earthen  pot,  over  a  good  fire 
made  of  cluocoal,  or  over  any  fire  where 
there  is  no  llatne.  Melt  all  tlie  ingredients 
in  this  manner,  stirring  them  well  with  a 
spatula,  that  thty  may  be  thoroughly  mix- 
ed together,  anu  be  prevented  also  from 
sticking  to  the  bot\om  of  the  ])ot.  AVhen 
they  are  perfectly  iiielled  and  mixed,  add 
gradually  to  them  seven  pints  of  linseed 
oil,  and  stir  the  whol*;  well  together  with 
the  spatula.  Make  the  whole  boil,  stirring 
it  all  the  time,  to  prevent  a  kind  of  sedi- 
ment that  will  form,  from  sticking  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel.  When  the  varnish 
is  lilraost  sufficiently  boiled,  add  gradually 


half  an  ounce  of  litharge,  or  half  an  ounce 
of  red  lead,  and  when  they  are  dissolved, 
pass  the  varnish  through  a  linen  cloth,  or 
flannel  bag. 

The  time  of  boiling  this  varnish  should 
be  about  seven  or  eight  hours.  This,  how- 
ever, varies  according  to  circumstances. 
The  way  of  knowing  when  it  is  sufficient- 
ly boiled,  is  by  taking  a  little  on  some  in- 
strument, and  if  it  draws  out  and  is  ropy, 
and  sticks  to  the  fingers,  drying  on  them, 
it  is  done ;  but  if  not,  it  must  be  boiled 
till  it  acquires  these  qualities.  See  Var- 
nish. 

LACTIC  ACID.     SeeMiLic. 

LAKES.  A  lake  may  be  defined  to  be 
an  intimate  combination  of  colouring  ex- 
tract, with  an  earth,  or  metallic  oxyd, 
formed  by  precipitation  from  the  solution 
of  the  colouring  matter.  Thus,  if  a  solu- 
tion of  alum  is  added  to  an  infusion  of 
madder,  a  mutual  decomposition  takes 
place,  and  part  of  the  alumine  falls  down 
intimately  united  with  the  colouring  mat- 
ter of  the  madder.  This  separation  is 
much  assisted  by  an  alkali 

The  lakes  form  some  of  the  beautiful 
pigments,  and  are  much  used  in  water-co- 
lour painting,  and  other  purposes.  They 
are  almost  invariably  composed  either  of 
alum,  or  sometimes  the  solutions  of  tin, 
and  some  olher  watery  solution  of  a  co- 
loiwing  matter. 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  said  on  the 
subject  of  lakes,  in  other  parts  of  our 
work,  the  following  observations  may 
piove  useful  in  this  place. 

The  principal  lakes  are,  Carmine,  Flo- 
rence-lake, and  lake  from  .Madder. 

For  the  preparation  of  Carmine,  four 
ounces  of  finely  pulverized  cochineal,  are 
to  be  poured  into  four  or  six  quarts  of  rain 
or  distilled  water,  that  has  been  previous- 
ly boiled  in  a  pewter  kettle,  and  boiled 
with  it  for  the  space  of  six  mmutes  lon- 
g-er ;  (some  advise  to  add,  during  the  boil- 
ing, two  drachms  of  pulverized  crystals  of 
tartar.)  Eight  §^cruples  of  Roman  alum 
in  powder  are  then  to  be  added,  and  the 
whole  kept  upon  the  fire  one  minute  lon- 
ger. As  soon  as  the  gross  powder  has 
subsided  to  ttie  bottom,  and  the  decoction 
is  become  clear,  the  latter  is  to  be  care- 
fully decanted  into  large  cylindrical  glass- 
es covered  over,  and  kept  undisturbed, 
till  a  fine  powder  is  observed  to  have  set- 
tled at  the  bottom.  The  superincumbent 
liquor  is  then  to  be  poured  off  from  this 
powder,  and  the  powder  gradually  dried. 
From  the  decanted  liquor,  which  is  still 
much  coloured,  the  rest  of  the  colouring 
matter  may  be  separated  by  means  of  the 
solution  of  tin,  when  it  yields  a  caj'mine 
little  inferior  to  the  other. 


LAK 


LEA 


For  the  preparation  of  Florentine  lake, 
the  sediment  of  cochineal,  that  remained 
in  the  kettle,  may  be  boiled  with  tlie  re- 
quisite quantity  of  watei-.  and  the  red  li- 
quor likewise,  tiiat  remained  after  tlie 
preparation  of  the  carmine,  mixed  with  it, 
and  the  whole  precipitated  with  the  solu- 
tion of  tin.  The  red  precipiuite  must  be 
frequently  edulcorated  with  water.  Exclu- 
sively of  this,  two  ounces  of  fresh  cochi- 
neal, and  one  of  crystals  of  tartar,  are  to 
be  boiled  witli  a  sufficient  quantity  of  wa- 
ter, poured  off  clear-,  and  precipitated 
with  'he  solution  of  tin,  and  the  precipi- 
tate washed.  At  the  same  time  2  pounds 
of  alum  are  also  to  be  dissolved  in  water, 
precipitated  with  a  lixivium  of  pot-ash, 
and  tlie  white  earth  repeatedly  washed 
with  boiling  water.  Finally,  both  preci- 
pitates are  to  be  mixed  together  in  their 
liquid  _  state,  put  upon  a  filter,  and  dried. 
For  the  preparation  of  a  cheaper  sort,  in- 
stead of  cochineal,  one  pound  of  Brazil 
wood  may  be  employed  in  the  preceding 
manner 

The  red  extracted  from  shreds  of  scar- 
let cloth  by  boiling  them  in  a  lixivium  of 
a  pound  of  pearl  ashes  to  two  quarts  of 
water,  being  precipitated  by  a  solution  of 
a  pound  and  half  of  cuttlefish  bone  in  a 
pound  of  aqua  fortis,  is  said  to  make  a  ve- 
ry fine  carmine.  If  1Mb.  of  the  bone  be 
not  sufficient  to  saturate  the  aqua  fortis, 
more  must  be  added,  till  it  excites  no  ef- 
fervescence. If  the  lake  appear  too  pur- 
ple, a  little  alum  may  be  added  to  the  so- 
lution. 

For  the  following  process  for  making  a 
lake  from  madder,  the  Society  of  Arts  in 
England,  voted  sir  H.  C  Englefield,  their 
gold  medal.  Enclose  two  ounces  troy  of 
the  finest  Dutch  crop  madder  in  a  bag  of 
fine  and  strong  calico,  large  enough  to 
hold  three  or  four  times  as  mucli  Put  it 
into  a  large  marble  or  porcelain  moi'tar, 
and  pour  on  it  a  pint  of  clear  soft  water 
cold.  Press  the  bag  in  every  direction, 
and  pound  and  rub  it  about  with  a  pestle, 
as  much  as  can  be  done  without  tearing 
it,  and  when  the  water  is  loaded  with  co- 
lour, pour  it  off.  Repeat  this  process  till 
the  water  comes  off  but  slightly  tinged, 
for  which  about  five  pints  will  be  suffi- 
cient. Heat  all  the  liquor  in  an  earthen 
OP  silver  vessel,  till  it  is  near  boiling,  and 
then  pour  it  into  a  large  basin,  into  which 
a  troy  ounce  of  alum,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of 
boiling  soft  water,  has  been  previously 
put.  Stir  the  mixttn-e  together,  and  while 
stirring,  pour  in  gently  about  an  ounce 
and  half  of  a  saturated  solution  of  subcar- 
bonat  of  potash  Let  it  stand  till  cold  to 
settle ;  pour  off  the  clear  yellow  liquor ; 
add  to  tjie  precipitate  a  quart  of /boiling 


soft  water,  stirring  it  well;  and,  when  cold, 
separate  by  filtration  the  lake,  v.hich 
should  weigh  half  an  ounce.  If  less 
alum  be  employed,  the  colour  will  be 
somewhat  deeper  :  with  less  than  three- 
fourths  of  an  ounce,  the  whole  of  the  co- 
louring matter  will  not  unite  with  the  alu- 
mine  Fresh  madder  root  is  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  the  dry. 

Almost  all  vegetable  colouring  matters 
may  be  precipitated  into  lakes,  more  or 
less  beautiful,  by  means  of  alum,  or  oxide 
of  tin  ;  but  Guyton-Morveau  assejts,  that 
the  oxide  of  tungsten  is  superior  to  any 
other  base.  If  this  oxide  were  boiled  in 
vinegar,  so  as  to  give  it  a  blue  colour,  the 
tints  of  the  lake  were  heightened.  From 
the  fermentedjuiceof  tlie  succotrine  aloe 
he  obtained  a  fine  purple  red  with  this 
oxide.     See  Colour-Making. 

LAMP-BLAC;K.  There  are  two  spe- 
cies of  lamp-black  in  common  use  ;  oneis 
the  light  soot  from  burning  wood  of  the 
pine,  and  other  resinous  kinds  ;  and  the 
other  is  a  heavy  black,  prepared  from 
bones,  by  calcining  them  in  close  vessels. 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  said  on 
lamp-black,  under  Colour-Making,  we 
may  add,  that  its  preparation  is  depend- 
ent on  the  making  of  common  rosin :  the 
impure  resinous  juice,  collected  from  inci- 
sions made  in  pine  and  fir  trees,  is  boiled 
down  with  a  little  water,  and  strained, 
whilst  hot,  through  a  bag  :  the  dregs  and 
pieces  of  bark  left  in  the  strainer  are 
burnt  in  a  low  oven,  from  which  the 
smoke  is  conveyed  through  a  long  pas- 
sage, into  a  square  chamber,  having  an 
opening  on  the  top,  on  v/hich  a  large  sack 
made  of  thin  woollen  stuff  is  fixed;  the 
soot,  or  lampblack,  concretes  partly  in 
the  chamber,  from  whence  it  is  swept  out 
once  in  two  or  three  days,  and  partly  in 
the  sack,  which  is  now  and  then  gently 
struck  upon,  both  for  shaking  down  the 
soot,  and  for  clearing  the  interstices  be- 
twixt the  threads,  so  as  to  procure  suffi- 
cient diuuglit  of  air  through  it.  In  this 
manner  lampblack  is  prepared  at  the 
turpentine  houses,  from  the  dregs  and  re- 
fuse of  the  resinous  matters,  which  are 
there  manufactured.     See  Colours. 

LEAD. — Lead  is  a  metal  of  a  bluish- 
grey  colour,  is  malleable,  ductile,  and  in- 
elastic :  it  is  very  soft,  is  fusible  at  less 
than  a  red  heat,  is  easily  oxydablc  by  es- 
posiu'e  to  the  air  jwhen  melted,  and  its 
oxyd  is  easily  fusible  into  a  transpai'ent 
yellow  glass. 

Ores  of  Lead. —  5^.  1.  Galena. 

Of  this  there  are  Uie  two  following  sub- 
species. 

1.  Subsp.  Common  Galena. 

Its  colour  is  a  more  or  less  perfect  lead- 


% 


LEA 

grey,  inclining  in  some  varieties  to  black- 
ish; it  sometimes  presents  superficially, 
an  iridesccni:  tarnish.  It  occurs  in  mass, 
disseminateil  or  investing  ;  also  in  particu- 
lar sliiipes,  such  as  globular,  reniform, 
specular,  reticulated,  cellular,  cylindri- 
cal. See.  also  crystallized. 

The  crystals  are  rarely  lai-ge,  but  ge-i 
nerally  middle-sized  or  small;  either 
grouped  one  upon  the  other,  implanted,  or 
solitary.  Their  planes  are  commonly 
smooth,  sometimes  drusy,  rarely  carious 
or  rough.  The  external  lustre  of  galena 
vai'ies,  according  to  its  surface,  from  re- 
splendent and  specular  to  glimmering. 
Internally  it  varies  from  specular  to  glist- 
ering, audits  lustre  is  metallic.  Its  fracture 
is  lamellar,  cither  plane,  curved,  or  diver- 
gent;  this  latter  passes  into,  radiated,  the 
rays  being  short  and  broad.     It  is  divisi- 

From  Kirschwald, 
in  Deux  Fonts. 

Lead        54. 

Sulphiu-  .....  8. 
Carbonated  lime  and  silex  38. 
Oxydofu'on        ....    0. 


I.EA 

ble  in  a  three-fold  rectangular  direction, 
hence  its  fragments  are  cubical.  When 
in  mass  it  is  often  composed  of  granular 
and  rarely  of  lamellar  distinct  concre- 
tions. It  is  soft,  somewhat  seclile,  easily 
frangible.     Sp.  g.  6.56  to  7.78. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  decrepitates, 
then  melts,  giving  out  a  sulphureous 
odour,  and  when  this  ceases  a  globule  of 
metallic  lead  remains  behind. 

Galena  consists  essentially  of  lead  and 
sulphur,  in  the  proportion  of  about  lOO  of 
the  former,  to  15  of  the  latter  ;  but,  be- 
sides these  ingredients,  iron  pyrites,  grey 
antimony,  copper,  gold,  and  silygi-,  are 
found  in  various  proportions,  besides  dif- 
ferent earthy  ingredients,  chiefty  lime  and 
silex.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most 
recent  and  accurate  analyses  that  have 
'  been  made  of  this  ore. 


Kampfstein. 
__      69.      ■ 
_      16. 
_       15. 
—       0.      ■ 


Ecklerberg. 

-  68.69 

-  16.18   • 

-  16.13 

0 


100 


100 


101 


Kantenbach. 

-  64-      — 

-  18.      — 

-  18.      — 

0       — 

100 


Cologne. 

63.1 

12.    .. 

19.67 

3.33 

98.1 


The  above  analyses  were  made  by 
Vauquelin,  to  which  we  shall  subjoin  an 
analysis  of  galena  from  Durham,  by  Dr. 
riiomson. 

Lead  .  .  •  8513 
Sulphur  .  .  13.02 
Oxydofiron     .       0.5 

98.65 


The  proportion  of  silver  in  galena  va- 
ries greatl} >  from  ^.i.^  or  less,  to  ^^ ;  it 
is  observable  that  the  presence  of  this  me- 
tal considerably  impairs  the  lustre  of  ga- 
lena, and  that  it  is  nmch  more  frequent- 
ly found  in  the  octohedral  than  in  the  cu- 
bical varieties  of  this  mineral.  The  pre- 
sence of  antimony  is  commonly  indicated 
by  a  tendency  to  the  radiated  fracture- 

It  is  next  to  pyrites  tlie  most  common 
of  metallic  ores,  and  is  found  in  beds  and 
veins  in  primitive,  transition,  and  secon- 
dary mountains.  It  occurs  most  abun- 
dantly in  argillaceous  schistus  and  secon- 
dary limestone,  and  t^  almost  always  ac- 
comjianied  by  blende  and  calamine.  To 
enuniorate  the  places  where  it  is  found, 
would  be  to  mention  almost  all  the  mine- 
ral districts  that  are  known. 

Lead  is  found  in  abundance  in  Louisi- 
ana, and  in  v;irious  other  districts,  in  the 
United  States.  In  England,  it  is  found  in 
Coming  all,  Devonshire,  and  Somersetshire; 


in  Derbyshire,  in  Durham,  and  the  conti- 
guous boundaries  of  Lancashire,  Cumber- 
land, and  Westmoreland  ;  in  Shropshire, 
in  Flint  and  Denbighshire,  in  Merioneth 
and  Montgomeryshire  ;  at  the  lead-hills  in 
Scotland,  on  the  borders  of  Dumfrieshire' 
and  Lanarkshire,  in  Ayrshire,  and  at 
Strontian  in  Argyleshire. 

Most  of  the  lead  of  commerce  is  pro- 
cured from  this  ore ;  it  is  also  made  use 
of  without  any  further  preparation  as  a 
glazing  for  coarse  pottery. 
2.  Subap.  Comjiact  galena. 
Its  colour  is  similar  to  but  generally 
somewhat  lighter  than  that  of  the  prece- 
ding subspecies.  It  occurs  in  mass,  disse- 
minated  and  specidar  (the  specular  in 
Derbyshire,  is  known  by  the  name  of»/<- 
iensit/e).  The  specular  variety  is  splen- 
dent externally,  the  others  are  only  gUm- 
mering.  Internally  all  the  varieties  are 
slightly  glistening  with  a  metallic  histj-e. 
Its  fracture  is  even,  passing  into  Hat  con- 
choidal.  Its  fragments  are  indeterminate- 
Iv  angular.  It  acquires  a  polish  by  fric- 
tion ;  is  more  lender  than  the  preceding 
subspecies,  and  agrees  witli  it  in  tlie  rest 
of  its  chai  acters.     Sp.  gr.  7.44. 

In  its  habitudes  with  the  blowpipe,  it 
dillers  from  common  galena  in  not  decre- 
piiatiiig  on  the  first  apphcation  of  heat. 

It  occurs  in  veins  with  common  galena, 
and  always  occupies  the  sides  of.  the  vein. 
It  is  not  very  common. 


LEA 


LEA 


.?/».  2.  Triple  Sulphuret  of  Lead. 

Its  colour  is  dark  grey>  inclining  to 
black.  It  occurs  crystallized.  Its  primi- 
tive figure  is  a  rectangulai*  tetrahedral 
prism,  besides  which  it  presents  other  va- 
rieties. 

The  crystals  are  large  and  middle  si- 
zed, with  a  splendent  metallic  lustre  both 
externally  and  internally.  Its  fracture  is 
coarse-grained,  uneven.  In  hardness  it 
ranks  between  calcai-eous  and  fluor  spar ; 
is  very  brittle  and  easily  frangible.  It 
leaves  a  faint  black  trace  when  rubbed  on 
paper.     Sp.  gv.  5.76. 

When  suddenly  heated  before  the 
blowpipe  it  crackles  and  splits,  but  if  gra- 
dually heated  it  melts,  and  on  cooling 
forms  a  globule  of  a  dull  metallic-grey 
colour;  by  further  exposure  to  the  flame 
a  white  and  somewhat  sulphureous  va- 
pour is  disengaged,  consisting  of  sulphur 
and  antimony,  and  there  remains  behind  a 
crust  of  sulphuretted  lead,  inclosing  a 
globule  of  metallic  copper.  It  has  been 
analyzed  by  Air.  Hatchett,  with  the  fol- 
lowing result. 

17.      Sulphur. 
42.62  Lead. 
2123  Antimony. 
12.8    Copper. 
1.2     Iron. 


97.85 
2.15 


Loss. 


100. 


It  has  hitherto  been  found  only  in  the 
mine  Huel-Boys,  in  Cornwall. 

Sp.  3.  Blue  Lead  Ore. 

Its  colour  is  intermediate  between  lead- 
grey  and  indigo-blue  ;  it  also  passes  some- 
times to  smoke-grey  and  black.  It  occurs 
sometimes  in  mass,  but  usually  crystalliz- 
ed in  small  six-sided  prisms,  perfectly 
equiangular,  often  a  little  bulging,  and 
the  external  surface  of  which  is  somewhat 
I'ough  and  dull.  Internally  it  possesses 
a  feebly-glimmering,  metallic  lustre.  Its 
fracture  is  even,  passing  into  line-grained 
uneven  and  flat  conchoidal.  Its  fragments 
are  indeterminately  angular.  It  is  opake, 
gives  a  shining  metallic  streak,  is  soft, 
somewhat  sectile,  and  easily  frangible. 
Sp.  gr.  5.46. 

It  fuses  readily  before  the  blowpipe, 
then  bums  with  a  weak  blue  flame,  giv- 
ing out  a  penetrating  sulphureous  vapour, 
and  is  reduced  to  a  metallic  globule. 

It  has  not  been  regularly  analyzed. 
Klaproth  discovered  in  it  some  phospho- 
ric acid,  and  the  other  constituent  parts 
are  probably  sulphur  and  oxyd  of  lead. 

It  has  hitherto  been  found  only  at 
VOL.  I, 


Zschoppau  in  SaxoTiy,  in  veins  accompa' 
nicd  by  black  and  brown  lead  ores,  carbo" 
nat  of  lead,  malachite,  quartz,  fluor  spar' 
and  heavy  spar. 

Sp.  4.  Carbonet  of  Lead. 

Its  colour  is  greyish  or  yellowish -white, 
yellowish-grey,  cream-yellow,  and  light 
clove-brown,  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
dark  ash-grey.  It  occurs  massive,  disse- 
minated, and  superficial ;  but  most  fre- 
quently crystallized.  Its  primitive  figure 
is  a  rectangular  octahedron,  divisible  pa- 
rallel to  the  common  base  of  the  two  py- 
ramids of  which  it  is  composed. 

The  ci-ystals  are  usually  small,  rarely 
middle-sized,  either  solitaiy  or  in  groups : 
their  surface  is  generally  specular  and 
splendent,  sometimes  a  little  rough  or 
striated,  and  then  only  glistening.  Inter- 
nally its  lusti'e  varies  from  highly  resplen- 
dent to  glistening,  and  is  that  of  the  dia- 
mond, inclining  on  the  one  hand  to  semi- 
metalllcj  and  on  the  other  to  resinous.  Its 
fracture  is  small  conchoidal,  passing  into 
fine-grained  uneven  and  fine  splintery  or 
imperfectly  fibi'ous,  Its  fragments  are  in- 
determinately angular.  It  varies  from 
transparent  to  translucent,  and  is  m  a  re- 
markable degree  doubly  refracting.  It  is 
soft,  brittle,  and  easily  frangible.  Sp.  gr. 
6.0  to  7.2. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  decrepitates,  be- 
comes yellow  and  then  red,  and  if  heated 
on  charcoal  is  immediately  reduced.  It 
effervesces  slightly  in  cold  nitrous  or  mu- 
riatic acid,  but  more  vigorously  if  the 
menstruum  is  warmed.  It  is  blackened  by 
hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia.  It  is  often 
confounded  with  columnar  heavy  spar, 
but  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  this 
by  its  superior  specific  gravity  and  its 
habitudes  with  the  blowpipe  and  hydro- 
sulphuret of  ammonia.  I'aere  are  several 
analyses  of  this  ore,  but  perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory  are  the  following.  ^^m 

From  Zitterfeld,        From-Leadhills,  0^ 

by  Westrumb.  by  Klaproth. 

Oxyd  of  lead       81.2      77  I^ad 
Carbonic  acid      16.  5  Oxygen 

Oxyd  of  iron  0.3  16  Carbonic  acid 
Lime      -    -    -    0.9        2  Water  and  loss  I 

98.4     100 

Carbonat  of  lead  is  almost  always  ac- 
companied by  galena,  and  appears  to  be 
more  frequently  found  in  argillaceous 
schistus  than  in  any  other  kind  of  rock.  It 
is  by  no  means  a  rare  mineral,  but  seldom 
occurs  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  worth  . . 

separating  from  the  adhering  spar,  &c, 
for  the  purpose  of  smelting.  The  finest 
specimens  of  this  ore  that  are  found  in 
Biitain  cumc  from  the  mines  of  Derby- 
i  A 


LEA 


LKA 


shiPe,  oi'  Lead.hills  in  Scotland,  and  Mi- 
nera  in  Denbighshire,  at  which  last  place 
the  compact  variety  is  remurkubly  abun- 
dant.    It  also  occurs  in  the  Uiuted  States. 

Sp.  5.  Black  Lead  Ore. 

Its  colour  is  greyish-black  passing  into 
smoke-grey.  It  occurs  in  mass,  dissemi- 
nated or  cellular,  or  crystallized  in  six- 
sided  prisms,  either  simple  or  terminated 
by  dihedral  summits. 

The  crystals  are  small  and  grouped 
confusedly  in  groups.  Their  surface  is 
sometimes  smooth,  sometimes  striated 
longitudinally.  Externally  it  is  splendent 
or  shining,  internally  it  is  shining  or  gl).s- 
tening,  witli  a  lustre  approaching  to  semi- 
metallic.  Its  fracture  is  fine-grained  un- 
even, passing  into  imperfectly  conchoidal. 
Its  fragment's  are  indeterminately  angular. 
It  is  opake,  or  at  most  translucent  on  the 
edges.  It  gives  a  greyish-white  streak  ; 
it  is  moderately  hard,  brittle,  and  easily 
frangible.     Sp.  gr.  5.77. 

Before    the   blowpipe   it   decrepitates, 
and  is  quickly  reduced  to  a  metallic  glo- 
bule.    Jt  has  recently  been  analyzed  by 
Lampadiiis,  and  appears  to  consist  of 
72.     Lead 
7-     Oxygen 
18.     Carbonic  acid 
2.    Carbon 


99 


It  occurs  in  veins  of  galena,  principally 
of  the  most  recent  formation  It  usually 
occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  vein,  in- 
crusting  galena,  and  being  itself  covered 
by  carbonat  or  green  pliosjihut  of  lead. 
It  is  found  in  the  Lead-hills  in  Scotland ; 
in  Bohemia  and  Saxony ;  in  Brittany  in 
France,  and  in  Siberia. 

Sp  6.  Murii/.  of  Lead. 

Its  colour  varies  from  the  palest  grey 
to  wine-yellow.  It  occurs  crystaUized  in 
cubes,  either  simple  or  terminated  by 
tetrahedral  pyramids,  or  bevelled  on  the 
edges.  The  crystals  are  middle-sized  and 
small,  and  have  a  splendent  vitreous  lus- 
tre.  The  principal  fractiu-e  is  foliated, 
the  cross fract<ne  conchoidal.  It  is  trans- 
parent or  semi-transparent.  It  is  much 
softer  than  carbonated  lead  ;  and  is  easily 
frangible.     S|).  gr.  6.05. 

When  heated  on  charcoal  before  the 
blow-l^ipe  it  runs  into  an  opake  orange- 
coloured  gU)bvde,  which  on  cooling  be- 
comes first  yellow  and  then  white.  At  a 
high  lieat  the  globule  sutUlenly  spreads 
over  tlie  charcoal,  the  acid  Hies  oft"  in  va- 
pours, and  there  remi.in  behind  minute 
grains  of  metallic  lead. 

It  has  been  analyzed  by  Klaproth  and 
Mr.  Chcncvix  with  Uie  following  results. 


1000 


85  Oxyd  of  lead 

8  Muriatic  acid 

6  Carbonic  acid 

99 


It  has  hitherto  been  found  only  at  Mat- 
lock in  Derbysliire,  upon  galtna. 

Sp.7.  Brown  I'hosphat  of  Lead. 

Its  colour  is  hair-brov.fn,  passing  on  one 
side  into  grey,  and  on  the  other  into  clove- 
brown.  It  occurs  rarely  in  mass,  but  ge- 
nerally crystallized  in  lengthened  six- 
sided  prisms,  sometimes  so  slender  as  to 
become  capillary.  The  surface  of  the 
crystals  is  blackish  and  rough  :  internally 
it  is  glistening,  with  a  resinous  lustre  Its 
fracture  is  small  grained  uneven  passing 
into  fine-splintery.  Its  fragments  are  in- 
determinately angular.  It  is  more  or  less 
translucent,  gives  a  white  powder,  is  soft, 
moderately  brittle,  and  easily  frangible. 
Sp.  gr.  6.6  to  6.9. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  melts  very  easily, 
but  is  not  reduced  to  the  metallic  state ; 
by  cooling  it  concretes  into  a  radiated 
mass.  It  does  not  effervesce  with  acids. 

According  to  Klaproth  it  consists  of 
Oxyd  of  lead   ....     78.58 
Phosphoric  acid    -     .     -     19.73 
Muriatic  acid  -     -     -     .       1.65 


99.96 

It  occurs  in  veins  at  Huelgoet  in  Britta- 
ny, at  Miess  in  Bohemia,  near  Schemnitz 
in  Hungary,  Saska  in  the  Bannat,  and 
Zschoppau  in  Saxony. 

Sp.  8.  Green  Phosphat  of  Lead. 

Its  usual  colour  is  olive-gTcen,  but  it 
also  exhibits  several  other  shades  of 
green,  such  as  grass-green,  greenish - 
wiule,pistachia,and  yellow-green,  w  liencc 
it  passes  into  sulphur-yellow.  It  occurs 
sometimes  in  mass,  or  renifbrm  or  botryoi- 
dal,  but  most  commonly  crystaUized. 

Its  primitive  form  is  tiie  pyramidal  do- 
decahedron, consisting  of  two  six-sided 
pyramids  joined  at  their  bases. 

The  crystals  are  generally  small,  either 
solitary  or  in  groups.  Sometimes  the 
crystals  are  so  minute  as  to  appear  like  a 
fine  down. 

The  surface  of  the  crystals  is  smooth 
and  sliiiilng;  internally  they  are  glisten- 
ing, witli  a  resinous  lustre.  Tlie  fracture 
is  small-;;'rained  uTievcn,  \erging  some- 
times upon  splintery  Its  fragments  arc 
indeterminately  angular.  It  is  translucent, 
very  rarely  semi-transparent.  Its  hard- 
ness is  superior  to  that  of  carbonated 
lead  ;  it  gives  a  greenish-white  powder, 
is  iM-ittle,  and  easily  frangible.  Sp.  gr.  6  J 
to  6.9. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  becomes  of  ■* 


LEA 

gi"ey;sh-\vliite  and  melts  vei'v  easily,  with- 
out decrepitation,  into  a  globule ;  but 
shows  no  sign  of  reduction.  If  the  globule 
is  cooled  slowly  it  forms  a  polyhedral 
striated  solid.    It  is   soluble  difficultly. 


LEA 

and  without  effervescence  In  the  mineral 
acids. 

The  three  subsequent  varieties  of  this 
mineral  have  been  analyzed  by  Klaproth 
with  the  following  results. 


Yellowish -green  phosphat.  Grass-green  phosphat,  from    Lemon-yellow  phosphat, 

from  Zschoppau.  Hoffsgrund  in  the  Brisgau.         from  VVanloch-head. 

78.        77.1         80.      Oxydoflead 

18.37    19.  18.       Phosphoric  acid 

1.7      1.54      1.62  Muriatic  acid 

0.8      0.1        0.      Oxydofiron 


A  specimen  fi-om  Erlbach  on  the  other 
hand  was  found  by  Vauquelin  to  contain 
45  18     Lead 
187     Phosphoric  acid 

4  05     Oxvgen 
32.         Silex 


99.93 


This  mineral  is  found  in  veins  both  in 
jirimitive  and  secondary  mountains,  but 
chielly  in  tlie  former  of  these.  It  is  ac- 
companied for  the  most  part  with  galena, 
carbonat  of  lead,  and  iron  ochre,  with 
quartz,  heavy  spar,  and  calcareous  spar. 

It  is  met  with  in  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Ba- 
varia, the  Brisgau,  France,  Scotland,  and 
Siberia. 

Sp.9.  SulphatofLead. 

Its  colour  is  greyish  or  yellowish-white, 
passing  into  smoke  and  ash-grey.  It  has 
been  found  only  crystallized,  "its'primitive 
figure  is  an  octohedron,  composed  of  two 
tetrahedral  pyramids  with  rectangulai- 
bases 

ExteiTially  the  crystals  are  smooth  and 
shining;  internally  they  are  splendent 
with  a  vitreous  lustre.  The  fracture  of 
tills  mineral  is  compact.  It  is  more  or 
less  transparent  passing  into  translucent. 
It  is  soft,  somewhat  brittle,  and  easily 
frangible.     Sp.  gr.  6.3. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  decrepitates  on 
the  first  application  of  the  flame,  but  when 
previously  pulverized  it  melts  into  a  brii- 
liant  scoria,  which  by  continued  ignition 
on  the  charcoal  is  reduced  to  metallic 
lead.  It  has  been  analyzed  by  Klaproth 
with  the  following  results. 

From  Anglesey.    From-Wanloch-head 

<-■%  ~(->      /-«-        ,-v  1  ..     1 


71. 

24  8 
2. 
1.0 

98  8 


70  55  Oxyd  of  lead. 
25.75  Sulphuric  acid 

2.25  Water 

0.      Oxyd  of  iron 

98.5 


It  occurs  in  veins  of  galena  at  Wanloch- 
head,  and  in  the  province  of  Andalusia  in 
Spain,  and  in  a  bed  of  cellular  quartz 


with  iron  pyrites  and  iron  ochre  at  Parys 
mine  in  Anglesey. 

Sp  10.  Arseniat  of  Lead. 
Of  this  there  are  two  subspecies. 
I.  Subsp.  Reniform  Ai-seniat. 
The  colour  of  the   recent  fracture   is 
brownish-red,  but  by  exposure  to  the  air 
it  passes  into  ochre  and  straw-yellow.    It 
occurs  in  reniform  masses,  the  surface  of 
which  is  rough  and  uneven.     Internally  it 
is  ghstening  with  a  resinous  lustre.     Its 
fracture  is  conchoidal.  It  occurs  in  coarse- 
granular  distinct  concretions  ;  is  opake  ; 
gives  a  dull  orange-yellow  streak  ;  is  soil 
and  brittle.     Sp.  gr.  3.92 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  melts,  emits  an 
arsenical  odour,  and  at  length  is  convert- 
ed into  a  black  shining  globule,  in  which 
grains  of  lead  are  obseiwable. 

According  to  an  analysis  by  Bindheim 
it  consists  of 

35.      Oxyd  of  lead 
25.       Arsenic  acid 

1.5     Silver 
14.      Iron 
7.       Silex 
3.       Alumine 
10       Water 

95.5 

It  has  hitherto  been  found  onlyat  Nerst 
chinsk  in  Siberia. 

2   Subsp.  Green  Arseniat  of  Lead. 

Its  colour  varies  fi'om  meadow-green  to 
wax-yellow.  It  occurs  in  needles,  in  fine 
filaments,  in  compact  masses,  and  granu- 
lar  concretions.  Its  lustre  varies  from 
sUky  to  resinous.  It  is  translucent,  mode- 
rately brittle,  and  easily  frangible.  Sp.  gr. 
5.04. 

Before  the  blowpipe  it  gives  out  an  ar- 
senical vapour,  and  is  reduced  to  a  metal- 
lic globule. 

It  occurs  in  veins  with  galena  in  Anda- 
lusia in  Spain,  and  in  the  departments  of 
the  Saone  and  Loire  in  France. 

The  arsenico-phosphat  of  lead  of  Hauy 
may  probably  also  be  referred  hither.  Its 
colour  is  yellowish-green ;  it  occurs  in 
mamillary  masses,  studded  with  brilliant 


1.EA 

points.  Before  the  blowpipe  it  i;ives  out 
an  arsenical  odour.  It  contains,  accoi  dini;- 
to  Fourcroy,  by  whom  it  has  been  ana- 
lyzed, 

50     Oxyd  of  lead 
29    Arsenic  acid 
14     Phosphoric  acid 
4     Oxyd  of  iron 
3    Water 

100 

It  is  met  with  in  a  mine  at  Hosiers  in 
Auvergne. 

Sp  11.  Molybdat  of  Lead. 

Sp.  12.  Chroniat  of  Lead,  See  Chrome. 

Up.  13.  Lead  of  Ochre. 

Of  these  there  are  two  subspecies. 

1.  Subsp.  Indurated. 
Its  colour  is  yellowish  or  greenish-grey, 

straw-yellow,  apple-green,  smoke-grey, 
and  light  brownish-red.  It  occurs  in  mass. 
Internally  it  is  glimmering  or  glistening, 
■with  a-resinous  lustre.  Its  fracture  is  fine- 
grained uneven,  passing  into  fine  splintery 
and  earthy,  also  into  flat  conchoidal.  It 
is  opake  'or  at  most  shghtly  translucent 
on  the  edges.  It  gives  a  brownish  streak; 
is  soft,  passing  into  friable  ;  is  not  very 
brittle,  but  is  easily  frangible. 

It  is  reducible  before  the  blowpipe,  ef- 
fervesces with  acids,  and  is  blackened  by 
hydro-sulphuret  of  ammonia. 

It  occurs  with  the  other  ores  of  lead, 
and  is  usually  accompanied  by  iron  pyrites 
and  malachite. 

2.  Subsp.  Friable. 

Its  cclour  is  yellowish-grey  approach- 
ing to  suiphur-ye'Uow.  It  occurs  massive, 
disseminated,  and  superficial.  It  is  com- 
posed of  dull,  dusty,  friable  particles  ;  is 
meagre  and  rough  to  the  touch,  and  is 
; heavy. 

It  is  found  to  accompany  galena  and  the 
other  ores  of  lead,  and  is  found  at  'W'an- 
loch-head  and  the  Lead-hills  in  Scotland, 
in  the  Hartz  and  Saxony,  in  Poland,  and 
Sibena. 

Smelting  and  Reduction  of  Lead  Ore. — 
The  only  ore  of  lead  that  is  wrought  in 
live  large  wav  is  galena,  and  the  method 
of  treating  this  is  very  simple,  partly  on 
account  of  the  richness  of  the  ore  and 
partly  on  account  of  the  low  price  of  tlie 
metal  itself,  which  therefore  will  not  ad- 
mit of  any  but  the  most  summary  methods  | 
of  bringing  it  inlo  a  market  al)le  st.ate.         ; 


TheVe  when  first  brouglit  up  from  the  \ 
mine  is  dressed  by  women  and  hoys,  wiio  ' 
with  a  hand-hammer  separate  the  greater  , 
part  of  1  ho  adhering  imi)urities,  consisting  ; 
of  blende,  iron  pyrites, quartz,  calciueous  , 
spar,  &c.  The  residue  being  broken  into  i 
nieces   about   the   size  of  a  hazlo  nut  is  | 


LEA 

washed  from  aU  adhering  cby  and  dirl, 
.and  is  then  ready  to  be  snicUed.     The 
furnace  used  for  this  purpose  is  the  com- 
mon reverberatory,  with  a  low  arch.     A 
ton  or  more  of  the  ore  is  spread  on  the 
floor  of  tlie  funiace,  and  by  means  of  the 
flame  from  ])it-coal  it  is  quickly  brought  to 
a  bright  red  heat.     In  this  situation  it  is 
occasionally  stirred  with  iron  rakes  to  ex- 
pose fresh  surfaces  to  the  action  of  the 
flame  and  facilitate  the  se])aration  of  the 
sulphur.     In  a  short  time  tiie  mass  begins 
to   acquire    a   pasty   consistence ;    upon 
which  the  heat  is  lowered  and  the  ore  is 
kept  at  a  dull  red  till  the  sulphur  is  nearly 
all  got  rid  of;  the  fire  being  tlien  increas- 
ed the  ore  is  brouglit  to  a  state  of  perfect 
fusion,  and  visibly  consists  of  two  fluids  ; 
the  lower  is  the  metallic  lead,  the  upper 
is  a  vitreous  slag,  still  holding  a  consider.a- 
ble  portion  of  lead  but  mixed  with  vari- 
ous impurities.  In  this  state  of  the  process 
the  fire  is  damped  and  a  few  spadefuls  of 
quicklime  are  thrown  into  tlie  fluid  mass  ; 
by  tliis  tlie  scorix  are  suddenly  solidified, 
and  are  raked  to  the  side  of  the  furnace  ; 
the  tap-hole  is  then  opened,  and  the  lead 
runs  into   moulds   placed   to  receive   it, 
where  it  congeals  into  oblong  masses  call- 
ed pigs,  weighing  about  60 lbs  each.     As 
soon  as  the  lead  has  run  out  of  the  fur- 
nace, the  tap-hole  is  closed,  the  scorix  are 
replaced  in  the  bed,  and  being  quickly 
raised  to  a  glowing  red  heat   are  soon 
melted  ;  the  greatest  part  of  the  lead  that 
they  contained  by  this  means  collects  into 
a  mass  at  the  "bottom  ;  a   little  lime  is 
thrown  in  as  before,  the  seorix  thus  ren- 
dered solid  are  raked  aside,  and  tlie  lead 
which  they  covered  is  let  ofl"  into  a  mould. 
This  second  scoriae,  though  still  holding 
from  5  to  8  per  cent,   of  lead,  is  nf)W'  re- 
moved from  the  furnace,  and  applied  to  no 
purpose  but  that  of  mending  roads,  the 
expence  of  separating  the  last  portions  of 
metal  being  more  than  the  value  of  the 
prodi\ce. 

The  lead  of  Ihe  first  rimning  is  the  best ; 
that  procured  from  the  scorise  being  sen- 
sibly  harder,  and  less  malleable  on  account 
of  tlie  iron  tli:it  it  contains. 

It  is  a  matter  of  doubt  among  the  most 
intelligent  smelters  whether  there  is  any 
advantage  in  retaining  the  carbonat  of 
lead,  witli  which  the  galena  is  very  often 
mixed  in  considerable  proportion.  On  the 
one  hand  it  is  certain  that  it  contains  a 
hu-ge  quantitv  of  met;d,  and  in  assays  is 
very  casilv  reducible;  but  ci  the  other 
hand,  wht'n  treated  in  the  reverberatory, 
it  vhrifies  almost  at  the  first  impression  of 
the  heat,  and  beii'.g  a  very  active  flux  it  is 
apt  to  bring  the  wiiole  into  fusion  while 
much  sulphur  still  remains  tinsublimcd  ; 


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ij!:a 


hence  the  amount  of  scorix  is  procligious- 
iy  increased,  and  with  it  the  trouble  of  tlie 
smelters,  wliile  the  produce  of  lead  is  very 
little  augmented. 

Citizen  Dubamel,  in  his  Memoii'  on 
the  Keiining'  of  Leati  in  the  large  way, 
has  given  a  sketch  of  the  process  used  in 
England. 

The  object  of  refining  lead  is  not  merely 
on  account  of  the  silver  it  contains,  but 
to  procure  it  as  free  as  possible  from  the 
other  metals  with  which  it  is  usually 
allowed,  and  to  procure  lithai-ge.  The 
silver  is  only  an  object  so  far  as  it  helps 
to  pay  tlie  expense  of  refining. 

The  lead  produced  at  the  smelting 
hearths  or  firtaaces  in  England  is  never 
perfectly  pure  ;  it  is  always  alloyed  with 
a  portion  of  silver,  and  most  commonly 
with  one,  or  most  of  the  following  metals ; 
namely,  zinc,  antimony,  copper,  and 
arsenic ;  which  render  it  unfit  for  some  of 
the  purposes  to  which  lead  is  applied. 

The  operation  of  refining  is  founded  on 
the  facility  with  which  lead  is  oxidated 
"when  exposed  to  heat  in  contact  with 
atmosplieric  air,  and  the  peculiar  proper- 
ties the  oxides  of  lead  possess ;  being 
easily  fused,  and  in  that  state  oxidating 
and  combining  with  most  of  the  metals  ; 
gold,  silver,  and  phitina  excepted. 

'I'he  lead  to  be  refined  is  exposed  to 
the  action  of  heat  and  air  upon  a  cupel  or 
ttst,  composed  of  a  mixttu-e  of  bone  and 
fern  ashes  in  a  i-everberatory  furnace. 

The  refining  furnace  is  composed  of 
good  solid  masonry,  bound  together  with 
iron  bolts.  It  diifers  very  little  in  its 
construction  from  the  common  reverbera- 
tory  furnace,  except  tlie  bottom,  which  is 
perforated  to  receive  the  test  or  cupel. 

A  good  test  is  of  the  first  importance 
in  refinuig  ;  the  method  of  constructing 
one  we  shall  endeavour  to  point  out. 
Six  parts  of  well  burnt  bone  ashes  and 
one  pai't  of  good  fern  ashes  are  to  be  well 
mixed,  sifted  through  a  sieve,  (tlie  spa- 
ces in  which  are  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  square,)  and  moistened  to  about  the 
same  degTee  the  founders  use  their  sand. 
The  iron  frame  is  to  be  laid  on  the  floor 
and  made  stead)',  with  wedges  under  its 
rim;  about  two  inches  in  thickness  of  the 
ashes  are  to  be  equally  spread  over  the 
bottom,  and  with  an  u"on  beater,  such  as 
used  by  tlie  founders,  equally  rammed 
between  the  cross  bars ;  the  frame  is  to 
be  again  tilled  and  rammed  aU  over,  be- 
ginning at  tiie  ciicumfcreuce  and  work- 
ing spiral  ways  until  finishe_d  in  the  cen- 
tre, the  filling  and  ramming  to  be  repea- 
ted until  the  frame  is  completely  full ;  an 
excavation  to  contain  the  lead  is  made  as 
expressed  in  the  plan,  with  a  sharp  spade 


about  five  inches  square,  the  edges  dres- 
sed with  a  long-bladed  knife ;  a  scmi- 
eliptical  hole,  is  to  be  cut  through  the 
breast.  Having  proceeded  so  far,  the 
test  is  to  be  turned  on  its  side  and  dres- 
sed from  all  superfluous  ashes  adhering  to 
the  bottom,  taking  care  that  none  shall  be 
left  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  frame  or 
cross  bars,  otlierwise  in  fixing  the  test  to 
its  situation  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace 
it  would  be  liable  to  be  bulged. 

Fixing  the  Test  in  its  situation. — TIip 
rim  of  the  test  is  now  to  be  plastered  with 
ch  y  or  moistened  ashes,  placed  upon  the 
supporting  cross  bars,  and  fixed  with 
wedges  firmly  against  the  botttom  of  the 
furnace,  the  breast  next  to  the  feeding 
hole. 

A  gentle  fire  may  now  be  lighted,  and 
gradually  increased  until  the  test  be  red 
hot.  When  it  ceases  to  emit  steam  from 
the  under  side  it  is  sufficienlly  dry. 

Lead  previously  melted  in  the  iron  pot 
is  ladled  into  the  test  until  the  hollow 
part  be  nearly  filled,  the  operator  closes 
the  feeding  aperture,  and  increases  the 
heat  of  the  furnace  until  the  sm-face  of 
liie  lead  is  well  covered  with  litharge  ;  he 
tlien  removes  the  door  from  the  feeding 
hole,  and  w  ith  an  iron  rod,  which  has  one 
end  bent  down  at  right  angles  about  three 
inches  and  made  flat  or  chissel-shaped, 
scrapes  the  small  gutter  or  channel  until 
the  litharge  just  flows  into  it,  the  blast 
from  a  pair  of  double  bellows  is  then 
directed  from  the  back  part  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  test,  the  litharge  is  urged  for- 
ward, and  flows  from  the  gutter  upon 
the  floor  of  the  refinery ;  the  operation 
now  goes  forward,  gradually  adding  leid 
as  the  escape  of  litharge  makes  it  neces- 
sary, until  the  gutter  is  so  worn  down  that 
the  test  does  not  contain  more  than  an 
inch  in  depth  of  lead  ;  the  blast  is  then 
taken  off,  the  gutter  filled  up  with  mois- 
tened ashes,  and  a  fresh  one  made  on  the 
other  side  the  breast ;  the  test  is  again 
filled,  though  not  so  full  as  at  first,  and 
the  operation  carried  en  until  this  gutter 
also  is  worn  down  and  the  test  contain 
from  about  fifty  to  seventy  pounds  of 
alloy.  This  quantity  is  run  into  an  iron 
pot,  and  set  by  until  a  sufficient  number 
of  pieces  have  been  collected  to  make  it 
worth  v.hile  to  take  off  a  plate  of  pure 
silver  from  them. 

The  quantity  of  alloy  left,  in  the  working 
off  each  test  must  dei^end  in  a  great 
measure  upon  the  quantity  of  silver  it,  by 
estimation,  is  supposed  to  contain.  A 
sufficient  quantity  of  lead  sliould  always 
be  left  in  the  alloy  to  make  it  fuse  easily 
in  tlie  iron  pot. 

■\Mien  the  test  is    removed  from  the 


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LEA 


furnace  and  broken  up,  the  litliavpc  uill 
be  found  to  liave  penetrated  to  an  incon- 
sidcTuble  but  equal  depth  in  tlie  ashes  ; 
that  part  not  impregnated  with  lithui-ge 
may  be  pulverised,  mixed  with  fresh 
ashes,  and  again  used  for  another  test. 

The  operation  of  taking  oif  the  silver 
pure,  diH'ers  in  no  respect  from  the  forego- 
ing, only  moi'C  care  is  observed  in  the 
working,  not  to  suffer  the  escape  of 
any  metallic  particles  with  the  litharge, 
as  that  would  occasion  consideiable  waste 
of  silver.  As  the  process  advances,  and 
the  proportion  of  silver  to  lead  increases, 
the  litharge  assumes  a  darker  colour,  a 
greater  heat  becomes  necessary,  and  at 
last  the  brightening  takes  place ;  the 
interior  of  the  furnace,  which  during  the 
whole  of  the  process  had  been  very  obs- 
cure and  misty,  clears  up.  When  the 
operator  observes  the  surface  of  tl\e  sil- 
ver to  be  free  from  litharge,  lie  removes 
the  blast  of  the  bellows,  and  suffers  the 
furnace  to  cool  gradually  ;  as  the  silver 
cools  many  protuberances  arise  on  the 
surface,  and  fluid  silver  is  ejected  from 
them  witii  considerable  force,  which  fal- 
ling again  on  the  plate  spots  it  very  ian- 
tastically  whh  small  globules. 

The  latter  portions  of  litharge  bring 
over  a  considerable  quantity  of  silver  with 
them  ;  this  is  generally  reduced  by  itself 
and  again  refined. 

The  litharge  as  it  falls  upon  tlie  floor 
of  the  refinery  is  occasionally  removed  ; 
it  is  in  clots  at  first,  but  after  a  short  time 
as  it  cools  it  tidls  for  the  most  part  like 
slacked  lime,  and  appears  in  t'oe  brilliant 
scales  it  is  met  with  in  commerce  :  if  it 
is  intended  as  an  article  for  sale,  nothing 
more  is  necessary  than  to  sift  it  from  the 
clots  which  have  not  fallen  and  pack  it 
in  barrels. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  intentded  to  be 
manufactured  into  pure  lead,  it  is  placed 
in  a  veverberatory  furnace,  mixed  with 
clean  small-coal,  and  exposed  to  a  lieat 
just  sufficier.t  to  fuse  the  litharge.  The 
metal  as  it  is  reduced  flows  through  an 
aperture  into  an  iron  i)ot,  and  is  cast  into 
])igs  for  sale.  During  the  reducing,  care 
is  taken  to  keep  tiie  whole  surface  of  the 
litliarge  in  the  furnace  covered  with  small- 
coal. 

In  some  smelt  works,  instead  of  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace  for  reducing,  a  blast 
furnace  is  made  use  of,  on  account  of  the 
greater  produce,  but  tiie  lead  so  reduced 
is  never  so  pure  as  that  made  in  the  wijid 
furnace.  The  oxides  of  the  metals,  which 
require  a  greater  heat  to  reduce  than  the 
lead,  are  in  the  blast  Jurnace  generally  re- 
duced willi  it. 

Tiie  volatile  oxides,  as  zinc,  antimony. 


and  arsenic,  are  mostly  carried  olf  by 
evaporation  during  refining;  a  considera- 
ble portion  of  the  oxide  of  lead  itself  is  car- 
ried oft"  by  evaporation,  making;  die  in- 
terior of  the  furnace  so  misty  and  oi)scure 
that  a  person  unused  to  refining  cannot 
sec  more  than  a  few  inciies  into  it- 

A  considerable  portion  of  these  oxides 
are  driven  by  the  blast  of  the  bellows 
through  the  feeding  aperture,  and  would 
be  dissipated  in  the  refining-house,  to 
the  great  injury  of  the  workmen's 
healths. 

Lead  is  a  metal  of  a  blueish-white  co- 
lour, almost  silver-white,  when  recently 
melted,  but  very  soon  tarnishes.  It  gives 
a  peculiar  smell  when  rubbed  or  heated. 
Its  specific  gravity,  according  to  Brisson, 
is  11,352.  It  is  very  malleable,  readily  ex- 
tending under  the  hammer  into  very  thin 
leaves ;  but  its  tenacity  is  less  than  that  of 
any  other  metal,  for  a  wire  one  tenth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  will  break  with  a 
weight  of  30  lbs. 

Lead  is  the  least  sonorous  of  all  the 
metals,  giving,  when  struck,  a  very  fiat 
heavy  sound.  It  melts  long  before  being 
red-hot.  The  melting  point  of  this  metal 
has  been  variously  given,  owing  to  the 
known  irregularity  of  the  mercurial  ther- 
mcnneters  at  very  high  temperatures. 

Morveau  gives  it  at  590°  Fahr.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Crichton,it  is  61^".  When 
slowly" cooled,  it  crystallizes  in  quadran- 
gular pyramids.  Heated  fully  to  redness 
it  smokes  and  sublimes  in  the  ojien  air, 
giving  a  grey  oxyd,  wliich  settles  on  tlie 
sides  of  the' vessel  that  contains  it,  or  if 
in  large  quantity,  mixes  with  the  atmo- 
sphere around,  and  collects  in  the  chim- 
nies  of  the  furnaces  where  it  is  melted. 
Lead  in  all  forms  and  combinations,  is 
poisonous  vvlien  taken  in  any  (juantity, 
and  a  freciuent  exposure  to  its  vapour,  or 
much  handling  it,  gradually  produces 
dangerous  bowelcomijlaints,  paralytic 
symptoms,  and  other  maladies. 

Though  the  surface  of  lead  at  a  com. 
mon  temperature  soon  tarnishes, this  me- 
tal will  remain  exposed  to  air,  and  all 
weathers,  for  a  great  length  of  time  with, 
out  further  change,  the  oxidated  surface 
protecting  the  inner  ])art  from  destruc- 
tion, and  hence  the  durability  of  leaden 
roofs,  pipes.  Sec  but  yet  in  process  of 
time  the  whole  is  corroded  throughout. 

Water  has  but  little  direct  action  on 
this  metal  either  hot  or  cold,  not  being 
decomposed  by  it  as  it  is  by  iron  and  some 
other  metals  ;  but  it  slowly  assists  the  ac 
tion  of  the  air.  for  lead  will  be  corroded 
sooner  in  a  damp  than  in  a  dry  atmos- 
phere. 

When  lead  is  melted  in  free  exposure 


LEA 

lo  the  air,  it  becomes  almost  immediately 
covered  with  a  wrinkled  pellicle  of  a  dirty 
g-rey  colour,  and  if  tliis  is  skimmed  off 
others  form  in  succession,  till  tlie  whole 
metal  is  changed  into  a  yellowish-grev 
oxyd,  tlie  weight  of  which  was  one  of  the 
earliest  observations  made  on  the  effect 
of  calcination  in  increasing  the  weight  of 
metals. 

This  grey  oxyd,  by  a  further  continu, 
ance  of  heat  v/itii  constant  stii-ring,  passes 
through  various  shades  of  a  greenisli-yel- 
Jow  to  a  deep  dun-yellow,  ownig  to  a  suc- 
cessive absorption  of  oxygen.  Tiie  high- 
est state  of  oxygenation  to  be  produced 
by  mere  calcination,  appears  to  be  that  in 
which  the  oxyd  has  a  beautiful  high  red 
colour,  with  more  or  less  scarlet,  wl\cn  it 
is  called  Minium  or  Red  Lead,  a  sub- 
stance well  known  as  a  pigment,  and  es- 
pecially as  a  Hux  in  glass-making,  for 
which  it  is  largely  empioved. 

Minium,  liowever,  cannot  be  made  with 
any  certainty  in  the  small  way  by  mere 
calcination  in  the  air,  however  long  this  is 
continued,  the  colour  of  the  oxv'd  never 
rising  higher  than  a  dun  yellow  ;  "it  is  only 
produced  in  manufactories  in  tlie  large 
way,  with  frequent  stirring.  Tlie  process 
for  making  red  lead,  is  thus  described  bv 
Ur.  AYatson,  as  carried  on  in  Derbysliire. 

The  furnace  is  very  much  like  a  baker's 
oven,  with  a  low  vaulted  roof,  and  on  each 
sid.e  of  tlie  furnace  are  two  partv-w  alls, 
rising  from  the  floor  of  the  surtiice,  but 
not  reaching  to  the  roof.  In  the  interval 
between  these  walls  and  the  sides  of  the 
furnace,  the  coal  is  burned,  and  the  Hame 
draws  over  the  top  of  tlie  party-walls,  and 
su-iking  the  roof  is  thence  reflected  down 
upon  the  surface  of  a  quantity  of  lead, 
which  is  laid  on  the  floor  of  the  furnace. 
The  metal  soon  melts,  and  instantly  be- 
comes covered  with  a  peUicie,  wh'ch  is 
successively  raked  off  till  the  whole  is 
changed  into  a  greenish-yellow  powder. 
This  is  taken  out,  ground"  in  a  mill,  and 
washed,  to  separate  the  portion  of  lead 
that  still  I  eniains  in  tlie  metalUc  state,  by 
which  it  becomes  an  uniform  vellow  co- 
lour, and  is  then  thrown  back  into  die  fur- 
nace and  constantly  stirred,  so  that  every 
part  may  be  equally  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  flame,  and  in  about  forty-eight 
hours  of  calcination  it  is  converted  into 
red  lead. 

Some  practical  nicety  is  required  in  the 
management  of  the  fire,  which,  if  too 
slack,  gives  only  a  yellow  or  orange  co- 
loured powder,  and  if  too  tierce  ciakes  the 
minium  dusky,  and  destroys  that  brilliant 
gloss  for  wliich  it  is  so  much  admired. 
There  are,  besides,  other  minuter  circum- 
stances  of  management,    and  probably 


LEA 

kept  secret  as  much  as  possible.  Jars 
mentions  in  particular,  tliat  of  cooling  the 
minium  when  made  very  gradually,  and 
closing  all  the  openings  of  the  furnace, 
otherwise  the  beauty  of  colour  is  much 
impaired.  Some  makers  also  sprinkle  the 
siuface  with  water  occasionally,  during 
the  calcination. 

In  Holywell,  minium  is  made  from  lith- 
arge, which  saves  the  previous  calcina- 
tion. 

A  portion  of  the  lead  in  the  process  of 
conversion  into  minium,  is  always  lost  by 
voiatihzation,  part  of  it  being  dis'sipatedlii 
the  air,  and  another  part  settling  in  tlie 
chimnies,  and  on  tlie  roofs  of  the  fuj-nace, 
in  the  form  of  a  }ello  wish -white  soot,  with 
crystallized  lumps  intermixed,  which  is 
collected  from  time  to  time,  and  either  re- 
duced into  lead,  or  is  mixed  with  the  lead 
in  the  subsequent  calcination.  The  quan- 
tity of  this  sublimate  collected,  according 
to  Watson,  is  about  -j|_  of  tliatof  the  mi- 
nium produced,  but  of  course  must  vary 
greatly.  On  this  account,  and  from  the 
loss  by  entire  volatilization  in  the  air,  it  is 
impossible  to  ascertain,  du-ectlv,  the  full 
increase  of  weight  which  the  lead  should 
acquire  by  conversion  into  minium.  The 
actual  increase  is,  on  an  average,  about  a 
tenth,  twenty  hundred  weight  of  lead  pro- 
ducing twenty-two  hundred  of  minium. 

It  has  been  mentioned,  that  tlie  oxyd  of 
lead  becomes  yellow  before  it  ttirns'red. 
The  substance  called  .Massicoc,  and  used 
as  a  yellow  pigment,  is  generally  made  of 
this  yellow  oxyd  ;  but  the  finer  sorts  arc 
said  to  ha\e  an  addition  of  muriat  of  am- 
monia, and  to  be  tlierefore  a  muriated 
oxyd  of  lead,  or  approaching  to  that  fine 
pigment,  called  the  Naples  yellow,  which 
will  be  afterwards  noticed 

Litharge  is  another  of  the  oxyds  of  lead, 
made  by  the  simple  action  of  heat  andau\ 
It  is  produced  in  the  process  of  extracting 
the  silver  from  lead,  as  will  be  more  fidly 
described  under  that  article.  The  silver- 
holding  lead,  is  put  into  a  large  shallow 
dish  made  of  ashes,  and  therefore  verv 
porous,  and  is  kept  till  red-hot  in  a  wind"- 
furnace,  at  the  back  of  which  enters  the 
pipe  of  large  bellows  that  direct  a  blast 
of  au-  on  the  siuface  of  tlie  red-hot  metal. 
This  converts  it  into  a  scaly  vellowish- 
white  glistening  oxyd,  which  is' raked  off 
successively  to  expose  new  surfaces^  till 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  lead  is  thus  chang- 
ed into  litharge.  There  are  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  colour  of  litharge,  some  kinds 
having  more  of  a  silvery  gloss,  others  be- 
ing of  a  dead  red-yellow.  Part  of  it  is 
again  reduced  mto  very  pure  and  soft  lead, 
and  the  rest  is  selected  for  sale.  The 
waste  of  lead  by  volatilization,  is  many 


LEA 

times  more  ii^  reducing  lead  into  litharge 
than  into  minium;  so  that,  thougli  tliere 
is  a  lara-c  (,'ain  of  oxygen  tVom  the  an, the 
litharee  weighs  less  than  the  lead  trom 
which  it  was  produced,  l^art  of  it,  how- 
ever,  is  lost  by  soaking  into  the  test,  a 
porous  vessel  in  wliich  it  is  made. 

All  the  oxvds  of  lead,  wlicii  strongly 
heated  to  a  full  redness,  very  readily  run 
into  a  glass  wliich  has  a  clear  topaz-vel- 
low  colour,  and  is  the  most  powerful  ttux 
known  of  every  vitrifiable  matter ;  so  tl.at, 
in  a  very  short  time,  the  vitrihcd  oxyd 
corrodes  all  tlie  common  crucibles,  and 
runs  through  them  like  a  sieve,  and  even 
the  closest  porcelain  can  only  retain  it  tor 
a  time.  Minium,  in  vitrification,  always 
eives  out  a  quantity  of  oxygen  gas  ;  but 
the  quantity  varies  much,  even  in  the 
same  sample,  and  is  never  so  much  as  b 
per  cent.  During  the  vitrification,  a  por- 
tion of  the  mininim  is  spontaneously  reduc- 
ed to  the  metallic  state,  and  is  found  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crucible.  A  fuller  account 
of  the  vitrifving  power  of  the  oxyds  ot 
lead,    will  be   found  under    the   article 

The  yelloi^i  oxyd  of  lead  is  that  which 
appears  to  be  the  basis  of  by  far  the  grea- 
ter number  of  the  salts  of  this  metal,  and 
therefore  is  of  i>rimary  importance,  it 
is  formed  in  the  calcination  of  this  .metal 
per  se,  and  is  formed  at  so  early  a  period 
that  it  is  nrobably  the  first  change  tliat 
this  metal"  undergoes  by  union  with  o.y- 
g-en,  though,  as  already  mentioned,  tUe 
colour  is  not  obvious  at  first,  on  account 
of  being  mixed  with  metallic  lead  hncly 
attenuated,  and  not  yet  oxygenated,  which 
debases  tlie  colour  to  grey  or  yeliow.Bb- 
jivcen,  till  it  is  sepiu-ated  by  washing. 
Massicot  h  the  vellow  o.\yd,  as  pure  as  it 
lan  be  formed  by  mere  calcination,  but 
as  this  is  changed'  to  mcnium  by  coutmu- 
ing  the  process,  the  yellow  oxyd  made  by 
he'at  can  never  be  procured  so  umtorm  as 
by  s(jhili()n.  ,     <•  i      i   * 

There  is  vet  another  oxyd  ot  lead  to 
be  noticed,  which  is  the  bmm  oxyd. 

In  this  the  lead  is  at  tiie  Inghest  state 
of  oxvgenation.  It  was  first  discovered 
bv  Sc'heele  and  many  of  its  distinguishing 
properties  noticed  by  him.  It  is  procured 
by  adding  nitric  acid  to  muuum.  1  lie 
experiments  of  Scheele  are  the  follow- 
ing 


If  finely  powdered  minium  be  dissolved 
in  nitrous  acid,  diluted  with  a  triple  quan. 
tity  of  water,  a  black  <.r  brown  powder 
remains,  which  is  the  oxyd  in  question. 
This  is  not  soluble  in  the  acid  by  it.'.elt, 
but  on  adtliv.14-  a  little  sugar  a  clear  solu- 
tion is  immediately  obtained.  The  same 
happens    with   dilute   vitriolic  acid.     It 


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muriatic  acid  be  poured  on  the  black 
powder,  an  effervescence  takes  place 
wJien  warmed,  and  a  strong  smell  of  aqua 
regia  (oxymuriatic  acid)  rises,  the  powder 
becomes  white,  and  is  turned  into  common 
wliite  muriat  of  lead.  If  the  oxyd  be  dis- 
tilled by  itself  in  a  glass  i-etort,  it  grows 
yellow  and  becomes  in  every  respect 
similar  to  the  common  yellow  oxyd  of 
lead,  and  is  then  entirely  soluble  in 
nitrous  acid,  and  no  longer  gives  any  . 
smell  of  oxvmuriatic  acid.  ^ 

It  may  be  of  use  to  recapitulate  all  the 
oxyds  and  carbonated  oxyds  of  lead  m 
the  supposed  order  of  oxygenation,  (be- 
ginning with  the  lowest)  with  their  lead- 
ing properties,  premising,  that  this  i*  a 
suljject  in  which  tliere  are  still  many  points 
of  uncertainty  which  it  would  not  be  very 
difficultfor  future  experiments  to  clear  up. 
The  sub-oxyd,  stated  by  Froust  to  be 
formed  by  boiling  the  nitrat  of  lead  with 
reguline  lead.  Tiie  existence  of  this  is 
doubtful. 

Tlic  yellow  oxyd,  presumed  to  be  tlic 
basis  of  most  of"  the  salts  of  lead,  pai;ti- 
cularly  the  common  nitrat  from  which  its 
proportions  have  been  deduced.  It  is 
produced  either  by  heating  minium  till 
it  no  longer  gives  out  oxygen,  or  by 
calcining  the  solid  nitrat  (in  both  of  which 
cases  it  is  mixed  with  reduced  lead)  or 
more  accurately  by  heating  the  white 
carbonat  nearlv  to  melting,  or  by  decom- 
posing the  salts  of  which  it  is  tiie  basis 
bv  caustic  alkali.  It  gives  no  oxygen  gas 
w'lien  heated  even  to  meUing.  It  contains, 
according  to  Proust,  9  per  cent,  of  oxv- 
o-en,  and  occording  to  Thomson  about  10 
per 'cent.  It  vet  "remains  to  be  proved 
whether  it  does  not  aciiuire  some  other 
ingredient  from  the  long-contintied  cal- 
cination with  coal-Hames  besides  oxygen. 
JMcissicot  is  tlie  vellow  oxyd  formed  by 
the  calcination  of"  lead  in  its  progress  to 
the  state  of  minium,  and  probably  resem- 
bles  tiie  yellow  oxyd  very  closely,  but  is 
less  uniform  in  its  composition. 

Minium  or  red  oxyd  is  fornned  by  long- 
continued  calcination  of  lead,  is  insoluble 
as  such  in  acids,  apparently  fi-om  being  loo 
hiHily  oxygenated.  Its  composition  is 
vu-iously  stated,  and  probablx-  really  va-_ 
ries  according  to  tlie  circumstances  ot 
manufacture.  Vauquelin  states  it  to  con- 
tain generally  no  more  than  9  per  cent,  ot 
oxygen  ;  Thomson,  12  per  cent,  and  others 
somewhat  higher. 

Though  it  u;ivesout  oxygen  n'hen  heat- 
ed, and '[.  isses  to  the  yellow  oxyd,  this  is 
not  an  unexceptionable  pi-oof  of  its  con- 
taining more  oxygen,  on  account  of  the 
entire  reduction  of  a  portion  which  always 
takes  place,  but  the  strongest  proof  ol 


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lis  super-oxygenation  is  derived  from  the 
action  of  nitric  acid  as  already  described, 
and  its  separation  into  two  oxyds,  of  which 
the  least  oxygenated  is  the  yellow  oxyd, 
but  if  it  is  really  the  basis  of  the  sulphat 
ot  lead  it  would  appear  to  contain  no 
more  tliaix  about  7  per  cent 

The  bro'mn  oxyd  is  formed  by  tlie  further 
oxygenation  of  minium,  is  insoluble  as 
such  in  acids,  with  muriatic  acid  gives 
oxymuriatic  acid  gas,  gives  out  much 
oxygen  on  being  heated,  and  contains,  ac- 
cording to  Thomson,  18.4  per  cent,  of  oxy- 
gen, and  according  to  Proust  21  per  cent. 

lAtharge,  according  to  Thomson,  is  the 
yellow  oxyd  combined  with  about  4  per 
cent,  of  carbonic  acid. 

The  vchite  carbonat  is  the  yellow  oxyd 
fully  saturated  with  cai-bonic  acid  and 
water,  both  of  which  are  driven  off  at  a 
red  heat  and  the  yellow  oxyd  left  pure. 

All  the  pure  oxyds  or  carbonated  oxyds 
of  lead  are  reducible  with  great  ease  when 
heated  red  hot  in  contact  with  carbonace- 
ous matter.  It  is  not  necessary  to  mix 
them  with  any  reducing  flux,  nothing 
more  being  required  in  the  way  of  expe- 
riment than  to  lay  them  in  a  covered  cru- 
cible lined  with  charcoal.  The  same  re- 
duction  takes  place  when  heated  by  the 
blowpipe  on  chaixoal. 

Wiien  sU'ongly  heated  per  se,  and 
especially  in  a  draught  of  hot  air,  the 
oxyds  of  lead  partly  volatilize  during 
vitrification. 

Lead  is  soluble  in  most  acids.  All  the 
salts  have  a  sweetish  taste,  and  are  strong- 
ly styptic  or  astringent  in  the  moutli. 

Prussiat  of  potash  causes  a  white  pre- 
cipitate, and  all  the  bydrosulphurets  a 
deep  black-brown  precipitate,  even  in 
very  minute  quantities,  so  as  to  funiish 
an  excellent  test  for  the  presence  of  this 
metal. 

The  carbonic  acid  unites  readily  with 
the  oxyd  of  lead,  forming  (as  already 
mentiontd)  the  white  carbonat  when  fully 
saturated,  and  in  a  less  proportion,  con- 
verting ihe  yellow  ox}d  to  the  state  of 
litharge.  The  proportions  of  these  two 
carbonats  have  been  already  given.  Tlie 
white  carbonat  is  produced  by  decompos- 
ing the  nitrat  or  any  other  salt  by  a  car- 
bonated alkali.  Water  holding  curbonic 
acid  will  readily  dissolve  enough  of  the 
oxyd  of  le*d  by  remaining  some  time  in 
contact,  so  as  to  be  very  readily  detected 
by  the  hydro-sulphurets. 

Cerusse  or  Huliite  lead  is  a  carbonat  pre- 
pared in  the  first  part  of  the  process  of 
making  acetite  of  lead.  It  is  made  in  the 
following  way  :  lead  is  melted  and  cast 
in  a  case  or  mould,  so  as  to  form  a  sheet 
about  two  feet  long,  five  inches  broad,. 
VOL.  I. 


and  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-fourtli  of 
an  inch  tliick.  The  lead  in  this  instance 
is  cast  at  once  of  tlie  proper  form,  and 
not  mechanically  flattened  like  sheet  lead, 
tliat  its  texture  may  be  more  open,  and 
more  easily  penetrated  by  the  acid  vapour, 
These  plates  are  then  rolled  up  into  a 
loose  coil,  and  each  is  l^d  perpendicular- 
ly in  an  earthen  pot,  like  a  common  gar- 
den-pot, holding  from  two  to  six  pints 
eacli,  but  with  a  ledge  on  the  inside  about 
half  way  down  on  which  the  coil  of  lead 
rests,  so  that  it  may  not  touch  the  bot- 
tom. Each  pat  is  filled  with  vinegar  of 
any  kind,  just  so  high  as  not  to  wet  the 
bottom  of  the  lead,  and  the  whole  is  also 
covered  witli  a  plate  of  lead  fitting  very 
close.  The  pots  are  then  ranged  under  a 
building,  so  as  to  shelter  them  from  the 
weather,  and  buried  pretty  deep  in  fresh 
stable  litter  or  Tanner's  bark,  layer  upon 
layer,  according  to  tlie  number  of  pots. 
The  heat  of  the  dung  soon  fills  the  upper 
part  of  the  pots  with  the  vapour  of  the 
vinegar  below,  and  the  lead  kept  con- 
stantly in  contact  with  the  acid  vapour, 
but  not  immersed  in  the  liquor,  presently 
begins  to  corrode  and  oxidate  at  the  sur- 
face. The  pots  remain  under  the  litter  for 
about  two  months,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  they  are  taken  out  and  the  coils  of 
lead  are  found  deeplj'  corroded  and  the 
surface  converted  into  a  whitish  scaly 
brittle  oxyd.  This  is  separated  by  passing 
the  plates  between  rollers,  which  causes  it 
to  peel  off,  leaving  the  lead  beneath  in 
the  metallic  state.  This  oxyd  is  then 
mixed  with  a  little  water,  and  passed  be- 
tween a  pair  of  mill-stones  ;  then  the  finer 
paits  are  separated  from  Uie  coarser  by 
successive  washings,  the  former  being 
longer  suspended  in  water  than  the  latter, 
till  the  whole  of  the  finer  oxyd  is  obtain- 
ed. This  is  tlien  dried  either  in  the  air 
or  in  large  airy  rooms  warmed  by  a  small 
stove,  and  is  then  perfect  cerusse  or  white 
lead  fit  for  use.  Of  late  years  the  scales 
of  oxyd,  instead  of  being  separated  from 
the  coils  by  dry  laminating,  which  raised 
a  dust  of  lead  highly  injurious  to  the 
liealth  of  the  people  about  tliem,  are  de- 
tached by  spreading  the  coils  upon  a  per- 
forated wooden  floor  covered  w  ith  water, 
and  drawing  them  to  and  fro  by  rakes, 
which  detaches  the  oxyd  and  causes  it  to 
sink  through  the  water  and  the  holes  of 
the  floor  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  be- 
low. 

The  cerusse  or  white  lead  thus  formed 
was  found  by  Bergman  to  be  a  carbonated 
oxyd  of  lead,  and  not  an  acetite  or  sub- 
acetite,  though  the  acetous  acid  is  the 
means  of  its  formatioii. 

The  iicet(,:!s  acid  does  not  dissolve  Ifead 


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I 


when  in  close  vessels,  but  with  access  of 
air  it  first  oxidates  it,  and  then  dissolves 
the  oxyd.  Or  the  solution  may  be  made 
by  adii'.ijj  ox'm  ot  lead  or  carbonated 
oxyd  to  vinegu!-,  and  digesting  for  a  lime. 
Acetite  of  lead,  commonly  called  sugar 
of  lead,  is  a  salt  used  very  largely  in  ma- 
nufactures, particularly  iiicalictj-printing, 
and  tlie  preparation  of  it,  though  very 
simple,  is  confined  to  a  very  few  places 
and  countries.  Most  of  the  sugar  of  lead 
used  in  England  is  imported  from  Hol- 
land. Tliis  salt  is  made  very  nearly  in  the 
manner  of  ccrusse,  tiiat  is,  lead  sheets  are 
put  into  po;.s  with  vinegar  and  digested  a 
sufficient  time,  but  here  the  vinegai*  is  dis- 
tilled, and  the  plates,  instead  of  being  en- 
tirely out  of  the  liquor,  are  half  immersed 
in  it.  This  being  done,  the  upper  half  is 
soon  covered  with  an  efflorescence  of 
cerusse,  after  which  it  is  immersed  in  tlie 
vinegar,  and  tlie  part  which  was  before 
immersed  is  now  brought  up  to  be  con- 
verted into  cerusse  as  before,  when  tlie 
plate  is  again  turned,  and  the  newly  oxy- 
dated  siutkce  in  its  turn  buried  in  the 
liquoi'.  The  plates  are  thus  turned  about 
two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  the  vinegar 
in  saturating  itself  with  the  cerusse  has  be- 
come milky,  and  soon  sufficiently  impreg- 
nated to  be  boiled  down  to  the  crystalliz- 
ing point,  which  is  done  in  tinned  vessels 
to  about  a  third  of  the  original  quantity. 
This  is  then  strained,  and,  on  cooling,  de- 
posits the  acetite  in  small  long-needled 
irregular  whitish  crystals.  The  mother- 
liquor  is  again  evaporated  for  a  fresh  crop 
of  crystals,  but  these  are  browner  and 
somewhat  deliquescent. 

Acetite  of  lead  may  also  be  made  di- 
rectly by  dissolving  cerusse  or  litharge  in 
vhiegar,  and  pi'obably  the  natural  carbo- 
nat  will  answer  the  same  purpose.  Some 
tecluiical  nicety  appears  to  be  required  in 
making  tlie  salt  crystallize  in  the  lai-ge 
way. 

Sugar  of  lead  has  a  remarkably  sweet 
vaste,  by  no  means  unpleasant,  but  mixed 
with  considerable  astringency.  By  re -so- 
lution in  boiling  water  and  slow  cooling, 
it  changes  its  appearance  considerably, 
and  assumes  the  form  of  large  transjjarent 
tetraiiedral  prisms  or  lengllicnedparallel- 
opepids.  Caibonic  acid  in  any  form  decom- 
poses this  salt,  and  causes  a  white  carbo- 
nat  to  be  precipitai  ed,  and  hence  one  cause 
of  the  milkiuess  which  it  usually  assumes 
witli  spring  water  ;  but  this  is  also  partly 
owing  to  the  sulphats  contained  in  most 
natural  springs. 

AVhtn  dry  acetite  of  lead  is  briskly  heat- 
ed wi  liout  addition  in  a  returt,  it  gives 
an  acetous  red  fetid  liquor,  and  the  resi- 
due of  the  distillation  furnishes  a  good 


pyropborus.  But  Proust,  in  distilling  il 
very  slowly,  obtained  firet  a  wateiy  vine- 
gar, then  a  yellow  liquid  with  the  smell  ot 
alcohol  but  rather  empyreumaiic,  from 
which  after  a  time  ammonia  was  disen- 
gaged, and  from  which,  when  saturated 
with  potash,  a  strong  smelling  ethei  ial  oil 
separated.  The  liquid  distilled  from  the 
solution  famished  a  strong  inflammable 
fluid  resembling  ether. 

Litharge  boiled  with  vinegar  to  entii-e 
saturation  forms  a  reddish-brown  solution, 
universally  known  in  medicine  as  Gou- 
lard's extract,  and  it  seems  to  contain 
much  more  oxyd  of  lead  than  tlie  com- 
mon acetite. 

I^ead  and  nitre  have  but  a  very  w'eak 
action  on  each  other.  When  lead  filings 
are  projected  on  melted  nitre,  lit',  'e  if  any 
deflagration  is  excited,  but  the  metal  is 
reduced  to  a  yellow  semi-vitrified  foliated 
mass  resembling  litharge. 

The  action  of  the  oxyds  of  lead  on  the 
alkaline  muriats  is  attended  with  some 
striking  phenomena.  In  the  numerous 
experiments  for  obtaining  the  alkali  from 
muriat  of  soda,  it  was  found  that  litharge 
was  able  completely  to  decompose  this 
salt  and  produce  a  white  mass,  whilst  the 
naked  alkali  remained  in  soluuon.  This 
discovery  has  been  applied  to  use  in  the 
large  way  on  account  of  the  fine  yellow 
pigment  which  is  obtained  from  the  white 
mass  by  calcination,  and  for  which  a  pa- 
tent was  procured  niany  years  ago  by  Air. 
Turner. 

Turner's  Patent  Yellow,  or  tlie  sub-mu- 
riat  of  lead  made  yellow  by  licating,  is  ihus 
made  according  to  the  speciiicati:)n  of  the 
patent :  take  any  quantity  of  minium,  li- 
tharge, or  calx  of  lead,  add  half  the 
weiglit  of  common  salt,  with  wafer  suffi- 
cicnt  to  dissolve  it,  mix  them  b\  long  tri- 
turation, and  let  them  stand  together  at 
least  for  twenty-four  hours,  by  which  time 
the  lead  will  be  cliangcd  into  a  good  wiiite; 
then  wash  out  the  alkali  and  calcine  tiie 
lead  till  it  becomes  yelhnv ;  which  will 
be  of  difiercnt  tints  according  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  calcination  and  degrees  of 
heat.  As  only  twice  as  much  litharge  as 
salt  is  here  employed,  it  is  probable  that 
some  of  the  salt  remains  undecomposed. 

T!ie  oxyds  of  lead  readily  decompose 
munat  of  ammonia  If  this  salt  and  mi- 
nium are  rubbed  together  even  without 
lieat,  a  strong  smell  of  ammonia  rises,  and 
by  distillation  properly  conducted,  caustic 
ammonia  may  be  prepared  in  this  way  as 
well  as  by  murialed  ammonia  and  lime. 
Jf  litharge  be  used,  some  carbonat  of  am- 
monia is  also  obtained,  and  whh  the  whito 
carbonat  of  lead  the  entire  ammoniacal 
product  is  carbonated.    The  residue  in 


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each  case  Is  muriat  of  lead,  in  the  form  of  I 
a  grey  brilliant  brittle  mass.  See  Colour  ,• 
Making.  j 

The  fat  oils  dlssolve*the  oxyds  of  lead  ; 
with  great  case,  and  underg-o  a  remarka- ; 
ble  cliange  in  the  process,  being  thereby 
x'endered  drying,  or  capable  of  speedily 
hardening  into  a  firm  varnish  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air.     Some  oils,  particularly 
oUve  oil,  acquire  at  once  a  very  firm  con-  i 
sistence  and  a  considerable  adliesive  pro- 
perty, when  gently  warmed.    It  is  in  this 
slate  the  common  white  diaciiylon  plaster. 
See  the  article  On,. 

I^ad  is  capable  of  uniting  with  many 
otiier  metals,  forming  alloys,  some  of 
which  are  of  use  in  the  arts. 

Four  parts  of  lead  and  one  of  antimony 
form,  according  to  Rinman  and  other  au- 
thors, the  common  type-metal  of  tlie  letter- 
founders,  though  some  add  a  little  cop- 
per or  brass.  This  resembled  the  last-men- 
tioned alloy  in  appearance,  and  would  not 
take  a  polish-    Sp.  gr  9.571. 

Eight  parts  of  lead  and  one  of  antimony 
gave  an  alloy  very  like  pure  lead,  but 
harder  and  more  sonorous,  and  of  a  close 
granulai"  texture  like  steel.  Sp.  gr.  11. 
Twelve  of  lead  andone  of  antimony  gave 
an  alloy  scarcely  less  malleable  than  lead, 
and  capable  of  extending  into  very  thin 
leaves. 

Antimony  therefore  is  found  to  harden 
lead  very  coiisiderably,  and  hence  its  \ise 
in  type-metal,  and  also  probably  in  bullets, 
where  greater  hardness  is  required,  but  it 
does  not  add  materially  to  its  lustre,  ex- 
cept in  a  quantity  which  totally  destroys 
the  malleabiUty. 

Lead  and  bismuth  unite  \vith  great  ease, 
and  form  alloys  of  remarkable  fusibility, 
particularly  with  a  small  addition  of  tin, 
as  described  under  the  article  Bismuth. 

Lead  and  cobalt  unite  but  with  difficul- 
ty, forming  an  unimportant  alloy.  See 
Cobalt. 

Lead  alloyed  with  copper  forms  pot- 
metal.     See  Copper. 

For  the  important  alloy  of  lead  and  tin, 
iee  Tin. 

Lead  and  zinc  do  not  unite  readily  un- 
less by  particular  management. 

The  ores  of  this  metal  are  abundantly 
found  in  tlie  mine  counties  of  England, 
and  in  various  other  parts  of  the  globe- 
Its  uses  are  numerous,  and  scarcely  need 
be  mentioned.  Its  oxides  have  been  al- 
ready mentioned  as  of  great  use,  as  pig- 
ments, and  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 
Lead  is  cast  into  thin  sheets  for  covering 
buildings,  making  water-pipes,  and  vai'i- 
ous  other  uses  ;  and  this  is  rolled  between 
two  cylinders  of  iron,  to  give  it  the  re- 
qiiisite  uniformity  and  thinness.     Lead  is 


thought,  and  with  some  reason,  to  be  not 
perfectly  hmocent  even  for  water  pipes, 
and  much  less  for  any  other  kind  of  ves- 
sels. The  workmen  in  any  of  the  prepara- 
tions of  lead  are  generally  subject  to  a 
peculiar  cholic  and  paralytic  disorders  ; 
wliich  most  probably  arise  from  the  inter, 
nal  use  of  the  metal :  for  it  is  a  fact,  that 
these  workmen  are  not  sufficiently  cau- 
tious in  vv-ashing  their  hands,  or  removing 
such  particles  of  lead,  or  its  prepara- 
tions, as  may  casually  intermix  with  their 
food. 

A  patent  was  granted  in  1779  to  Mr. 
W.  KoE,  for  his  new-invented  process  of 
exti-acting  sulphur  from  poor  lead  ores, 
and  rendering  these  as  valuable,  and  sale- 
able, as  any  other  ores  of  this  metal.  As 
this  patent  is  now  expired,  and  the  prin- 
ciple  of  the  inventor  is  equally  simple  and 
ingenious,  we  trust  it  is,  or  will  be,  gene- 
rally adopted  in  smelting-houses :  the 
inquisitive  reader  will  find  it  fully  speci- 
fied in  the  6th  vol.  of  the  "  Repertory  of 
^rts  and  ^M'lniifactures  " 

The  plumbers  cast  thin  sheets  of  lead 
upon  a  table  or  mould  covered  with  wool- 
len, and  above  this  a  linen  cloth,  without 
burning  or  scorching  the  cloths. 

The  melted  lead  is  received  in  a  wooden 
case  without  a  bottom ;  which,  being  drawn 
down  the  sloping  table  by  a  man  on  each 
side,  leaves  a  sheet  of  its  own  width,  and 
more  or  less  thin,  according  to  the  greater 
or  smaller  celerity  of  its  descent.  For 
thick  plates,  the  table  is  covered  over  with 
moistened  sand,  and  the  liquid  metal  con- 
ducted evenly  over  it,  by  a  wooden  strike, 
which  bears  on  a  ledge  at  each  side.  Some 
have  preferred,  for  mechanic  uses,  the 
milled  lead,  or  flatted  sheets. 

Lead  is  put  up  for  sale  either  in  pigs, 
bars,  or  sheets.  The  milled  or  sheet  lead 
is  the  dearest,  then  follow  the  bars,  and 
the  pigs  are  the  lowest  sort. 

Lead,  how  formed  into  sAof.— Lead  is 
employed  in  considerable  quantities  in 
the  casting  of  shot,  for  which  a  patent  was 
granted  iii  1782,  to  Mr.  AVilliam  Watts, 
in  consequence  of  his  invention  for  granu- 
lating lead  solid  throughout,  without 
those  imperfections  which  other  kinds  of 
shot  usually  present  on  their  surface. 
The  patentee  directs  20  cwt.  of  soft  pig- 
lead  to  be  melted  in  an  iron  pot,  round 
the  edge  of  which,  a  peck  of  coal-ashes  is 
to  be  strewed  upon  the  sm-face  of  the  me- 
tal, so  as  to  leave  the  middle  of  the  latter 
exposed.  Forty  pounds  of  arsenic  are 
next  to  be  added  to  the  uncovered  lead, 
and  the  pot  closely  shut ;  the  edges  of  the 
lid  being  carefully  luted  with  mortar,  clay, 
or  other  cement,  in  oi-der  to  prevent  the 
evaporation  of  the  arsenic.    A  brisk  fire 


LEA 


i.i:A 


IS  Uien  kindled,  so  that  the  two  substances 
may  be  properly  incorporatad ;  when  tlie 
metal  ought  to  be  skimmed  and  laded  in- 
to moulds,  that  it  may  cool  in  t!>e  form  of 
ingots  or  bars,  which,  when  cold,  arc  call- 
ed slag,  or  poisoned  metal — 20  cwt.  of  soft 
pig-lead,  (according  to  the  quantity  of 
shot  intended  to  be  manufactured)  are 
next  to  be  melted  in  the  manner  above  di- 
rected ;  and,  when  it  is  completely  lique- 
fied, one  of  the  ingots  or  bars  of  slag  must 
be  added :  as  soon  as  the  whole  is  combin- 
ed, a  small  quantity  ofthe  liquid  metal  is 
to  be  taken  out  with  a  ladle,  and  dropped 
from  a  height  of  about  ty,o  feet  into  the 
water.  If  the  shot  be  not  perfectly  round, 
it  will  be  necessar\'  to  add  more  slag,  till 
it  drops  in  a  globular  form.  The  metal  is 
next  skimmed,  and  the  scum  poured  into 
an  iron  or  copper  frame  perforated  with 
round  holes,  according  to  the  size  ofthe 
shot  designed ;  the  scum  is  then  to  be 
squeezed  while  soft,  tlirough  the  frame, 
into  which  the  liquid  should  be  poured, 
and  dropped  through  the  holes.  For  the 
smallest  shot,  the  frame  must  be  at  least 
ten  feet  above  the  water,  and  for  the  lar- 
gest, about  150  feet;  the  height  being  in- 
creased or  diminished,  in  proportion  to 
the  size  ofthe  shot. 

JLead  White,  a  machine  for  worihig  in.— 
Description  of  a  method  of  preventing  in 
jury  to  the  health  ofthe  workmen  employ 
ed  in  preparing  White  Lead.  By  Mr 
Archer  "Ward,  in  his  own  words  : 

In  order  to  explain,  as  well  as  I  can,  the 
advantage  that  will  accrue  to  the  work 
men  by  adopting  my  invention,  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  common  mode  of  preparing 
white  lead,  I  will  first  state  what  the  com- 
mon mode  is.  When  blue  lead  is  in  part 
corroded  in  the  stacks,  by  an  acid  raised 
by  a  considerable  degree  of  heat,  brought 
on  by  horse-litter,  the  corroded  and  un- 
corroded  lead  are  taken  from  the  stacks 
to  a  room,  called  the  engine-loft,  where  a 
pair  of  iron  rollers  is  fixed  with  a  screen 
imder  them.  The  lead  in  this  state  is  pass- 
ed through  the  rollers  and  screen  ;  from 
the  motion  of  these  rollers  and  screen,  by 
which  the  white  lead  is  separated  from 
the  uncorroded  or  blue  lead,  together 
with  the  moving  the  lead,  in  order  to  its 
being  passed  through  them,  a  very  consi- 
derable quanthy  of  fine  dusty  white  lead 
is  raised,  which  almost  covers  the  work- 
men  thus  employed,  and  is  very  pernicious 
to  them.     And  not  only  in  this  part  ofthe 


process  arc  they  liable  to  he  thus  injured, 
b\it  they  are  again  exposed  to  the  dusty 
lead,  by  removing  the  blue  lead  fiom  the 
screen-house  to  the  furnace,  a.s  there  still 
remains  a  quantity  of  the  fine  particles  of 
white  lead,  which  of  course  rises  in  re- 
moving it ;  and  also,  in  removing  the  white 
lead  from  imder  the  screen  to  the  giind- 
ing-tub,  a  quantity  of  the  dust  arises, 
which  is  very  detrimental  to  the  people 
so  employed. 

My  invention  removes  all  these  difficul- 
ties respecting  the  dry  dusty  white  lead, 
so  very  injurious  to  the  health  of  the 
working  people  ;  and  consists  of  a  vessel, 
as  shown  in  the  plate,  fig.  1,  twelve  feet 
long,  six  feet  wide,  and  tlirec  feet  ten  in- 
ches deep.  In  this  vessel  is  fixed  a  pair 
of  brass  rollers  in  a  frame,  one  roller  above 
the  other.  The  centre  of  the  rollers  is 
about  ten  inches  below  the  top  ofthe  ves- 
sel ;  and,  one  inch  lower,  is  a  coverhig  ot 
oak  boards  or  riddles,  an  inch  thick,  fix- 
ed in  the  inside  ofthe  vessel,  in  a  groove, 
60  as  to  be  taken  out  occasionally :  these 
boards  are  bored,  with  a  centre-bit,  as  full 
of  holes  as  may  be,  without  danger  of 
breaking  into  each  other ;  the  size  of  these 
holes  is,  in  the  machine  at  large,  about 
five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  This 
being  done,  the  vessel  is  filled  with  water, 
about  three  inches  above  the  oak  boai-ds 
or  riddles;  the  lower  brass  roller  is  now 
under  water,  and  about  half  of  the  upper 
roller  is  under  water  also.  Thus  the  lead 
coming  from  the  stacks,  is  put  thiough 
the  brass  rollers  in  water,  and,  by  raking 
the  lead  with  a  copper  rake,  over  the  oak 
boards  or  riddles,  the  white  lead  passes 
through  the  riddles,  and  the  blue  lead  re- 
mains above;  which,  being  taken  out,  is 
thrown  upon  an  inclined  plane  of  strong 
laths  to  drain,  where  it  remains  about  12 
hours,  when  the  blue  lead  is  ready  for  the 
fiu-nace  to  be  re-melted ;  by  this  means  no 
dusty  white  lead  can  rise  in  any  part  to 
the  work-jieople.  No  such  plan  as  this 
(although  long  desired)  has,  to  my  know- 
ledge, been  put  in  execution,  so  as  to  an- 
swer all  the  purposes  above  stated.  It 
may  be  asked,  why  the  lead  in  the  com- 
mon mode,  is  not  made  wet  before  it  is 
passed  through  the  j'oUers  and  screen. 
Should  this  be  done,  the  lead  would  be  a 
paste  on  the  rollers  and  screen,  and  the 
white  lead  ])revcntcd  separating  from  the 
blue  lead,  which  is  absolutely  necessary 
in  the  prepaiation  of  white  lead. 


LEA  ^    LEA 

:machine  for  working  in  white  lead. 


Reference  to  the  figure. 

Pig.  1,  A,  an  inclined  plane  of  wood,  on 
which  the  white  and  blue  lead  is  placed 
immediately  from  the  stacks,  and  thus  in- 
traduced  between  the  brass  rollers  BB. 

CC,  the  vessel  containing  water. 

DDD,  the  pierced  oak  boards  or  rid- 
dles, whicli,  by  being-  made  to  slide  in 
J^rooves  m  the  sides  of  the  vessel  CC,  may 
occasionally  be  taken  out  by  removinsrthe 
wooden  bar  ee. 

E,  a  handle  or  winch,  which,  in  the  ma- 
chine  at  large,  may  be  a  wheel  communi- 
cating- to  miU-work,  and  thus  turn  the 
rollers  BB. 

F,  a  pinion,  fixed  on  the  gudgeon  of 
the  upper  roller,  and  communicating  witii 
a  similar  pinion  on  the  arbor  of  the  lower 
roller,  keeping  both  of  them  in  motionbv 


the  turn  of  the  handle.  As  it  is  necessa- 
i-y  that  tlie  upper  roller  should  be  at  li. 
berty  to  rise  or  fall,  in  order  to  give  a  due 
degree  of  pressure  to  the  lead  in  passing 
between  the  rollers,  two  weights  Gtf, 
with  proper  stems  to  them,  are  nlaced 
over  tlie  gudgeons  of  the  upper  'roller, 
thereby  keeping  a  due  degi-ee  of  pres- 
sure  ;  and,  if  any  piece  of  the  lead  should 
be  thicker  tlian  usual,  admitting  the  roll- 
er to  give  way  to  it,  and  thereby  prevent- 
ing any  injury  to  the  machinery. 

H,  a  notch  in  one  side  of  tlie  wooden 
vessel,  sei-vingto  regulate  the  depth  of  the 
water  on  the  riddles  DDD. 

Tlie  foregoing  description  is  accompa- 
nied by  two  certificates ;  one  from  Mr. 
Samuel  Walker  Parker,  stating  that  ma- 
ny tons  of  white  lead  have  been  made,  in 


LEA 


LEA 


the  manner  above  described,  at  tlie  ma- 
nufactory at  Islington,  belonging  to  Walk- 
er, "Ward,  and  Co.  and  that,  since  Mr. 
Waiil's  plan  was  adopted,  no  other  me- 
*liod  has  been  used.  The  other  cirtifi- 
cate'is  from  Mr.  H.  Browne,  of  Irongate, 
Derby ;  who  says,  that  he  thinks  the  fore- 
going invention  a  very  valuable  improve- 
aient  in  preparing  white  lead,  and  that  the 
quality  of  the  lead  is  not  in  the  least  in- 
jui-ed  by  it. 

Mr.  Wethcrill,  of  this  cit}-,  obtained  a 
patent  for  a  somewhat  similar  contri- 
vance. 

Lead,  Ores  of,  ^^merican. — The  ores  of 
this  metal  abound  in  different  parts  ofthe 
United  States;  but  none  ofthe  mines  pro- 
duce so  much  lead  as  those  of  Louisiana, 
from  which  the  greater  part  of  the  lead  is 
obtained.  As  to  the  situation  of  the  lead 
mines  of  Louisiana,  and  the  number  of 
persons  employed  in  mining,  every  infor- 
mation may  be  found  in  lireckenridge's 
Ilistoiy  of  the  productions  of  that  state. 
The  lead  ore  is  galena,  though  other  ores 
have  been  procured,  but  not  in  any  quan- 
tity. In  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  lead  is 
found  at  Ferkiomen,  and  in  otlier  dis- 
tricts. The  ore  is  principally  suljjhuret 
of  lead.  In  the  eastern,  as  well  as  in  the 
southern  states,  this  metal  also  occurs. 
We  shall  notice  the  American  ores  of 
lead  more  fully,  under  the  article  Ore. 

LEAD,  Sugar  of  or  Acetite  of  Lead 
(See  the  foregoing  article) 

LEAD,  red  ") 

LEAD,  Litharge  of      f  g^^  ^ead. 

LEAI>,  ores  ot  i 

JjEAD,  Submuriate  of  J 

LEATHER. 

The  preparation  ofthe  skins  of  animals 
for  the  many  important  purposes  to  which 
they  are  ai>j>lied  is  almost  exclusively  a 
chemical  process  in  all  its  branches,  and 
as  such  will  deserve  a  general  notice  in 
this  place. 

The  art  of  preparing  leather  is  unques- 
tionably one  of  the  most  ancient  known, 
and  is  practised  in  every  country  on  the 
face  ofthe  globe  with  a  general  similarity 
of  method,  the  result  of  obvious  reason- 
ing, and  long  experience. 

The  objects  fulfilled  in  converting  skin 
into  leather,  are.to  prevent  the  destruction 
by  putrefaction,  which  unprepared  skin 
Nvould  undergo  (though  slower  than  with 
most  other  parts  of  animals)  and  to  ren- 
der it  strong,  tough,  and  durable,  and  in 
some  instances  in\perviovis  to  moisture. 

The  recent  skin  stripped  oil'  an  animal 
consists  principally  of  the  true  cutis,  or 
membranous  tcxiure,  the  chemical  com- 
position of  which  is  gelatin  in  a  dense 
state,  but  5*.>11  entirtlx'  soluble  in  water 


more  or  less  easily,  according  to  its  den 
sitv.  This  however  is  penetrated  with 
diAerent  vessels  for  blood,  lymph,  oil,  &.c. 
some  of  the  contents  of  which  must  ot 
necessity  remain  after  the  death  ot  the 
animal,  and  is  covered  on  the  outside  with 
the  insensible  cuticle,  to  which  is  attached 
the  exterior  covering  of  hair,  wool,  tur, 
and  the  like-  Tlie  chemical  composition 
ofthe  cuticle  and  its  investing  hairy  cover- 
ing, appears  to  be  condensed  albumen, 
insoluble  in  water,  and  nearly  incapable 
of  itself  of  putrefaction,  butreadily  separa- 
ble from  the  true  skin  by  slight  mechani- 
cal violence  after  the  adhesion  has  been 
weakened  by  incipient  fermentation  or 
putrefaction,"  or  the  chemical  action  of 
lime,  alkalies,  or  acids. 

The  i)reliminary  steps  of  all  the  pro- 
cesses for  making  leather  consist  m 
separating  from  the  cutis  adhering  rni- 
purities  and  foreign  matters,  the  animal 
juices  retained  inVis  pores,  and  the  cuti- 
cle with  its  hairy  covering,  (except  on  the 
very  few  cases  in  which  the  latter  is  pur- 
posely left  on.)  The  true  skin  being  thus 
obtained  nearly  pure,  and  its  texture  so 
far  opened  as  readily  to  imbibe  any  sub- 
stance in  which  it  is  macerated,  is  then  con- 
verted hito  leather  in  different  methods, 
of  which  there  are  two  quite  distinct  from 
each  other :  namely,  that  of  tanning,  or 
impregn.ating  it  wi\h  that  peculiar  vege- 
table matter  called  tan,  and  tawing,  in 
which  it  imbibes  alum  and  other  salts, 
and  afterwards  some  soluble  animal  mat- 
ter, such  as  the  white  of  ti^^,  or  some-  '' 
times  blood.  These  two  processes  are  4 
also  sometimes  combined,  that  is,  (ir.st  by 
tawing,  and  afterwards  finishing-  with  a 
slight  tanning.  A  large  portion  of  the 
tanned  leather  also  undergoes  the  fur- 
ther operation  of  currying,  or  imbuing 
with  oil  of  some  kind  with  much  manual 
labour,  in  order  to  render  it  supple,  Hexi» 
ble,  and  still  more  impenetrable  by  water. 
As  famihar  examples  of  eaci),  the  thick 
sole-leather  of  shoes  is  tanned ;  the  white 
kid  leather,  as  it  is  called,  for  fine  gloves, 
is  tawed ;  the  upjjcr  leather  for  boots  and 
shoes  is  tanned  and  curried  ;  and  the  fine 
Turkey  leather  is  tawed,  and  afterwards 
finished  with  a  slight  tanning. 

The  slight  variations  in  the  preparation 
of  difierent  kinds  of  leather  are  so  nu^ 
merous,  that  only  some  of  the  leading 
processes  can  be  here  described. 

Tanntd  Leather. — All  skins  undergo  a 
considerable  preparation  before  they  are 
fit  to  receive  the  tanning  lixivium.  In 
most  jiarls  of  l-iigland  the  process  is  the 
following  for  the  thin  skins  of  cows, 
calves,  and  those  that  are  used  for  the 
more  flexllile  kinds  of  leather,  most  ol 


LEA 


LEA 


vhich  is  afterwards  finished  by  currying. 
The  hide  is  first  thrown  into  a  pit  with 
water  alone  to  free  it  from  loose  dirt, 
blood,  and  other  impurities.  After  lying 
there  for  a  <li'.y  or  two  it  i.s  placed  upon 
a  solid  li'alf-cylinder  of  sione,  called  a 
beam,  where  it  is  cleared  <^i  any  adhering 
fat  or  flesh.  It  is  then  tluown  into  a  pit 
containing  lime  and  water,  in  which  it  is 
kept  for  several  days  with  frequent  stir- 
ring. The  use  of  this  is  to  loosen  the  hair 
and  cuticle,  after  which  the  hide  is  again 
stretched  on  the  beam  and  the  hair 
entirely  scraped  off  with  a  blunt  knife 
made  for  the  purpose.  The  hide  being 
well  freed  from  the  lime  is  then  put  into 
a  pit  called  the  mastering-pit,  which  is  a 
bath  composed  of  water  and  the  dung  of 
some  animal,  generally  hens  or  pigeons, 
or  dogs,  or,  where  it  can  be  had,  of  sea- 
fi)wl,  diHused  through  the  water.  The 
dung  of  horses  or  cows  will  not  answer, 
not  being  sufficiently  putrescent.  Here 
the  hide  remains  for  some  days,  more  or 
less,  according  to  its  texture,  and  from 
being  hard  and  thick  (the  effect  of  the 
lime-water)  it  beeomes  very  soft  and  sup- 
ple. Where  the  hide  is  very  thin  and 
fine,  extreme  care  is  requisite  in  regula- 
tingthis  part  of  the  process,  fortheputres- 
cent  dung  is  found  so  powerful  an  agent, 
that  if  the  skin  is  kept  in  it  only  a  few 
hoiu's  too  long  its  texture  is  irrecoverably 
destroyed,  and  it  is  reduced  to  a  gela- 
tinous mass,  which  pulls  to  pieces  with 
the  slightest  force.  The  hide  is  then 
thoroughly  cleaned  on  the  beam,  and  is 
fit  for  tanning. 

The  large  thick  ox  or  boar's  hides  in- 
tended for  the  toughest  sole-leather,  or 
where  a  very  strong  leather  is  required, 
are  prepared  in  a  different  way.  Being 
first  cleaned  in  water,  they  are  sometimes 
rolled  up  in  heaps  and  put  into  a  warm 
place  where  tliey  speedily  begin  to 
putrify.  The  hair  is  then  loosened,  and 
may  be  scraped  off  sometimes  with,  and 
at  other  times  without,  the  process  of 
liming.  The  reason  why  the  liming  is 
generally  omitted,  is,  that  the  lime,  if 
retained  in  the  skin,  renders  it  too  hard 
and  liable  to  crack,  and  it  is  not  so  easy 
to  wash  it  out  from  these  as  from  the 
thinner  hides.  But  on  account  of  the 
thickness  of  the  hide  and  the  closeness 
of  its  texture  it  is  not  fitted  to  receive  the 
tan  liquor  till  its  pores  are  more  com- 
pletely opened,  and  this  is  usually  done 
by  immersing  it  for  several  days  in  a  vat 
containing  a  sour  liquor,an  impure  acetous 
acid,  formed  from  rye  or  barley  flour 
strongly  fermented.  The  acid  generated 
in  the  process  seems  to  be  a  principal 
agent  in  opening  the  texture  of  the  skin, 


I  but  this  is  doubtless  assisted  by  the  cefi- 
tinuance  of  the  fermentation,  of  which  the 
skin  itself  partakes.  This  process  is  cal- 
led raising,  and  it  always  immediately 
precedes  that  of  tanning.  Here  also 
much  care  is  required  not  to  weaken  the 
texture  of  tlie  skin  too  much,  for  if  kept 
too  long  in  this  process  it  would  be  corrod- 
ed and  spoiled.  The  hide  comes  out  of 
this  bath  considerably  swelled  and  sof- 
tened. 

Instead  of  this  part  of  the  process, 
which  is  often  difficult  to  manage  pro- 
perly on  account  of  the  effect  of  the  wea- 
ther and  other  external  causes  on  the 
necessary  fermentation.  Dr.  Macbride  has 
proposed  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  ex- 
tremely diluted,  and  this  appears  now  to 
be  pretty  generally  adopted.  The  pro- 
portions employed  are  about  a  wine  pint 
of  oil  of  vitriol  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
Though  the  vitriolic  bath  is  found  to  have 
as  good  an  effect  as  the  rye  and  barley 
sourings  in  preparing  the  bides  for  the 
tan,  the  action  of  the  two  substances 
seems  to  be  considerably  dlffei-ent.  In 
the  latter  the  acetous  acid  is  doubtless  the 
chief  agent,  but  the  fermentation  still  con- 
tinues as  is  proved  by  the  readiness  with 
which  the  skins  are  rotted  if  this  is  too 
high  or  loo  long  continued.  The  skin 
also  after  raising  in  this  way  is  thickened 
and  softened  But  the  vitriolic  bath  is^ 
incompatible  with  any  fermentation,  and 
most  powerfully  checks  this  process,  and 
hence  the  skin  is  not  readily  spoiled  by 
very  long  i.Trimersion,  and  it  comes  out 
thickened  and  hardened.  It  should  seem 
however  that  each  method  answers  per- 
fectly well. 

The  next  process  is  that  of  tanning, 
which  is  essentially  the  same  for  all  skins, 
however  previously  prepared,  and  is 
founded  on  the  following  ciiemical  facts. 
A  great  variety  of  vegetable  substances, 
that  is  all  those  that  give  an  astringent 
taste  when  chewed  (sucli  as  the  bark  of 
oak,  willow,  alder,  and  many  other  trees, 
the  gall-nut,  tea-leaves,  &c.  &c.)  when 
macerated  in  water,  hot  or  cold,  yield  to 
this  menstruum  a  substance  en>inentl}^ 
astringent,  of  a  greyish-white  when  pure;, 
which  is  called  tannin  or  tan,  whose  pro- 
perties will  be  more  fully  described  under 
that  article.  When  any  kind  of  skin  is 
soaked  in  an  infusion  of  tan  it  gradually 
absorbs  it  or  extracts  is  from  the  water  in 
which  the  tan  is  dissolved,  and  the  skin 
thereby  becomes  of  a  firmer  texture, 
sensibly  heavier,  no  longer  capable  of 
putrefaction  or  any  spontaneous  change, 
less  easily  pervious  to  water,  and  no 
longer  soluble  in  this  fluid  even  at  a 
boiling  heat,  which  all  untanned  skin  is. 


LEA 


LEA 


whatever  be  its  previous  preparallon. 
The  art  of  tanning  therefore  essentially 
consists  in  nothing  more  tlian  immersing 
bkin  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  in  an 
infusion  of  tun  from  vegetable  bark  or 
other  sources  till  it  is  completely  saturated 
with  this  principle.  Hence  the  art  of 
preserving  the  hides  of  animals  by  tliis 
method  is  one  of  the  most  antient  and 
universal  of  all  manufactures,  no  ap- 
paratus whatever  being  required  to  per- 
form it,  except  a  pit  or  hole  of  water  in 
v.hich  the  tanning  vegetable  may  be  put, 
and  the  skin  throw  ii  in  along  widi  it. 
And  even  in  the  most  careful  and  improved 
methods  of  tanning,  almost  equal  sim- 
plicity is  observed  in  the  operation,  except 
that  some  art  is  used  in  regulating  the 
strength  of  the  tan-infusion,  and  some 
little  manipulation  in  stirring  the  hides  to 
give  every  pait  an  oppoi'tunity  of  being 
thoroughly  and  equally  soaked. 

The  substance  used  for  tanning  in  this 
country  is  almost  invariably  oak-bark. 
The  timber  being  felled  iu  spring  (when 
the  sap  has  risen)  the  bark  is  stripped oH' 
and  piled  in  large  stacks,  protected  from 
the  wet  by  a  shed,  but  open  at  the  sides 
to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air  through 
it.  The  bark,  before  using,  is  ground  into 
coarse  powder,  and  is  thrown  into  pits 
\v  ilii  water,  by  which  an  infusion  of  the 
tan  and  other  soluble  parts  is  made,  which 
is  called,  technically,  ooze.  The  hides 
previously  prepared  in  one  or  otliei"  of 
tiie  ways  above  mentioned  are  then  put 
iirst  into  small  pits  with  a  very  weak  ooze, 
where  they  are  allowed  to  macerate  tor 
some  weeks,  with  frequent  stirring  or 
handling  as  it  is  called.  The  strength  of 
the  different  oozes  is  increased  gradually, 
after  which  the  half-tanned  hides  (if  of 
the  thick  kind  intended  for  sole-leather, 
and  wiiich  require  very  complete  t.iiming) 
are  put  into  larger  pits  with  alternate 
layers  of  ground  bai'k,  in  substance,  till 
;he  pit  is  iilied  ;  over  which  a  heading  of 
bark  is  also  laid,  and  tiie  interstices  hlled 
'  up  with  a  weak  ooise  to  the  brim.  The  hides 
lb  us  [lerpared  are  exposed  to  the  full  action 
of  an  ooze  nearly  satiu'ated  with  tan,  and 
.sui)i)lied  with  more  of  this  principle  from 
the  bark  in  substance,  in  proportion  as  the 
skin  absorbs  that  portion  already  dissol- 
ved, till  the  tanning  is  judged  to  be  com- 
plete. This,  for  the  heaviest  kind  of  lea- 
ther, requires  never  less  than  tifteen 
momhs.  Skin  is  known  to  be  fully  tanned 
by  cutting  a  small  ])iece  off  the  edge  of 
the  hide,  and  observing  ihe  change  of 
colour.  As  tav  as  the  Ian  lias  fully  pene- 
trated, the  eolour  is  of  a  nutmeg-brown, 
but  the  resi  is  wifite  ;  and  therefoi-e,  be- 
fore the  process  is  complete,  the  upper  ai.d 


under  sides  are  brown,  and  a  while  lii>e 
or  streak  is  seen  in  the  middle. 

Lastly,  when  fully  tanned,  the  hide  is 
taken  out  to  drain,  and  stretched  ujion  a 
convex  piece  of  w  ood  called  an  horse,  oil 
which  it  is  thoroughly  smoothed,  and 
beaten  with  a  lieavy  steel  pin,  or  some- 
times passed  between  iron  cylinders,  to 
make  it  more  solid,  and  at  the  same  time 
supple  ;  after  which  it  is  taken  to  the 
drying-house,  a  covered  building  with 
apertures  for  the  free  admission  of  air, 
where  it  remains  till  perfectly  dry. 

Tfie  common  calves-skins  require,  for 
the  whole  process  of  conversion  into  lea- 
ther in  this  way,  from  two  to  four  months, 
the  thick  sole-leather  hides  from  hfteen 
to  eigiiteen  or  twenty  montlis,  and  a  boar's 
shield  can  hai'dly  be  finished  in  less  than 
two  years.  Leather  gains  in  weight  and 
improves  in  quality  the  longer  it  is  suf- 
fered to  remain  in  the  ooze  (within  cer- 
tain limits)  ;  and,  as  it  is  sold  by  weight, 
this  is  also  sometimes  an  object  to  the 
tanners,  though  counterbalanced  to  a 
great  degree  by  the  length  of  time  that 
must  elapse  before  his  caj^ital  is  returned. 

1  he  art  is  indebted  to  M.  Seguin,  a  tan- 
ner of  extensive  business  in  France,  for 
the  first  accur.-.'e  explanation  of  the  ra- 
tionale of  the  process  of  tanning.  Accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  idea  of  tiiis  process,  the 
efi'ect  of  the  infusion  of  astringent  vegeta- 
bles was  supposed  to  be  little  else  tliau 
mechanical;  and  that  it  acted  in  constrin^. 
tug  or  condensing  the  fibres  of  the  dead 
skin,  as  it  corrugates  tlie  skin  of  the  pa- 
late wlien  tasted,  and  hence  rendered  it 
nearly  impervious  to  moisture,  and  un- 
susceptible of  putrefixction.  Tliis  expla- 
nation however,  did  not  'accord  \\  ith  the 
actual  increase  of  weight  which  the  skin 
acquires  by  tanning  ;  and  whicli  amounts, 
on  an  average,  to  an  increase  of  from  one- 
third  to  onc-i'otirth  of  the  weight  of  the 
skin  when  dry.  M.  Seguin,  reasoning* 
from  the  circumstance,  that  skin  before 
tanning,  is  coni])letely  resolved  by  water  '] 
into  a  liquid  jelly,  but  is  insoluble  after  4 
tanning,  was  led  to  the  simple  exjicriment  j 
of  adduig  a  solution  of  skin  (or  glue)  ti>  i^' 
an  infusion  of  oak-bark,  and  found  an  im- 
mediate precipitate  of  a  thick,  tough,  ex- 
tensible, dun-white  matter,  strongly 
smelling  of  tan,  and  insoluble  in  water  at 
any  heal,  and  which,  when  dry,  becomes 
of  a  dark-brown  colour  and  brittle. 

This  jn-ccipitate  is  an  intimate  combi- 
nation of  gelatin  with  that  part  of  the  ve- 
getable infusion  wliie.h  gi\es  the  tanning 
property,  and  being  altogether  a  peculiar 
subsl:ince,  is  denominated  tannin  or  f<//i, 
whose  i)ro])erLies  will  be  more  fmiy  de- 
sci'ibed  under  that  article.     This  precipi- 


LEA 


LEA 


tate  Uierefore,  hardly  differs  from  tanned 
leatlier  in  any  thing  but  in  wanting  the 
fibrous  organized  texture,  and  what  other 
principles  the  sliin  may  liave  absorbed 
irom  the  baik-inf'usion  during  the  macera- 
tion of  several  months,  which  a  sudden 
precipitation  would  not  effect.  Tanning, 
therefore,  consists  chiefly  in  a  slow  and 
most  intimate  combination  of  vegetable 
tan,  with  the  fibre  of  the  skin,  which  con- 
tinues till  the  latter  is  saturated  tlu'ough 
its  whole  thickness. 

But  oak-bark  contains  other  soluble 
matter,  which  certainly  also  enters  the 
texture  of  the  skin  along  with  the  tan, 
and  most  intimately  combines  with  it ;  for 
skin,  when  it  has  undergone  the  previous 
preparation  already  mentioned,  appears  to 
be  able  to  absorb,  and  when  absorbed,  to 
retain  a  great  variety  of  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal substances.  The  infusion  of  oak-bark 
contains,  besides  tan,  ths  gallic  acid,  and 
an  extractive  matter,  all  of  which  contri- 
bute to  the  process,  and  form  a  part  ofthe 
tanned  leather.  That  the  gallic  acid  is 
absorbed,  is  proved  by  the  instant  black- 
ness which  the  leather  assumes,  wlien 
merely  rubbed  with  a  solution  of  any  salt 
of  iron.  The  extract  appears  to  be  tliat 
which  gives  the  leather  its  colour,  and 
some  degree  of  flexibility ;  and  from  the 
excellent  observations  of  Mr.  Davy  on  the 
process  of  tanning,  it  seems  probable,  that 
the  quantity  of  tan  absorbed,  is  a  good 
deal  regulated  by  the  quantity  of  extract 
present,  being  in  general  (the  time  of  im- 
mersion and  strength  of  the  tan-infusion 
being  nearly  equal)  in  inverse  proportion 
to  tlie  quantity  of  extract,  or  of  mucilage, 
present  in  the  infusion.  This  is  found  by 
comparing  the  actual  weight  acquired  by 
leather,  by  quick  tanning  in  infusions  of 
different  tanning  materials,  the  composi- 
tion of  which  has  been  previously  ascer- 
tained by  chemical  analysis.  The  diffi- 
culty in  experiments  of  this  kind,  of  ob- 
taining tolerable  accuracy,  is,  however, 
very  gfjiat,  much  gi-eater  than  in  the  ana- 
lysis oFmetals  or  minerals,  on  account  of 
the  great  want  of  characteristic  marks  of 
distinction  between  vegetable  matters, 
when  a  little  changed  by  chemical  union 
with  other  bodies,  and  the  readiness  with 
which  their  characters  are  irrevocably 
lost,  by  the  common  action  of  re-agents. 

The  sti-ength  ofthe  tanning  infusion  al- 
so most  materially  affects  the  quality  of 
the  leather,  and  the  weight  which  the  skin 
gains  during  the  process.  As  tan  is  more 
soluble  than  extract,  a  solution  made  has- 
tily, and  with  a  large  portion  of  the  mate- 
rial, will  be  nearly  saturated  with  tan,  and 
contain  comparatively  but  little  extract ; 
VOL.    I. 


and,  on  the  other  hand,  tlie  residue  ofthe 
above  infusion,  macerated  for  a  longer 
time  in  fresh  water,  w  111  give  a  solution 
in  which  there  is  but  little  tan,  but  a  large 
quantity  of  extract.  Now  it  would  seem^ 
that  skin  has  the  power  of  fixing  a  larger 
quantity  of  tan  than  of  any  other  ma-  ~ 
terial,  particularly  that  of  extract)  so 
that  if  already  nearly  saturated  with  ex- 
tract, it  will  of  course,  absorb  much  less 
tan  than  before,  and  therefore  the  entire 
increase  of  weight  will  be  much  less  in  this 
way  than  with  tan  alone.  The  quahty 
also  ofthe  leather,  will  of  course,  be  pro- 
bably different,  when  compounded  of  skin 
and  tan,  with  very  little  other  ingredients, 
than  when  it  is  a  compound  of  skin  and 
tan,  with  a  larger  portion  of  extract ;  and, 
in  particular,  the  former  seems  to  be  more 
brittle,  and  less  durable  tlian  the  latter,  as 
far  as  experiments  have  hitherto  been 
made.  The  mere  duration  of  the  process 
also,  as  regulated  solely  by  the  strength 
ofthe  infusion,  that  is,  where  precisely  the 
same  infusion  is  used,  but  more  or  less 
diluted,  may  probably  considerably  affect 
the  quality  of  the  leather ;  for,  when  the 
process  goes  on  very  rapidly,  it  is  possi- 
ble that  tlie  outer  part  ofthe  skin  may  be 
tanned  strongly,  before  the  inner  part  is 
penetrated  with  the  liquor;  and,  as  tan- 
ning gives  a  closeness  of  texture,  and  dif- 
ficult  permeability  to  liquids,  it  may  hap- 
pen, that  this  very  circumstance  may  pre- 
vent that  uniformity  of  saturation  with 
tan,  which  would  seem  desirable. 

'i'l.e  precipitate  made  by  a  solution  of 
gelatin,  dropped  into  an  infusion  of  any 
tanning  vegetable  matter,  appeared  by 
Mr.  Davy's  experiments,  to  be  tolerably 
uniform  in  its  composition,  whatever  be 
the  other  constituents  of  die  vegetable  in. 
fusion.  Thus,  when  galls  were  used,  the 
precipitate  contained  about  46  of  t.an,  and 
54  of  gelatin  ;  with  catechu,  it  contained 
41  per  cent,  of  tan  ;  with  oak  bark,  41  per 
cent,  and  with  the  Leicester  willow,  43. 
But  real  skin  will  never  acquire  such  an 
increase  of  weight  as  the  solution  of  gela- 
tin, either  because  other  substances  enter 
the  composition  of  leather,  or  because  tlie 
texture  of  the  skin  will  not  allow  it  to 
condense  and  chemically  unite  with  so' 
much  tan  as  the  same  skin  when  dissolved 
in  the  form  of  glue  ;  for  glue  (as  mention- 
ed  under  the  article  Gelatin)  is  only  a 
solution  of  the  refuse  part  of  skin.  Thus 
it  was  found,  that  a  piece  of  skin  cora- 
pleatly  tanned  by  three  week's  immersion 
in  a  strong  infusion  of  galls,  only  gained 
weight  in  the  proportion  of  39  to  61  of 
skin ;  and  this  was  even  the  greatest  in- 
crease of  weight  observed,  (being  much 
i  c 


I.EA 


LEA 


move  than  that  of  common  leather,)  and 
in  consequence,  made  a  much  harder  and 
morebikue  leather. 

With  reg-ard  to  tlie  effect  produced  by 
the  time  of  immersion,  it  was  found  in  dif- 
ferent experiments,  tliat  skin,  a))parently 
equally  well  tanned  in  each  case,  absorb- 
ed much  more  tan  by  rapid,  tha)i  by  slow- 
tanning;  100  parts  of  leather  prepared  in 
2  weeks,  containlni^  73  of  skin  and  27  of 
tan,  and  other  materials,  absorbed  from 
tlie  oak  bark  infusion,  and  the  same  quan- 
tity of  leather  prepared  in  12  weeks  (the 
infusion  being'  ]jroportionably  weaker) 
containing-  8.5  of  skin,  and  15  of  tan,  and 
other  veg-etable  matter.  A  similar  differ- 
ence was  found  when  infusion  of  willow 
bark  was  employed. 

The  supposed  improvement  in  the  pro- 
cess of  tanning-,  pi-actised,  and  actually 
proposed  by  M.  Seguin,  may  here  be 
shortly  mentioned.  'I'his  ingenious  artist, 
wishing  to  abridge  the  enormous  time 
employed  in  common  tanning  (and  conse- 
quent ex])ence)  and  considering  the  tan 
as  nearl}'  the  only  active  principle  in  this 
process,  axlopted  the  plan  of  using  solu- 
tions of  tan,  instead  of  the  mixture  of  bark 
and  ooze  usually  employed,  and  of  seve- 
ral and  known  degrees  of  strength,  in 
which  tlie  skin  might  be  rapidly  passed 
from  the  weakest  to  the  strongest,  by  a 
more  regulated  gradation  than  is  usually 
done.  For  this  purpose  he  had  a  series  of 
vats,  containing  the  oak-bark,  and  bcgai 
by  pouring  water  on  one  of  them,  and,  af 
ter  a  short  time,  drawing  it  ofi'  clear 
through  a  hole  at  the  bottom.  This  first 
ooze  was  then  poured  on  the  bark  of  the 
second  vat,  and  drawn  off  as  before,  by 
which  it  became  sensibly  stronger  of  tan. 
This  liquor  again  was  used  to  the  third 
vat,  and  again  to  a  fourth,  aca)rding  to 
the  number,  till  it  became  quite  saturated 
with  tan.  In  the  mean  time,  fresli  water 
was  poured  (m  the  bark  of  tlie  different 
vats  in  the  same  order,  which  produced  a 
second  ooze,  still  very  strong,  but  infe- 
rior to  the  first :  and  thus,  three  or  four, 
or  more  different  oozes  were  obtained,  all 
differing  in  strengtli,  and  which  was  the 
tanning  liquor  employed.  The  skins  then 
being  previously  prepared  in  the  way  al- 
ready described,  were  passed  successive- 
ly through  the  different  oozes,  begiiming 
with  the  weakest  and  ascending  to  the 
strongest,  till  they  were  complcatly  tann- 
ed, whicii  was  known  by  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  white  line  in  the  middle  of  the 
skin  when  cut  through. 

It  appears,  beyond  a  doubt,  tliat  the 
process  of  tanning,  is  most  materially 
shortened  by  this  method  of  M.  Seguin, 
and  that  very  perfect  leather  is  produced^; 


but,  Uiour;h  now  known  for  several  years 
it  does  not  appear  to  be  adopted  to  any 
extent  in  this  country,  where  leather  is 
manufactured  in  vast  quantities,  both  for 
home  consumption  ancl  for  exportation  to 
many  parts  of  Einopc,  in  which  English 
leather  is  in  the  highest  repute,  prom  the 
way  in  which  the  oozes  are  made,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Seguin,  they  must  of  necessity, 
contain  much  more  tan  in  proportion  to 
the  extract  and  other  vegetable  matter, 
than  where  the  bark  itself  is  suffered  to 
remain  in  substance  along  with  tlie  ooze 
and  skin  for  many  months,  as  the  tan  is 
much  the  most  soluble  of  all  the  substaii- 
ces  that  are  to  be  extracted  by  water ;  so 
that  bark  may  readily  be  exhausted  of  tan, 
long  before  the  extract,  reshi,  galiic  acid, 
and  other  materials  are  got  out.  It  is  said, 
that  the  leather  prepared  in  this  new  me- 
thod, is  less  durable  and  more  britde  than 
in  the  old  way. 

The  only  real  improvement,  of  late, 
adopted  in  this  part  of  the  process,  is  to 
use  some  of  the  oozes  warm,  by  which 
the  skin  is  sooner  penetiated  with  the 
ooze,  and  a  saving  of  time  made  of  some 
consequence. 

Dr.  Macbride  proposes  lime-water  to  be 
used,  instead  of  common  water,  for  the  ex- 
traction of  the  tan  from  the  oak-bark ; 
but  this  seems  to  be  mischievous,  as  the 
only  assignable  effect  of  the  lime  would 
be,  to  contract  a  firm  union  with  a  portion 
of  the  gallic  acid  and  the  tan,  the  result 
of  which  woiddbcan  insoluble  calcareous 
substance,  utterly  unfit  for  any  purposes 
of  tanning. 

Of  Ta-iLtng,  Leather-dressing  and  dyeing,  '■' 
and  other  processes. 

The  dressing  and  preparing  of  the  skins 
of  lambs,  sheep,  goats,  and  other  thin 
hides,  thougii  in  many  pju'ticulars  closely 
resembling  the  method  u^ed  with  the 
thick  cow  and  ox  iiides,  forms  usually  a 
totally  distinct  branch  of  business  ;  and  is 
one  in  which  a  good  deal  of  practical  skill 
and  nicety  of  manipulation  is  reqjjj^ed,  to 
succeed  perfectly.  The  processes  are 
very  various  according  to  tlie  article  re- 
quired; and,  this  branch  of  the  manufac- 
ture supplies  the  immense  demand  of 
white  and  dyed  leather  for  gloves,  the  (so 
called)  morocco  leather  of  different  co- 
lours and  qualities  for  coach  linings, 
book-binding,  pocket-books,  and  thin 
leather,  ibr  an  infinite  ntmiber  of  smaller 
purposes.  Of  these,  the  white  leathej 
aloiie  is  not  tanned  but  finished  by  the 
process  of  tawing,  but  the  coloured  leath- 
er receives  always  a  taiming  (generally 
by  sumach)  independent  of  the  other  dye- 
ing materials.  The  previous  prejiaration 
of  each,  or  that  in  wliich  the  skin  is  tho 


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roughly  cleansed  and  reduced  to  the  state 
of  simple  membrane,  in  which  it  is  called 
pelt,  is  essentially  the  same,  whether  for 
tawing  or  dyeing.  It  is  thus  performed 
at  tlie  best  manufactories  at  Bennondsey, 
near  London,  a  place  long  celebrated  for 
all  branches  of  the  leather  business. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  skins 
are  imported ;  if  lambs  tliey  are  thus 
prepared  :  the  skins  are  first  soaked  for  a 
time  in  water,  to  cleanse  them  from  any 
loose  dirt  and  blood,  and  put  upon  the 
beam  commonly  used  for  the  purpose, 
which  is  a  half  cylinder  of  wood  covered 
with  strortg  leather,  and  scraped  on  the 
flesh  side  with  the  semicircular  blunt 
knife  with  two  handles  used  in  this  opera- 
tion. Tliey  are  then  hung  up  in  consider- 
able numbers  in  a  small  close  room  heat- 
ed by  flues,  where  they  remain  to  putrefy 
for  a  given  time,  as  is  easily  perceived  by 
the  strong  ammoniacal  odoiu-  which  issues 
from  them  when  the  door  is  opened.  Dur- 
ing this  process  a  thick  fiUhy  slime  works 
\ip  to  the  surface  of  the  skin,  by  which  the 
I'egularity  of  tlie  process  is  judged  of ; 
and  tlie  wool  is  loosened  so  that  it  readih 
comes  off  with  a  sUght  pull-  Each  skin 
is  then  returr.ed  to  tlie  btam,  the  wool  ta- 
ken off  and  preserved,  and  all  the  slime 
woiked  off  with  the  knife,  and  the  rougli 
edges  pared  away.  The  skin  is  then  put 
into  a  pit  filled  with  lime  water  and  kept 
there  from  two  to  six  weeks  more  or  less 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  skin,  which 
has  the  effect  of  checking  the  further  pu- 
trefaction, and  produces  a  very  remarka- 
ble hardening  and  thickening  of  its  sub- 
stance, and  probably  also  it  detaches  a 
further  portion  of  the  sllnie.  The  skin  is 
again  well  worked  upon  the  beam,  and 
much  of  its  substance  pared  down,  and 
all  inequalities  smoothed  with  the  knife. 
Much  pains  and  judgment  are  required  in 
these  operations,  on  tlie  one  hand  not  to 
endanger  the  substance  of  the  skin  by  the 
putrefaction  (which  if  carried  on  too  long 
would  soon  reduce  it  to  an  incohesive 
pulp)  and  on  the  other  hand  to  work  out 
every  particle  of  the  slime,  the  least  of 
which  if  retained  will  prevent  the  skin 
from  dressing  well  in  the  subsequent  pro- 
cesses, and  from  taking  the  dye  uniformly 
and  well.  The  skin  is  then  again  softened 
and  freed  from  the  lime'  by  being  throwni 
into  a  vat  ef  bran  and  wuter,  and  kept 
there  for  some  weeks  in  a  state  of  gentle 
fermentation,  being  occasionally  returned 
to  tlie  beam.  All  the  tiiickening  produced 
by  the  lime  is  thus  removed,  and  the  skin 
is  now  as  highly  purified  as  possible,  and 
is  a  thin  extensive  white  membrane  called  j 
•3  this  state  a  pelt,  and  i^  r.ow  fit  for  aiiy 


subsequent  operation  of  tawing  or  dyeing, 
or  oil  dressing,  or  shammoying. 

The  method  of  bringing  kid  and  goat's 
skins  to  the  state  of  pelt  is  nearly  the 
same  as  for  lambs,  except  that  tlie  liming 
is  used  before  the  hair  is  taken  off,  the 
hair  being  of  no  great  importance,  and 
only  sold  to  the  plaisterers,  but  the  lamb's 
wool,  which  is  more  valuable,  would  be 
injured  by  the  lime.  Kids'  skins  will  take 
a  longer  time  in  tanning  than  lambs'. 

If  the  pelts  are  to  be  tawed,  they  are 
then  put  into  a  solution  of  alum  and  salt 
in  wai-m  water,  in  tlie  proportion  of  about 
three  pounds  of  alum  and  four  pounds  of 
salt  to  every  120  middle-sized  skins,  and 
worked  about  therein  till  they  have  ab- 
sorbed a  sufficient  quantity.  This  again 
gives  the  skin  a  remarkable  degree  of 
thickness  and  toughness. 

The  skins  ai-e  then  taken  out  and  wash- 
ed in  water,  and  then  again  put  into  a  vat 
of  bi  an  and  water  and  allowed  to  ferment 
for  a  time,  till  much  of  the  alum  and  salt 
is  got  out  and  the  unusual  thickening  pro- 
duced by  it  is  tor  the  most  part  reduced. 
Tiiey  are  then  taken  to  a  lofty  room  with 
a  stove  in  tlie  middle,  and  stretched  on 
hooks  and  kept  there  till  fully  dry.  The 
skins  are  then  converted  into  a  tough, 
flexible,  and  quite  white  leatlier ;  but  to 
give  them  a  glossy  finish,  and  to  take  ofi' 
the  harshness  of  feel  still  remaining,  they 
are  again  soaked  in  water  to  exti'act  more 
of  the  salt,  and  put  into  a  large  pail  con- 
taining the  yolks  of  eggs  beat  up  with 
water.  Here  the  skins  are  trodden  for  a 
long  time,  by  which  they  so  completely 
imbibe  the  substance  of  the  t^g  that  the 
liquor  above  them  is  rendered  almost  per- 
fectly hmpid,  after  which  they  are  hung  up 
in  a  loft  to  dry  and  be  finished  by  glossing 
with  a  warm  iron.  There  are  other  smaller 
manipulations,  which  need  not  be  here 
mentioned. 

The  essential  difference  therefore  be- 
tween tanning  and  tawing  is,  that  in  tlie 
former  case  the  pelt  is  combined  with  tan 
and  other  vegetable  matter,  and  in  the 
latter  with  sometliing  that  it  imbibes  from 
the  alum  and  salt  (possibly  alumine)  and 
wliich  certainly  is  never  again  extracted 
by  the  subsequent  washing  and  branning-. 

The  (so  called)  Morocco  leather,  pre- 
pared from  sheep-skins  chiefly,  and  used 
so  lai'gely  for  coach-hnings,  pocket-books, 
and  the  best  kind  of  book -binding,  is  thus 
made.  The  skui,  cleansed  and  worked 
In  the  way  already  described,  is  taken 
fi-om  the  iime-water,  and  the  thickening 
thereby  occasioned  is  bi-onght  down,  not 
by  bran  liquor  as  in  tawing,  but  by  a  bath 
of  dogs'  or  pigeons'  dung  diffused  in  wa* 


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ter,  where  it  remains  till  sufficiently  sup- 
pled, and  till  the  lime  is  quite  got  out 
and  it  becomes  a  perfectly  white  clean 
pelt.  Ifintended  to  be  dyed  red  it  is  tiicn 
sewed  up  very  tight  in  the  form  of  a  sack 
with  tile  grain  side  outwards  (the  dye 
only  being  required  on  this  side)  and  is 
immersed  in  a  cochineal  balli  of  a  warmth 
just  equal  to  what  the  hand  can  support, 
and  is  worked  about  for  a  sufficient  time 
till  it  is  uniformly  dyed,  a  process  that  de- 
mands much  skill  and  experience.  The 
sack  is  then  j)ut  into  a  large  vat  containing 
sumach  infused  in  warm  water,  and  kcpi 
for  some  hours  till  it  is  sufficiently  tan- 
ned. 

The  skins  intended  to  be  blacked  are 
merely  sumached  without  any  previous 
dyeing-.  After  some  farther  preparation 
the  colour  of  the  fine  red  skins  being 
finished  with  a  weak  bath  of  saffron,  the 
skins  when  dry  are  grained  and  polished 
in  the  following  way.  Tl\ey  are  stretched 
very  tight  upon  a  smooth  inclined  board, 
and  rubbed  over  with  a  little  oil  to  supple 
them.  Tliose  intended  for  black  leatlier 
are  previously  rubbed  over  with  an  iron 
liquor,  by  means  of  a  stiff  brusi),  wliich, 
iniiting  with  the  gallic  acid  of  the  sumach, 
instantly  strikes  a  deep  and  uniform  black. 
They  are  then  rubbed  by  hand  with  a  baU 
of  glass  cut  into  a  polygonal  surface,  with 
much  manual  labour,  which  polishes 
them  and  makes  them  very  firm  and  com- 
pact. Lastly,  the  graining  or  ribbed  sur- 
face by  which  this  kind  of  leather  is  dis- 
tinguished is  given  by  rubbing  the  leather 
very  strongly  with  a  ball  of  box-wood, 
round  the  centre  of  wliich  a  number  of 
small  equidistant  parallel  grooves  are  cut 
in,  forming  an  equal  number  of  narrow 
ridges,  the  friction  of  which  gives  the 
leather  the  desired  inequality  of  surface. 
The  common  mode  of  currying  leather 
for  shoes,  boots,  &.c,  consists  in  first  soft- 
ening the  hides  as  they  come  from  the 
tan-pit,  partly  by  soaking  in  water,  partly 
by  mechanical  means,  aud  then  impreg- 
nating it  with  soma  kind  of  oil,  by  which 
means  it  is  rendered  much  more  impervi- 
ous by  moisture,  and  proper  to  protect 
the  feet  from  the  inclemency  of  the  sea- 
sons, 'i'be  process  in  a  few  words  is  the 
following:  the  hide  is  first  soaked  tho- 
roughly in  water,  then  placed  on  a  polish- 
ed wooden  beam  with  the  flesh  side  out- 
wards, and  pared  with  a  broad  sharp 
knife  till  all  the  inequalities  are  removed 
and  it  is  reduced  to  the  required  thinness. 
It  is  then  again  washed  and  rubbed  with  a 
polished  stone,  and  while  still  wet  it  is 
besmeared  with  curriers  oil,  generally 
fish-oil,  or  a  mixture  of  this  and  tallow. 
When  hung  vip  to  dry  the  moisture  eva- 


porates, and  the  oil,  which  cannot  he 
dissipated  iiymcre  exposure,  gradually 
takes  the  place  of  the  moisture,  and  pene- 
trates deeply  into  the  pores  of  the  leather. 
It  is  then  dried  either  in  the  sun  or  in  a 
stoved  room. 

Blackening  tlie  leather  is  also  a  part  of 
the  curriers  business,  which  is  done  on 
the  grain  side,  simply  by  rubbing  with  an 
iron  liquor,  but  on  the  flesh  side  with  a 
mixture  of  lamp-black  and  oil. 

Sliammoyed  leather  is  generally  sheep 
or  does  skin,  prepared  in  tlie  way  already 
mentioned  by  dressing,  liming,  &c.  and 
dyed  if  necessary,  and  then  finished  in 
oil.  This  forms  the  common  wash-leather, 
breeches  leather,  &c.  and  is  the  only  kind 
which,  when  dyed,  will  bear  washing 
without  the  colour  being  materially  in- 
jured. 

Common  boot-leather,  as  usually  pre- 
pared,  is  still  in  some  degree  pervious  to 
water  by  long  ex|)os!U-e  to  wet,  and  there- 
fore fishermen,  v.ild-fowl  shooters,  and 
those  whose  employment  or  amusement 
leads  them  to  be  long  on  wet  ground, 
usually  prepare  their  boots  with  an  addi- 
tional dressing  of  some  oily  or  resinous 
matter. 

The  punt-shooters  in  Cambridgesliire 
and  the  adjoining  fenny  parts  of  England, 
use  the  following  mixture  with  very  good 
effect.  Melt  together  in  an  earthen  pip- 
kin half  a  pound  of  tallow,  4  ounces  of 
hog's  lard,  2  ounces  of  turpentine,  and 
as  much  bees-wax  :  make  the  boots  tho- 
roughlv  dry  and  warm,  and  rub  in  tliis 
mixture  well  with  a  little  tow  as  hot  as  the 
hand  can  bear,  or  else  hold  the  boots  over 
a  very  gentle  fire  till  the  leather  has  tho- 
roughly imbibed  it.  Another  mixture  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  used  by  fishermen, 
is  :  bees-wa^.  Burgundy  pitch,  and  tur- 
pentine, of  each  2  ounces  ;  talloM',  4  oun- 
ces :  or  half  a  pound  of  bees-wax,  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  rosin,  and  the  like 
fjuantily  of  bcef-suet.  In  all  cases  the 
boots  must  be  quite  dry,  and  the  mixture 
ap)ilied  very  warm. 

it  only  remains  on  the  subject  of  leather 
to  notice  very  shortly  some  of  the  most 
i-emarkal)le  kinds  of  leather  prepared  in 
foreign  countries,  for  the  general  methods 
of  making  leather  resemble  each  other 
very  closely  in  every  part  of  the  globe. 

'I'lic  process  for  the  real  Morocco  lea- 
ther, as  pre])ared  from  goat-skins  at  Fex 
andTetuan,  is  thus  described  by  M.Brous- 
sonet.  The  skins  are  first  cleansed,  the 
hair  taken  off,  limed  and  reduced  with 
bran  nearly  in  the  way  already  described 
for  the  English  Morocco  leather.  After 
coming  from  the  bran  tiiey  are  thrown 
into  a  second   bath  made  of  v.  hite  figs^ 


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mixed  .with  water,  which  is  therehy  ren- 
dei-ed  sltmy  and  fermentable.  In  this  bath 
the  skins  remain  four  or  five  days,  when 
they  are  ihoroiischly  salted  with  sal-gem 
(or  rock  salt)  alone  (and  not  with  salt  and 
alum)  after  which  they  are  fit  to  receive 
the  dye  ;  whicli,  for  the  red,  is  cochineal 
and  alum,  and  for  the  yellow,  pometi^ra- 
nate  bark  and  alum.  The  skins  are  then 
tanned,  dressed,  suppled  witii  a  little  oil, 
and  dried. 

Much  excellent  leather  of  every  kind 
is  prepared  in  different  parts  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire.  The  preparation  of  the  fine 
llussia  leatlier,  so  well  known  for  its  qua- 
lity and  for  its  peculiar  smell,  is  described 
at  larg-e  in  Mr.  Tooke's  "  View  of  the 
Russian  Empire,"  to  which  we  must  refer 
the  reader  for  the  minuter  particulars.  In 
general  it  may  be  stated,  tliat  the  hides 
are  first  put  into  a  weak  alkaline  lye  to 
loosen  the  hair,  and  then  scraped  on  a 
beam,  then  (if  calves)  are  reduced  by 
dogs  dung,  and  a  sour  oatmeal  drench, 
then  tanned  with  great  care  and  frequent 
handling.  The  bark  used  here  is  seldom 
oak,  but,  where  it  can  be  got,  the  bark 
of  the  black  willow,  or  if  this  cannot  be 
had,  birch-bark.  They  are  then  dved 
either  red  or  black,  these  being  the  two 
colours  the  most  esteemed.  For  the  red 
the  hide  is  first  soaked  in  alum  and  tlien 
dyed  with  brazil  wood.  The  black  is  given 
as  us  :al  with  an  iron  liquor.  The  leather 
is  then  smeared  with  birch  tar,  which 
gives  the  peculiar  smell  so  much  prized 
(and  wliich  when  used  for  book-binding 
has  the  valuable  property  of  protecting 
the  book  from  worms,)  and  is  finished  by 
various  other  manipulations.  Tlie  streak- 
ed or  barred  surface  is  given  to  the  lea- 
ther by  a  very  heavy  steel  cylinder  wound 
round  with  wires. 

A  valuable  Saffian  or  dyed  Maroquin 
leather,  almost  equal  to  that  of  Turkey,  is 
prepared  largely  at  Astracan  and  other 
parts  of  Asiatic  Russia.  Only  bucks  and 
goats  skins  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  favourite  colours  are  red  and  yellow. 
The  general  method  of  preparing  the  pelt 
is  the  same  as  in  this  counti-y  for  the  dy- 
ed Morocco  leather,  that  is  by  lime,  dog's 
dung,  and  bran.  Honey  is  also  used  afi:er 
the  branning.  The  honey  is  dissolved  in 
warm  water,  and  some  of  this  liquor  is 
poured  on  each  skin  spread  out  on  wood- 
en trays  till  it  has  imbibed  the  whole  of 
the  honey,  after  which  it  is  let  to  ferment 
for  about  three  days,  and  then  salted  in  a 
strong  brine  and  hung  up  to  dry.  The 
skin  is  then  ready  to  receive  the  dye, 
which,  for  red,  is  made  with  cochineal  and 
the  salsola  ericoides,  an  alkaline  plant 
g-rowing  plentifully  on  the  Tartaruin  salt 


desarts,  and  the  colour  is  finished  with 
alum.  When  dyed,  the  skins  are  tanned 
with  sumach.  To  tl>e  very  finest  reds  a 
quantity  of  sorrel  is  used  with  the  cochi- 
neal batli,  and  the  subsequent  tannin-v  is 
given  witli  galls  instead  of  sumach,  which 
renders  the  colour  as  durable  as  the 
leather  itself.  The  roughness,  always  ob- 
served on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  is  given 
by  a  heavy  kind  of  iron  rake  with  blunt 
points.  The  yellow  saffians  are  d\'cd 
with  the  berries  of  a  species  of  rhamnus 
(the  Avignon  berry  would  answer  the 
same  purpose,  and  is  used  in  other  coun- 
tries) or  with  the  flowers  of  the  wild  ca- 
momile. 

That  singular  and  valuable  leather  cal- 
led Shagreen,  is  a  manufacture  almost  pe- 
culiar to  Astracan,  where  it  is  prepared 
by  the  Tartai-s  and  Armenians.  For  ma- 
king shagreen  only  horses'  or  asses'hides 
are  taken,  and  it  is  only  a  small  part  from 
the  crupper  along  the  back  that  can  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  This  is  cut  oflf'  im- 
mediately  above  the  tail  in  a  semicircular 
form,  about  34  inches  upon  the  crupper 
and  28  along  the  back.  These  pieces  are 
first  soaked  in  water  till  the  hair  is  loose 
and  is  scraped  ofi;  and  the  skin,  again 
soaked,  is  scraped  so  thin  as  not  to  exceed 
a  wetted  hog's  bladder  in  thickness,  and 
till  all  the  extraneous  matter  is  got  out 
and  only  a  clean  membranous  pelt  remains! 
The  piece  is  then  stretched  tight  on  a 
frame,  and  kept  occasionally  wetted  that 
no  part  may  shrink  unequally.  The 
frames  are  then  laid  on  a  floor  with  the 
flesh  side  of  the  skin  undermost,  and  the 
grain  side  is  strewed  over  with  the  smooth 
black  hard  seeds  of  the  alabuta  or  goose- 
foot  (Chenopodium  album)  and  a  'felt  is 
then  laid  upon  them,  and  the  seeds  trod- 
den  in  deeply  into  the  soft  moist  skin. 
The  use  of  this  is  to  give  the  peculiar 
mottled  surface  for  wiiicli  shagreen  is  dis- 
tinguished. The  frames  witJi  the  seeds 
still  sticking  to  the  skin  are  then  dried 
slowly  m  the  shade  till  the  seeds  will 
shake  oW  without  any  violence,  and  the 
skin  is  left,  a  hard  horny  substance  with 
the  grain  side  deeply  indented.  It  is  then 
laid  on  a  solid  block  covered  with  wool, 
and  strongly  rasped  v/ith  two  or  three 
a-on  instruments  (the  particular  form  of 
which  need  not  be  here  described)  till  the 
whole  of  tlie  grain  side  is  sliaved,  so  that 
the  impression  of  the  seeds  is  very  slight 
and  uniform.  The  skins  are  then  softened 
first  with  water,  and  then  with  a  warm 
alkaline  lye,  and  are  heaped  warm  and 
wet  on  each  other,  by  which  means  the 
parts  indented  bv  the  impression  regain 
much  of  their  elasticity,  and  having  lost 
none  of  their  substance  by  paring,  rise  un 


LEA 


LEA 


fully  to  the  level  of  the  shaved  places,  and 
llius  form  the  j^'ain  or  granular  texture 
peculiar  to  the  shagreen.  The  skin  is 
then  salted  and  dyed. 

The  heautiful  green  dye  is  given  by 
soaking  the  inner  or  flesh  side  of  the  skin 
with  a  saturated  solution  of  sal-ammoniac, 
strewing  it  over  wilii  copper  hliiigs,  roll- 
ing it  up  with  the  flesh  side  inwards,  and 
pressing  each  skin  with  a  considerable 
weight  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  in 
which  time  the  sal-ammoniac  dissolves 
enough  of  the  copjjcr  to  penetrate  the  skin 
with  an  agrecal;ie  sea-green  colovu-.  Tliis 
is  repeated  a  second  time  to  give  the  co- 
lour more  body. 

Blue  shagreen  is  dyed  with  indigo  dis 
solved  in  an  impui-e  soda  by  means  oflime 
and  honey.  IJlack  shagreen  is  dyed  with 
galls  and  vitriol.  The  skins  are  finished 
with  oil  or  suet.     See  Tan :^ in g. 

LEATHER,  boots,  bootees,  and  shoes 
of  iron  bound. 

Mr.  Bedford,  of  this  city,  has  obtained 
a  patent,  for  a  new  mode  of  making  shoes, 
boots,  &c.  which  appears  to  be  preferable, 
in  many  respects,  to  those  made  in  the  or- 
dinary way.  The  patentee,  in  his  adver- 
tisement, gives  the  following  observations 
Jle  remarks,  that  "shoemakers,  by  his 
improvement,  are  able  to  make  lour  times 
the  quantity  of  shoes  that  can  be  made  in 
the  common  way  with  the  same  number 
of  hands  ;  for  example,  the  usual  work  of 
three  men,  is  only  three  pair  of  common 
shoes  per  day ;  vvheieas  in  the  improved 
way,  three  men  wirh  the  assistance  of  a 
boy,  can  make  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pair 
per  day.  Thus  the  advantages,  resulting 
from  the  improvement,  are  evidently  of  the 
most  essential  importance.  In  the  first 
place,  three-fourths  of  the  labour  is  sav- 
ed ;  in  the  second  place,  half  the  leather 
is  saved,  for  one  pair  of  shoes  made  in 
this  way,  will  wear  as  long  as  two  pair 
made  in  the  usual  way ;  and  in  the  third 
place,  there  is  a  saving  of  flax,  at  the  rate 
f)f  one  pound  to  twenty  pair  of  shoes ;  they 
are  also  much  more  water  proof  than  the 
others,  and  easier  mended." 

Leather,  hoiv  rendered  'iuater  proof— Mr. 
Mollersten  has  obtained  a  patent  for  a 
composition  to  render  leather  water  proof, 
which  he  extends  also  to  woollen  clotli, 
linen,  and  other  stuffs.  He  observes,  that 
it  will  render  them  not  only  impenetrable 
to  hot  and  corroding  liquors,  but  will  give 
them  a  fine  gloss,  and  preserve  them 
from  decay. 

To  prepare  the  composition  of  a  black 
colour,  INIr.  Mollersten  gives  tlic  follow- 
ing directions  : 

Take  two  gallons  of  linseed  oil,  one 
gallon  of  whale  oil,  half  a  pomtd  of  horse 


grease,  mingle  them  with  four  pounds  of 
fmely  ground  Prussian  blue,  and  four 
pounds  of  lamp  black,  and  afterwards  boil 
them  over  a  strong  fire ;  to  w  Inch  add, 
one  pound  of  fine  gromid  benzoin  gum, 
previously  well  mingled  in  one  gallon  ot" 
linseed  oil,  of  which  one  half  gallon  is  to 
be  put  in  the  above,  when  the  composi- 
tion has  boiled  half  an  hour,  and  the 
remainder  when  the  boiling  is  finished. 
This  cnm])osition  is  sufficiently  boiled 
when  it  gets  so  thick  that  no  drops  fall 
from  any  thing  dipped  into  it ;  and  it  is 
afterwards  fit  lor  use  w  hen  cold. 

For  making  the  composition  of  other 
colours.  The  genuine  linseed  oil  must  be 
well  bleached  :  to  two  gallons  of  which 
put  half  a  gallon  of  spermaceti  oil,  and 
hall"  a  pound  of  Prussian  blue,  place  them 
in  a  glass  vessel  in  a  strong  sun  (the 
effect  may  be  increased  by  burning 
glasses  if  necessary)  and  when  they  have 
attained  the  same  consistency  as  the  black 
composition,  after  having  boiled  one  half 
hour,  take  one  pound  of  benzoin  gum 
mixe,d  with  one  gallon  of  linseed  oil 
bleached,  add  one  half  of  it  to  them  and 
place  the  same  in  the  sun,  as  before ; 
and,  when  it  has  again  attained  the  same 
consistency  as  the  black  composition,  add 
the  remaining  half  of  the  gum  and  oil. 

Mr.  Mollersten  recommends  that  the 
colours  used  should  be  at  lea'st  one  half 
of  metallic  compositions,  as  he  is  not 
certain  that  colours  composed  of  animal 
substances  onlj'  will  answer  the  purpose  : 
he  also  observes,  that  the  Prussian  blue 
mixed  with  the  other  colours  renders  the 
substances  on  which  they  are  i)ut  capable 
of  resisting  hot  and  corrosive  liquors, 
thougli  witliout  it  they  will  resist  wet 
equally  well. 

Mr.  Mollersten  directs  the  composition 
to  be  laid  very  thin  at  first,  on  the 
substances  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied, 
and  that  scraping  irons  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 

'Ihe  substances  are  then  to  be  stretched 
on  a  board  or  frame  over  blanketing,  and 
put  into  an  oven  to  dry  the  composition, 
and  the  ojjcration  is  to  be  repeated  till 
the  substances  have  attained  the  proper 
gloss  and  smoothness  ;  besides  the  sera, 
pers,  pumice  stone  is  to  lie  used  in  the 
intervals  of  drying,  to  make  the  surfaces 
smooth  and  even  :  from  four  to  six  repeti- 
tions of  the  lackering  and  drying  will 
generally  complete  the  process. 

The  Editors  of  the  Kctros|)cct  of  Ws- 
coveries,  observe,  that  one  of  the  direc- 
tions for  boiling  the  composition  shouUl 
not  bo  f<)llowed  too  exactly,  or  the  whole 
composition  will  jnobably  be  spoiled, that 
is,  "  to  boil  it  till  no  drops  fall  frojn  any 


LEA 


LEM 


thing  dipped  into  it."  This  is  one  of  those 
extremely  vague  I'ules  which  those  who 
are  well  acquainted  with  a  process  fre- 
quently give,  from  not  considering  that 
those  they  desire  to  instruct  are  not  suffi- 
ciently acquainted  with  such  operations 
to  know  that  they  mean  by  such  phrases 
any  thing  but  the  literal  sense.  The  di- 
rection would  probably  be  nearer  the  truth 
if  it  was,  that  the  matter  siiould  be  boiled 
(ill  it  adhered  to  any  thing  dipped  into  it ; 
or  till  the  whole  of  the  matter  adliering 
to  any  thing  dipped  into  it  did  not  again 
fall  off  in  diops. 

This  subject  however  will  be  again 
considered,  in  which  we  will  notice  the 
patents  of  several  other  persons,  for  the 
same  pm'pose. 

LEAVEN,  or  sourdough,  is  a  ferment- 
ed mixture  of  flour  and  water,  which  is 
effected  generally  with  yeast,  and  is  used 
to  ferment  a  large  quantity  of  paste  in 
lieu  of  yeast-  It  is,  however,  a  very  im- 
perfect substitute.  Mr  Tillyer  has  pre- 
pared tiie  following  substitute,  which  ma}' 
be  classed  under  this  head,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  yeast,  which  we  have  extracted 
irom  the  Repertory  of  Arts.  To  make  an 
yeast  gallon  of  this  composition,  bOil  in 
common  vrater  eight  pounds  of  potatoes, 
as  for  eating ;  bruise  them  perfectly 
smooth,  and  mix  witli  them  whilst  warm, 
two  ounces  of  honey,  or  any  other  sweet 
substance,  and  one  quart  of  com- 
mon yeast.  And,  for  making  bi'ead,  mix 
three  beer  pints  of  the  above  composition 
with  a  bushel  of  flour,  using  warm  water 
in  making  the  bread ;  the  water  to  be 
warmer  in  winter,  and  the  composition  to 
be  used  in  a  few  hours  after  it  is  made  ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  sponge  (the  mixture 
of  the  composition  with  the  Hour)  begins 
to  fall  the  hrst  time,  the  bread  should  be 
made  and  put  in  the  oven.  See  Yeast. 

LEAVES  of  Plants.  Lewis  found, 
that  the  green  colour  of  the  leaves  of 
plants,  is  extracted  by  alcohol,  and  by  oils. 
The  spirituous  tinctures  are  generally  of 
a  tine  deep  green,  even  when  the  leaves 
are  dull  coloured,  yellowish,  or  hoary. 
'I'hesc  colours  are  seldom  lasting  in  the 
liquor.  Alkalis  heighten  both  the  tinc- 
tures and  the  green  juices.  Acids  weak- 
en, destroy,  and  change  it  to  a  brownish. 
L'.mc-vvater  improves  both  the  colour  and 
durability.  By  means  of  lime,  not  inele- 
gant green  lakes  are  procurable  from  the 
leaves  of  acanthus,  lily  of  the  valley,  and 
several  other  plants.  , 

Few  plants  communicate  any  part  of 
their  green  colour  to  water,  and  perhaps 
none  that  give  a  green  of  any  considera- 
ble intensity.  It  is  said,  however,  that  the 
leaves  of  some  plants  give  a  green  dye  to 


woollen,  without  the  addition  of  any  other 
colouring  matter ;  particularly  those  of 
tlie  wild  chervil,  or  cow-weed,  the  com- 
mon rag-wort  and  devil's  bit.  Lewis  gives 
the  process  from  Linnxus,  as  practised  by 
the  peasants  in  Sweden,  with  the  last.  It 
consists  in  boiling  the  leaves  with  their 
woollen  yarn  for  a  short  time,  and  leaving 
the  whole  together  for  a  night,  after 
which  the  yarn  is  taken  out,  hung  in  the 
steam  of  the  liquid,  and  again  made  to 
boil  over  the  fire.  It  is  then  wrung,  the 
leaves  are  taken  out  of  the  lic|uor,  a  little 
fresh  water  added,  and  the  wool  frequent- 
ly dipped  thei'ein  till  sufficiently  dyed. 

Many  kinds  of  leaves  afford  a  yellow 
dye  to  woollens,  pre»iously  boiled  with 
alum  and  tartar,  weld  in  particular,  which 
see.  Indigo  and  woad  afford  blue.  Lewis 
tried  without  success,  to  obtain  blues  bv 
macerating  the  leaves  of  other  plants  in 
water. 

It  is  said,  that  the  leaves  of  the  plant, 
which  Dr.  Barton  discovered,  the  Wood- 
housia  Tinctoria,  found,  I  think,  in  Virgi- 
nia, will  yield  a  beautiful  dye. 

LEMOiVS.  The  citrus  lima,  or  Lemon 
tree,  has  an  upright  smooth  trunk,  divid- 
ed at  the  top  into  a  branchy  regular  head ; 
fi'om  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  high ;  large 
oval,  spear-shaped,  pointed,  slightly- 
sawed  leaves,  on  lineal  footstalks;  and 
many  flowers  fi-om  the  sides  of  the 
branches,  succeeded  by  large  oval  fruit,, 
prominent  at  the  top.  Tlie  varieties  are : 
the  Lemon  tree  with  sour  fruit;  witli 
sweetish  fruit ;  with  very  large  fruit  caH*. 
ed  Imperial  Lemon ;  with  pear  shaajjd 
fruit ;  with  furrowed  fruit ;  with  clustered 
fruit ;  with  childing  fruit ;  with  wliitish 
fruit ;  with  tricoloured  striped  fruit,  &c. 

The  flowering  and  fruit  setting  season 
for  the  Lemon  tree,  is  chiefly  in  .lune  and 
July.  It  continues  blowing, and  setting 
fruit, for  three  months,  when  a  full  crop  is 
set.  The  fruit  is  of  a  green  colour  first, 
turning  yellow  as  it  grows  ripe.  Its  shape 
is  almost  oval,  and  divided  into  several 
cells,  in  which  are  lodged  hard  seeds, 
surrounded  by  a  thick  flesiiy  substance, 
full  of  an  acrid  juice.  The  best  Lemons 
should  be  large,  weighty,  and  of  a  thin 
rind. 

In  the  southern  part  of  France,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Italy,  there  are  forests  full 
of  Lemon  trees,  and  a  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  in  transporting  them  to  all 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe-  They  are 
for  that  purpose,  wrapped  up  in  soft  pa- 
per, and  packed  in  chests. 

The  Lemon  yields  a  very  agreeable 
acid  juice,which,  besides  its  common  use, 
answers  considerable  purposes  in  medi- 
cine.    The  yellow  peel  of  the  Lemon  is 


LEM 


LEM 


an  agreeable  aromatic  and  excellent  sto- 
machic ;  it  is  also  used  by  the  confection- 
ers to  be  candied.  Considerable  quanti- 
ties of  pickled  Lemons  are  annually  shipp- 
ed from  tlie  Mediterranean  for  the  Baltic. 
Tiie  true,  unadulterated  oil,  obtained 
from  Lemon  peel  is  very  valuable. 

LEMON  JUICE.  An  agreeable  acid, 
obtained  from  the  lemon  fruit,  which, 
when  fresh,  is  used  as  a  cooling'  draught, 
mixed  with  water  and  sugar,  under  the 
name  of  lemonade  :  the  same  articles 
combined  with  spirit,  as  gin,  whiskey,  or 
brandy,  form  the  beverage  called  punch. 
Without  slating  its  use  in  medicine,  when 
eombined  with  diilerent  substances,  we 
shall  only  remark,  that  it  is  an  excellent 
antiseptic,  and  as  such,  is  highly  recom- 
mended by  Ur.  Pringle,  for  the  sea  scurvy. 
In  order  to  preserve  the  juice,  different 
methods  have  been  recommended,  some 
of  which  are  given  in  the  following  arti- 
cle. 

LEMON  JUICE,  the  purification  and 
presei'vation  of. 

Wit!)  respect  to  the  purification  of  the 
juice  of  lemon,  which  consists  principally 
in  separating  the  mucilaginous  matter, 
■with  which  it  is  intermixed,  Mr.  Scheele 
ill  particular  has  given  considerable  atten- 
tion. He  recommends,  before  bottling 
the  juice,  to  boil  it  for  some  time,  which 
will  separate  a  large  quantity  of  foreign 
matter  in  the  form  of  scum  ;  after  remov- 
ing which  willi  a  ladle,  he  then  advises 
filling  and  immediately  bottling  the  jtiice, 
taking  care  to  screw  the  corks  sufficiently 
tiadit.  The  object  in  thus  separating  the 
foreign  matter,  is  to  prevent  the  putrefac- 
tive change,  and  by  keeping  tt  well  clo.se(l, 
to  prevent  t  lie  access  of  air.  As  the  latter 
has  a  consicleral)le  tendency  to  change  the 
qualities  of  lime  or  lemon  juice,  some  re- 
commend ])utting  the  juice  in  small  bot- 
tles, and  filling  the  rest  of  the  bottle  with 
sweet  oil.  BtHfbre  using  it,  the  oil  may  be 
readily  rtmovcd  by  means  of  lint  or  cotton. 
'I'his  mode  is  highly  recommended  in  the 
Domestic  Cookery. 

Of  all  the  methods  of  preserving  lemon- 
juice,  that  of  concentrating  it  by  frost  ap- 
pears to  be  the  best,  tiiough  in  the  warmer 
climates  it  cannot  conveniently  be  prac- 
tised. Lemon-juice,  expo.sed  to  tlic  air, 
in  a  temperature  between  50"  and  60", 
deposits  in  a  few  hours  a  white  semiti-ans- 
parcnt  n\ucilaginous  matter,  which  leaves 
the  fluid,  after  decantalion  and  filtration, 
much  less  alterable  than  before.  This 
mucilag-e  is  not  of  a  gummy  nature,  but 
resembles  the  gluten  of  wheat  in  its  pro- 
pei'ties  :  it  is  not  soluble  in  water  when 
dried.  More  mucilage  is  separated  from 
lemon-juice  by  standing  in  closed  vessels. 


If  this  depurated  lemon-juice  be  ^posed 
to  a  degree  of  cold  ot  about  sever,  or  eight 
degrees  below  the  freezing  ]M)int,  the 
aqueous  part  will  freeze,  and  the  ice  may 
be  taken  away  as  it  forms  ;  and  if  tlie  pro- 
cess be  contituied  until  the  ice  begins  to 
exliibit  signs  of  acidity,  the  remaining 
acid  will  be  found  to  be  reduced  to  about 
one-eighth  of  its  original  quantity,  at  the 
same  time  thatits  acidity  will  be  eight  times 
as  intense,  as  is  proved  by  its  requiring 
eight  times  the  (juanlity  of  alkali  to  satu- 
rate an  equal  portion  of  it.  This  concen- 
trated acid  may  be  kept  for  use,  or,  if 
preferred,  it  may  be  made  into  a  dry  le- 
monade, by  adding  six  times  its  weight 
of  fine  loaf  sugar  in  powder. 

The  above  processes  may  be  used  when 
the  acid  of  lemons  is  wanted  for  domestic 
purposes,  because  they  leave  it  in  posses- 
sion of  the  oils,  or  other  principles,  on 
which  its  flaTour  peculiarly  depends  ;  but 
in  chemical  researches,  where  the  acid 
itself  is  required  to  be  had  in  the  utmost 
purity,  a  more  elaborate  process  must  be 
used. 

LEMON,  acid  of.     See  Citric  Acid. 

Lh-MON  ACID,  (dry.)  In  consequence 
of  the  scarcity  of  fruit,  the  juice  of  the 
lime,  or  lemon,  cannot  at  all  times  be 
obtained.  N.  S.  Allison  £;  Co.  of  Piiila- 
delphia,  have  therefore  made  a  prepara- 
tion, which  is  sold  as  p-ure  lemun  acid, 
which  makes  an  agreeable  drink,  such  as 
punch,  lemonade,  See.  We  do  nut  doubt 
but  that  it  is  the  concrete  acid,  and  will 
answer  all  the  purposes  of  the  fi'uit,  or 
juice  of  the  lemon.  AV'hetlier  it  be  the 
fact  or  not,  this  much  is  certain,  that  it  is 
calculated,  from  iis  flavour,  acidity,  &c. 
to  snperceile  the  juice,  and  therefore, 
when  the  juice  cannot  be  obtained,  must 
be  considered  as  a  valuable  acquisition. 
In  their  advertisement  they  observe,  that 

"  Tills  acid  retains  all  the  gratei'ul  fla- 
voiu'of  the  fresh  lemon,  makes  most  ex- 
cellent ])unch,  lemonade,  shrub,  SiC.  and 
instantly  dissolves  in  warm  or  cold  water ; 
is  also  adapted  for  e\  ery  purj)ose  in  cook- 
ery, where  the  lemon  is  required,  such  as 
sauces,  jellies,  S.c. 

"  The  conveniciice  of  this  acid  for  ta- 
verns and  public  jjlaces  of  amusement,  is 
sufficiently  obvious,  as  it  will  make  punch, 
lemonade,  &.c.  at  any  time  of  tlie  year, 
e([ually  rich  as  with  the  fiaiit,  and  always 
cheai)cr.  For  balls  and  as.seinblies  this 
elegant  jireparalion  is  ])arlicularly  desii'a- 
ble  ;  as  lemonade,  &.c.  may  be  made  in 
the  most  easy  and  expeditious  manner. 
It  will  also  impart  a  pleasant  flavour  to  a 
glass  of  seltzer,  or  other  mineral  waters. 

"  It  is  particularly  recommended  to  offi- 
cers and  gentlemen  travelling,  to  captains 


LEV 


Lie 


of  ships  and  others  going  long  voyages ; 
it  is  perfectly  dry  and  portable,  and  will 
keep  for  any  length  of  time,  in  every  cli- 
mate. 

"  It  is  warranted  to  contain  no  extra- 
neous matter,  being  nothing  but  the  pure 
acid  of  lemons." 

LEMON,  essential  salt  of.  This  pre- 
paration, which  is  sold  in  tlie  shops  to 
make  punch,  and  remove  ink  stains  and 
iron  moulds,  is  nothing  more  than  citric 
acid,  combined  with  a  little  of  the  essen- 
tial oil  of  lemon. 

Veiy  fi-equently,  supertartrate  of  potash 
(cream  of  tartar)  or  superoxitate  of  pot- 
ash (salt  of  sorrel)  is  sold  for  it.  See 
Citric  Acid- 

LEI  H AUG Y,  in  Farriery.    See   Far- 

RIERY. 

LEES  of  soap.     See  Soap. 

LEVER,  cross  bar,  invented  by  Mr. 
Windham,  of  England,  on  whom  the 
Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts, 
&r.  in  1796,  conferred  their  silver  medal. 


A,  is  the  lever. 

B,  an  upright  piece  of  wood,  to  be 
affixed  to  the  lever ;  care  being  taken  to 
place  the  side  marked  with  this  letter 
opposite  to  that  marked  A  on  the  lever ; 
by  which  means  it  inclines  backwards, 
and  thus  increases  the  power. 

C,  is  a  cross-bar,  being  the  hand  by 
which  the  workmen  exert  their  strength. 

D,  is  another  cross-bar,  to  be  placed  at 
the  bottom,  behind  the  upright  piece  of 

VOL.  I, 


wood,  on  v/hich  the  labourers  are  to  stand, 
and  through  which  the  end  of  the  lever 
passes  These  additions  are  so  construc- 
ted, that  they  may  be  occasionally  fixed 
and  removed  ;  because  they  are  to  be 
employed  only,  when  the  strength  of  the 
rock,  or  each,  requires  an  increase  qf 
power.      # 

Sliould  the  rock  be  elevated  so  con- 
siderably above  the  ground,  as  to  endan- 
ger tlie  men  by  its  fall,  when  tlie  separa- 
tion takes  place,  the  lever  may  be  revers- 
ed ;  so  t!iat  the  labourers  will  stand  upon 
the  bar  intended  for  the  application  of 
their  hands,  in  common  cases  ;  and  thus 
all  danger  will  be  efi'ectually  prevented. 

Various  other  levers  have  been  contriv- 
ed; which  will  be  noticed  in  Mechanics. 

LEVIGATION.  The  mechanical  pro- 
cess  of  grinding  the  parts  of  bodies  to  a 
fine  paste,  by  rubbing  the  flat  face  of  a 
stone  called  the  muller  upon  a  table  or 
slab  called  the  stone.  Some  fluid  is  al- 
ways added  in  this  process.  The  advan- 
tage of  levigation  with  a  stone  and  mul- 
ler, beyond  that  of  triturating  hi  a  mor- 
tar, is,  that  the  materials  can  more  easily 
be  scraped  together,  and  subjected  to  the 
action  of  the  muller,  than  in  the  other 
case  to  that  of  the  pestle;  and,  from  the 
flatness  of  the  two  surfaces,  they  cannot 
elude  the  pressure. 

LEYfra  solufionof  potash,  made  caus- 
tic by  means  of  lime-  The  process  of 
extracting  the  alkali  from  wood  ashes,  and 
the  setting  of  the  ley  tub,  are  too  well 
known  to  require  description.  The  use 
of  lime  is  intended  to  render  the  liquor 
Caustic,  which  it  does  by  abstracting  the 
carbonic  acid  from  the  alkali.  See  Soap. 

LICHEN-LIVEIIWORT.  Several  spe- 
cies of  this  genns  are  useful  in  the  arts, 
particularly  dyeing,  or  as  food  or  medi- 
cine. Under  the  v/ord  Archil  we  have 
already  noticed  one.  To  wool,  previously 
prepared  with  a  bath  of  l)-copodium  com- 
planatum,  1.  clavatvmi,  or  1-  alpinum,  the 
lichen  Westringii  is  said  to  give  a  fine 
orange,  superior  to  that  of  annotto.  The 
lichen  cinereus  does  the  same.  The 
chlorinus  gives  a  bright  yellow,  and  the 
vulpinus  a  lemon  colour.  Brasil  gives  to 
wool  thus  dyed  with  the  1.  Westringii  a 
very  deep  blue  black ;  to  tliat  with  the 
chlorinus  a  fine  green  black,  or  raven's 
,wing  colour  ;  and  to  that  with  tlie  vulpi- 
nus a  blueish  green.  The  lichen  parellus, 
from  which  archil  has  beoi  said  by  some 
to  be  prepared,  afibrds  or.ly  a  blue,  which 
is  so  fugitive  as  to  be  useless. 

l^ord  Dundonald  has  lately  taken  out  a 
patent  for  the  tise  of  lichen  as  a  substi- 
tute for  gum.     Lichens  that  grow  on  trees 

4  n 


LIG 


LIG 


and  shrubs  aflTord  this  gum,  and  apparent- 
ly dltlerent  species  ot"  them.  The  lichen 
is  scalded  two  or  three  times  with  boiling- 
water,  to  remove  the  outer  skin  and  re- 
sinous matter,  washed  in  cold  water,  and 
■  then  left  ten  or  twelve  hours  on  a  stone  or 
^  brick  floor;  after  which  the  gum  is  ex- 
w  tracted  by  boiling  some  houi"#  in  water, 
with  about  half  or  three  quarters  of  an 
ounce  of  alkali  to  each  pound  of  lichen. 
According  to  the  report,  lib.  of  dry  lichen 
will  do  as  much  work  in  calico-printing  as 
131b.  of  gum  Senegal. 

LIGNEOUS  ACID.     See  Acid. 

LIGHT  RKl).    See  Colour  Making 

LIGHTNING  ROUS.  Since  the  dis- 
coveries of  Dr.  Franklin,  and  the  identity 
of  the  electric  fluid  and  lis;htning  being 
established,  means  have  been  recommend- 
ed, first  by  Dr.  Franklin,  and  afterwards 
by  others,  for  securing  houses  from  the 
effects  of  lightning.  These  are  called 
conducting  or  lightning  rods. 

A  great  dispute  has  been  carried  on 
among  electricians  concerning  tlie  termi- 
nation of  conducting  rods,  for  preserving 
buildings  from  liglitning ;  some  warmly 
cctntending,  that  they  should  be  terminat- 
ed by  knobs  or  balls  ;  others  as  s£renu- 
ously  contending,  that  they  should  be 
pointed. 

Ever  since  the  identity  of  electiicity  and 
liglitning  has  been  proved,  concHrctors  of 
some  kind  have  been  generally  allowed  to 
be  necessary  for  the  safety  of  buildings  in 
thunder  storms,  as  they  aflord  a  ready 
passage  for  the  union  of  the  contrary 
electricities.  Electricians  seem  to  have 
forgotten,  that  neither  lightning  nor  elec- 
tricity ever  strikes  a  body,  merely  for  the 
sake  of  the  body,  but  because  that  body 
is  a  means  of  restoring  the  disturbed 
equilibrium. 

When  a  quantity  of  electricity  is  excit- 
ed by  means  of  an  electric  machine,  a  bo- 
dy communicating  with  the  earth,  will  re- 
ceive a  strong  spark  from  the  prime  con? 
ductor  ;  it  receives  this  s])ark,  not  because 
it  is  capable  of  containing  all  the  electrici- 
ty of  the  cylinder  and  conductor,  but  be- 
cause, tile  natural  situation  of  the  fluid 
being  disturbed  by  the  motion  of  the  ma- 
ciiine,  the  natural  powers  make  an  eflbrt 
to  restore  the  equilii>rium.  No  sooner, 
then,  is  a  conducting  body,  commimicat- 
ing  with  the  earth,  presented  to  the  prime, 
conductor,  than  the  whole  effort  of  the 
electricity  is  directed  against  tiiat  body  ; 
not  merely  because  it  is  aconductoi",  but 
because  it  afl'ords  a  place,  by  wliicii  the 
'^',  natural  powers  can  more  readily  unite, 
and  which  they  would  do  by  other  means, 
though  that  body  were  not  to  bepresent- 
0  '    ed.    That  this  is  the  case,  we  may  easily 


see,  by  presenting  tlie  same  conducting 
substance  in  an  insulated  state  to  the 
prime  conductor  of  the  machine,  when  we 
shall  find  only  a  small  spark  will  be  pro- 
duced. In  like  manner,  when  lightning 
strikes  a  tree,  a  house,  or  a.  conducting 
rod,  it  is  not  because  these  objects  are 
high,  but  because  they  are  situate  in  that 
place,  where,  from  a  variety  ofcauses,  the 
impetus  of  the  two  powers  can  be  lessen- 
ed by  uniting  with  each  other. 

From  hence  we  perceive  the  falla- 
city  of  that  kind  of  reasoning,  which  is 
generally  employed  concerning  the  use  of 
thunder  rods. 

Because  a  point  presented  to  an  elec- 
trified body,  in  our  experiments,  draws  off 
the  electricity  in  a  silent  manner.  Dr. 
Franklin  and  his  followers  have  conclud- 
ed, that  a  pointed  conductor  will  do  the 
same  thing  to  a  thunder  cloud,  and  thus 
pi  event  any  kind  of  danger  from  a  stroke 
of  lightning. 

But,  for  this  very  reason,  Mr.  Wilson 
and  his  party  have  determined,  that  the 
use  of  pointed  conductors  is  utterly  un- 
safe ;  they  justly  consider  the  Franklinian 
idea  of  exhausting  the  clouds  of  their 
electricity,  to  be  not  less  absurd,  than  it 
would  be  to  clear  away  an  inundation 
with  a  shovel,  or  exhaust  the  atmosphere 
with  an  air-pump.  They  bring  many  in- 
stances, where  a  point  will  receive  a  full 
stroke,  and  assert,  that  it  solicits  a  dis- 
charge; and  that,  being  often  unable  to 
conduct  the  whole  electricity  of  the  at- 
mosphere, it  is  impossible  for  us  to  know 
whether  the  discharge  it  solicits,  may  not 
be  too  great  for  the  conductor  to  beai* ; 
and,  consequently,  all  the  mischiefs  aris- 
ing from  thunder  storms  may  be  expect- 
ed, with  this  mortifying  circumstance, 
that  this  very  conductor  has  probablj'  so- 
licited the  fatal  stroke. 

We  nuist  also  further  observe,  that  the 
Franklinians,  still  make  their  pointed  con- 
ductors of  too  much  consequence  ;  for  it . 
is  now  well  known,  that  points  have  nq|[| 
influence  at  all,  unless  they  be  immergcdnj 
in  the  electrified  atmosphere.  If  apointeil 
body  do  not  communicate  with  the  ear'li, 
but  the  communication  be  interrupted  by 
a  short  interval,  it  will  receive  a  full  spark. 
It  will  also  receive  a  full  spark,  it  it  be 
suddenly  brought  sufficiently  near  a 
strongly  electrified  body  :  this  case  applies 
strongly  against  pointed  conducting  rods 
for  shipping.  It  will  also  receive  a  full 
spark  ;it  a  considerable  distance,  if  sur- 
rounded with  non-conducting  sub.stances. 
The  circumstances  on  which  an  explosion 
depends,  are  too  many  to  be  here  enume- 
rated ;  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that, 
with  respect  to  a  point,  it  will  depend  on 


LIG 


LIM 


tlie  suddenness  of  the  discharge,  on  tlie 
proximity  of  the  cloud,  on  the  velocity  in 
its  motion,  on  the  quantity  of  electricity 
contained  in  it,  and  on  the  contrary  elec- 
tricity opposed  to  it.  If  a  small  cloud 
bang  suspended  under  alarg-e  cloud  load- 
ed with  electric  matter,  pointed  conduc- 
tors on  a  building  underneath,  will  receive 
the  discharge  by  explosion,  in  preference 
to  those  termiuated  by  balls  ;  tlie  small 
cloud  will  form  an  intei-ruption,  which  al- 
lows only  an  instant  of  time  for  the  dis- 
charge. If  a  single  electric  cloud  be  dri- 
ven with  considerable  velocity  near  to  a 
pointed  conductor,  the  charge  may  be 
caused  to  explode  upon  it  by  the  motion 
of  the  charged  body. 

A  pointed  conductor  has  not  even  the 
power  of  attracting  the  lightning  a  few 
feet  out  of  the  direction  it  would  choose 
itself:  of  this  we  have  a  most  decisive  in- 
stance in  what  happened  to  the  magazine 
at  Purfleet,  in  Essex,  Great  Britain.  That 
house  was  furnished  with  a  conductor, 
raised  above  the  highest  part  of  the  build- 
ing; nevertheless,  a  flash  of  lightning 
struck  an  iron  cramp  in  the  corner  of  the 
wall  of  the  building,  considerably  lower 
than  the  top  of  the  conductor,  and  only 
forty -six  feet  in  a  sloping  hne  distant  from 
the  point. 

The  conductor,  with  all  its  power  of 
drawing  oft"  the  electric  matter,  was  neith- 
er able  to  prevent  the  flash,  noi-  to  turn  it 
forty-six  feet  out  of  its  way.  The  matter 
of  fact  is,  the  lightning  was  determined  to 
enter  the  earth  at  the  place  where  the 
board-house  stands,  or  near  it ;  the  conduc- 
tor fixed  on  the  house  which  ottered  the 
easiest  communication,  but  forty-six  feet 
of  air  intervening  between  the  point  of  the 
conductor  and  the  place  of  the  explosion, 
the  resistance  was  less  through  the  blunt 
cramp  of  iron  and  a  few  bricks  moistened 
with  the  rain  to  the  side  of  the  metalline 
conductor,  than  Uirough  the  forty -six  feet 
of  air  to  its  point ;  for  the  former  was  the 
way  in  which  tlie  lightning  actually  pass- 

An  objection  to  the  use  of  conductors 
of  either  kind  may  be  also  drawn  from 
the  accident  which  happened  to  the  poor- 
house  at  Heckingham,  Norfolk,  (England) 
according  to  Adams  (Nat.  Phllos  )  which 
was  struck  by  lightning,  though  furnish- 
ed with  eight  pointed  conductors,  and 
which,  Mr.  A.  was  well  assured  fi-om  good 
authority,  were  uninterrupted,  continuous, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  stroke  perfectly 
connected  with  the  common  stock.  Hence 
it  is  evident,  that  the  effect  of  conductors, 
in  genei-al,  is  too  inconsiderable  either  to 
lessen  fear  or  animate  hope. 


The  thunder  house,  as  it  Is  usually  call- 
ed, is  the  apparatus  principally  used  to  il- 
lustrate the  Franklinian  method  of  pre- 
serving houses  from  damage  by  light- 
ning. It  consists  of  a  mahogany  board, 
shaped  like  the  gable  end  of  a  house.  It 
is  fixed  upright  on  a  horizontal  board  as  a 
stand  ;  a  square  hole  is  made  in  the  gable 
board,  into  which  is  fitted,  so  as  to  go  in 
and  out  easily,  a  square  piece  of  wood  ;  a 
wire  is  fixed  in  the  one  diagonal  of  this 
board,  and  wires  are  also  fixed  in  the  ga- 
ble board,  one  from  the  upper  part,  the 
lower  end  of  which  comes  to  one  corner  of 
the  square  hole ;  the  upper  end  of  the 
other  wire  coincides  with  tlie  opposite 
corner,  and  goes  down  to  the  bottom  of 
the  gable  board.  The  upper  wire  has  a 
brass  ball  on  the  top  ;  this  may  be  occa- 
sionally taken  oft,  which  leaves  a  point  ex- 
posed ;  at  the  bottom  of  the  lower  wire 
there  is  a  hook  :  connect  the  hook  at  the 
bottom  with  the  outer  coating  of  a  jar, 
place  the  square  piece  in  the  hole,  so  that 
tlie  metallic  wire  shall  not  coincide  with 
the  other  two  ;  when  the  jar  is  chai'ged, 
bring  the  discharging  rod  from  the  knob 
thereof  to  the  ball  of"  the  house  -,  an  ex- 
plosion  will  ensue,  and  the  square  piece 
be  driven  out  to  a  good  distance  from  the 
gable  boaid. 

Put  the  square  piece  into  the  hole  in 
such  a  manner,  that  the  ends  of  the  dia- 
gonal may  not  coincide  with  the  ends  of 
tlie  wire  of  the  gable  board,  then  make 
the  discharge  as  before,  and  the  metallic 
circuit  being  now  complete,  the  square 
board  will  remain  in  its  place. 

Take  off  the  ball,  and  the  point  will 
prevent  an  explosion,  and  its  accumulat- 
ing  therein  in  any  sufficient  quantity  to  do 
any  damage. 

The  prime  conductor  is  supposed  to 
represent  a  thunder  cloud  discharging  its 
contents  on  some  metal  projecting  on  the 
top  of  a  building  ;  and  this  is  considered 
as  receiving  no  damage  when  the  conduc- 
tor is  perfect ;  but  when  the  connexion  is 
imperfect,  the  fluid,  in  passing  from  one 
part  to  the  other,  damages  the  building. 

LIME. — Lime  is  an  earth  moderately 
hard,  of  a  hot  acrid  taste,  soluble  in  wa- 
ter, though  to  a  small  extent,  producing 
nearly  the  same  change  on  vegetable  co- 
lour as  the  alkalies  do,  and  strongly  pro- 
moting tlie  fusion  of  all  earthy  mixtures. 
See  Earths. 

It  is  always  prepared  artificially  by 
heating  the  various  species  of  carbonats, 
till  the  carbonic  acid  is  driven  off,  and  it 
is  made  in  very  large  quantities  for  the 
important  purposes  of  mortars  and  ce- 
ments of  difterent  kinds,  for  manure,  and 


LIM 


LIM 


for  oUiei'  smaller  uses.  The  procebs  oj' 
lime-burning  in  the  large  way  will  be  no- 
ticed in  the  following  article. 

For  nice  chemical  purposes  lime  may 
"St  be  made  by  calcining  in  a  full  red  heat  for 
some  hours  citlier  the  white  Carrara  mar- 
ble of  tlie  statuaries,  or  oyster-shells  (the 
outer  coat  being  first  taken  ofl").  In  both 
the  lime  is  very  considerably  pure,  that 
obtained  from  marble  being  only  mixed 
with  a  small  portion  of  silcx,  and  some- 
times with  an  atom  of  iron,  and  that  from 
the  shells  containing  only  a  little  phosphat 
of  lime. 

To  obtain  lime  perfectly  pure,  let  nitric 
or  muriatic  acid  (free  from  iron)  be  quite 
saturated  with  fragments  of  white  marble, 
leaving  some  of  it  for  a  time  in  the  solu- 
tion that  only  the  lime  may  be  taken  up  ; 
add  a  little  perfectly  caustic  ammonia  to 
the  solution,  which  will  separate  any  ac- 
cidental impurity  of  iron  or  other  earths 
but  not  the  lime;  then  precipitate  the  lime 
in  the  state  of  carbonat  by  carbonated 
ammonia,  edulcorate  the  precipitate,  and 
afterwards  calcine  it  thorougiily.  If  the 
burning  be  done  hi  an  eartlien  crucible, 
too  strong  a  heat  must  not  be  used,  as  it 
would  cause  a  portion  of  the  lime  to  vitrify 
with,  and  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the  cru- 
cible, but  with  a  platina  crucible  any  heat 
niay  be  tjiven. 

Oyster-shells  will  answer  as  well  as  mar- 
ble, but  the  phosphat  of  lime,  taken  up 
by  the  acid  along  with  the  lime,  must  be 
first  separated  by  pure  ammonia. 

The  lime  is  known  to  be  thorougiily 
calcined,  when,  after  being  moistened  with 
water,  and  reduced  thereby  to  a  soft  pulp, 
it  excites  no  effervescence  with  any  acid 
moderately  dilute.  The  portion  that  has 
begun  to  vitrify  with  the  crucible  remains 
hard  and  gritty,  and  will  not  mix  with 
water. 

The  most  known  and  remarkable  phe- 
nomenon attending  lime  is  tlie  slacking 
with  water.  When  a  lump  of  w^U  burnt 
lime  is  dipped  in  water  and  removed  after 
u  second  or  two,  or  otherwise  wetted  so 
as  not  to  i)e  drenched,  the  surface  imme- 
diately dries,  after  which,  (a  little  sooner 
or  later  according  to  the  kind  of  limestone 
employed)  it  becomes  very  hot,  swells, 
and  ciacks  in  every  direction,  and  falls  to 
pieces  with  a  snapping  noise  and  the  evo- 
lution of  a  copious  dense  steam,  owing  to 
the  evapori/.ation  of  the  water  by  the  in- 
tense heat  generated.  If  a  large  quantity 
of  very  well  burnt  lime  be  slacked  in  the 
dark,  flashes  of  light  are  also  observed  to 
come  from  it  when  breaking  to  pieces. 
The  lime  by  this  process  falls  into  a  very 
fine  dry  impalpable  powder,  and  when 
cold  it  will  not  again  heat  by  more  water. 


In  this  state  it  is  called  slacked  lime, 
and  it  differs  fiom  quick  or  unslacked 
lime,  as  appears,  simply  by  containing  wa- 
ter, and  probably  also  by  having  parted 
witli  a  large  quantity  of  caloric,  but  it 
does  not  at  this  time  contain  any  notable 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid.  Slacked  lime 
dried  at  a  heat  of  600"^  contains,  accord- 
ing to  Lavoisier,  about  78  percent,  ofhme 
and  22  ot  water.  If  slacked  lime  be  dif- 
fused in  more  water  it  mixes  uniformly 
with  it  by  stirring,  and  forms  a  thick  milky 
liquor,  called  by  some  milk  of  lime,  but, 
by  repose,  all  the  lime  falls  to  the  bottoi« 
as  a  fine  white  sediment,  except  a  small 
portion  which  the  water  dissolves,  form- 
ing lime-water. 

Lime-water,  when  it  has  been  some  time 
at  rest,  is  alwaj  s  clear  and  transparent. 
It  has  a  very  strong  hot  dis.agreeable  taste, 
and  ciianges  vegetable  colours  nearly  as 
the  alkalies.  The  actual  quantity  of  lime 
contained  in  limewater  however  is  very 
small,  not  being  more  at  the  utmost  than 
about  -J—  of  the  solution,  an<l  often  much 
less.  When  lime-water  is  exposed  to  the 
air,  a  white  brittle  pellicle  presently  forms 
at  the  surface,  which  is  the  lime  united 
with  the  carbonic  ac'd,  which  it  greedily 
attracts  from  the  atmosphere,  and  has 
thereby  become  insoluble  in  the  liquid. 
By  degrees  these  pellicles  fall  down,  and 
others  succeed,  till  the  whole  of  the  lime 
has  separated  and  the  water  is  rendered 
tasteless.  Carbonic  acid  passed  through 
lime-water  makes  it  instantly  turbid  by 
the  separation  ot  tlie  calcareous  carbonat, 
but  this  is  again  dissolved,  and  the  liquor 
again  made  perfectly  transparent  by  usin|p 
an  excess  of  carbonic  acid.  ., 

Pure  lime  has  not  yet  been  crystallised 
artificially.  On  accoinit  of  its  very  sparing 
solubility  in  water,  it  will  not  crystallise 
from  the  hot  solution  by  cooling,  like  the 
watery  solutions  of  barytes  and  strontian. 

Lime  by  itself  will  not  fuse  in  a  less 
heat  than  that  given  by  oxygen  gas  before 
the  blowpipe,  but  it  remarkably  promotes 


the  fusibility  of  all  eartliy  and  saline  cq#- 
I,  as  already 
explained,  under  the  article  Glass. 


pounds,  hnci  of  metallic  oxyds. 


Hence  it  is  often  employed  as  a  cheap 
and  useful  Hux  in  the  reduction  of  the  re- 
fractory ores. 

The  use  of  lime  as  an  essential  ingre- 
dient in  mortar  and  other  cements  has 
already  been  mentioned  under  the  articles 
Cements  and  Lutes  and.  Cements 
(Calcareous). 

Lime  has  a  verj*  powerful  effect  on  ve- 
getable and  animal  substances,  but  espe- 
cially the  latter,  breaking  down  their 
texture,  and  reducing  them  to  a  soft  inco- 
hesivc  pulp.    It  readily  unites  with  oil 


LIM 


LIM 


when  any  calcareous  salt  Is  added  to  soap, 
and  the  white  curdy  mass  thus  produced 
consists  of  the  oil  united  with  the  lime 
Lito  an  insoluble  compound. 

LIME-WATER.— (See  the  preceding 
article.) 

LIMESTONE— This  species  may  be 
divided  into  tlie  five  following  families. 

1.  FAM.     Foliated. 

1.  Subsp  Calcareous  spar.  Common 
Spar,   Kirw. 

Its  principal  colour  is  white,  either  grey- 
ish, greenish,  yellowish,  or  rarely  reddish  ; 
theofher  ccflours  that  it  presents  are  leek 
and  olive  green ;  honey,  ochre,  wine,  and 
wax  yellow;  flesh-red,  brownish-red,  and 
very  rarely  rose-red ;  smoke-grey  passing 
into  black  ;  greenish  and  yellowish  grey, 
and  very  rarely  pearl-grey  and  light  violet- 
blue.  On  the  surface  of  the  lighter  co- 
loured crystallized  varieties  is  often  ob- 
served a  segment  of  a  circle  of  iridescent 
colours.  It  occurs  massive,  in  veins,  dis- 
seminated, in  globular  and  kidney-shaped 
pieces,  in  druses,  and  crystallized.  Its 
primitive  figure  is  an  obtuse  rhomboid, 
the  alternate  plane  angles  of  which  mea- 
sure 101"  SC  and  78°  SO.  Besides  tins 
it  presents  a  vast  number  of  varieties. 

The  crystals  of  calcareous  spar  are  va- 
riously aggregated  and  often  deei)ly  im- 
bedded ;  hence  the  rhomboidal  crystals, 
especially  the  more  acute  ones  present 
only  trihedral  pyramids,  the  three  otlier 
faces  that  complete  the  rhomboid  not  ap- 
pearing above  tlie  substance  in  which  the 
crystals  are  engaged.  The  size  of  the 
crystals  varies  from  -^^  of  an  inch  or  less 
to  12  or  14  inches  in  length  ;  the  dodeca- 
hedron var.  3.  aflbrds  generally  the  largest 
ci^tals.  The  lateral  planes  of  the  crys- 
tals are  commonly  smooth  and  splendent. 

The  internal  lustre  varies  from  nearly 
specular  to  glistening,  and  is  vitreous,  in- 
clining sometimes  to  peai-ly.  Its  fiacture 
is  strait  and  \ery  rarely  curved  lamellar. 
It  is  easily  divisible  in  three  directions, 
and  tlie  form  of  its  fragments  is  always 
rhomboidal.  When  in  mass,  calcareous 
spar  eccui's  in  large  and  coarse-grained 
distinct  concretions,  also  in  testaceous, 
wedge-shaped,  and  diverging,  prismatic 
distinct  concretions. 

The  transparency  both  of  the  massive 
and  crystallized  varieties  is  subject  to 
much  variation ;  in  general  however  the 
crystals  ai-e  transparent  and  semi-transpa- 
rent, and  the  others  are  semi-transparent 
and  translucent.  When  transparent  it 
possesses  a  double  reft-action  in  a  remark- 
able degree.  In  hardness  it  ranks  be- 
tween gypsum  and  fljjor  spar.    It  is  brit- 


tle, and   very   easily  frangible.    Sp.  err. 
2.69—2-2. 

Certain  varieties  of  calcareous  spar,  es- 
pecially  those  from  Derbyshire,  become 
phosphorescent  when  laid  on  a  hot  coal. 
Calcareous  spar  dissolves  with  efferves- 
cence in  almost  every  acid,  and  by  expo- 
sure  to  the  blowpipe  for  some  time  it  is 
reduced  to  quicklime.     Most  of  the  varie- 
ties contain  a  small  variable  proportion  of 
iron,  but  the  Iceland  spar,  which  is  purest 
of  all,  consists  only  of  lime,  carbonic  acid, 
and  water,  in  the  tbllowing  proportions. 
Lime     -     -     -    55.5 
Carbonic  acid     44. 
Water  -     -     .      0.5 


100.0 


Calcareous  spar  occurs  in  veins  in  al- 
most every  kind  of  rock,  from  the  oldest 
granite,  even  to  the  alluvial  strata.  It  ac- 
companies a  great  variety  of  minerals,  and 
is  almost  the  constant  concomitant  of  ga- 
lena. 

It  is  so  generally  distributed  that  a  list 
of  localities  would  be  useless :  the  rarest 
and  most  beautiftd  crystals  come  from 
Derbyshire  and  Cumberland,  in  England  ; 
from  Saxony,  France,  Spain,  and  IcelamJ. 
The  double  refractinq:  Iceland  spar  mav 
be  considered  as  the  ptu-est  form  of  cal- 
careous spar  ;  it  appears  in  our  cabinets 
in  the  form  of  rh(jmboidal  prisms,  but 
these  are  produced  by  the  fracture  of 
large  dodecahcdral  crystals  of  var.  3. 

2.  FAM.     Granularly  ibliated. 

2.  Subsp.  Statuary  ifiarble-  Granular 
marble.     Primitive  Limestone 

Its  usual  colour  is  snow-wliite,  yellow- 
ish, greyish  and  greenish-white,  rarely 
reddisb-white :  it  also  occurs  bluish,  green- 
ish, ash  and  smoke  grey,  and  greyish- 
black  ;  from  reddish-white  it  passes' into 
])earl-grey  and  flesh-red,  and  from  green- 
ish-white into  yellowish  and  olive-green. 

Its  colour  is  generally  uniform,  but 
sometimes  it  presents  clouds,  spots,  or 
veins.  It  is  always  in  mass.  Its  lustre 
varies  from  shining  to  glimmering,  and  is 
intermediate  between  pearly  and  vitreous. 
Its  fracture  is  minutely  foliated  passing 
into  splintery.  Its  fragments  are  indeter- 
minately blunt  edged.  It  generally  oc 
curs  in  granular  distinct  concretions;  when 
these  are  veiy  fine,  the  fracture  approach- 
es nearly  to  compact.  It  is  translucent, 
and  the  less  so,  as  it  is  the  more  loaded 
witli  colouring  matter.  In  hardness  it  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  preceding ;  it  is  brittle 
and  easily  frangible.     Sp.  gr.  27  to  2.8. 

In  chemical  characters  it  agrees  with 
calcareous  spar. 


Lni 


LIM 


U  ocelli's  sometimes  m  mouii1aii\  muss- 
es, l)iit  more  frc-quently  in  beds  in  moun- 
tains of  sjneiss,  and  argillaceous  and  mi- 
caceous shistus  :  when  in  gneiss  the  con- 
crelions  are  very  distinct,  but  when  it  oc- 
curs in  transition  rocks  tl)e  concretions 
are  hardly  visible.  It  frequently  contains 
other  substances  dispersed  through  its 
substance,  such  as  mica,  hornblende,  acty- 
iiolite,  asbest,  quartz,  serpentine,  galena, 
blende,  iron  pyrites,  and  magnetic  iron- 
stone. 

The  most  valuable  variety  of  statuary 
marble  is  the  snow  white  ;  that  of  the  isle 
of  Paros  in  the  Archipelago  has  supported 
undiminished  the  high  reputation  which 
it  appears  first  to  ha\e  derived  from  the 
sculptors  of  <i;reece,  almost  all  their  finest 
vorks  having  been  formed  of  tiiis  mate- 
rial- Next  in  esteem  is  the  white  marble 
of  Carrara  in  Italy,  which  is  employed  in 
most  of  the  finer  works  of  modern  statu- 
ary. Of  the  coloured  varieties  of  primi- 
tive limestone  that  of  the  island  of  Tiree, 
on  the  western  cpast  of  Scotland,  de- 
serves perhaps  the  highest  place,  its  co- 
lour is  a  bright  flesh-red,  beautifully  re- 
lieved by  interspersed  crystals  of  green 
hornblende  J  its  fracture  is  almost  splin- 
tery, and  it  is  susceptible  of  a  high  po- 
lish. 

3.  Subsfi.    Dolomite. 

3.  FAM.     Fibrous. 

4.  Su6sf>.  Satin  spar.  'Cojnmon  Jibrous 
iitnestone,    lameson. 

Its  colour  is  greyish,  yellowish,  or  red- 
dish wiiitc ;  it  occurs  in  mass.  Its  lustre 
is  between  .vhinin'g  and  glistening  with  a 
pearly  or  satiny  lustre.  Its  perpendicular 
iraclure  is  slraigiit  or  waved  parallel 
iibrous,  the  fibres  are  either  fine  or  coarse ; 
the  cross  fracture  is  compact  spliiitcry. 
Its  fragments  are  splintery  or  flattened 
fibrous.  It  is  translucent,  and  in  thin  pie- 
ces is  semitransparent.  Its  hardness  is  a 
little  inferior  to  that  of  calcareous  s]iar  ; 
it  is  brittle,  and  easily  frangible.  Sp.gr.  2-7. 

In  its  chemical  characters  it  resembles 
calcareous  .spar.  Its  constituent  parts, 
according  to  Mr.  Pcpys,  are 

Carbonic  acid       •         47.6 
Lime  -         -  50.1 

Water  and  loss        -       2.3 


100  0 


It  occurs  in  strata  from  one  to  four  in- 
ches thick,  and  is  transversed  bj^ins  of 
pyrites. 

The  most  beautiful  is  found  in  Derby- 
shire :  it  is  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish, 
and  is  employed  in  inlaying,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  small  ornaments  in  imita- 
tion of  pearl. 


5,  Subsfi.  Stalactite  or  sinter. 
The  colour  of  stalactite  is  snow-white, 
greyisli,  greenish,  and  yellowish  white  ; 
also  wax  and  honey  yellow  and  yellowish- 
brown  ;  also  yellowish,  brownish,  or  blu- 
ish green,  or  mountain-green ;  some- 
times, though  rarely,  flesh  or  peach-blos- 
som red.  The  colour  is  either  uniform  or 
in  stripes. 

It  occurs  massive,  reniform,  botryoidal, 
tabular,  stalactite,  and  tuberous.  Ex- 
ternally it  is  rough  and  often  drusy.  In- 
ternally it  has  a  glimmering  pearly  lusU'e. 
Its  fracture  is  fibrous,  more  (y  less  diver- 
gent, often  completely  radiated  Its  frag- 
ments are  hidetermin.itely  angular,  or 
wedge-shaped.  It  generally  occurs  in 
cuived  lamellar  distinct  concretions,  pa- 
rallel with  the  external  surface,  it  is 
more  or  less  translucent  passing  into 
semitransparent.  Its  hardness  is  equal 
to  that  of  calcareous  spar.  It  is  brittle, 
and  easily  frangible. 

It  forms  stalactites,  and  various  round- 
ed projections  in  the  caves  and  hollows 
that  so  frequently  occur  in  limestone.  The 
Grotto  of  Antiparos,  the  Wootlman's  Cave 
in  the  Hartz,  Castleton  Cavern,  and  other 
caverns  in  Derbyshire,  Yorkshire,  Jkc. 
attbrd  abundant  specimens  of  this  mineral. 
Some  caverns  have  been  entirely  filled  by 
it,  so  that  it  is  occasionally  obtained  ia 
large  masses.  In  this  state  it  is  called 
oriental  alabaster,  and  is  much  employed 
by  the  statuary. 

That  beautiful  coroUoidal  substance, 
the  flos  ferri,  is  commonly  ranked  among 
the  calcareous  stalactites.  It  has  never 
been  analysed,  but  from  its  only  occurring 
in  veins  of  spathose  iron  ore,  it  probably 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  carbonated 
iron.  Stalactites  occur  in  abundancAn 
many  of  the  caverns  of  the  United  Slates. 
4.'  F.V.M.  Compact. 
6.  Subsfi.  Common  limestone. 
Its  usual  colour  is  some  shade  of  grey, 
either  yellowish,  bluish,  or  smoke-grey  : 
from  ash-grey  it  passes  into  greyish-black, 
from  yellowish -grey  into  yellowish-brown 
and  ochre -yellow  :  it  also  sometimes, 
though  rarely  occurs  blood-red  and  flesh- 
red,  and  greenish-grey.  Two  or  more 
colours  often  exist  in  the  same  piece  in  the 
fi)rm  of  veins,  zones,  bands,  stripes, 
clouds,  and  dots :  the  surfaces  of  the 
strata  and  of  casual  rents  are  often  cover- 
ed with  black  or  brov\n  arborisations.  It 
is  usually  massive,  but  also  exhibits  a  va- 
riety  of  external  shapes  Internally  it  is 
dull,  yet  often  contains  shining  particles 
that  appear  to  be  crystalline  laminse.  Its 
usual  fracture  is  fine  splintery,  but  it 
passes  into  flat  co|u;hoidal,  uneven,  and 
eartliy ;  sometimes,  though  rarely,  it  is 


Lin 


LIM 


slaty.  Its  fragments  are  indeterminately 
angular,  more  or  less  sharpedged.  It  is 
translucent  on  the  edges,  moderately  hard, 
brittle,  and  frangible.     Sp.  gr.  2.6—2.7. 

It  dissolves  in  acids  with  a  vigorous 
effervescence,  and  when  exposed  to  the 
blowpipe  is  converted  into  quicklime.  It 
is  composed  of  lime  and  carbonic  acid, 
wiih  a  small  and  variable  proportion  of 
silex,  aliimine,  the  oxyd^  of  iron  and 
manganese,  and  inflammable  matter. 

Limestone  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
occurs  among  the  transition  rocks,  in 
which  case  it  alternates  with  and  rests 
upon  slate,  and  lias  a  splintery  fracture, 
and  is  for  the  most  part  destitute  of  the 
remains  of  organized  bodies. 

But  the  principal  repository  for  lime- 
stone is  the  class  of  secondary  or  Hoetz 
mountains.  Among  these  it  always  occurs 
in  strata,  constituting  several  distinct  for- 
mations :  the  oldest  of  these  is  that  which 
rests  upon  tlie  red  sandstone,  and  bitu- 
minous marl  slate.  Some  of  the  other 
formations  are  characterized  by  the  shells 
witli  which  they  abound.  Of  tlicse  the 
least  recent  contain  ammonites  belemni- 
tes,  gr^-phites,  and  turbinites,  while  the 
most  modern  contain  vai'iovis  marine 
shells  and  fish.  Limestone  ranks  among 
the  metalliferous  mountains :  the  ores 
which  are  deposited  within  it  are  galena 
and  blende,  more  rarely  fahlerz  and  mala- 
chite. It  frequently  also  alternates  with 
thin  seams  of  nornstonc  or  chert,  as  chalk 
does  with  flint. 

Limestone  when  unhurnt  is  used  for 
building  and  paving  stones,  and  when 
hard  and  compact  enough  to  admit  of 
polishing  it  is  employed  under  the  name 
of  marble,  in  the  mure  ornamental  parts 
of  architecture  ;  when  deprived  of  its  car- 
bonic acid,  or  in  the  state  of  quicklime,  it 
forms  the  base  of  all  the  calcareous 
ctments,  and,  is  largely  employed  by  the 
farmer  tor  manure,  by  the  tanner,  the 
soapboiler,  the  calico-printer,  &c.  and  by 
the  smelter  to  facilitate  the  reduction  of 
the  more  refractory  ores. 

'1  he  argillaceous  limestones  have  for 
the  most  part  a  tendency  to  a  slaty  frac- 
ture, and  pass  into  marl ;  their  colour  is 
principally  blulshgrey  or  reddish,  and 
they  are  readily  decomposed  by  the  action' 
of  the  air ;  the  mortar  into  which  this 
variety  of  limestone  enters  possesses  the 
quality  of  hardening  under  water,  as  is 
mentioned  at  large  in  the  article  Cemeni. 

7.  Snbsp.     Magnesian  Limestone- 

Tiiis  substance  was  confounded  with 
common  limestone  till  Mr.  Teiinant  under- 
took an  e.Kamination  of  it ;  and  although 
the  external  distinctive  characters  be- 
tween tJic  present  subspecies  and  com- 


mon compact  limestone  have  not  hitherto 
been  laid  down  by  any  author,  yet  the 
chemical  differences  in  the  composition 
of  the  two  clearly  require  their  division 
into  distinct  subspecies.  Wlien  deprived 
by  heat  of  its  carbonic  acid  it  is  mucli 
longer  in  reabsorbing  it  from  the  atmos- 
phere than  common  limestone  is.  Mortar 
made  of  the  former  and  employed  in  the 
outside  of  a  building,  in  the  space  of 
eight  years,  had  recovered  only  47  per 
cent,  of  the  carbonic  acid  originally  con- 
tained in  the  stone,  whereas  mortar  of 
common  limestone  in  a  year  and  three 
quarters  had  regained  63  per  cent,  of  it-i 
original  amount  of  carbonic  acid.  The 
great  length  of  time  which  this  magne- 
siaii  limestone  continues  caustic  is  the 
cause  of  a  most  important  difference  be- 
tween this  and  common  limestone  witli 
regarc\  to  their  employment  in  agricul- 
ture :  lime  of  the  former  description  is 
technically  called  hot,  and  when  spread 
upon  land  in  the  same  proportion  as  is 
generally  practised  with  the  latter,  greatly 
impairs  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  when 
used  ill  a  somewhat  larger  quantity  en- 
tii-ely  prevents  all  vegetation.  The  habi- 
tudes of  the  two  subspecies,  with  regard 
to  their  solution  in  acids,  are  also  dif- 
ferent, in  the  same  manner  as  dolomite 
differs  from  granular  marble,  the  magne- 
sian limestone  being  much  more  slowly 
soluble  than  the  other. 

It  occurs  in  strata  at  Bredon-hill,  near 
Derby  ;  at  Matlock  in  the  same  county. 
In  the  counties  of  Yoi^^sliire  and  Not- 
tinghamshire it  extends  from  near  Work- 
top to  the  vicinity  of  Ferrybridge,  a  dis- 
tance of  above  thirty  miles.  It  is  also 
common  in  Xortliumberland.  The  Min- 
ster and  city  walls  of  York,  and  West- 
minster-hall in  London,  are  built  of  it.- 
It  sometimes  though  rarely  contains 
shells,  and  appears  to  rest  upon  secondary 
limestone. 

According  to  Mr.  Tennant's  analysis  it 
contains  tl-om 

2.5      Magnesia. 

1.7     Lime. 

Carbonic  acid. 

Clay  and  oxyd  of  iron. 


to 


20 

29.5  — 
47.2  — 
OS  — 
5.  Fam. 
8.   Subsp. 


1.24 
Granular. 
Roestone. 
\Ve  have  also  examined  the  magnesian 
lime  stone  found  in  this  country.  See 
Agricultural  Transactions.  Pro- 
fessor Cooper  also  examined  it,  but  with 
more  accuracy.  See  Empohium,  new 
series. 

Its  colour  is  hair  and  chesnut  brown, 
or  yellowish-brown,  or  ash-grey.  It 
occurs  in  mass,  and  is  without  lustre.  It 
is   composed  of  small  and   fine-grained 


LIM 


LIM 


globular*  distinct  concretions ;  hence  its 
Iracturc  in  tlie  great  is  granular,  but  that 
of  each  dislinctconcretionisfine  splintery. 
Its  tragments  are  indelerniinately  angular, 
mk.  blunt-edged.  It  is  opake  passing;  into 
translucent  on  the  edges  It  is  considera- 
bly sot'ier  than  common  limestone.  It  is 
brittle,  and  very  easily  frangible.  Sp.  gr. 
2.45—2  55.  « 

It  occurs  in  beds  interposed  between 
sandstone,  common  limestone,  and  gyp- 
sum. 

The  Ketton-stone  of  England  belongs 
to  this  subspecies,  as  also  does  the  Port- 
land stone.  It  is  found  also  in  Sweden, 
Swisserlund,  and  especially  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Thuringia,  in  Saxony. 

It  is  used  for  building,  and  as  a  man- 
ure, especially  when  broken  down  by 
exposure  to  the  air  :  but  is  not  burnt  into 
quicklime  on  account  of  the  clay  with 
which  it  is  intimately  mixed. 

It  has  obtained  its  present  name  from 
the  resemblance  which  many  of  its  varie- 
ties bear  to  the  roe  of  fisli ;  indeed  it  was 
formerly  ignorantly  supposed  to  be  this 
very  substance  petrified. 

9.  Subsp.     Peastone. 

Its  usual  colour  is  yellowish-white, 
whence  it  passes  on  one  hand  to  snow- 
white,  and  on  the  other  to  light  yellowish- 
brown.  It  occin-s  in  mass,  but  wiien  it 
forms  the  lining  of  cavities  it  is  then 
reniform  or  botryoidal.  Internally  it  is 
dull :  its  fracture  is  diflicult  to  determine, 
but  appears  to  be  even  :  its  fragments  are 
indeterminately  ^lunt-cdged.  It  is  com- 
posed of  spheroidal  distinct  concretions 
either  coarse  or  small,  and  these  are 
again  composed  of  thin  concentric  curved 
lamella;.  It  is  opake,  soft,  and  easily 
ti-angible- 

It  occurs  in  considerable  masses  near 
the  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad,  in  Bohemia, 
:uid  appears  to  be  a  deposit  from  these 
fountains.  The  centre  of  each  concretion 
.is  usually  a  grain  of  sand,  but  sometimes 
a  small  cavity  filled  with  air  It  is  also 
said  to  occur  in  Hungary,  and  at  Pers- 
cheesberg  in  Silesia. 

On  Marble.— In  the  language  of  the 
statuary  and  architect  all  stones  come 
under  the  name  of  marble  that  are  harder 
than  gypsum,  occur  in  considerable  mas- 
ses, and  are  capable  of  a  good  polish 

Hence,  not  only  many  varieties  of  lime- 
stone, but  also  granite,  porphyr\ ,  serpen- 
tine, and  even  the  fine-grained  basalts, 
are  called  marble.  Among  mineralogists 
however  the  term  is  used  In  a  more 
restricted  sense,  beuig  confined  to  those 
varieties  of  dolomite,  swiiiestone,  and 
compact  and  granularly  foliated  limestone 
that  are  capable  of  receiving  a  considera- 


ble polish.  Of  these  calcareotis  marbles 
the  most  valuable  for  hardness,  durability, 
and  colour,  are  ]5rocured  from  Italy,  from 
the  Greek  islands,  and  from  Syria :  the 
ancient  Romans,  when  at  their  height 
of  civilized  luxury,  also  obtained  from 
Nuniidia  and  otiier  districts  in  Afi-ica 
some  highly-esteemed  varieties  of  marble. 

Tile  white  granularly  ibliated  limestone 
has  always  been  the  favourite  material  of 
the  sculptors  of  ancient  Greece  and 
modern  Europe,  both  on  account  of  its 
pure  colour,  its  delicate  translucence, 
■Old  its  granular  texture,  which  renders 
it  much  more  easy  to  work  than  compact 
limestone.  Dolomite  possesses  similar  ad- 
vantages, and  is  somewhat  softer  and  of  a 
finer  grain  :  several  of  the  smaller  works 
of  the  Greek  sculptors  are  of  this  material. 
The  two  great  sources  whence  the 
statuary  marble  of  Europe  has  been  pro- 
cured are  Paros  and  Canara.  The  Parian 
marble  is  the  purest,  consisting  of  iiardly 
any  thing  else  than  carbonat  of  lime  ; 
hence  it  is  softer,  somewhat  more  trans- 
parent, and  of  a  more  visibly  laminated 
texture  than  that  of  Carrara,  which  is 
mingled,  often  in  considerable  proportion, 
with  granular  quartz. 

The  most  esteemed  of  the  architectural 
marbles  are  the  Ibllowing. 

1.  A  deep  blue-coloured  marble,  called 
bardiglio,  from  Carrara,  which  appeal's 
to  dlifer  only  in  .colour  from  the  white 
statuary  marble  of  the  same  place. 

2.  Cipolin  marble,  which  is  statuary 
marble  traversed  by  veins  of  mica. 

3.  L.umachelle  marble,  which  is  a 
secondary  compact  limestone  of  a  grey  or 
greyish-brown  colour,  holding  shells  that 
still  retain  their  pearly  lustre.  The  fire 
marble  of  Bleyberg,  in  Carinthia,  is  the 
most  valuable  of  this  variety;  the  base  is 
a  greyish-brown  compact  lunestone,  in 
which  are  implanted  shells  of  a  fire  colour 
and  beautiful  iridescent  lustre. 

4.  Florentine  marble,  which  is  a.  com- 
pact very  argillaceous  limestone,  of  a 
grey  colour,  with  designs  of  a  yellowish- 
brown  representing  architectural  ruins. 

5.  The  yellow  marbles  of  Syria,  Sienna, 
and  Arragon. 

6.  The  green  marbles  known  by  the 
names  of  camijan,  vcrde  antiche,  vcrde  di 
Ct)rsica,  &c.  whicli  arc  mixtures  of  granu- 
larly foliated  limestone,  calcarous  spar, 
and  serpentine,  with  threads  of  asbestos. 

7.  A  very  ricli  breccia,  called  brocatelli, 
containing  small  fragments  of  yellow-red 
and  purple  limestone,  cemented  by  semi- 
transparent  white  calcareous  spar. 

Of  the  marbles  that  the  British  islands 
produce,  that  of  Tiree  deserves  the  first 
place  i  and  if  its  colours  were  not  apt  to 


LIM 


LIM 


fiide,  it  might  rank  among  the  most  beau- 
tiful even  of  Italy.  The  counties  of  De- 
vonshire and  Derbyshire  also  afford  seve- 
ral varieties  of  considerable  beauty,  though 
by  no  means  to  be  compared  witli  the  most 
esteemed  of  Italy  and  Spam.  There  are 
a  variety  of  limes'tones,  marbles,  &c.  found 
in  the  United  States,  especially  on  the 
Schuylkill,  not  far  from  Philadelphia, 
equal  almost  to  any  of  the  foreign. 

On  Limestone. — Although  all  the  spe- 
cies with  their  varieties  that  are  described 
in  this  article  may,  properly  speaking,  be 
called  limestone,  since  they  consist  al- 
most entirely  of  calcareous  carbonat,  and 
may  by  burning  be  brought  to  the  state  of 
quicklime,  yet  we  shulffind  in  fact,  that 
the  substances  belonging  to  the  family  of 
compact  limestone  are  the  only  ones  that 
are  or  that  can  be  advantageously  employ- 
ed for  this  purpose  in  the  large  way 
Sometimes  calcareous  spar,  and,  more 
frequently,  statuary  marble,  are  used  in 
the  laborator}-  for  the  purpose  of  procur- 
ing a  hme  purer  than  ordinary  for  the 
purposes  of  chemistry.  But  owing  to  the 
crystalline  texture  of  these  substances, 
the  laminae,  of  which  they  are  composed, 
pai't  from  each  other  during  the  volatili- 
zation of  their  carbonic  acid,  so  that  by 
the  time  they  are  rendered  thorough- 
ly caustic  their  cohesion  is  destroyed,  and 
they  are  reduced  nearly  to  the  consistence 
of  sand  ;  a  circumstance  which  must  al- 
ways prevent  them  from  being  used  in 
kilns  of  the  common  construction.  The 
limekiln  at  present  almost  universally  em- 
ployed is  a  cup-shaped  concavity  in  a  so- 
lid mass  of  masonry,  open  at  the  top,  and 
terminated  at  the  bottom  by  a  grate,  im- 
mediately above  which  is  an  iron  door 
that  may  be  opened  and  closed  at  plea- 
sure. This  simple  furnace  is  first  charged 
with  fuel  (either  wood  or  coal,  but  more 
commonly  the  latter  in  Europe),  upon 
which  is  afterwards  laid  a  stratum  about 
a  foot  thick  of  limestone,  broken  into 
pieces  not  larger  than  the  fist:  to  this 
succeeds  a  charge  of  fuel,  and  so  on 
alternately,  keeping  the  kiln  always 
full.  The  pieces  of  limestone  descend 
towards  the  bottom  of  the  kihi,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  fuel  is  consumed,  being 
in  the  mean  time  kept  at  a  pretty  full 
red  heat.  At  this  temperature  the  water 
and  carbonic  acid  are  driven  off,  and  by 
the  time  that  the  limestone  arrives  at  the 
bottom  of  the  kiln,  which  happens  in 
about  48  hours,  it  is  rendei  ed  perfectly 
caustic.  The  door  above  the  grate  is  then 
opened,  and  all  the  lime  below  the  next 
descending  strattim  of  fuel  is  raked  out : 
the  rgmaining  contents  of  the  furnace  sink 
down,  and  a  fresh  charge  is  laid  on  at 

VOL.  I. 


top.  The  compact  limestone,  after  having 
undergone  this  process,  though  much 
lighter  and  porous  than  before,  still  re- 
tains its  figure  unaltered,  hence  it  is  rea- 
dily separable  from  the  asiies  of  the  fuel, 
and  is  sufficiently  hard  to  be  carried  from 
place  to  place  without  falling  to  pieces. 
For  some  further  remarks  on  the  different 
varieties,  see  Cements,  Calcaueous. 

LIME,  on  the  use  of— mixed  with  gun- 
powder, in  rending  rocks  and  stones.  By 
H.  D.  Griffith,  esquire,  of  Caerhun,  near 
Conway,  North  Wales.  From  the  letters 
and  papers  of  the  Bath  and  West  of  Eng- 
land  Society. 

"  Having  been  for  some  time  in  the  ha- 
bit of  perusing  j'our  interesting  papers  on 
agriculture  and  other  subjects,  I  am  in- 
duced to  lay  before  the  society  a  circum- 
stance, which,  though  perhaps  familiarly 
known  to  them,  might,  if  more  generally 
divulged  through  the  channel  of  their 
publications,  be  of  infinite  advantage  to 
the  pubhc. 

"  In  clearing  my  lands  of  the  heaps  of 
stones  with  which  this  country  every 
where  abounds,  I  found  the  quantity  of 
gunpowder  used  in  the  operation,  to 
amount  to  a  considerable  sum  at  the  end 
of  the  year ;  and,  as  the  price  of  this  ar- 
tide  has  been  increasing  of  late  to  an  en- 
ormous amount,  I  had  recourse  to  an  ex- 
pedient, by  which  the  expense  of  it  has 
been  materially  diminished. 

"  I  weighed  out  two  pounds  of  gunpow- 
der, and  one  pound  of  quick  lime,  well 
dried  and  pulverized ;  which,  after  hav- 
ing  been  thoroughly  mixed  with  each 
other,  1  delivered  to  the  blaster,  with  di- 
uections  to  apply  it,  in  similar  quantities 
as  he  would  have  done  the  gunpowder  by 
itself  I  then  selected  six  of  the  hardest 
granites  I  could  find  for  the  experiment ; 
and  tlie  effects  of  the  explosion  were  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  if  gunpowder  alone 
had  been  used.  It  now  occurred  to  me, 
that  this  might  be  fallacious,  and  that  a 
smaller  proportion  of  gunpowder  would 
produce  the  same  effect  as  a  larger ;  I 
accordingly  ordered  the  man  to  bore  holes 
in  a  similar  number  of  stones,  of  the  same 
texture  and  size  with  the  former,  and  to 
put  in  a  less  quantity  of  gunpowder,  by 
one-third,  than  he  would  have  done  if  it 
had  been  left  to  his  own  management. 
The  stones  were  separated  by  the  shock; 
but  the  difference  in  the  effect  was  mani- 
fest to  every  person  in  the  field ;  those 
with  the  mixture  of  lime  and  gunpowder 
having  been  much  more  effectually  bro- 
ken and  shattered  than  the  others. 

"  After  the  success  of  this  experiment, 
I  have  constantly  adhered  to  the  practice ; 
and  am  so  satisfied  of  its  utility,  that  I 
4  E 


LIT 


JLOA 


vish  to  see  it  more  generally  adoj^ted. 
One  thing  is  cerUiin,  that  a  mixture  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  of  quick-lime  and 
gun])owder  will  explode  ;  and,  if  this  mix- 
ture were  used  merely  as  a  train  of  com- 
munication to  the  powder  within  the  stone, 
what  a  national  saving  would  it  be  in 
works  carried  on  upon  an  extensive 
scale" 

LI.VIK,  in  agi-iculture.  See  Agricul- 
ture 

LIMEKILN.     See  Limestone. 

LINEN.      See     Manufacture     of 

CLOTH. 

LINSEED-OIL.     See  Oils,  fixed. 
LIQUATION,  or  ELIQ.UATION.  This 
process  will  be  described  under  the  article 
Silver. 

LIQUOR,  spirituous.  The  fermented 
fluids,  w-hich  have  an  intoxicating  effect, 
such  as  rum,  gin,  &c.  are  called  spi- 
rituous liquors.  Of  the  different  kinds 
we  might  enumerate  many ;  but  as  the 
several  liquors  will  be  noticed  under 
their  different  heads,  we  refer  the  reader 
to  the  articles  Hum,  Buandy,  Gin,  Spi- 
rits, Alcohol,  Wine,  &c.  For  the 
mode  of  clarifying  liquors,  see  Clari- 
fication and  FiLTRAiioN;  and  for 
the  distillation  of  liquors,  see  Distil- 
ling. 

LITHARGE.  Litharge  may  be  easily 
revived  into  lead  ;  accordingly,  much  of 
that  which  is  produced  by  refining  in  the 
large  way  is  reduced,  by  being  melted 
upon  burning  coals.  The  piart  of  it  which 
-is  least  altered  by  mixture  with  other  me- 
tals is  thus  reduced,  and  by  this  method 
good  and  saleable  lead  is  obtained.  The 
rest  of  the  litharge  of  these  refineries  w 
sold  and  used  for  various  purposes.  Pot- 
ters use  much  of  it  for  glazing  their  ware. 
It  is  employed  for  the  preparation  of  some 
plasters,  and  other  external  remedies ; 
and  also  in  painting,  to  render  linseed  oil 
drying.  Lastly,  it  is  added  in  the  compo- 
sition of  some  glasses,  for  it  is  very  fusi- 
ble, and  assists  the  fusion  of  other  sub- 
stances. It  has  in  general  the  same  pro- 
perties as  the  other  oxides  of  lead.  All 
the  litharge  which  isconmi6nly  sold  comes 
from  refineries.  The  quantity  formed 
there  is  more  than  sufficient  for  the  de- 
mand     See  Lead. 

LITMUS,  or  Archil.  (Tournesol,  Fr.) 
— This  beautiful  but  perishable  dye  is  a 
viole  red  paste,  prepared  from  a  species 
of  liciien,  which  grows  abundantly  in  the 
Canary  Islands,  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  in  some  other  parts  Many  other 
species  of  lichen  have  also  the  property 
of  assuming  a  beautiful  purple  when  pre- 
pared in  the  same  manner  as  litmus 
Archil,  by   which   name  it   is  better 


known  in  commerce,  is  generally  in  the 
form  of  cakes  like  anotto,  which  are  pre- 
pared largelj  in  Holland,  and  in  London, 
for  the  use  of  the  dyers. 

The  Dutch  process  has  long  been  con- 
cealed  as  much  as  possible,  but  it  is 
known  to  be  effected  by  fermenting  the 
moss  or  lichen,  and  adding  alkalies  and 
urine.  The  following  is  given  as  the  ex- 
act process.  The  lichen  is  first  dried, 
cleansed,  and  reduced  to  powder  in  a  mill 
like  the  oil-mill.  The  powder  is  then 
thrown  into  a  trough  with  one  half  its 
weight  of  pearl-ash,  and  moistened  with 
a  little  human  urine,  and  allowed  to  fer- 
ment. This  fermentation  is  kept  up  for 
some  time  by  successive  additions  of  urine 
till  the  colour  of  the  materials  changes 
first  to  red  and  then  to  blue. 

When  in  this  state  it  is  mixed  with  a 
third  of  its  weight  of  very  good  potash, 
and  spread  upon  deep  wooden  trays  till 
dry.  A  quantity  of  chalk  is  added  at  last, 
apparently  with  no  other  object  than  to 
increase  the  weight. 

'I'here  are  several  other  kinds  of  moss 
or  lichen,  which  will  assume  by  a  similar 
preparation  the  rich  colour  of  the  true  ar- 
chil, which  is  a  crimson  tending  to  violet ; 
and  have  occasionally  been  employed  for 
the  same  purposes  in  dyeing. 

The  colour  of  archil  is  readily  extract- 
ed by  water  or  by  alcohol.  The  colour  of 
the  watery  solution,  or  of  any  substance 
dyed  with  it,  soon  fades  by  exposure  to 
air,  and  hence  it  is  used  to  give  a  gloss  or 
finish  to  the  deeper  and  more  permanent 
colours.  It  is  much  employed  for  this 
purpose  in  the  dyeing  of  silk,  stufls,  and 
ribbons. 

All  acids  and  salts  with  excess  of  acid, 
such  as  alum  or  tartar,  change  the  natural 
violet-purple  of  litmus  to  red ;  and  this 
change  is  effected  so  readily  and  perfectly 
with  a  very  small  degree  of  acidity,  as  to 
render  this  colour  a  valuable  test  to  the 
chemist,  to  detect  the  presence  of  un- 
combined  acids  Even  the  carbonic  acid 
in  so  small  a  proportion  as  that  in  which 
it  exists  in  the  breath  (or  about  5  or  6  per 
cent,  of  the  bulk  of  the  air  expired)  may 
be  made  to  change  the  colour  of  litmus 
infusion,  if  a  little  of  it  diluted,  so  that  the 
purple-blue  is  scarcely  visible,  be  shaken 
in  a  phial  containing  air  expired  from  the 
lungs.  Jt  is  probable  too,  on  account  of 
the  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere, 
that  paper  or  any  thing  else  tinged  with 
litmus  reddens  before  the  colour  is  alto- 
gether lost. 

LIXIVIUM.  This  term  signifies  nearly 
the  same  as  Ley. 

LOAM.  A  natural  mixture  of  clay  and 
sand.  The  coloured  clays  and  loams  parti- 


LOG 


LUIM 


cipate  of  iron  ;  hence  many  of  these  melt 
in  a  strong  fire,  without  any  addition; 
both  clay  itself,  and  mixtures  of  it  with 
crystalline  earths,  being  brought  into  fu- 
sion by  ferruginous  oxides,  though  the 
fusible  mixtures  of  clay  and  calcareous 
earths  ai"e  by  the  same  ingredient  prevent- 
ed from  melting.  The  bricks  made  from 
some  loams,  particularly  the  Windsor,  ai'e, 
when  moderately  burnt,  remarkably  free, 
so  as  to  be  easily  rubbed  smooth,  cut, 
sawed,  grooved,  &c.  Hence  their  use  in 
building  furnaces,  &c.  They  bear  a  con- 
siderably strong  fire,  but  have  been  fre- 
quently melted  in  a  vehement  one. 

LOADSTONE.     See  Iro  n  (  Ores  of.) 

LOGWOOD,  or  Campeachy  Wood. 

The  tree  that  furnishes  this  wood  (the 
Hamatoxylum  Campechiar.um)  grows  to  a 
very  large  size  in  various  parts  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  especially  on  the  bay  of 
Campeachy  and  along  the  American  conti- 
nent, and  is  imported  largely  into  this 
country  from  Jamaica  for  the  use  of  the 
dyer.  It  usually  comes  over  in  moderate 
sized  logs,  of  a  very  dark  violet-brown 
colour,  very  hard  and  heavy.  Before  it  is 
used  it  is  broken  down  or  rasped  in  pow- 
erful mills  into  fine  chips 

The  taste  of  logwood  is  mildly  and 
agreeably  asti'ingent,  and  when  long 
chewed  it  leaves  a  pleasant  sweetness  in 
the  mouth  Both  water  and  alcohol  take 
up  a  considerable  part  of  the  soluble  por- 
tion of  the  wood  (alcohol  much  more  than 
water),  and  thereby  become  tinged  of  a 
deep  purple -red  or  browni. 

Acids  added  to  the  watery  decoction 
turn  it  yellow,  but  alkalies  give  a  very 
deep  pvu-ple  coloiu",  but  without  forming 
any  precipitate. 

Alum  added  to  the  decoction  of  log- 
wood causes  a  violet  precipitate  or  lake, 
and  the  supernatant  liquor  also  remains 
violet,  and  gives  a  fresh  portion  of  lake 
on  the  affusion  of  an  alkali. 

The  salts  of  iron  give  an  inky  black 
with  all  the  solutions  of  logwood,  under 
the  same  circumstances  as  with  galls,  as 
explained  under  the  article  Iron,  whence 
the  presence  of  gallic  acid  in  logwood  is 
proved. 

The  solutions  of  tin  form  a  very  fine 
violet  or  plumb  colour  lake  with  the  de- 
coction of  logwood,  and  totally  precipitate 
the  colouring  matter,  so  that  the  superna- 
tant liquor  is  quite  clear  and  colourless. 

Logwood  is  used  in  dyeing,  either  to 
give  its  own  natural  purple  (with  several 
shades  or  variations  according  to  the  mor- 
dant used)  or  to  heighten  and  improve  the 
common  black  with  iron  and  galls.  It  is 
found  in  this  latter  method  to  give  a  pecu- 
liar gloss  and  lustre  which  renders  it  a 


verj'  valuable  dyeing  material.  See  Dye- 
ing 

LOGS  OF  WOOD,  apparatus  for  split- 
ting. \  simple  appai'atus  for  breaking  up 
logs  of  wood,  by  the  espl"sion  of  gun- 
powder. Bv  Mr.  Richard  Knight.  Trans. 
Soc.  Arts,  1802. 

"  This  apparatus  consists  of  a  gouge 
and  augur  for  boring  a  hole  into  the  wood 
to  receive  the  powder.  An  iron  or  steel 
rending  or  blasting  screw,  which  is  made 
use  of  instead  of  a  plug  or  stemming  to 
confine  the  powder.  The  handle  of  this 
screw  should  be  divided  into  two  forks  or 
prongs  in  such  manner  as  to  admit  a  lever 
for  the  purpose  of  winding  it  into  the 
wood  The  dimensions  of  the  screw  should 
be  such  tliat  it  may  not  too  easily  be 
wrought  into  the  hole,  previously  made 
by  the  augur.  Through  the  centre  of  the 
screw  is  a  small  iiole,  to  which  a  priming 
wire  is  fitted  for  the  purpose  of  occasion, 
ally  clearing  the  hole,  and  introducing  a 
quick  match.  This  hole  should  be  as 
small  as  is  convenient  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  ignited  powder.  The  match 
may  be  made  of  cotton  or  twine  thread, 
steeped  in  a  solution  of  saltpetre.  A  straw, 
however,  filled  with  powder,  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  miners  use  it  answers 
very  well.  A  leather  thong  may  be  attach- 
ed to  the  lever,  in  order  to  fasten  h,  oc- 
casionally, to  the  screw,  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  the  latter,  in  case  it  should  be 
thrown  out  when  the  log  is  burst  open;  a 
circumstance  which,  the  inventor  says, 
does  not  ofien  occur,  as  when  tlie  wood 
was  sound  he  has  always  found  the  screw 
left  fixed  in  one  side  of  the  divided  mass. 
Should  this  not  be  thought  a  sufficient  se- 
curity for  the  screw,  it  may  be  fastened  by 
a  chain  or  rope  to  any  heavy  or  fixed  ob- 
ject." 

LOOKING  GLASS.  See  Mirror, 
the  articles  Foliating,  Silvering, 
and  Glass  Making. 

LORICATION.  The  same  with  Coat- 
ing, which  see. 

LUDUS  HELMONTII.  An  indurated 
marie,  composed  of  vaiious  pieces  of  a 
whitish  brown  colour,  separated  into  a 
great  number  of  polygoiious  compart- 
ments, the  boundaries  of  which  are  form- 
ed of  matter  of  a  lighter  colour  tlian  the 
rest.  According  to  Bomare,  the  Ludus 
stellatus  Helmontii,  found  in  the  county 
of  Kent,  England,  is  covered  with  a  kind 
of  striated  selenite,  resembling  the  zeo- 
lite. It  is  for  the  most  part  of  a  globose 
figure,  seldom  flat,  but  often  convex  on 
the  outside.  And  sometimes  with  a  con- 
cave surface. 

LUMACHELLA,  A  conglutinated, 
calcareous  stone,  ccrtnposed  of  shells  and 


LUT 


LUT 


coral,  united  together  by  a  cement  ot  the 
same  nature.  When  tliey  have  many  co- 
lours, tliey  are  called  marbles,  and  em- 
ployed as  s\ich.  In  the  island  of  Gott- 
land,  there  is  found  one  of  this  kind  of  one 
colour  only,  which  on  that  account  is  not 
called  marble. 

LUTE.  Ill  many  chemical  operations, 
the  vessels  must  be  covered  witli  some- 
thing' to  preserve  them  from  the  violence 
of  the  fire,  from  being  broken  or  melted, 
and  also  to  close  exactly  their  joinings  to 
each  other,  to  retain  the  substances  which 
they  contain,  when  they  are  volatile  and 
reduced  to  vapour.  For  this  purpose  se- 
veral matters  are  employed,  called  in  ge- 
neral lutes. 

The  lutes  with  which  glass  and  earthen 
vare  retorts  are  covered,  ought  to  be 
composed  of  nearly  equal  parts  of  coarse 
sand  and  refractory  clay.  These  matters 
are  to  be  well  mixed  with  water,  and  a  lit- 
tle hair,  or  cut  tow,  so  as  to  form  a  liquid 
paste,  with  which. the  vessels  are  to  be 
covered,  layer  upon  layer,  till  it  is  of  the 
required  thickness. 

The  sand  mixed  with  the  clay  is  nc- 
cessar)^  in  this  lute,  to  prevent  the  cracks 
which  are  occasioiied  by  the  contracting  of 
clay  during  its  drying,which  it  always  does 
when  it  is  pure.  The  halir  serves  also  to 
bind  the  parts  of  the  lute,  and  to  keep  it 
applied  to  the  vessel :  for,notwiihstanding 
the  sand  which  is  introdjiced  into  it,  some 
cracks  are  always  formed,  which  would 
occasion  pieces  of  it  to  fall  off.  Tliis  lute 
is  applicable  to  the  junctures  of  ves.sels 
requiring  much  heat,  but  it  must  be  quite 
dry  belbre  tiiey  are  used. 

Mr.  WiUis  has  recommended  as  a  coat- 
ing for  earthen  retorts,  a  solution  of  borax 
in  8  parts  of  boiling  water,  brought  to  the 
thickness  of  cream  with  slaked  lime ; 
which,  when  dry,  is  to  be  covered  with  a 
thin  paste  of  slaked  lime  and  linseed  oil. 

The  lutes  with  which  the  joinings  of 
vessels  are  closed,  are  of  diflTerent  kinds, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  operations 
to  be  made,  and  of  the  substances  to  be 
distilled  in  these  vessels. 

When  vapours  of  watery  liquors,  and 
such  as  are  not  corrosive,  are  to  be  con- 
tained, it  is  sufficient  to  surroimd  the 
joining  of  the  receiver  to  the  nose  of  the 
alembic,  or  of  the  retort,  with  slips  of  pa- 
per or  of  linen,  covered  with  fiower-paste. 
In  such  cases  also  slips  of  wet  bladder 
are  very  conveniently  used. 

Almond  powder,  mixed  with  water  or 
mucilage  to  the  consistence  of  a  stiffpaste, 
makes  a  good  lute. 

When  more  penetrating  and  dissolving 
vapours  are  to  be  contained,  a  lute  is  to 
be  employed  of  quicR-lime  slaked  in  the 
air,  and  beaten  into  a  liquid  paste  with 


whiles  of  eggs.  This  paste  is  to  be  spread 
upon  linen  slips,  which  are  to  be  applied 
exactly  to  the  joining  of  the  vessels  This 
lute  is  very  convenient,  easily  dries,  be- 
comes solid,  and  suflicienlly  firm.  The 
whites  of  eggs  with  their  yolks,  and  about 
half  their  weight  of  powdered  chalk,  or 
lime,  thoroughly  slaked  in  the  air,  applied 
in  this  manner,  is  sufficient,  according  to 
Prof  Paysse  for  the  oxigenized  muriatic 
acid.  Of  this  lute  vessels  may  be  formed 
hard  enough  to  bear  polishing  on  the 
wheel. 

Gluten  and  lime  make  a  strong  lute. 
Lastly,  when  saline,  acid,  and  corrosive 
vapours  are  to  be  contained,  we  must  then 
have  recourse  to  the  lute  called  fat  lute. 
This  lute  is  made  by  foimirg  into  a  paste 
some  dried  cviy  finely  powdered,  sifted 
through  a  silken  scarce,  and  moistened 
with  water,  and  then  by  beating  this  paste 
well  in  a  mojtar  with  boiled  linseed  oil, 
that  is,  oil  which  has  been  rendered  dry- 
ing by  litharge  dissolved  in  it,  and  fit  for 
the  use  of  painteri.  This  lute  easily  lakes 
and  retains  tiie  form  given  to  it.  It  is  ge- 
nerally  rolled  into  cylinders  of  a  conveni- 
ent  size.  These  are  to  be  applied,  by  flat- 
tening them,  to  the  jo  ningsof  the  vessels, 
which  ought  lo  be  perfectly  dry,  because 
the  least  moisture  would  prevent  the  lute 
from  adhering.  When  the  joinings  are 
well  closed  with  Ihis  fat  lute,  the  whole  is 
to  be  covered  with  slips  of  linen  spread 
with  lute  of  lime  and  whites  of  eggs. 
These  slips  are  to  be  fastened  with  pack- 
thread. The  second  lute  is  necessary  to 
keep  on  the  fat  lute,  bec.iuse  this  latter 
•  remains  soft,  and  does  not  become  solid 
enough  to  stick  on  alone. 

Fine  porcelain  clay,  mixed  with  a  solu- 
tion of  borax,  is  well  adapted  to  iron  ves- 
sels, the  part  received  into  an  aperture  be- 
ing smeared  with  it. 

^  Lute  to  mend  a/l  Sorts  of  broken  Vessels, 
— Take  any  quantity  of  white  of  eggs, 
and  beat  them  well  to  a  froth.  Add  to 
this  soft  curd  cheese,  and  quicklime,  and 
begin  beating  a-new  all  together.  This 
may  be  used  in  mending  whatever  you 
will,  even  glasses,  and  will  stand  both  fire 
and  water. 

Jinother,  for  the  same  Purpose,  tukich 
resists  Water. — Take  quick-lime,  tin-pen- 
tine,  and  soft  curd  cheese.  Mix  these 
well  together;  and,  with  the  point  of  a 
knife,  put  of  this  on  the  edges  of  the  bro- 
ken pieces  of  your  ware,  then  join  tliem 
together. 

A  cold  Cement  for  Cisterns  and  Foun- 
tains— Take  litharge  and  hole  in  powder, 
of  eacii  two  pounds  ;  yellow  ochre  and 
resin,  of  each  four  ounces ;  mutton  suet, 
five  ounces;  mastich  and  turpentine,  of 
each  two  ounces;  oil  of  nuts,  a  sufficient 


LYC 


LYC 


quantity  to  render  it  malleable. — Work 
these  all  together ;  and,  then  it  is  fit  for 
use. 

To  lute  or  plaster  Earthen  Pots  or  Pans 
•uiith  Linen-cloth,  to  stand  the  Fire. — Soak 
your  linen-cloth  in  salt  water,  and  let  it 
dry  by  degrees  in  a  shady  place;  then 
dip  it  in  yolks  of  eggs  well  beaten.  Hav- 
ing first  rubbed  the  place  you  intend  to 
lute  thinly  over  with  the  above,  clap  on 
your  cloth,  smooth  and  even  ;  and,  when 
dry,  you  may  use  your  pan  or  pipkin,  and 
set  it  on  the  fire  for  boiling  any  thing  you 
have  occasion  for ;  it  will  be  as  sound  as 
it  was  before  it  was  broke  or  cracked. 
See  Cement. 

LYCO PODIUM.  The  fine  dust  of  lyco- 
podium,  or  clubmoss,  is  called  by  some, 
on  account  of  its  great  inflammability,  ve- 
getable sulphur.  The  dust  is  properly  the 
seeds  of  the  plant.  There  are  sundry 
other  vegetablf  s,  as  polypodies,  ferns,  co- 
niferous trees,  &c.  the  seeds  of  which  are 
like  a  yellow,  impalpable  farina,  so  subtle 
as  to  be  blown  away  by  the  least  motion 
of  air :  it  is  this  dust  which  has  given  rise 
to  some  reports  of  showers  of  brimstone. 

The  dust  of  lycopodium,  diffused  or 
strewed  in  the  air,  takes  fire  from  a  can- 
dle, and  burns  off  like  a  flash  of  lightning. 
It  is  used  in  the  London  theatres.  A 
quantity  laid  together  upon  burning  coals 
does  not  flame,  but  smokes  away  with  a 
foetid  smell :  burned  in  a  red  hot  crucible, 
it  leaves  a  very  small  proportion  of  a  light 
cobweb-like  matter.     It  does  not,  as  some 


report,  take  fire  from  flint  and  steel,  not* 
explode  like  gunpowder ;  nor  does  it  seem 
to  detonate  more  violently  with  nitre  than 
other  inflammable  matters  do.  Olearius 
relates,  that  the  Russians  employ  much  of 
it  in  fire-works,  but  does  not  inform  us  in 
what  manner. 

There  is  a  curious  experiment  of  taking 
a  shilling  from  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  of 
water  without  wetting  the  hand.  It  is  said 
to  be  done  by  strewing  a  small  quantity  of 
the  dust  of  lycopodium  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  which  it  so  strongly  repels,  as 
to  form  a  covering  for  the  hand,  and  de- 
fend it  from  the  contact  of  the  water.  If 
a  handkerchief  be  strewed  over  with  this 
dust,  water  may  be  tied  up  in  it. 

Some  of  the  species  of  lycopodium  are 
good  dyes.  Wool  or  silk  boiled  in  a  de- 
coction of  the  1.  complanatum,or  1.  clava- 
tum,  and  then  immersed  in  a  weak  infu- 
sion of  brasil,  acquires  a  good  and  very 
fast  blue.  All  acids,  however,  redden  it; 
but  the  colour  is  again  restored  by  alkalis. 
By  increasing  the  quantity  of  brasil  the  co- 
lour may  be  brought  to  a  puce.  The  !. 
annotinum  treated  in  the  same  way  pro- 
duces grays ;  as  do  the  1.  selago,  and  sela- 
ginoides,  more  or  less  inclining  to  blue  or 
violet. 

All  the  species  appear  to  be  good  mor- 
dants. The  bark  of  the  young  shoots  of 
plurftrees,  affords,  by  their  means,  a  fine 
Carmelite,  and  that  of  the  populus  dilata- 
ta,  a  permanent  yellow.    See   also   Li- 


END  OT^  THE  FIRST  VOLUME, 


■m 


% 


# 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


HYDROBTATIC  ENGINE. 


Tills  invention,  for  which  Messrs.  Long 
and  Hauto,  liave  recently  taken  out  let- 
tcis  patent,  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  and  which  they  have  se- 
cured in  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  ; 
is  offered  to  the  public,  as  a  valuable  and 
cheap  substitute  for  the  common  over- 
shot wheel,  in  all  situations,  \vi  ere  there 
is  a  scarcity  of  water*  with  a  fall  of' 25 
feet  and  upwards.  * 

This  engine  bids' fair,  with  the  improve- 
ments that  ingenuity  may  suggest,  to  be- 
come one  of  the  most  powjerl'ul,  and  at 
the  same  time,  oiie  of  the  most  simple 
water  machines,  that  ever  was  invented. 

References  to  the  Plate. 

Fig.  1.  A  perpendicular  section  of  the 
box,  &c.  A  a  tube  or  canal,  through  which 
the  water  is  conveyed  into  the  engine. 
BB  a  Dox  or  cylinder,  on  which  the  pis- 
tons move.  C  a  tube,  that  conducts  the 
water  from  the  box.  DD  the  pistons,  with 
their  rods.  E  a  valve,  turning  back  and 
forth  on  a  gudgeon,  passing  through  its 
centre,  and  thus  opening  a  communica- 
tion alternately  between  the  tube  A,  and 
each  end  of  the  box,  and  at  the  same 
time  opening  a  communication  between 
the.box  and  the  tube  C,  so  that  the  water 
may  be  discharged- from  either  end  of  the 
box,  whilst  the  other  is  fiUing.  .  ^ 

Fig.  2.  A  perpendicular  sectioBi  of  the 
engine.  ABBC,  the  same  as  in  Fig.  1. 
DD  a  rack,  the  sides  of  which  act  alter- 
nately on  the  I'ack-wheel,  thus -producing 
a  continued  rotatory  movement.  Its 
change  from  -side  to  side,  is  effected  by 
means  of  cogs  in  the  ends,  which  gearing 
into  the  cogs  of  the  rack-wheel,  alternate- 
ly raise  and  lowej  it.  E  the  rack-wheel. 
FF  a  fly-wheel  turning  on  the  shaft  of  the 
rack-wheel.  GG  a  dog,  moving  on  its 
axis  g,  at  every  change  of  the  rack,  and 
thus  giving  a  reciprocated  motion  to  the 
valve-rod.  HH  the  valve-rod.  I  the  winc^ 
acted  upon,  by  the  valve-rod,  and  giving 
motion  to  the  valve,  by  means  of  its  gud- 
geon. K  a  weight,  suspended  from  the 
valve-rod,  by  a  line  passing  over  pullies, 
in  the  top  of  the  dog  L  one  side  of  the 
groove-box  to  regulate  the  inovements  of 
the  rack.  M  a  lever  connected  with  the 
dog  by  rods  of  iron.  N^ne  of  the  stan- 
dards that  support-  the  lever.  O  a  weight 

.VOL,  I. 


to  balance  the  rack.    P  one  side  of  tiie 
sweep. 

Fig.  3.  A  horizontal  section  of  the  en- 
gine. AAA  the  frame  of  the  engine.  B 
the  box  with  its  pistons,  &c.  CCC  a  car- 
riage connecting  the'pistons,  and  moving, 
outside  of  the  box.  DD  the  sweeps  con- 
nected to  the  carriage,  by  means  of  de- 
vices, so  that  it  may  vibrate,  in  confor 
ty  to  the  movements  of  the  rack,  wl 
is  attached  to  it.  E  the  rack  as  repre- 
sented at  D,  Fig.  2.  FP'  the  sides  of  the 
grouve-box.  G  the  dog.  HH  the  main 
shaft,  upon  which  the  fly  and  rack-wheels 
turn,  and  to  which  other  machinery  of  any 
kind  may  be  attached.     II  the  fly-wheel.,- 

"Fig.  4-  An  internal  view  of  one  side  of 
the  groove-box>  in  which  the  sliders  are 
so  disposed,  as  to  Iceep  the  sides  of  the 
rack  alternately  in  gear  v.'ith  the  rack- 
wheel.  The  sliders  represented  by  shades 
in  this  figure,  are  to  consist  of  iron,  and 
to  be  made  fast  to  the  sides  of  the  groove- 
box,  by  means  of  screw-bolts.  The  up- 
permost is  so  constructed,  as  to  permit 
the  regulator  in  the  end  of  the  rack  to 
pass  around  it. 

Fig.  -5.  A  view  of  a  part  of  the  dog,  and 
its  friction  wheel,  upon  which  the  weight 
of  the  rack  is  supported. 

Fig.  6.  A  view  of  one  side  of  the  frame 
at  the  back  part  of  the  machine,  shqwing 
one  of  the  grooves,  in  which  that  part  of 
the  carriage  xnoves,  to  which  the  sweep 
is  attached. 

Fig.  7.  A  side  vievv  of  the  valve,  with, 
the  winch  by  which  it  is  turned. 

Fig.  8.  The  pullies  in  the  top  of  the  dog, 
together  with  a  part  of  the  valve-rod. 

Fig.  9.  The  carrier  .or  regulator,  to  be 
attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  rack,  at 
i{s  outermost  end.  The  ears  upon  the 
Sides  are  fitted  to  the  grooves  of  the 
groove-box,  so  that  they  pass  entu'ely 
round  the  uppermost  slider. 

Figs.  10  and  11.  The  parts  of  the  ma 
chine  represented  by  these  figures,  are 
intended  ibr  a  substitute  for  the  groove- 
box  and  sliders.  A  model  has  been  con- 
structed on  this  plan,  and  it  is  found  to 
answer  the  purpose  far  better,  than  the 
original  plan.  The  greater  part  of  the 
friction  of  the  rack  is  completely  done 
away  by  it.  These  figures  represent  dif- 
ferent views  of  a  catch-frame,  with  fric- 
tion-wheels, bolts,  and  bolt-mortices.  The 


HYDROSTATIC    ENGlifE-. 


friction,whcels  are  placed  so  far  asunder," 
as  to  admit  the  rack  to  pass  fr*e>  ly  be- 
tween thenfj.  Tlie  frame,  af  every  clianjje 
oi;  the  rack,  rises  and  falls  with'  it.  It  is 
confined  in  sucli  a  manner  by  the  bolts, 
that  it  keeps  the  sides  of  the  rack  alter- 
nately in  gear,  with  tUo  lack- wheel.  Ihe 
bolts  slip  alternately  into  t,he  mortices,  by 
means  of  small  \veit;!its,  acting  upon  an- 
gular leavers  or  dogs ;  and  are  drawn  out 
of  them  again,  by  the  ends  of  the  r.-ick 
striking  against  pins  or  knobs,  in  the 
bolts. 

According  to  Fig.  •!.  as  the  water  acts 
alternately  upon  the  pistons,  it  follows, 
that  a  reci])rocated  rectilinear  motion  is 
produced.  This  motion  is  accompanied 
bji^  power  equal  to  tlie  weight  of  a  co- 
lumn of  water,  whose  base  is  the  area  of 
one  of  the  pistons,  and  whose  height  is 
equal  to  the  whole  perpendicular  fall  of 


'  lation  to  the  rotatory,  Uiat  a  line  of  tan 
gent  does  to  its  circle ;  and  tliis  indeed  is 
the  only  direction,  in  which  a  power  act- 
ing in  a  rigiit  line,  can  produce  a  rotatory 
movement,  without  a  very  considerable 
loss. 

It-may  be  objected  that  the  unavoid- 
able friction  to  which  the  engine  is  liable, 
is  sufficient  to  counterbalance  all  the  ad- 
vantages it  might  otherwise  have,  over 
the  v/heel,  but  an  undeniable  fact,  which 
we  will  here  iiltroduce,  will  place  this 
point  beyond  all  controversy.  An  engine 
lias' been  erected,  at  Mr.  Bayty's  brewery 
in  Germantownjfor  the  purpose  of  grind- 
ing malt.  It  ]s  constructed  on  the  origi- 
nal plan,  viz. .with  sliders  to  regulate  the 
movements  of  thfe  rack.  It  is  situated  on 
a  small  stream  of  water,  rising  out  of  the 
ground,  a  few  rods  above  the  dam.  The 
fall  from  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 


the  water.  Tor  instance  let  the  whole  dam,  to  the  bottom  of  the  machine,  is 
perpendicular  fall  be  33  feet ;  the  weight  equal  to  25  feet  perpendiciilar  heigiit. 
or  power  will  be  15  pounds  upon  tvay    WiUi  this  fall,  grinding  at  the  rate  of -20 


square  inch  of  the  piston.  When  the  fall 
js  66  feet,  the  power  is  30  pounds  upon 
the  square  inch,  and  a  fall  of  132  feet  will 
give  a  power  of  60  pounds,  upon  every 
square  inch  of  the  piston,  and  so  on.  In 
order  to  apply  the  power  thus  acquired 
to  machinery,  it  is  necessary  that  a  rota- 
tory movement  should  be  produced.  The 
manner  in  which  this  is  effected  is  shewn 
by  Fig.  2. ;  by  w]iich  it  .appears  that  the. 
rectilinear  movement  bears  the  same  r^- ' 


bushels  per  hour,  the  engine  expend.s  lUU 
gallons  of  \\||jter  per  minute.  .  A  grist- 
mill having  an  equal  fall  of  water,  and 
grinding  at  the  rate  of  3  A  bushels  of  wheat 
per  hour,  requires  about  400  gallons  vS 
water  per  minute,  to  turn  it. 

Farther  information  on  the  subject  anri 
licenses  may  be, obtained,  by  applying  to 
the  patentees  in  Cicrmantown,  near  I'l.l 
ladelphia. 


M 


APPENDIX. 


BLEACHING. 

Observations  on  the  machinery  used  in  modern  bleachfields,  with  a 
description  of  the  diflPerent  apparatus  referred  to  in  the  article  on 
Bleaching,  accompanied  with  plates. 


The  machinery  and  utensils  used  in 
bleachine^  are  various,  according  to  the 
business  done  by  the  bleacher.  Where 
linen  or  heavy  cotton  cloths  are  whitened, 
and  the  business  is  carried  on  to  considera- 
ble extent,  tlie  machinery  is  both  com- 
plicated and  expensive  It  consists  chiefly 
of  a  water-wheel  sufficiently  powerful  for 
giving  motion  to  the  wash  stocks,  dash 
wheels,  squeezers,  &c.  with  any  other 
operations  where  power  is  required. 

Figures  6.  and  7-  Plate  I.  Bleaching,  re- 
present a  pair  of  wash  stocks.  A  A  are  cal- 
led the  stocks  or  feet.  They  are  suspended 
on  ii"on  pivots  at  B,  and  receive  their  motion 
from  wipers  on  the  revolving  shaft  C.  The 
cloth  is  laid  in  at  D,  and,  by  the  alternate 
strokes  of  the  feet,  and  the  curved  form 
of  the  turnhead  K,  the  cloth  is  washed 
and  gradually  turned.  At  the  same  time, 
an  abundant  stream  of  water  rushes  on 
the  cloth  through  holes  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  turnhead.  Wash  stocks  are 
much  used  in  Scotland  and  in  Ireland.  In 
the  latter  country,  they  are  often  made 
with  double  feet,  suspended  above  and 
below  two  turnheads,  and  wrought  with 
cranks  instead  of  wipers.  Wash  stocks, 
properly  constructed,  make  from  24  to 
30  sti'okes  per  minute 

This  mode  of  washing  is  now  entirely 
given  up  in  Lancashire,  where  a  pre- 
ference is  given  to  what  are  called  dash 
wheels  and  squeezers.  The  dash  wheels 
are  small  water  wheels,  the  inside  of 
which  are  divided  into  four  compart- 
ments, and  closed  up,  only  leaving  a  hole 
in  each  compartment  for  putting;  in  the 
cloth.  There  are,  besides,  smaller  open- 
ings for  the  free  admission  and  egress  of 
the  water  employed  in  cleansing.  The 
cloth,  by  the  motion  of  the  wheel,  is  rais- 
ed up  in  one  part  of  the  revolution  of  the 
wheel ;  while  by  its  own  wciglit  it  fdls  in 
another.  This  kind  of  motion  is  very 
effectual  in  washing  the  cloth,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  it  does  not  injure  its 
VOL.  I. 


strength.  This  plan,  however,  where  the 
economy  of  water  is  an  object  of  any 
imporcance,  is  very  objectionable,  be- 
cause the  wheel  must  move  at  by  far  too 
great  a  velocity  to  act  to  advantage  as  a 
water  wheel. 

Fig.  1.  Plate  I.  represents  a  dash 
wheel  constructed  to  receive  its  motion 
from  a  shaft  A,  connected  either  with  a 
water  wheel  or  steam  engine.  The  dash 
wheel,  CD,  is  fixed  on  a  separate  axis, 
and  is  engaged  or  disengaged  from  the 
rest  of  the  mill  work  by  a  very  simple 
contrivance  On  die  end  of  the  shaft  AB 
is  a  face  wheel  FG,  with  projecting  teeth 
made  to  correspond  with  those  of  a  simi- 
lar face  wheel  HI.  The  axis  of  the  dasii 
wheel  is  made  moveable  endways;  by 
sliding  it  forward,  the  teeth  lay  hold  of  one 
another,  and  the  dash  wheel  is  thus  car- 
ied  round  by  the  mill;  by  the  slidhig  it 
backward,  the  teeth  are  disengaged,  and 
the  dash  wheel  ceases  to  move.  LM 
represents  the  lever  for  tins  purpose. 
NNNN  Fig.  3.  are  the  holes  for  introduc- 
ing the  cloth  into  the  four  compartments  ; 
the  partitions  are  equidistant  fi'om  the 
holes.  O  Fig.  2.  is  the  pipe  which  sup- 
plies the  water  for  cleansing  the  goods. 
PQ  is  an  open  circle  in  the  back  of  the 
weel  for  introducing  the  water  from  the 
pipe  O.  The  ciicle  lias  a  number  of 
wires  set  all  around  to  orevent  any  part  ot 
the  cloth  from  escaping  through  the  cir- 
cle PQ.  Near  the  circumference  of  the 
wheel  are  other  holes,  through  which  the 
water  finds  its  way  after  passing  from  the 
cloth.  Dash  wheels  are  made  to  engage 
and  disengage  by  various  other  modes 
than  that  which  is  described  above.  Cir- 
cumstances make  it  necessary  to  vai-y 
these ;  and  a  judicious  mill-\n-ight  will 
be  at  no  loss  how  to  ad.apt  the  mode  of 
throwing  the  wiieel  in  and  out  of  gear  to 
the  rest  of  the  mill-work. 

A  dash  wheel,  six  feet  and  a  half  in 
diameter,  and  two  feet  and  a  half  wide, 
i   F 


BLEACHING. 


making  twenty-two^  revolutions  per  min- 
ute, is  the  most  approved  size  and  dimen- 
sions. The  Plate  represents  tlie  kind 
used  in  Lancashire,  and  in  some  parts  of 
Scotland  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Lon- 
don, tiiey  are  a  little  different  in  tlie  mode 
of  introducing  the  water.  Instead  of  hav- 
ing- the  circumference  close  boarded,  as 
in  l/mcashire,  they  ape  made  of  sparred 
work  :  I'he  end  of  the  water  pipe  is  flat- 
tened so  as  to  make  the  aperture  very  wide 
and  narrow ;  and  it  is  applied  near  the 
upper  part  of  the  circumference- 
After  the  process  of  washing  by  the 
dash  wheel,  the  water  is  compressed  from 
the  cloth  by  means  of  squeezers. 

Squeezers  consist  of  a  pair  of  wooden 
rollers,  wliich,  in  moving,  draw  the  cloth 
throiigli  betwpentJjem.  The  lower  roller 
receives  its  motion  from  a  mill,  and  the 
uppermost  is  pressed  down  upon  it  by 
means  of  levers.  Till  of  late,  these  rol- 
lers were  fixed  in  strong  wooden  frames  ; 
but  the  framing  is  now  generally  made  of 
cast  iron,  which  makes  a  neater  and  more 
durable  piece  of  work. 

Figures  4.  and  5.  Plate  "f.  represent 
one  of  these  macliines  having  a  cast  iron 
framing,  as  constructed  by  Mr.  Paikinsou 
of  Mi^nchester .  A  is  the  lower  roller- 
B  the  upper  roller.  CD  a  lever  which 
presses  upon  the  brass  of  the  upper  rol- 
ler. FE  another  lever  to  increase  the 
power  coimected  with  CD.  The  extremity 
of  F  is  kept  down  by  a  pin.  In  some 
cases  a  weight  is  used  in  place  of  the  pin 
'i'he  improved  mode  of  bucking  was 
the  invention  of  Mr.  John  Lowrie,  a  native 
of  GL.sgow.  It  is  rfow  practised  by  many 
bleachers  in  Lancashire,  some  on  more 
perfect  plans  than  others  ;  but  we  shall 
give  the  description  of  the  kind  of  ap- 
p;u"atus  best  approved  of  by  those  whose 
experience  and  skill  have  rendered  them 
tlie  most  competent  judges. 

In  Fig.  2.  Plate  II.  JBlcaching,  ABCD  is  the 
wooden  kieve  containing  the  cloth.  CEFE 
I'epresents  the  cast-iron  boiler.  GG  the 
pump.  IK  tlie  pipe  of  communication 
between  the  kieve  and  the  boiler.  This 
pipe  has  a  valve  on  each  of  its  extremi- 
ties ;  that  on  tlie  upper  extremity,  when 
shut,  prevents  the  ley  from  running  into 
the  boiler,  and  is  regulated  by  tlie  attendant 
by  means  of  the  rod  and  handle  IB.  The 
valve  at  K  admits  the  ley  ;  but,  opcninj; 
inwards,  prevents  tlie  steam  from  escap- 
ing through  the  pipe  IK  'i'he  boilci-  has 
a  steam  tight  iron  cover  IL  ;  and  at  CD, 
in  tlie  kieve,  is  a  wojden  grating,  a  small 
disiunce  above  tlie  cover  of  the  boiler. 

At  .MNO  is  a  cone  and  broad  plate  of 
metal,  in  order  to  spread  the  ley  over  the 
cloth.    It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  tliat 


the  boiler  has  a  furnace,  as  usual  for  simi- 
lar purposes. 

While  the  ley  is  at  a  low  temperature, 
the  pump  is  worked  by  the  mill  or  steam 
engine.  When  it  is  sufficiently  heated, 
the  elasticity  of  the  steam  forces  it  up 
through  the  valves  of  the  pump,  when  it 
is  disjoined  from  the  mill. 

NP  is  a  copper  spout,  which  is  removed 
at  the  time  of  taking  the  cloth  out  of  the 
kieve 

The  boilers  used  in  bleaching  are  of  the 
common  form,  having  a  stopcock  at  bot- 
tom for  running  ofl'  tne  waste  ley.  They 
are  commonly  made  of  cast-iron,  and  are 
capable  of  containing  from  300  to  600 
gallons  of  water,  according  to  the  extent 
of  the  business  done.  In  order  that  the 
capacity  of  the  boilers  may  be  enlarged, 
they  are  formed  so  as  to  admitof  acrib  of 
wood,  strongly  hooped,  or,  wbat  is  pre- 
ferable, of  cast  iron,  to  be  fixed  tp  the 
upper  extremity  of  it.  In  order  to  Jceep 
the  goods  from  the  bottom  of  the  boiler, 
where  the  heat  acts  most  forcibly,  a  strong 
iron  ring,  covered  with  netting  made  of 
stout  rope,  is  allowed  to  rest  six  or  eight 
inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  boiler. 
Four  double  ropes  are  attached  to  the 
ring,  for  withdrawing  the  goods  when 
sufficiently  boiled,  which  have  eaph  an 
eye  for  admitting  hooks  from  the  rt^nning 
tackle  of  a  crane.  Where  more  tJoilers 
than  one  are  emplojed,  the  crane  is  so 
placed,  that,  in  the  range  of  its  sweep,  it 
may  withdraw  the  goods  from  any  of 
them.  For  this  purpose,  the  crane  turns 
on  spindles  at  top  and  bottom :  and  the 
goods  are  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure, 
by  double  pulleys  and  shieves,  by  means 
of  a  cylinder  moved  by  cast-iron  wheels. 
Before  the  year  1794,  the  apparatus 
used  for  making  the  oxymuriatic  acid, 
was  so  very  inconvenient  and  defective, 
that  the  health  of  tlie  workmen  employed 
was  often  injured,  or  at  least  thcu*  situa- 
tion was  rendered  veiy  uncomfortable, 
from  the  deleterious  qualities  of  the  gas. 
To  remedy  this  defect,  Mr.  Peter  Fisher, 
late  of  Rutherglen,  near  Glasgow,  in  the 
year  1794,  invented  an  apparatus  admira- 
bly calculated  for  this  purpose,  which, 
with-vei'y  slight  alterations,  has  been 
almost  universally  adopted.  It  consists 
of  a  leaden  retort  A,  Fig.  4.  Phite  II. 
set  on  a  tripod  of  iron  D,  into  a  cast-iron 
boiler  B,  built  into  brick-work,  with  a 
furnace  and  asU  pit  of  the  common  con- 
struction EF.  The  top  of  the  rfitoit  is 
closed  with  a  leaden  cover  with  screws 
and  nuts,  having  an  iron  flcnge  of  the 
same  diameter  above  and  below  the  mouth 
of  the  retort,  with  corresponding  nuts  ami 
screws.     Tlie   use   of  the    flenge  is  to 


BleaeHinsr. 


-FiV/ .  5 


BLEACHING. 


jjievent  the  retort  fron  being-  compressed 
out  of  shape,  and  thereby  preventing  its 
fitting  properly.  Between  the  joinings 
of  the  mouth  of  the  retort,  loose  flax,  dipt 
in  white  lead,  ground  in  oil,  is  spread 
equally  ;  and  the  whole  is  firmly  screwed 
together.  In  the  top  of  the  cover,  a  cir- 
cular hole  is  made  of  three  inches  in 
diameter,  for  introducing  the  materials  for 
making  the  bleaching  liquor,  and  cleaning 
out  the  retort.  The  hole  is  fitted  with  a 
plug  of  lead  C,  which  is  gently  struck  into 
the  cover  when  the  apparatus  is  arranged 
for  working,  and  is  luted  with  a  little  soft 
clay  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas. 

The  oxymuriatic  gas  is  convej'ed  by  the 
lead  tube  G,  which  is  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter, into  the  intermediate  vessel  H,  set 
upon  a  stand  as  in  the  figure.  This  ves- 
sel is  circular,  and  is fiom  12  to  18  inches 
in  diameter,  according  to  the  capacity  of 
the  other  parts  of  the  apparatus;  the  use 
of  it  is  to  prevent  any  impurity  from  de- 
scending by  the  leaden  tube  I  into  the 
receiver  K,  should  the  contents  of  the 
retort  be  forced  upwards  by  t^ie  efferves- 
cence of  the  materials  in  it;  but  this  is 
now  seldom  the  case,  since  the  distillation 
of  the  oxymuriatic  acid  is  carried  on  by 
the  use  of  the  water  bath,  in  place  of 
heated  sand. 

The  receiver  K  is  a  vessel  of  an  invert- 
ed conical  shape  made  of  lead,  where  the 
capacity  does  not  exceed  120  gallons,  or 
of  wood  lined  with  lead  when  the  quantity 
of  work  done  is  large.  It  is  closely  cover- 
ed at  top,  and  has  a  hole  for  introducing 
water  into  the  receiver  at  M  with  a 
leaden  plug.  The  brass  stopcock  for 
drawing  off  the  oxymuriatic  acid,  is  about 
two  inches  fronj  the  bottom  of  the  re- 
ceiver, as  at  N.  In  some  apparatus  of 
this  kind,  two  or  three  false  bottoms,  as 
they  are  called,  LL,  made  of  lead,  are 
laid  on  brackets  of  the  same  metal  fixed 
to  the  side  of  the  receiver.  These  false 
bottoms  are  pierced  full  of  holes,  in  order 
to  spread  the  oxymuriatic  gas  through 
the  water  diu-ing  the  distillation. 

We  shall  now  describe  the  preparation 
of  the  oxNTTiuriatic  acid  combined  with 
potash,  as  conducted  in  the  apparatus 
invented  by  Mr.  Fisher.  See  Plate  II. 
Fig.  4. 

Supposing  the  receiver  K  to  contain 
120  gallons  English  wine  measure,  it  is 
filled  at  the  hole  M  with  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash  of  the  specific  gra%-iiy  of 
1015  ;  the  lead  stopper  is  then  replaced. 
Twenty-one  lbs.  of  common  salt  being 
intimately  mixed  with  fourteen  lbs.  of 
the  black  oxide  of  manganese,  the  mix- 
ture is  moistened  with  water,  and  wrought 
together  until  it  is  of  the  consistence  of 


I  moist  dough.    By  this  means,  the  salt,  in 
j  a  state  of  solution,  unites  more  intimately 
I  with  the  manganese.      The   top  of  the 
'  retort  being  removed,  the  salt  and  mai»- 
:  ganese  are  put  into  it ;  the  cover  is  theti- 
,  replaced,  and  firmly  screwed  on  its  place. 
j      Into  161bs.  of  sulphuric  acid  pour  grad- 
I  ually  the  same  weight  of  water,  and  allow 
the   mixture   to  cool.     One  half  of  the 
diluted  acid  is  poured,  by  a  lead  funnel, 
into  the  retort  by  the  hole  at  C,  which  is 
.  then  closed  by  the  lead  plug  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  oxymuriatic  gas  which 
is  instantly  disengaged,  after  which  a  vio- 
I  lent  agitation  is  heard  in  the  receiver  K. 
,  The  distillation  is  usually  begun  in  the 
i  evening,  and  the  workman,   after  seeing 
;  the    operation   going   properly    forward, 
leaves  it  to  work  of  itself.    In  the  morn- 
j  ing,  the  distillation  having   abated,  the 
remainder  of  the  diluted  sulphuric  acid 
'  is  poured  into  the  retort,  when  a  fresh 
,  disengagement  of  the  gas  takes    place. 
!  As  soon  as  it  is  observed  to  slacken,  a 
I  file  is  put  into  the  furnace  in  order  to 
j  heat  tlie  boiler  B,   which  is  filled  with 
j  water,  into  which   chaff  or  any    similar 
I  light    substance   is  put   to  prevent    the 
j  evaporation  of  the  water.   By  the  increas- 
I  ed  heat  of  the  water,  the  distillation  goes 
forward  with  renewed  vigour ;  and  the 
fire  is  continued  until  no  more  gas  is  dis- 
engaged, which  is  known  by  tlie  bubbling 
noise    in  the  receiver    being   no   longer 
heard.     The  oxymuriatic  acid  combined 
with  potash  may  now  be  dra\ni  off  by  the 
stop-cock  ^i  from  the  receiver  for  use. 

In  the  above  process,  the  sulphuric 
acid  having  a  greater  affinity  for  llie  soda 
contained  in  the  common  salt  tlnui  that 
which  the  muriatic  acid  has,  the  latter  is 
disengaged  ft-om  the  soda,  and,  acting  on 
tJi  •  manganese,  it  deprives  it  of  its  oxygen, 
which  now  existing  in  the  state  of  oxy- 
muriatic acid  gas,  by  its  expansive  force 
is  impelled  forwards  through  the  tubes 
G  and  1  into  the  receiver  K,  where  it  is 
absorbed  by  the  caustic  alkaline  solution. 
Instead  of  caustic  alkah,  hme  has  been 
recommended,  which  from  tlie  experi- 
ments of  Tennant,  and  subsequent  prac- 
tice, is  found  to  answer  the  purpose  of 
alkali,  and  is  more  economical.  In  the 
tub  in  which  the  lime  is  put,  which  is  first 
slacked  and  made  into  a  kind  of  piste 
with,  or  diti'used  in,  water,  some  advise 
the  addition  of  common  salt ;  but  this  an- 
swers  no  good  purpose,  and  seems  latlier 
to  retard  the  formation  of  the  bleaching 
liquor.  When  lime  is  used,  in  particular, 
it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
combuiation  of  tlie  acid  with  the  lime,  to 
use  mechanical  agitation.  When  a  suffi- 
cient quantity,    of  pulverised    lime,    is 


BLEACHING. 


put  into  the  receiver  K  in  the  place  of  pot- 
ash, and  mechanically  agitated  during  the 
distillation  rf  the  oxymuiiatic  acid,  it  will 
be  ei^'Jrnh  dissolved,  and  forms  a  pure  and 
traiisoartni  solt  tion  oi'  oxymuriate,  or 
rathe.  hyperox\r,uu-iateoflinie-  Tlie  ap- 
paratus lately  put  up  at  the  cotton  manu- 
facto.y  of  Messrs  Craig  and  Maiquedant, 
for  bleaching  rf)tton  goods,  wliicii  is  after 
Tennant's  plan,  in  which  lime  is  iised,an- 
svvers  the  purpose  extremely  well. 

On  Bucking — The  process  of  bucking 
was  long  canieil  on  without  any  improve- 
meiit,  until  Mr,  John  Lourie,  as  before 
narrated,  introduced  an  apparatus  admi- 
rably calculated  for  conducting  tliis  ope- 
ration on  tlic  large  scale,  which  being  in 
some  meastue  self  operative,  mueli  la- 
bour, as  well  as  a  considerable  quantity 
of  alkali  is  saved. 

The  boiler  (Plate  II.  Fig.  2.)  being 
filled  with  caustic  alkaline  ley,  and  tiie 
linens  being  properly  arranged  in  the 
wooden  kieve  above  it,  the  handle  of  the 
pump  tiG  is  set  in  motion  by  the  machine- 
ry :  the  ley  now  flows  through  tlie  pi])e 
N  by  the  working  of  the  pump,  and  falling 
on  the  broad  plate  of  metal  MO,  it  is 
spread  In  a  perpetual  current  on  the  cloth, 
while  the  valve  K  opening  inwards,  ad- 
raits  the  ley  to  return  into  the  boiler.  Im- 
mediately on  the  pump  being  set  to  work, 
a  file  is  put  to  the  boiler,  by  which  the 
ley  being  gradually  heated,  the  linens  re- 
ceive the  benefit  of  the  regular  increase 
of  temperature,  and  the  colouring  matter 
from  the  cloth  is  thereby  more  efiectually 
removed.  When  the  ley  begins  to  boil, 
the  handle  of  the  pump  is  detached  from 
the  machinery  of  the  water  wheel,  and  by 
the  ley  being  completely  confined  in  the 
close  boiler,  it  is  forced  up  the  pump,  and 
falls  in  a  perpetual  stream  through  the 
pipe  N  upon  tlic  linens  in  the  kieve 
AEJCD. 

The  efficacy  of  this  manner  of  conduct- 
ing the  bucking  process  must  be  evident 
at  first  sight :  while  the  heat  is  gradually 
increased,  a  current  <if  fresh  ley  is  con- 
stantly presented  to  diil'erent  surfaces  of 
the  goods  for  saturation,  thereby  render- 
ing it  more  active  in  cleansing  them.  Be- 
sides, the  manner  in  which  the  apparatus 
is  first  wrought  by  the  water  wheel,  or 
steam  engine,  and  its  self-operating  pow- 
er afterwards,  puts  it  completely  out  of 
the  power  of  servants  to  slight  the  work, 
independent  of  the  great  saving  of  alkali, 
which,  in  most  cases  where  it  has  been 
applied,  amounts  to  from  one-fourth  to 
one-third  of  the  quantity  formerly  used. 

In  making  this  preparation,  the  mag- 
nesian  earth  must  be  previously  broken 
m  water,  as  fine  as  possible,  in  the  man- 


ner ot  starch.  It  is  then  introduced  into 
the  receiver  K  of  the  apparatus  for  mak- 
ing the  oxymuriatic  acid.  (See  Plate  II., 
fig.  4.)  Into  the  retort  A  one  part  of 
good  manganese  is  introduced,  on  which 
is  poured  two  parts  of  muratic  acid,  of  the 
specific  gravity  of  1200.  diluted  with  its 
bulk  of  water;  the  distillation  instantly 
commences,  and  the  magnesia  is  dissolved 
by  the  oxymiuiaiic  acid.  In  order  to 
keep  the  magnesia  in  suspension,  it  is 
necessary  to  agitate  the  liquor  in  the 
receiver  occasionally  by  a  stafl  similar  to 
a  churn  staff,  which  is  placed  in  the 
receiver,  the  handle  coming  up  through 
the  centre  of  the  cover. 

When  the  magnesia  is  dissolved,  and  the 
impurities  which  it  may  contain  have  sub- 
sided, it  is  drawn  off  for  use.  For  this 
purpose,  a  clean  copper  is  filled  with 
pure  water,  and  the  heat  is  raiscdto  about 
160  or  170  degrees  of  Fahrenheit-  So 
much  of  the  oxymuriate  of  magnesia  is 
then  added  as  will  give  to  the  water  in  the 
copper  a  sensible  taste  of  the  salt.  As 
soon  as  it  is  introduced,  the  whole  must 
be  quickly  mixed  together  by  a  clean 
broom.  The  printed  goods,  having  been 
previously  slightly  branned,  are  then 
quickly  run  over  the  wince  into  the  cop- 
per ;  continuing  to  run  them  over  the 
wince  until  the  white  is  sufficiently  clear. 
This  operation  takes  only  a  few  minutes. 
The  goods  are  then  carried  to  be  stream- 
ed in  pure  water,  to  prevent  the  further 
action  of  the  oxygen  on  the  colours.  By 
the  addition  of  a  little  more  of  the  oxj- 
muriate  of  magnesia,  fresh  parcels  of 
goods  may  be  entered  into  the  copper 
for  clearing,  and  the  process  may  be 
thereby  continued  for  a  yhole  day  ;  after 
which  the  contents  are  run  off  from  the 
boiler. 

Besides  the  common  processes  for 
bleaching,  another  has  been  lately  intro- 
duced with  great  success,  by  Mr.  John 
TurnbuU  of  Bonhill-place,  in  Dunbarton- 
shire, for  which  a  patent  was  granted 
him. 

Tlus  metliod  of  bleaching  consists  of 
immersing  the  cotton  or  linen  goods  in  a 
pretty  strong  solution  of  caustic  alkali, 
and  afterwards  exposing  them  to  the  ac- 
tion of  steam  in  a  close  vessel,  (see  Plate 
II.  Fig.  3.) 

A  is  the  receiver,  made  of  fir-deal 
boards  firmly  hooped,  into  which  the 
cloth  is  laid  loosely  on  the  iron  grating  C. 
BB  are  iron  hesps  fixed  to  the  side  of  the 
receiver,  into  which  another  hesp  of  iron, 
containing  a  screw  D,  is  placed.  This  is 
moveable,  and  folds  over  by  a  joint,  to 
make  fast  the  cast-iron  cover  on  the  mouth 
of  the  tub  or  receiver:  the  joining  of  the 


ii  leaching' . 


//.Atid<rjvn  (c . 


FURNACES. 


lid  is  closely  luted  by  plated  rope  being 
nailed  to  the  moutli  of  the  tub.  The  iron 
cover  is  put  on  its  place,  or  removed  at 
pleasure,  by  the  hook  of  a  crane  being 
put  into  the' ring  E  fixed  in  the  centre  of 
the  lid.  A  hole  is  pierced  through  the 
cover,  into  which  a  wooden  pin  F  is 
thrust,  the  use  of  which  is  to  know  when 
the  steam  is  of  sufficient  strengtli. 

The  cotton  or  Unen  goods  ha\-ing  been 
previously  cleaned  by  steeping  and  wash- 
ing, are,  after  being  well  drained,  steeped 
in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  of  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  1020.  After  the  super- 
fluous alkaline  ley  has  been  drained  from 
them,  they  are  arranged  on  the  grating 
C  in  the  receiver.  The  cover  is  then 
placed  on  the  vessel,  and  firmly  screved 
dowTi ;  and  the  steam  is  admitted  b\  turn- 
ing die  stopcock  H,  of  the  pipe  G,  which 
communicates  with  a  steam  boiler  of  the 
common  construction. 

When  tlie  steam  is  admitted,  the  action 
of  tlie  alkali  is  increased  by  the  heat,  so 
as  completely  to  dissolve  the  colouring 
matter  of  the  cloth.  The  steaming  is 
continued  for  some  hours,  after  which  the 
cloth  is  removed  to  the  wash  stocks,  or 
dash  wheel,  in  order  to  be  cleansed  ;  t  ley 
are  again  immersed  in  the  solution  of 
alkali,  and  steamed  in  the  receiver  until 
they  are  suffciently  white ;  after  « hich 
they  f.re  soured  and  washed  as  in  comn*in 
bleaching.  This  process  of  whitening 
cotton  or  linen  cloth,  may  also  be  for- 
warded by  the  assistance  of  the  osy- 
muriatic  acid  at  proper  intervals. 

At  some  extensive  chemical  manufac- 
tories, where  it  is  necessary  to  evaporate 
verj-  large  quantities  of  liquid  to  a  given 
strength,  at  a  small  expense,  in  place  of 
evaporating  these  solutions  in  iron  or 
leaden  boilers,  it  is  foiuid  more  economi- 
cal to  construct  what  are  called  stone 
boilers  for  this  purpose,  Plate  II.  Fig.  1. 
No.  1,  2.  These  are  nothmg  more  than 
large  oblong  chambers,  tlie  side  walls  of 
which  are  about  two  feet  high,  built  into 
the  ground  to  prevent  them  from  giving 
way.  The  outside  of  the  wall  is  well 
rammed  with  tempered  clay  puddle,  to 
prevent  leakage.  An  arch  of  brick  is 
then  thrown  over  between  the  walls, 
which  is  covered  with  mortar  to  retain 
the  heat.  Proper  openings  are,  at  the 
same  time,  left  to  examine  the  state  of  the 
liquid :  these  are  covered  with  a  plate  of 
iron.  At  one  end  of  the  chamber,  a  fur- 
nace of  a  sufficient  capacity  is  built,  hav- 
ing a  breastwork  interposed  between  it 
and  the  liquid,  over  which  the  flame 
plays.  At  the  other  end  of  the  chamber, 
a  vent  of  sufficient  height  is  built  to  carry 
off  the  smoke.    The  fire  being  lighted, 


the  flame  plays  along  the  surface  of  the 
liquid,  which  by  this  means  is  evaporated. 
Some  of  these  stone  boiiers  are  so  capa> 
cious  as  to  contain  10,000  gallons. 

English  Iran  Sineiting  Furnace. — We 
have  noticed  this  furnace  under  the  arti- 
cle Irox  ;  but  we  have  taken  the  drawing 
from  one  of  Mushet.  The  following  is  a 
description  :  Figure  1st,  of  the  plate,  re- 
presents a  blast  furnace,  with  part  of  the 
blowing  machine. 

A,  tlie  regulating  cyhnder,  eight  feet 
diameter  and  eight  teet  high. — B,  the 
floating  piston,  loaded  with  weights  pro- 
poitionate  to  the  power  of  tlie  machine- — 
C,  the  valve,  by  which  the  air  is  passed 
ti"om  the  pumping  cylinder  into  the  regu- 
lator :  its  length  26  inches,  and  breiidth 
11  inches. — D,  the  aperture  by  which  the 
blast  is  forced  into  the  furnace.  Diame- 
ter of  this  range  of  pipes  18  inciies.  The 
wider  these  pipes  can  w  ith  conveniency  be 
used,  the  less  is  the  friction,  and  the  more 
powerful  are  the  effects  of  the  blast.— El, 
the  blowing  or  pumping  cylinder,  six 
feet  diameter,  nine  feet  high :  travel 
of  the  piston  in  this  cylinder  frotn 
five  to  seven  feet  per  stroke. — F,  the 
blowing  piiton,  and  a  view  of  one  of  the 
valves,  of  which  there  are  sometimes  two. 
and  sometimes  four,  distributed  over  the 
siu-face  of  the  piston.  The  area  of  each  is 
proportioned  to  the  number  of  valves  .- 
commonly  they  are  12  to  16  mclies — G,  a 
pile  of  solid  stone  building,  on  which  the 
regulating  cylinder  rests,  and  to  wliich 
the  flanch  and  tilts  of  the  blov.ing  cylin- 
ders are  attached. — H,  the  s:ifety-A-alve, 
or  cock  :  by  the  simple  turning  of  which 
the  blast  may  be  admitted  to,  or  shut  off 
from  the  furnace,  and  passed  off  to  a  co- 
lateral  tube  on  the  opposite  side  — I,  the 
tuvere,  by  which  the'  blast  enters  the  fur- 
nace.  The  end  of  the  tapered  pipe,  which 
approaches  the  tuyere,  receives  small 
pipes  of  various  diameters,  from  two  to 
three  inches,  called  nose  pipes.  These  are 
applied  at  pleasure,  and  as  the  strength 
and  velocity  of  the  blast  may  require. — 
K,  tlie  bottom  of  the  hearth,  two  feet 
square. — L,  the  top  of  the  hearth,  two  feet 
six  inches  square. — KL,  the  height  of  the 
hearth,  six  feet  six  inches. — L,  is  also  the 
bottom  of  the  boshes,  which  here  termi- 
nate of  the  same  size  as  the  top  of  the 
health  ;  only  the  former  ai'e  round,  and 
the  latter  square. — M,  the  top  of  the  bo- 
shes, 12  feet  diameter  and  eight  feet  of 
perpendicular  height. — X,  tl'.e  top  of  the 
furnace,  at  which  the  materials  ai'e  char- 
ged ;  commonly  three  feet  diameter — 
MX,  the  internal  cavity  of  the  furnace 
from  the  top  of  the  boshes  upwards,  30 
feet  high — XK,  total  height  of  the  internal 


FURNACES. 


parts  of  the  furnace,  44\  feet. — l.'O,  tiie 
lining-.  This  is  done  in  tlie  nicest  roannei 
witli  fire  bricks  made  on  purpose,  13 
inchts  long  and  three  nclies  ihick. — PF, 
a  vacancy  which  is  \ci\  ali  lound  the  out- 
side of  tlic  first  lining,  three  inciies  broad, 
and  wliicli  is  beat  full  of  couk-dust.  'I'liis 
space  is  allowed  for  any  txpiinsion  which 
might  take  place  in  consequence  of  the 
swelling  of  the  materials  b}  l)eat  when  de- 
scending to  the  bottom  of  the  furnace.— 
QQ,  the  second  lining,  similar  to  the  first. 
R,  a  cast  iron  lintel,  on  which  the  bottom 
of  the  arch  is  supported.— Hb,  the- rise  of 
the  arch.— ST,  height  of  the  arch  ;  on  tlie 
outside  14  feet,  and  18  feet  wide— ^■V, 
the  extremes  of  the  lieartli,  ten  feet 
square  This  and  the  bosh  stones  are  al- 
Avavs  made  from  a  course  gritted  freestone 
whose  fracture  presents  large  rounded 
grains  of  qtiartz,  connected  by  means  of  a 
cement  less  pure. 

Figure  2.  represents  the  foundation  of 
the  furnace,  and  a  full  view  of  tlie  manner 
in  which  the  false  bottom  is  constructed. 

AA,  the  bottom  stones  of  the  hearth.  K, 
stratum  of  bedding  sand  CC,  passages 
bynvhich  the  vapour,  which  may  be  gene- 
rated from  the  damps,  are  passed  off. 
DD,  pillars  of  brick.  Tlie  lett.^rs  in  tlie 
horizontal  view,  of  the  same  figure,  cor- 
respond to  similar  letters  in  the  dotted 
elevation. 

Figure  3,  A.\,  horizontal  section  of  the 
diameter  of  the  boshes,  the  lining  and  va- 
cancy for  stuffing  at  M.  C,  view  of  the 
top  of  the  hearth  at  L. 

Figure  4,  vertical  side-section  of  the 
hearth  and  boshes ;  shewing  the  tymp  and 
dam-stones,  and  the  tymp  dam-plates.  «, 
the  tymp-stone.  i,  the  tymp-plate,  which 
is  wedged  firmly  to  the  stone,  to  keep  it 
firm  in  case  of  splitting  by  the  great  heat. 

c,  dam-stone,  which  occupies  the  whole 

bre'adih  of  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  ex- 
cepting about  six  inches,  wliich,  when  the 
furnace  is  at  work  is  filled  every  cast,  with 
strong  sand.  This  stone  is  surmounted 
by  an  iron  plate  of  considerable  thickness, 
and  of  a  peculiar  shape,  fi*,  and  from  this 
called  the  dam -plate.  The  top  of  the  dam- 
stone  and  plate  is  two,  three,  or  four  inch- 
es under  the  level  of  the  tuyere  hole.  The 
space  betwixt  the  bottom  of  the  tymp  and 
the  dotted  line  is  also  rammed  full  of 
sti'ong  sand,  and  sometimes  fire-clay. 
This  is  called  the  tymp-stopping,and  pre- 
vents any  part  of  tlie  blast  from  being  un- 
necessarily expended. 

The  square  of  the  base  of  this  blast-fur- 
nace is  38  feet ;  the  extreme  height  from 
the  false  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  crater  is 
55  feet. 


.-?  Furnace  for  Cast  Iron  Founders. — 
Vlusiiet  gives  tile  tbllowing  description. 
Sue  plate. 

Fig.  1,  a  groxmd  plan  of  two  large  air- 
furnaces,  and  chimney  for  melting  pig  or 
cast-iron  witJi  the  flame  of  pit  coal. 

'I'he  letters  A  B  C  D  point  out  the  exte- 
rior dimensions  of  the  stalk  or  ciiimney, 
w  hicl)  is  first  erected,  leaving  two  open- 
ings or  aiches,  into  which  the  fore-part  of 
tiie  furnaces  are  afterwards  built.  The 
breadth  of  the  chimney  at  the  particular 
])hice  wliicli  the  plan  exhibits,  is  16  feet 
from  A  to  U,  and  from  A  to  D  or  from  B 
to  C  6  feet  6  inches.  The  plan  is  drawn 
at  that  elevation  where  the  fiame  enters 
the  chimney  by  the  flue  or  throat,  n;u-row- 
cd  on  purpose  to  throw  back  par.t  of  the 
flame,  and  keep  the  furn;<ce  equally  hot 
ihi-oughout,  as  ftiay  be  more  particularly 
viewed  in  the  vertical  section,  fig.  2 

EK,  the  furnace  bars  on  which  the  coals 
rest,  and  where  the  combustion  is  main- 
tained. 

FF,  openings  called  teasing-holes,  by 
which  the  coals  ai-e  inti-oduced^to  repair 
the  fire. 

GG,  fire-brick  buildings  called  bridges. 
These  are  meant  to  concentrate  tlie  flame, 
that  it  may  act  as  violently  on  the  metal 
as  possible/Upon  tlie  height  of  the  bridge, 
much  depends  in  fusing  the  metal  speedi- 
ly, and  with  httle  loss.  The  height  of  this 
miv  be  seen  in  the  vertical  section,  fig. 
2.  G. 

HU,  the  charging  doors,  by  which  the 
metal  is  introduced  in  the  shape  and  state 
of  pig-ii'on,  lumps,  scraps,  &.c.  &c.  The 
iron  generally  occupies  the  furnace  across 
to  I,  called  "the  back  wall,  and  is  never 
meant  to  approach  the  bridge  nearer  than 
the  dotted  line,  lest  the  metal  in  melting 
should  run  back  into  the  grates,  in  place 
of  descending  into  the  general  reservoir 
or  cavity  below.  The  corners  or  notches, 
/i,/j,/;,  A,  receive  a  stout  cast-iron  frame 
lined  with  fire-bricks.  This  is  hung  by 
means  of  a  chain  and  pulley,  and  can  be 
raised  and  depressed  at  pleasure.  This 
frame  is,  properly  speaking,  the  charging- 
door,  and  is  always  carefully  made  air- 
tight by  means  of  moistened  sand, 

'  KK,  the  flues  or  openings  by  which  the 
flame  enters  the  chimney  These  are  15 
inches  by  10.  On  maintaining  these  open- 
ings of  a  proportionate  size  to  the  other 
parts  depend  m  a  great  measure  the  pow- 
ers and  oeconomy  of  the  furnace. 

LL,  lading  doors,  by  which  ladles  are 
introduced,  m  the  case  of  small  furnaces, 
to  lift  out  the  metal  and  distribute  it  to 
the  various  moulds. 

M  M  M  M,  binding  bolls  to  limit  with- 


JLncrlish    Smelting   Furnace. 


Steel    Fiirnaoe. 


\ 


M% 


'     / 


I    B 


FARRIERY. 


in  proper  bounds  the  expansion  which 
takes  place  in  the  building  when  the  fur- 
nace is  highly  healed.  , 

Fig".  2. 1'ertical  section  of  one  of  the  fur- 
naces, and  its  appropriate  stAlk  or  chim- 
ney. 

E,  the  grates. 

V,  the  teasing-holc 

a,  the  bridge. 

H,  the  charging  door. 

K,  the  flue'ijr  ojjening  into  the  chim- 
ney. 

L,  the  lading  door. 

M  M ,  the  binder  or  binding  bolL 

N,  the  interior  of  the  stalk  or  chimney, 
30  inches  square. 

O  O,  the  fire  brick-work,  9  inches  thick. 

P  P,  space  of  2  inches  for  stuffing  with 
sand. 

Q  Q,  common  brick  building. 

R  R,  cast-iron  lintels,  over  wiiich  are 
thrown  double  9-inch  arches,  so  that  at 
any  time  the  inferior  building  can  be  ta- 
ken down  to  make  repairs,  without  shak- 
ing or  in  the  least  injuring  the  clilraney. 

S.  The  dotted  lines  here  are  meant  to 
represent  what  is  called  the  tapping-hole. 
When  a  large  piece  of  goods  is  to  be  eastj 
lifting  the  metal  with  ladles  would  be  im- 
practicable. A  sharp-pointed  bar  is  driv- 
en up  tliis  opening.  The  iron  then  flows 
freely  out  into  a  large  bason  of  sand  made 
for  its  reception.  It  is  then  conducted, 
by  collateral  channels,  into  the  mould. 

The  space  under  the  ciu-ved  dotted  line 
from  G  to  L,  by  S,  is  filled  with  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  ashes.  When  the  furnace  is 
prepared  tft  melt,  the  whole  of  the  bot- 
,  tom  receives  a  stratum  of  shanp  clean 
sand  about  two  inches  thick.  This  is  bro- 
ken up  at  night,  and  fresh  sand  is  substi- 
tuted for  it  before  the  fire  is  kindled  in 
tlie  morning. 

Fig.  3-  is  a  horizontal  section  of  the 
chimney  or  stalk,  taken  where  the  flues 
assume  a  perpendicular  direction.  The 
letters .  in  this  figure  correspond  to  those 
in  the  vertical  section,  fig.  2.  The  lieight 
of  the  chimney  ought  not  to  be  less  than 
45  feet :  if  50  feet,  the  eflect  will  be  soon- 
er and  of  course  better  produced. 

Steel  Furnace. — Colier,  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  ti>e  Manchester  Society,  gives  the 
accompanying  plate  of  a  furnace,  for  the 
manufacture  of  steel. 

Explanation  of  tlie  plate — Fig.  1.  is  a 
plan  of  the  furnace,  and  fig.  2.  is  a  section 
of  it  taken  at  tlie  line  AB.  The  piail  is 
taken  at  the  line  CD.  The  same  parts  of 
the  furnace  are  marked  with  the  same 
letters  in  the  plan  and  in  the  section.  Eli 
are  the  pots  or  troughs  into  which  the 
bars  of  iron  are  laid,  ti)  be  converted.  V 
is  the  fire-place  ;  P  the  fire-bars-,  and  11 


the  ash-pit.  GG,  &c.  are  the  flues.  HH 
is  an  arch,  the  inside  of  the  bottom  of 
which  corresponds  with  the  line  IIII,  fig. 
1.  and  the  top  of  it  is  made  in  the  form  of 
a  dome,  having  a  hole  in  the  centre  at  K, 
fig.  2.  LL,  &.C  are  six  clrimneys  MM. 
is  a  dome  similar  to  that  of  a  glass-house, 
covering  the  whole.  At  N  there  is  an 
arched  opening,  at  which  the  materials 
are  taken  in  and  out  of  the  furnace,  and 
wlficb  is  closely  built  up  when  the  furnace 
is  charged.  At  00  there  are  holes  in 
each  pot,  through  which  the  erids  of  three 
or  four  of*the  bais  are  made  to  project 
quite  out  of  Ute  furnace.  These  are  for 
the  pulpose  O^eing  drawn  out  occasion- 
ally to  see  if  the  iron  be  sufficiently  con- 
verted, .     . 

The  pots  are  made' of  fire -tiles  or  fire- 
stone.;  TJie  bottoms  of  them  are  made  of 
two  courses,  each  course  being  aboHt  the 
thickness  of  the  single  course  which  forms 
the  outsrdes  of  the  pots.  The  insides  of 
the  pots  are  of  one  coiu-se,  about  double 
the  thickness  of' the  outside.  The.parti- 
tioiis  of  the  flues  a-re  made  of  fire-brick, 
which  are  of  different  thicla:esses,  as  re- 
presented in  the  plan,  and  by  dotted  lines 
in  the  bottom  of  the  pots.  These  are  for 
supporting  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  the 
pot^,  and  for  directing  the  flame  equally 
round  them.  The  great  object  is  to  com- 
municate to  tlie  whole  an  equal  degree  of 
heat  in  every  part.  The  fuel  is  put  in  at 
each  end  of  the  fire-place,  and  the  fire  is 
made  the  whole  length  of  the  pots,  and 
kept  up  as  equally  as  possible." 

'    Descriptioii  of  Ptate  JVb.  1 — Farriery. 

A.  The  head,  including  all  its  ^arts  as 
articulated  with  the  neck.  '• 

BB.  The  blade  bone,  or  scapula. 

G.  The  humerus,  or  shouider-bone. 

))D.  The  bones  of  the  leg,  or  fore-arm, 
consisting  in  each  of  the  radius  and  ulna. 

EE.  The  joints  of  the  knees,  with  the 
small  ranges  of  bones.    ' 

FF.  The  posterior  parts,  of  the  knee 
joints'. 

GG.  The    shank-bones',   consisting    in 
each  of  the  Canon  bon'e,  ami  the  two  me-  ' 
tacarpal,  orsplent-bones. 

HH.  'I'he  great  pastern  bones,  with  the 
two  sesamoid  bones  of  each  fetlock. 

II.  The  lesser  jjastern  bones. 

KK.  The  bones  oi"the  feet,  consisting  in' 
each  of  the  coffin  and  navicular  bonesj 
with  the  lateral  cartilages. 

LL.  The  bones  qf  the  pelvis,  called 
ossainnominat'a. 

MM.  The  thigh-bones. 

X>f.  The  bouts  of  the  hind-legs  ;  con- 
siitin^  in  each  of  IJic  tibia  and  the  fibula. 


FARRIERY. 


00.  The  points  of  the  hocks. 

PP.  The  small  bones  of  the  hocks. 

QQ.  Tlie  bones  of  the  Insteps ;  consist- 
ing, in  each,  of  the  canon  bone  and  two 
metatarsal  bones. 

RK.  The  great  pasterns  and  sesamoid 
bones  of  the  hind-legs 

SS.  The  little  pastern  bones  of  the  hind- 
legs. 

TT.  The  coffin  and  navicular  bones  of 
each  hind-foot,  with  the  lateral  carti- 
lages- 

V.  The  sternum,  or  breast-bone. 

X.  The  point  of  the  sternum. 

YY   The  ribs.  ^ 

Z.  The  cartilaginous  OTds  of  the  ribs 
en  the  breast  and  abdomen. 

1.  II.  III.  IV.  V  VI  Vil.  The  seven 
vertebrae  of  the  neck. 

1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  10,  11,  12,  13, 


U,  15,  16,  17,  18.  The  eighteen  verte- 
bra of  the  thorax  and  back. 

1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  The  six  vertebra  of 
the  loins. 

1,  2,3,  4,  5.  The  five  spines  of  the  os 
sacrum 

1,  2,  3,  4,  .5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13, 
14,  15,  16, 17,  18.  The  eighteen  joints  of 
the  cosendix  and  tail. 

Description  of  Plate  J^o.  II. — Farriery. 

Representing  the  intestines  of  the 
horse  as  they  appeal*  in  their  natural  situa- 
tion, when  the  abdomen  is  laid  open. 

AAAAAA.  The  colon,  with  Its  various 
circumvolutions  and  windings,  together 
with  Its  numerous  folds,  and  under  which 
lie  the  small  intestine. 

B.  The  coccum,  or  blind  gut. 

C.  The  rectum. 


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